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Winter Semester 2021-2022

Name: Wakisa Kenea Abdisa

Reg.No: 18BML0114

Course Name: Sensors and Instrumentation

Course Code: ECE1005

Slot: TG1

Faculty Name: Dr.Sathyanarayanan P

Digital Assignment-2
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QUESTION
1. Describe the working of any Smart Sensor. Detail the need for associated electronics to be
used along with the sensor (Sensor and Electronics Hybrid circuit).
2. Write detailed notes on static and dynamic characteristics of sensors.

1. Describe the working of any Smart Sensor. Detail the need for associated electronics to be
used along with the sensor (Sensor and Electronics Hybrid circuit).
INTRODUCTION
We live in a World of Sensors. You can find different types of Sensors in our homes, offices, cars
etc. working to make our lives easier by turning on the lights by detecting our presence, adjusting
the room temperature, detect smoke or fire, make us delicious coffee, open garage doors as soon
as our car is near the door and many other tasks. All these and many other automation tasks are
possible because of Sensors.

There are numerous definitions as to what a sensor is but I would like to define a Sensor as an
input device which provides an output (signal) with respect to a specific physical quantity
(input).The term “input device” in the definition of a Sensor means that it is part of a bigger system
which provides input to a main control system (like a Processor or a Microcontroller).Another
unique definition of a Sensor is as follows: It is a device that converts signals from one energy
domain to electrical domain. The definition of the Sensor can be better understood if we take an
example in to consideration.
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LEVEL SENSOR

A wide range of level sensor measurement systems are made available for addressing the various
parameters such as a wide range of applications, high-accuracy needs, and system installation
requirements and practices. Measurement technologies are made available in different versions to
address a wide range of measurement needs, or to address a specific application.

Liquid Level Sensor

Liquid level sensors are termed as the sensors used for detecting liquid levels or interfaces between
liquids such as water and oil or solids and liquids. These sensors can also be defined as transducers
or as integrated systems with instrumentation and control capabilities. This type of liquid level
sensor is one of the most important sensors and plays a vital role in variety of industrial and
consumer applications.

Industrial applications include liquid-level sensing in transport tanks, storage tanks and water
treatment tanks, and also in the petrochemical industries for sensing liquids such as petrol, diesel
and other fuels. Liquid level measurement is significant in household applications including
electronic devices such as, water dispensers, water evaporators, steamers, monitoring system of
boilers, heating systems, washing machines, steam irons, juice squeezers, automated-coffee
machines, etc. Level sensors are designed for specific applications compared to general
applications.

Classification of Level Sensor Measuring Systems

The family of level Sensor measurement systems is classified into different categories such as:

 Liquids or Solids Level Measurement

 Point or Continuous Level Measurement
 Electromagnetic or Electromechanical Level Measurement
 Contacting or Non-Contacting Level Measurement

General Considerations for Liquid Level Sensor Selection:

 Density and viscosity

 Vapors mist and dust
 Chemical composition
 Interfaces and gradients
 Ambient temperature
 Humidity/moisture
 Process temperature
 Process pressure
 Regulated environment
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Out of these four types of measurement systems, I am going to describe about the point level
measurement and detection system, and the Continuous Level Measurement and Detection
Systems are explained briefly in the following paragraphs. These both measurement systems cover
different types of level sensors.

Point/ Liquid Level Switch Measurement and Detection Systems

Point level measurement sensors are used for the purpose of marking a single liquid height or for
presetting a level condition. Usually, this sensor works as a high alarm that measures the overflow
conditions in tanks through liquid level sensors, or works as a marker to note down the low alarm
conditions. The different types of sensors are given below:

 Float Sensor
 Capacitance Sensors
 Conductivity Probes

1. Level Detection and Measurement by Using a Float Sensor

Level Detection Using a Float Sensor

Principle of operation

A liquid level control system by using a float sensor works on the principle of buoyancy, which
states, “A float immersed in a liquid is buoyed towards upward direction by an applied equal force
to the weight of the displaced liquid”. As a result, the body drives partially and gets submerged
upon the liquid surface and covers the same distance the liquid level moves.

Construction

A level measurement float system consists of a float, a sensor stem, a magnet, a reed switch and a
weight suspended on the outside of the open tank. A scale is fixed on the outside of the tank, and
the contents of the tank’s level are indicated by the position of the weight along the scale.

Working

Level detection of liquids is often done with a float-type liquid level switch. The float transfers on
a mechanical arm or sliding pole and activates a switch when the level moves towards upward
direction. Sometimes the float itself contains a small magnet that varies the state of a switch when
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the liquid level gets moving up and moves into the original position. This type of level sensor
comes with many advantages like it is very simple, highly accurate, and best suitable for various
products.

