1

Skid resistance of the

tire/pavement couple
 Role of tires in the
skid resistance phenomenon
Joël FOUCARD
Manufacture française des pneumatiques MICHELIN

11

INTRODUCTION

The functions and structure of the tire

Bearing the vehicle load [Endurance], transmitting the motor and braking forces [Skid resistance],
guiding the vehicle in its lateral movements [Road handling] constitute the three basic tire functions.

These functions are complemented by the capacity of the tire to filter ground irregularities [Noise
and comfort], to roll with little resistance and limited heating through attaining high speeds [Fuel
consumption and associated CO2 discharge], and to durably retain its attributes [Wear].

The radial structure of the tire is composed of a textile frame with considerable vertical flexibility in
order to generate optimal contact – at uniform pressure – of the tire on the ground, along with a very
stiff metallic belt in the longitudinal and transverse directions that serves to generate longitudinal
and transverse forces as high as possible for the transmission and guidance functions. The bottom
zone, composed of a rod and flange, provides for assembly of the envelope around the rim, and the
watertight seal is provided by means of an interior rubber strip with high air impermeability. The
assembly stiffnesses thus created by the architecture plus the internal pressure allow defining the
adequate transfer function between the pavement profile and the center wheel (see Fig. 1).

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
 ‡ Figure 1
Description of the tire

The multi-performance set of specifications

Tire manufacturers concentrate their product design in respecting the following basic points:
¾ obtaining the maximum level of performance within the range of variable tradeoffs depending on
the chosen vehicle segment (economy, comfort, sport, super sport, etc.) and the anticipated use seg-
ment (summer, winter, mixed-use, ice, off-road, etc.);
¾ guaranteeing user safety in endurance, skid resistance and road handling under the most stringent
circumstances (load, speed, temperature, etc.); and
¾ ascribing special importance to longevity (life span vs. wear), rolling resistance (consumption of
non-renewable energy and CO2 emissions), and to the contribution of vehicle noise in both urban
and suburban use.
The automaker-client is seeking the best possible value enhancement for its vehicle production and,
12 along these lines, defines the specific set of performance requirements: comfort, in-vehicle noise,
road handling. The existing standards and rules are aimed at improving safety; they define the
endurance acceptance tests, which for the most part rely on machine testing. Recent legislative efforts
have sought to extend standards and regulations (currently in the preparation or draft stage) into the
areas of external noise, braking distances on wet pavement surfaces and rolling resistance.

Skid resistance
The tire rubber/pavement contact must be able to provide the requisite skid resistance for motor
coordination, braking and lateral vehicle handling under highly-diverse speed conditions, ground
temperature and meteorological conditions. Figure 2 serves to compare the potential skid resistance

‡ Figure 2
Potential skid resistance and actual
skid resistance used by motorists

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
offered by the tire-pavement interaction and the skid resistance used by drivers under normal oper-
ating conditions. On dry roads, a sizable skid resistance margin is available in order to negotiate an
emergency maneuver. The same does not apply however to wet roads or winter driving conditions,
due primarily to a great variability in potential skid resistance under such conditions. The variability
in potential skid resistance on wet ground by far exceeds the possible deviations occurring between
separate tires rolling over the same ground surface. In the following discussion, we will be focusing
on the interactions taking place between tire and pavement within the skid resistance mechanism.

THE ACTORS BEHIND SKID RESISTANCE

Generation of tire/pavement contact forces

In the longitudinal direction

For each vehicle tire, let FZ be the vertical load, FX the tangential force in the longitudinal direction
and G%* the relative sliding defined on Figure 3. The skid resistance coefficient µx at the tire scale is
equal to FX/FZ = f (G%) and varies according to the depiction in Figure 3. The maximum value
of µX(G%) as well as the corresponding sliding depend heavily on the state of the pavement (dry,
wet, flooded, icy, snow-covered), its texture and the temperature, in addition to the level of speed.
At each level of sliding G%, the global force FX is the sum of local tangential forces within the contact
area. The distribution of these forces results from the kinematics as the rolling strip passes into the
contact area: the rubber makes contact with the ground, then gets compressed and gradually enters
into shear before starting to slide once the friction potential (µlocal) has been reached. Figure 4 pro-
vides a simplified representation of these mechanisms.
13
In the transverse direction
For each vehicle tire, let FZ be the vertical load, FY the tangential force in the transverse direction and
α the slip angle with respect to vehicle trajectory, as laid out in Figure 5. The skid resistance
coefficient µY at the scale of the tire is equal to FY/FZ = f(α) and varies according to the diagram pre-
sented in Figure 5. The maximum value of µY(α) depends to a great extent on the state of the pave-
ment (dry, wet, flooded, icy, snow-covered), its texture and the temperature, in addition to speed.

