Chapter 1: Introduction

Dr. Yi Jia

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1.1 Historical Perspective

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1.2 Kinematics

•  kinematics is the study of position and its

time derivatives
•  specifically, for every point on a rigid body,
at all times, we want to know
–  position of the point
–  velocity of the point
–  acceleration of the point

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1.2 Kinematics, cont.
•  position, velocity, acceleration of a rigid body can be
defined by
–  position state
•  position of one point
•  orientation of body
–  velocity state
•  velocity of one point
•  angular velocity of body
–  acceleration state
•  acceleration of one point
•  angular acceleration of the body

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1.3 Design: Analysis and Synthesis
•  course material falls into two sections:
1.  techniques to determine:
•  the positions, velocities, and accelerations of points in the
members of mechanisms
•  the orientations, angular velocities, and angular accelerations of
the solid bodies of the mechanism
2.  methods for mathematically determining the geometry of a
mechanism to produce a desired set of positions and/or velocities
or accelerations.
•  rational synthesis
•  informal synthesis

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1.4 Mechanisms
•  mechanisms are assemblages of rigid members
connected together by joints

A pliers mechanism A door damper mechanism

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont.
Function of Mechanism:

•  Mechanisms are used to transfer motion and mechanical

work from one or more actuators to one or more “output”
members.

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont.

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont.

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont.
•  joints permit relative motion in some directions while
constraining motion in other directions.
•  Joints require direct contact between the surfaces on
rigid bodies or links
•  A single joint is composed of a pair of contacting
surfaces.
–  Lower pair – surface contact between the rigid bodies (think low
contact stresses)
–  Higher pair – point or line contact between the rigid bodies (think
high contact stresses)

•  Amount of relative motion permitted defined by dof or

mobility of joint

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont, Lower Pair Joints

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont, Lower Pair Joints

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont, Higher-Pair Joints

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont, Higher-Pair Joints

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont
•  lower order joints are most commonly used in
mechanisms because wear is spread out over the
contact surface
•  higher pair joints that involve pure rolling contact are also
often used
•  lower order joints such as revolute joints are often
implemented using ball or roller bearings

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont.
•  To understand the kinematics in a real object is difficult
•  Therefore we use diagrams
–  skeleton form (kinematics diagram; kinematics representation)

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1.4 Mechanisms, cont

Skeleton

– Slider joint

- Cam joint

- Gear joint

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1.5 Planar Linkages

•  a planar linkage is one in which the velocities of

all points in all members are directed parallel to
a plane
•  the only lower pairs that can occur in a planar
linkage are the revolute joint and the prismatic
joint
–  axis of revolute joint must be perpendicular to plane of
motion
–  direction of prismatic joint must lie in the plane of
motion

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1.5 Planar linkages
•  schematic representation

grounded link

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1.5 Planar linkages
•  Convention
–  Numbering the links: frame #1; other links #2, #3,., #n
–  Naming the joints: A, B, C, …
–  Identifying the point(s) of interest: x, y, z, …
•  Sample:
–  Shear to cut plates
1.Identify the frame
•  L-base (1)
2.Identify all other links
•  Handle (2),
•  coupler (3),
•  cutting blade (4)
3.Identify the joints
•  Pin joints A, B, C; sliding joint D
4.Identify the point(s) of interest
•  Blade; handle
5.Draw the kinematics diagram

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1.5 Planar linkages

Example- Slider Crank Mechanism

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1.5 Planar linkages

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1.7 Constraint analysis
•  the number of degrees of freedom of a body is the number of
independent coordinates needed to specify the position and
orientation relative to a reference frame
•  body in planar motion → 3 d.o.f.
•  body in spatial motion → 6 d.o.f.

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1.7 Constraint analysis
•  suppose you have n bodies in the plane
•  M = 3 n
•  suppose that now one of the bodies is connected to ground
•  M = 3 (n-1)
•  two bodies are to be connected by joint i ; let fi represent the
connectivity of joint i
•  before being connected, the two bodies have 3+3=6 d.o.f.
•  after being connected, the two bodies have 3+3 – (3-fi)
d.o.f.
•  joint i has taken away (3-fi) freedoms from the system

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1.7 Constraint analysis
•  now suppose you have n bodies, one of which is
connected to ground, that are interconnected by j joints
j
M = 3(n − 1) − ∑ (3 − f i )
i =1
j
M = 3(n − j − 1) + ∑ f i
i =1

•  if all joints have connectivity 1, i.e. fi=1 for all joints, the
equation reduces to
•  M = 3 (n-1) – 2 j

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1.7 Constraint analysis

•  if a mechanism has mobility M=0, it is a

structure
•  if a mechanism has negative mobility, it is
said to be overconstrained

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1.7 Constraint analysis

•  example problem
n = 4, j = 4, fi = 1
j
M = 3(n − j − 1) + ∑ f i
i =1
4
= 3 ( 4 − 4 − 1) + ∑1i
i =1