The Disadvantages of this sensor are that it requires various mechanical equipment, especially the
pressure vessels.

Primary Areas of Float Sensor Application: In view of the requirements pertaining to the
increase in usage of sealed tanks, the current industrial systems make use of this type of float
method for precise reading and accuracy, which is a good example of electronics and mechanical
engineering, making it the most accurate level-measuring system for various applications in very
large storage tanks.
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2. Level Detection and Measurement by Using Capacitance Sensor

Level Detection Using Capacitance Sensor

Capacitance level sensors are made available for wide range of solids, aqueous, organic liquids
and slurries. This technique is frequently stated as the radio-frequency signals applied to a
capacitance circuit. The capacitive sensors are designed to sense material with dielectric constants
as low as 1.1 for coke and fly ash, and as high as 88 for water or other liquids.

Principle of operation: The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on the change of
capacitance. There are two plates in capacitive sensor: one plate acts as an insulated electrode and
the other plate acts as a tank wall. The capacitance depends on the liquid level. An empty tank has
low capacitance while a filled tank has higher capacitance. A simple capacitor consists of two
electrode plates separated by a small thickness of an insulator such as solid, fluid, gas, or vacuum.

The Value of C depends on dielectric constant used, area of the plate and also on the distance
between the plates.

C=E(KA/d) Where: C = Capacitance in Pico farads (pF) E = a constant known as the absolute
permittivity of free space K = Relative dielectric constant of the insulating material A = Effective
area of the conductors d = Distance between the conductors

This change in capacitance can be measured by using an AC Bridge.

Construction and Working

The measurement of liquid level is done by applying a Radio Frequency signal between the
conductive probe and the vessel wall. The Radio Frequency signal results in a very-low current
which flows through the dielectric process material in the tank from the probe to the vessel wall.
If the liquid level in the tank drops, then the dielectric constant decreases, which leads to the drop
in capacitance reading as well as minute drop in current flow.
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This change can be detected by the liquid-level switch’s internal circuitry and translated into relay
state changes of the level switch in case of a point level detection.

The main advantages of these capacitance systems include easy installation, broad application
range, good accuracy suitable for variety of applications and highly recognized and well -proven
technology.

The disadvantages include sensitivity to changes in the measurable properties such as dielectric
constant and conductivity which creates an issue; furthermore, it is an intrusive system.

Primary Areas of Capacitance Sensor Application: Capacitance level sensor probes are used
for measuring the levels of:

 Fluids
 Liquid metals at very-high temperature range
 Dissolved gases at very-low level of temperature
 Very-high density industrial processes.

3. Level Detection by Using Conductivity Probes

Level Detection by Using Conductivity Probes

Principle of operation: The principle used in this system states that “the presence of a product
will make a change in the resistance between the two conductors.”

Construction and Working

This system is applicable for level measurement in conductive liquids. The conductivity of the
insulated material can be varied if the probe is covered or not covered within the conductive
product. There are two electrodes: one is used as a metal wall of the tank, and the other electrode
is inserted into the tank. This principle can be explained with a practical application.

A Conductive probe is used as a liquid level indicator for measuring the level of electrically
conductive products in a metal water tank, or other container, which can be obtained by means of
a probe isolated from the container and a conductivity amplifier. When the product is not in
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connection with the probe, the electrical resistance is relatively high or infinite between the probe
and the metal tank wall. If the level of the liquid rises completely between the probe and the tank
wall, then the resistance gradually decreases.

This method is Advantageous as it is very simple, low cost and well suited for dual or multiple
point control.

The method is disadvantageous as the probe must not get contaminated with grease or any other
deposits and has limited suitability for products of varying conductivity.

As a practical example of this detection here we have shown figure of intelligent overhead tank
water level indicator with block diagram which uses conducting probes for detecting the water in
tank. This system is built by using priority encoder, BCD-seven segment decoder, seven segment
display and other miscellaneous components.