µx

V
Motor control
100 %
G (%)
Braking
Fx back Fx front µlocked
Fz µmax braking

ω − ω0 ω : wheel rotation speed

G (%) = (x 100)
ω0 ω0 : rotation speed without motor / brake couple

‡ Figure 3
Longitudinal performance curves

* Also denoted κ (ISO).

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
 Contact Contact
area exit area entrance

Sliding zone Shear zone

‡ Figure 4
Shear/sliding within the contact area Envelope
under braking conditions FX local maxi = FZ local . µlocal

FX local

Trajectory
µY
FZ
‡ Figure 5
Transverse loading and trajectory
Slip
FY angle α

Slip angle α

14

Tangent to the trajectory

at the level of the front axle

Centrifugal
‡ Figure 6 Force Front FY
Skid resistance while undergoing
transverse loading

Back FY

Tangent to the trajectory

at the level of the back axle

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
For an insightful analysis of the guidance function and its consequences on road handling, it must be
understood that the deviation in wheel alignment/vehicle trajectory entails the rear axle as well as
the front axle, as illustrated in Fig. 6. This cornering maneuver on the front and rear axles enables
generating the lateral forces that counter the centrifugal force and ensure the vehicle's equilibrium.
For each cornering angle value α, the global force FY equals the sum of local tangential forces within
the contact area, whose distribution results from the kinematics as the rolling strip passes into the
contact area. The metallic reinforcement that supports the rolling strip is only slightly deformable
and does not run tangent to the trajectory. A gradual shearing of the rolling strip beginning upon
entrance into the contact area ensues until reaching an abscissa where the local friction potential is
ultimately attained. In this case, the rubber is sliding on the ground, from the given abscissa until
exiting the contact area. Figure 7 displays a simplified representation of these mechanisms.

Under mixed-mode conditions

The maximum values of longitudinal and transverse forces have been highlighted above; these val-
ues have proven to be driven respectively by longitudinal sliding resulting from applying the brake
pedal or acceleration pedal and by slip angle resulting from turning the steering wheel. In the case
of simultaneous actions performed on these automobile controls, the maximum skid resistance
potential would be the outcome of a quadratic combination (see Fig. 8).

Trajectory

Pure
shear
zone

Outline of the metallic ‡ Figure 7 15

belt on the ground
Combined
Shear/sliding within the contact area under
shear and
cornering conditions
sliding zone
Tire / ground contact
deformed by the
traverse force
(not drawn to scale)

α Tangent
to the trajectory
Rolling strip shear

Fx Fx Skid
resistance ellipse

Fy
G% 10%
Braking control ‡ Figure 8
Coupling under mixed loading
Fy
Steering wheel control

12˚

Range of frequent driving operations

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
 Given the range of controls typically exercised, the forces required for vehicle guidance (transverse
forces) will leave considerable potential available for braking or motor coordination (longitudinal
forces). In contrast, distinct braking action will leave little potential for a transverse force solicitation.

THE ROLLING STRIP:

A VISCOELASTIC STRUCTURE
Rubber is a viscoelastic material. The origin of this property stems from the disentanglement of elas-
tomeric chains and load couplings (carbon black, silica, etc.), along with elastomers during deforma-
tion of the rubber. The strength of these viscoelastic properties depends upon the specific mix design
(type of polymers, reinforcing loads, etc.) and its vulcanization (quantity of sulfur bridges, etc.). Two
consequences are eventually encountered herein: the phase offset between stresses and strains (hys-
teresis), and dissipation (Fig. 9a).

Moreover, an equivalence is observed between the effects of a rise in temperature and the effects of
a drop in frequency (known as the William Landel Ferry Law) (Fig. 9b). Below a temperature called
the glassy transition temperature, the rubber modulus increases rather abruptly. Similarly, beyond a
certain frequency, the modulus also rises sharply. The decrease in temperature, like the increase in
frequency, gets reflected by reduced mobility of the elastomeric chains.