= −3 + 4 = 1

M = 3(n − 1) − 2 j = 3 ( 4 − 1) − 2(4) = 1

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1.7 Constraint analysis

•  example problem

n = 7, j = 8, fi = 1

j
M = 3(n − j − 1) + ∑ f i
i =1
8
= 3 ( 7 − 8 − 1) + ∑1
i =1

= −6 + 8 = 2

M = 3(n − 1) − 2 j = 3 ( 7 − 1) − 2(8) = 2

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1.7 Constraint analysis
•  example problem

n = 6, j = 7, fi = 1

j
M = 3(n − j − 1) + ∑ f i
i =1
7
= 3 ( 6 − 7 − 1) + ∑1
i =1

= −6 + 7 = 1
M = 3(n − 1) − 2 j = 3 ( 6 −1) − 2(7) = 1

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1.7 Constraint analysis

•  example problem

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1.8 Constraint analysis of spatial mechanisms

•  body in space has 6 d.o.f.

•  a joint i with connectivity fi removes (6-fi) freedoms from
the system
•  the mobility of n bodies, one of which is connected to
ground, that are interconnected by j joints can be written
as
j
M = 6(n − 1) − ∑ (6 − f i )
i =1

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1.8 Constraint analysis of spatial mechanisms

•  example problem

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1.8 Constraint analysis of spatial mechanisms

•  example problem

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1.8 Constraint analysis of spatial mechanisms

•  example problem

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1.10 Overconstrained linkages
•  the general mobility equation can give misleading results
•  a mechanism can be overconstrained locally, but is able
to move

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1.10 Overconstrained linkages

•  Bennett mechanism

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1.10 Overconstrained linkages
•  Spherical mechanisms

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1.12 Inversion
•  selecting a different link to be the grounded link is called
an inversion
•  the relative motion of the links is the same

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1.12 Inversion

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Slider-crank inversions
Ground different links in the kinematic chain
Distinctly different motions are “distinct inversions”
Quick way to explore other options systematically

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1.13 Reference frames
•  typically, a coordinate system reference frame will be attached to
each rigid body
•  the positions, velocities, and accelerations of any of the bodies can
be evaluated with respect to any of the coordinate systems
•  however, when force is considered, Newton’s first and second law
are valid only when all motion properties are evaluated in an inertial
reference frame (ground)
–  1st law ; Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that
state of motion unless an external force is applied to it.
–  2nd law ; The relationship between an object's mass m, its acceleration
a, and the applied force F is F = ma.
–  For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
•  notation
–  3ω2 will represent the angular velocity of body 2 measured WRT
coordinate system 3
–  if no superscript is present, it is assumed that it is WRT the ground
reference coordinate system
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1.14 Motion limits
•  a crank is defined as a body that is connected to ground
by a revolute joint and which can rotate completely
•  in this example, link a is a crank, while link c has motion
limits
•  link c is a rocker

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1.15 Actuation
•  terminology of four bar linkage (all revolutes)
–  base or frame: the fixed link
–  turning links: the two links connected to the base ; may be designated
as a crank or a rocker
–  coupler: link that has no direct connection to the base
•  one of the turning links is typically actuated
•  it would be nice if the actuated link was a crank

coupler

turning link

turning link

base

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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  how can you tell if a turning joint will be a crank or a rocker?
•  Grashof’s rule

•  let s be the length of the shortest link

•  let l be the length of the longest link
•  let p and q be the lengths of the other two links

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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  Grashof’s rule
•  linkages that satisfy the condition
l+s<p+q
are called Grashof type 1 mechanisms
–  these linkages have two joints that perform full rotations and two
joints that oscillate between motion limits
–  the two joints that have full rotation are on either end of the
shortest link
•  if l + s > p + q, the mechanism is a Grashof Type 2
–  there are no fully rotatable joints
•  if l + s = p + q, the mechanism is a Grashof Type 3
–  mechanism can assume a flattened configuration where there is
a choice of motion
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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  type 1, l + s < p + q

base is shortest
drag link, DL

right turning link is shortest

crank rocker, CR

coupler is shortest
left turning link is shortest double rocker, DR
crank rocker, CR

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 1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  type 2, l + s > p + q

coupler link is longest left turning link is longest

rocker outside-outside, Roo rocker inside-outside, Rio

base link is longest

rocker inside-inside, Rii right turning link is longest
rocker outside-inside, Roi

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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  type 3, l + s = p + q
base is shortest
drag link, DL

right turning link is shortest

crank rocker, CR

coupler is shortest
double rocker, DR

left turning link is shortest

crank rocker, CR

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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  proof of Grashof’s law
–  nomenclature

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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  for link a to have full rotation, it must pass through the
positions shown

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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  assume a < d
•  from the triangle inequality laws, the sum of the lengths
of any two sides must be greater than the third
•  thus link a will have complete rotatability if all the
following inequalities are met:
a + d < b + c (a) d - a < b + c (d)
b < c + a + d (b) b < c + d – a (e)
c < b + a + d (c) c < b + d – a (f)