The probes are connected to +5V and the return or ground terminal is kept at the bottom of the tank. Nine
active-low inputs of priority encoder are converted to active- low BCD output by internal circuitry and then
the water level is indicated in seven segment display in terms of percentage of water. As the water level is
increases probes get shorted and correspondingly priority encoder gives BCD values and later the
information is displayed on seven segment display through BCD to seven segment decoder IC.
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Continuous Level Measurement and Detection Systems

A continuous level sensor is most sophisticated and also provides liquid level monitoring of an
entire system. This liquid level sensor is used to measure the fluid level within a specified range,
moderately than at a one point, which produces an analog output and directly correlates to the level
in the vessel. To create a liquid level management system, the output signal is interconnected to
process a control loop and linked as a visual liquid level indicator. This measurement system
consists of variety of sensors such as

 Ultrasonic Sensor
 Radar level sensor
 Optical Sensor

1. Level Detection and Measurement by Using Ultrasonic Sensor

Level Detection Using Ultrasonic Sensor

Ultrasonic level instruments works on the basic time-of-flight principle which states that sending
a sound wave from a piezoelectric transducer to the contents of the vessel, which may contain
liquid, solid or slurries level.

This liquid level sensor comprises two elements such as an associated electronic transceiver and a
transducer with relatively high efficiency. In case of a liquid level controller, the fluid level can be
determined by measuring the trip time difference between a transmitted ultrasonic pulse and a
reflected echo.

The frequency range for ultrasonic methods varies from a range of 15-200 kHz for transmitting
and receiving ultrasonic waves. The lower frequency instruments are used for the measurement of
difficult applications such as longer distances and solid-level measurements, and the instruments
with higher frequency are used for shorter liquid level measurements.
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The ultrasonic sensors are advantageous as they are not in direct contact with the product, and the
level measurement is done without involving any physical contact. They do not have any moving
parts.

As a disadvantage, these types of sensors are not suitable for higher pressures in a vacuum and
temperature limits of up to 170 degree centigrade.

2. Level Detection and Measurement by Using Radar Level Sensor

Level Detection Using Radar Level Sensor

Radar level measurement system is based on the principle of measuring the time required for the
microwave pulse and its reflected echo to make a complete return trip between the non-contacting
transducer and the sensed liquid level. Then, the transceiver converts this electrical signal into
distance/level and presents it as an analogue and/or digital signal. The transducer’s signal output
can be selected by the user to be directly or inversely proportional to the span.

Construction and Working

The working of a radar level sensor is explained here to measure the level of liquid or solid. The
radar signals are transmitted from the antenna placed at the top of the water tank or vessel as shown
in the above figure. The radar signal gets reflected by the liquid surface and echo is carried out by
the antenna.

By varying the signal, the frequency gets varied during the time of echo and the time of the signal
transmission comparison. The difference of frequency is proportional to the distance of the liquid,
and this statement is used to determine the accurate level of the liquid.

The advantages of this radar level sensor include high accuracy and least specificity as it can
measure liquid levels in plastic tanks without establishing any contact with the liquid.
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The disadvantages of this type of sensor include the cost, which is very high and the price increases
with the increase in accuracy. Moreover, these sensors are very sensitive to the buildup on the
sensor surface.

Primary Areas of Radar Level Sensor Applications

Radar level sensors are widely used to measure the level of liquids as well as solids in storage
tanks and tank terminals. These liquid level sensors operate at a wide range of temperature,
pressure and various process conditions.

3. Level Detection and Measurement by Using Optical Sensors

Level Detection Using Optical Sensors

The optical sensor consists of an infrared LED and a light receiver. The light emitted from the
LED is directed towards a prism which forms the tip of the level sensor. If there is no liquid present
in the tank, then the light from the LED is reflected within the prism and the receiver.

When the liquid level raises and immerses the sensing prism, the light gets refracted out into the
liquid, leaving little amount of light or no light to reach the receiver. Sensing this change, the
receiver activates electronic switching within the level unit for operating external alarm or control
circuit.

The advantages of this optical sensor are that they are not in contact with the process, and perform
accurate measurements of small level movements.

The disadvantages of these sensors include limited applicability and sometimes a high-cost of
installation.
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2. Write detailed notes on static and dynamic characteristics of sensors.

Static characteristics:
The properties of the system after all transient effects have settled to their final or
Steady state:

 Accuracy  Drift
 Discrimination  Sensitivity
 Precision  Linearity
 Errors  Hysteresis (backslash)
Dynamic characteristics:
The properties of the system transient response to an input:
 Zero order systems
 First order systems
 Second order system

Static characteristics:

Accuracy and Resolution:

Accuracy: is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give RESULTS close to the

TRUE VALUE of the measured quantity.

 Accuracy is related to the bias of a set of measurements

 Accuracy is measured by the absolute and relative errors

Resolution (Discrimination): is the minimal change of the input necessary to produce a

Detectable change at the output.

 When the increment is from zero, it is called Threshold.

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Precision: is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when repetitively
measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.

 Precision implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true
value
 Precision is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
 Precision is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.