Elastic Visco- Glassy Elastic Visco- Glassy

domain elastic domain domain elastic domain
domain domain
16
Shearing Shearing
stiffness stiffness

Hysteretic
Hysteretic
loss
loss

Glassy Log frequency Glassy Log temperature

transition (at a given temperature) transition (at a given frequency)

‡ Figure 9b
‡ Figure 9a
Modulus of stiffness and phasing offset between stress and strain,
Modulus of stiffness and phasing offset between stress and strain,
vs. temperature at a given excitation frequency (illustration of the
vs. excitation frequency at a given temperature
temperature/frequency equivalence)

The pavement: A multi-scale exciter

Pavement topology depends on its mode of fabrication (origin of aggregates, relative aggregate con-
figuration with respect to one another, binder) and its use (polishing by wear, various types of pol-
lution). In order to better comprehend skid resistance mechanisms, a description of the pavement
proves necessary on scales extending from the detail of the treaded rolling strip (cm) to the rubber
homogeneity threshold (10 nm). Let's now take the case of a developed tire assembly equal to 2 m
traveling at 100 km/hr, with G% the relative sliding with respect to the pavement (i.e. G% = 0: freely-
moving wheel, no sliding; G% = 100: locked wheel, total sliding); the rubber excitation frequencies
have been indicated in Figure 10.

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
 Excitation frequency (Hz)
1E+10
1E+09 Tire/pavement
1E+08 sliding
1E+07 0%
1E+06 0.1%
5%
‡ Figure 10
1E+05
1E+04 15% Excitation frequency of the rubber vs.
100% length of the indenters:
1E+03
It may be observed that once the lowest
1E+02
sliding values start to appear, excitations
1E+01
become visible over a broad frequency
1E+00
range. At this point, the rubber responds
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 by means of energy dissipation.
-0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0 -0
1E 1E 1E 1E 1E 1E 1E 1E
Indenter length (m)

Contact Tread Black Elastomeric

area block aggregate chain

Macrotexture Microtexture

SKID RESISTANCE MECHANISMS

Indentation on a dry surface 17

Energy dissipation is generated during sliding of the rubber on an "indenter" and moreover at all
ground texture scales, as shown in Figure 11. This finding holds for the coarsest indenters with a 1-
cm width (and approximately 1-mm height), which excite the rubber over the material's depth at low
frequency (roughly 103 Hz for 10% sliding). Such is still the case for small indenters 1 µm wide (and
approximately 0.1 µm high) that excite the surface rubber at high frequency (˜ 107 Hz for 10% slid-
ing). The energy dissipated during sliding of the rubber over the ground is therefore the outcome of
a viscoelastic dissipation spectrum for the material that responds to a ground excitation spectrum.

Sliding
Fz speed Vg ‡ Figure 11
Excitation frequency on the indenters vs. sliding
speed:
The loading is vertical, yet a tangential component
Fx Excitation
of the pavement reaction appears due to
frequency = Vg / e
viscoelastic mechanisms of the tire rubber. This
asymmetry is what creates the braking force.
e

Adhesion on a dry surface

Molecular interaction forces have given rise to tangential contact forces along with an increase in the
contact surface area by means of a very local tire rubber attraction. These mechanisms take effect at
the smallest ground texture scales: indenter lengths between 1 µm and 10 nm, and excitation fre-
quencies between 107 and 109 Hz.

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
 The contribution of these adhesion forces to the overall skid resistance capacity of the tire depends
upon the product range, the point of thermal operations, the state of cleanliness, and the level of
ground surface energy.

Elasto-hydrodynamics on a wet surface

Aquaplaning phenomenon
This phenomenon results from the hydrodynamic forces at work. In the presence of thick layer of
water, the water is pressurized by the tire and drainage is performed via the grooves on the tire
treads and pavement. Beyond a certain speed, the vehicle weight transmitted at the tire/ground con-
tact is inadequate to contain the hydrodynamic thrust in front of the contact zone; the tire, raised by
the water, thereby enters into a mode of aquaplaning (see Fig. 12) and can no longer generate any
sizable braking force. For given tire dimensions and inflation pressure, the speed of aquaplaning will
be increased by notching the tire rolling strip longitudinally and transversally by means of drainage
grooves. The pavement drainage capacity along with respect of the road elevation banking account
for two basic factors in aquaplaning reduction since they both limit the risk of high water levels
appearing on the roadway.

Viscoplaning phenomenon
This phenomenon results from viscous shearing. When a vehicle travels at 100 km/hr, a point on the
ground experiences passing of the tire contact area in 0.004 seconds. In the very theoretical case of a
perfectly-smooth surface and within this time frame, the viscosity of the water serves to introduce
shear forces that prevent the water film from dropping below a thickness of 2 to 3 µm. The water film
thinning equation (Fig. 13) effectively indicates an asymptotic decrease in thickness tending towards
zero.