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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  for complete rotatability of link a we know that the six
inequalities must be true
•  if the six inequalities are true, prove that this means that
a is the shortest link and that l + s < p + q
•  if (e) is true, then (b) is certainly true
b < c + d – a (e)
b < c + a + d (b)
•  rewrite (e) as b + a < c + d
•  if (f) is true, then (c) is certainly true
c < b + d – a (f)
c < b + a + d (c)
•  rewrite (f) as c + a < b + d
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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  if (a) is true, then (d) is certainly true
a + d < b + c (a)
d - a < b + c (d)
•  now have
a + d < b + c (a)
b + a < c + d (e’)
c + a < b + d (f’’)

•  adding (a) and (e’) gives

2a + b + d < 2c + b + d
a<c

•  adding (a) and (f’) gives

2a + c + d < 2b + c + d
a<b
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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  we assumed that a < d and thus if the six inequalities are
true, then a is the shortest link
•  also if the six inequalities are true then
a + d < b + c (a)
b + a < c + d (e’)
c + a < b + d (f’’)

•  the longest link has to be either a, b, or c and since a is

the shortest, we have proved that l + s < p + q

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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  what if a > d ?
•  for complete rotatability, the mechanism must pass
through the following positions
10"

14"

12"

5"
14"
b 10" c 14"
c 10"
b
5" 5"
a12"
12"
d d a
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1.15 Actuation (cont)
•  by repeating the previous procedure it can be shown that
if the six inequalities for the triangles are true, then
–  link d will be the shortest link
–  and l + s < p + q

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1.17 Motion limits for a slider-crank mechanism

•  the motion limits for the crane occur when the coupler
link is perpendicular to the direction of translation

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1.17 Motion limits for a slider-crank (cont)
•  to get full rotation of the crank,

b + a >c c>a-b b>a+c b>a+c

b–a>c

b>a b –a > c

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Four-bar variations

coupler

crank

rocker
ground
(link 1)

Crank = link that makes complete revolution and pivoted to ground

Rocker = link that has oscillatory rotation and pivoted to ground
Ground = fixed with respect to the reference frame (which may be moving)

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Fourbar variations

Revolute joints in any loop can be replaced by prismatic joints with no change in
DOF of the mechanism, provided that at least 2 revolute joints remain in the loop

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 Four-bar variations
Given slider-crank, remove coupler (link 3) and
add half-joint (M=1)

Curved slot gives same motion x(t)

as slider-crank.

Slot perpendicular to slider axis = Scotch

yoke, which gives exact simple harmonic
motion in response to constant speed
crank input.
Scotch yoke

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Fourbar variations

Cam-follower Fourbar equivalent

Given fourbar linkage, remove coupler (link 3) and add half-joint (M=1).

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Fivebar linkage

M= 3L – 2J – 3G Additional constraint applied: half-joint

= 3(5) – 2(5) – 3(1) (gear ratio), M=1
=2

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Sixbar linkage (M=1)

2 4BL connected in parallel 2 4BL connected in series

M = 3L – 2J – 3G
= 3(6) – 2(7) – 3(1)
=1

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Example 1.6
•  for the given mechanism, determine location for point E
so that link 6 will have complete rotation

2.26” 1.14”

1.09”
AF = 2”

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Example 1.6 - solution

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1.18 Interference

assembly of type 1 linkage

actuation for
(a) crank rocker ; (b) drag link

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 1.18 Interference (cont)

transfer of motion from a point on transfer of motion from a point on

the coupler for a crank-rocker the crank of a drag link

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1.18 Interference (cont)

parallelogram

six-bar modification to transfer motion from a point on

the coupler of a drag link

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1.19 Practical Design Considerations
•  1.19.1 Revolute Joints
•  1.19.2 Prismatic Joints
•  1.19.3 Higher Pairs
•  1.19.4 Cams vs. Linkages
•  1.19.5 Actuation

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1.19.2 Prismatic Joints
•  in a slider crank mechanism, the force applied to the sliding block is
along the direction of the coupler link
•  the normal force N is given by
N = F cosφ
•  the driving force is given by
F sinφ
•  the friction force will be
µN = µ F cosφ
•  if the friction force exceeds
the driving force, the joint will bind
•  will bind if
µ F cosφ > F sinφ
µ > tanφ

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1.19.2 Prismatic Joints (cont)
•  applying a load offset from the slider can also bind the joint
•  applying force F will cause the block to angulate slightly so the
contact only occurs at the ends of the block
•  equating moments gives
Fa=Nb
•  the block will bind if

2µ N > F
b
2µ N > N
a
2µ a > b

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Chap 1 Summary
•  mobility analysis
•  Grashof criteria for four bar linkages
•  motion limits of four bar and slider-crank linkages

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•  Assignment 1
–  Problems 1.3, 1.5, 1.7, 1.11, 1.15, and 1.20
–  Proof of Grashof’s Law type I,
–  Problems 1.38