Two terms closely related to precision Repeatability and Reproducibility.

Repeatability: is the precision of a set of measurements taken over a short time interval

Reproducibility: is the precision of a set of measurements BUT:

 Taken over a long time interval or

 Performed by different operators or
 With different instruments or
 In different laboratories

Accuracy and Errors:

Systematic errors: Result from a variety of factors

 Interfering or modifying variables (i.e., temperature)

 Drift (i.e., changes in chemical structure or mechanical stresses)
 The measurement process changes the measurand (i.e., loading errors)
 The transmission process changes the signal (i.e., attenuation)
 Human observers (i.e., parallax errors)

Systematic errors can be corrected with compensation methods (i.e., feedback, filtering)

Random errors (NOISE):

A signal that carries no information.

 Sources of randomness:
 Repeatability of the measurand itself (i.e., height of a rough surface)
 Environmental noise (i.e., background noise picked by a microphone)
 Transmission noise (i.e., 60Hz hum)
 Signal to noise ratio (SNR) should be >>1
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Other Static Characteristics:

Input range: The maximum and minimum value of the physical variable that can be measured
(i.e., -40F/100F in a thermometer)
Output range: can be defined similarly
Sensitivity: The slope of the calibration curve. An ideal sensor will have a large and constant
sensitivity.
 A nonlinear transfer function exhibits different sensitivities at different points, in this case
the sensitivity is defined as a first derivative of the transfer function:

Linearity: The closeness of the calibration curve to a specified straight line (i.e., theoretical
behavior, least-squares fit)
Hysteresis: The difference between two output values that correspond to the same input depending
on the trajectory followed by the sensor (i.e., magnetization in ferromagnetic materials)
Backslash: hysteresis caused by looseness in a mechanical joint
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Dynamic Characteristics:
 The sensor response to a variable input is different from that exhibited when the input
signals are constant (the latter is described by the static characteristics)
 The reason for dynamic characteristics is the presence of energy-storing elements:
 Inertial: masses, inductances
 Capacitances: electrical, thermal
 Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the response of the sensor to a family
of variable input waveforms:

Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the response of the sensor to a family of variable input
waveform.
The dynamic response of the sensor is (typically) assumed to be linear
First-order sensors and Second order sensors are related by first order and second order differential
equations.
Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the instrument when the input variable is changing
rapidly with time.
For example, human eye cannot detect any event whose duration is more than one-tenth of a second; thus
the dynamic performance of human eye cannot be said to be very satisfactory.
The dynamic performance of an instrument is normally expressed by a differential equation relating the
input and output quantities. It is always convenient to express the input-output dynamic characteristics in
form of a linear differential equation.
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Sensor Transfer Function:

 The transfer function represents the relation between stimulus (s) and response electrical
signal (S) produced by the sensor. This relation can be written as S= f(s).
 Normally, stimulus (s) is unknown while the output signal S is measured. An inverse f –1
(S) of the transfer function is required to compute the stimulus from the sensor’s measured
response (S).
Mathematical Model:

Example: A linear resistive potentiometer is used for sensing displacement (d). Ohm’s law can
be applied to compute the transfer function of the sensor. The response (S) is the measured
voltage (v) and the inverse transfer function F(S) can be given as;
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Where; E is the reference voltage and D is the maximum displacement (full scale); both are
constants. From this function we can compute displacement (d) from the measured voltage (v).
Functional Approximations:
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References:
1. Jacob Fraden, “Handbook of Modern Sensors; Physics, Design, and Applications”, Fourth
Edition, Springer Press 2010.
2. Kelley CT (2003) Solving nonlinear equations with Newton’s method, No. 1 Fundamentals of
Algorithms. SIAM, Philadelphia, PA
3. ISO guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurements (1993) International Organization
for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland
4. Taylor BN, Kuyatt CE (1994) Guidelines for evaluation and expressing the uncertainty of NIST
measurement results. NIST Technical Note 1297. US Government Printing Office, Washington
DC.
5. R. Pallas-Areny and J. G. Webster, 1991, Sensors and Signal Conditioning, Wiley, New York.
6. J. G. Webster, 1999, The Measurement, Instrumentation and Sensors Handbook, CRC/IEEE
Press , Boca Raton, FL.
7. H. R. Taylor, 1997, Data Acquisition for Sensor Systems, Chapman and Hall, London, UK.
8. J. Fraden, 1997, Handbook of Modern Sensors. Physics, Designs and Applications, AIP,
Woodbury, NY.
9. J. Brignell and N. White, 1996, Intelligent Sensor Systems, 2nd Ed., IOP, Bristol, UK