18 The remedial measure would consist of breaking the water film by means of microscopic peaks
(indenters) of pavement roughness (wavelength of 10 to 200 µm; height of 1 to 20 µm; see Fig. 14),
along with the thin blades present in the tire rolling strip; these enable both an excess pressure at the
ridges and the creation of a reservoir immediately adjacent to the water to be discharged (Fig. 15).
The tire will thus, in places, lie at the contact with pavement surfacing; moreover, on those areas still
wet, the film thickness can drop to very low values. In addition, Figure 15 illustrates the fact that the
water entrapped in the thin blades is expulsed towards the bottom of the tire treads.

‡ Figure 12
Situation of aquaplaning

‡ Figure 13
Final height of water vs. initial height and
time of flattening

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
 ‡ Figure 14
Rupture of the water film by micro-
roughness patches

‡ Figure 15
Contribution of the thin blades

A mixed lubrication mode also exists. As the "peaks" of the microtexture puncture the water film, a
"wetness-removal" stage for all surfaces becomes activated. Its quickness (and hence its effectiveness,
given the transit speed within the contact area) depend not only on the tire rubber properties and
geometrical characteristics of the ground, but also on contact surface energies and lubricant viscosity.
On the indenters still immersed in water, indentation mechanisms may still arise as long as the water
film thickness remains negligible in comparison with the indenter height.
On the exposed "islands", all of the indentation scales are apparent, including those capable of imple-
menting adhesion mechanisms.
19

Use of maximum skid resistance potential during braking

On dry ground
The introduction of an electronic braking-assistance system (ABS: Antilock Braking System) is justi-
fied by the existence of a maximum point on the curve µ = f(G%). In employing the notions devel-
oped above and neglecting the flattening deformations, tangential forces within the contact area may
be represented for 4 characteristic points of the curve µ(G%) (see Fig. 16).
The left-hand diagram in Figure 16 specifies the four points A, B, C and D on the curve µ(G), while
the right-hand diagram displays the corresponding distribution of tangential forces in the contact

µx Tangential force
C

C
B D
D
ABS B
regulation range
Contact Contact
A area exitt A area entrance
0 100
Sliding (G%)

‡ Figure 16
Curve of µx vs. sliding rate and developed tangential forces

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
 area. Between points A and B on the curve, the force exerted by the pavement on the tire due to the
wheel speed/pavement differential engenders shearing of the rubber between contact area entrance
and exit, until the time when rubber/ground sliding takes place. At point C, approximately 85% of
the contact area is undergoing sliding and the sliding length remains moderate, i.e. on the order of
10 mm for a vehicle traveling at 100 km/hr and a 10% sliding rate. The tire rubber path outside the
contact area is sufficient for carrying out an efficient cooling between two consecutive passes over
the ground contact. Point D corresponds to locked wheel braking. The entire contact surface is
undergoing sliding at this point and sliding length equals the total braking length, i.e. several tens of
meters. The energy dissipated at the contact thus raises the surface temperature to very high levels,
which serves to hinder skid resistance capacity. For this reason, curve µ(G) contains a maximum.
The ABS system will thus be intended to maneuver the tire around point C in order to induce sliding
over a large portion of the contact area, thereby making it possible to instigate hysteresis of the tire
rubber without necessarily reaching disadvantageous thermal levels. The sliding range convention-
ally programmed into ABS systems lies between 7% and 12%.

On wet ground
As is the case on dry ground, the curve µ(G%) on wet ground exhibits a maximum followed by a
decrease. The sliding value G% corresponding to the maximum µ varies quite substantially as a func-
tion of ground texture: from 7% to 12% for surfacing with considerable macrotexture and microtex-
ture, and up to 30% or 50% for surfacing with limited macrotexture and microtexture. Among the
multiplicity of mechanisms that explain the shape of this curve, mention should be made of: the
increase in hydrodynamic load-bearing forces, along with the reduction in wheel rotation speed, evo-
lution of the rubber excitation spectrum and wetness-removal over the sheared portion.

PRODUCT DESIGN
20
The rolling strip rubber is naturally a key actor in producing skid resistance: its hysteresis and stiff-
ness modulus, which depend on the excitation frequencies, direct the energy dissipated during brak-
ing. It is clear, according to the above findings, that the optimal tire rubber design depends on
ground geometry, temperature and dry vs. wet state.
The rolling strip treads constitute the other key skid resistance actor: the longitudinal, transverse or
oblique grooves, for the particular type of solution chosen, allow draining water to prevent against
aquaplaning and moreover the thin blades mitigate the risk of viscoplaning by virtue of inciting rup-
ture of the water film. Furthermore, since deformation of the treads imposes the rubber to operate at
points in stress, strain and temperature, these two critical elements of the tire product cannot be
designed independently of one another. Design of the tire rubber-tread couple encompasses a global
process.
Tire architecture is optimized in order to obtain homogeneous vertical pressure schedules appropri-
ate to both skid resistance and wear. To satisfy this constraint, a rounded contact area shape serves
to lower the risk of aquaplaning by means of a V-blade effect conducive to the lateral discharge of
water.
Figure 17 shows, in tabular form and to the first order, a few of the performance-based contradictions
that are currently well known in the case of a tire intended for dual summer-winter wear. The major
role played by the rubber may be perceived in the skid resistance on wet ground/life span equilib-
rium with respect to wear, along with the critical role of tire treads in the aquaplaning/life span equi-
librium with respect to wear, and the skid resistance on dry ground/skid resistance on wet ground
equilibrium for low skid resistance levels. Research efforts on the tire manufacturing side are obvi-
ously focused on innovating and developing new products that will overcome these design conflicts.
No one single approach exists for designing a tire. The fundamental design choices are tied to the
characteristics of the vehicle segment to be equipped (weight, power, speed, tire dimensions), while
satisfying safety constraints on all of the world's roads where use of this particular tire has been fore-
seen. Knowledge of the pavements, meteorology, accident-causing conditions across the world's key
countries also obviously constitutes a critical element in the set of design choices.

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
 Positive effect
Skid resistance Noise
Wet soil Con-
Wear
Negative effect Dry Macro-roughness Hydro- Snow Ice Internal External sumption
planing
µ>0.7 µ <0.5
Increasing the
rate of tread
notching

Increasing the
number of tread
patterns

Increasing the rate

of tread blade
frequency
Increasing the
glassy transition
temperature
of the mix
within the
typical range

‡ Figure 17
Effects of design elements on the set of tire use properties

THE PAVEMENT
The principal pavement characteristics in terms of skid resistance, as discussed above, are as follows: 21

¾ macrotexture, primarily for avoiding the phenomena of aquaplaning and viscoplaning; and
¾ microtexture, primarily for the purposes of breaking the water film, contributing to the indenta-
tion mechanism and stimulating the adhesion mechanism. Microtexture evolves over time, which
exerts only limited impact on braking under dry conditions, yet could dramatically alter braking
under wet conditions.
Sections of worn pavement are typically found on zones submitted to major load bearing or heavy
braking, i.e. curves and urban routes.
The texture may also be momentarily concealed by pollution, and this up to high levels, with the con-
sequence being a significant alteration in skid resistance potential (or even a rise in the risk of visco-
planing). Known effects would include: the first rainfalls after a long drought period, deposits of die-
sel fuel at road junctions and highway on/off-ramps, and deposits of tire rubber at traffic lights.
All new road surfacing displays a friction coefficient on wet ground lying on the order of between
0.8 and 1, with a gradual drop towards 0.5 to 0.7 as traffic-related wear takes effect. All surfacing is
also capable of being exposed to various pollutants, for the most part of local origin. On the most
heavily-worn pavements, appearance of the viscoplaning mechanism, as a result of pollution, leads
to friction coefficient levels capable of reaching 0.3.

CONCLUSION
Enhancing automotive safety remains an ongoing preoccupation among all tire manufacturers. The
wide array of pavement surfaces encountered on the road network constitutes the main reason for
the observed disparity in skid resistance potential on wet ground. Within such a context, developing
tires that enable improving both longitudinal and transverse skid resistance under the most unfavor-
able ground conditions proves vital for achieving further progress in road safety.

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22
 Sustainable development represents another focus on the path to future progress. Reasonable man-
agement of renewable energy sources, measures designed to counter the greenhouse effect, and the
welfare of local residents all require significant advances in the areas of life cycle, proportions of vehi-
cle CO2 emissions related to tire rolling resistance and tire-related rolling noise abatement.
Making simultaneous progress in these two research directions gives rise to a serious technical chal-
lenge; meeting this challenge will require tire manufacturers to concentrate on materials, treads and
architectural considerations in their design considerations.

22

BULLETIN DES LABORATOIRES DES PONTS ET CHAUSSÉES - 255

APRIL-MAY-JUNE 2005 - REF. 4520 - PP. 11-22