Reviews of Airplane Aerodynamics

1.1 The Atmosphere Models

The performance of the aircraft depends on the state of the atmosphere in which it is
flying that depends on geographical and seasonal variations in pressure and
temperature. A model of the structure of the atmosphere is required, first, to act as a
standard for the estimation of the performance of an aircraft at the design stage and,
secondly, to form the basis for methods of comparison between flight-measured
performance in the real atmosphere and the design estimates of performance based on
the model atmosphere in order to verify the design methods.

By international agreement, an atmosphere model has been accepted and is used as the
basis for all performance work: it is known as the International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA) or simply as the Standard Atmosphere. The datum of the ISA model is
approximately to the mean seasonal sea-level values at latitude 45N. However,
because of this, the datum of the atmosphere model is often referred to, incorrectly, as
‘sea-level’. It should be remembered that the reference model datum is defined as the
height at which

Reference pressure p0 = 101 325 N/m2 (2116.2 lb/ft2)

Reference temperature T0 = 288.15 K (518.69 R)
Reference density 0 = 1.225 kg/m (0.002377 slug/ft3)
3

which may be above or below the actual sea level. The vertical structure of the ISA
model is defined by the assumption of the series of linear relationships between
temperature and height as shown in Fig. 1.1. The relation of static pressure or density
to the height then can be determined for the atmospheric model.

1
Fig. 1.1 Temperature variation in the ISA model

2
The temperature-height profile in each layer of the ISA is given by

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖 + 𝑎(ℎ − ℎ𝑖 )

where the subscript i denotes the height of the lower boundary (base) of the layer and
the temperature lapse rate a = dT/dh.

The real atmospheres encountered at any particular time and place will generally not
conform to the ISA model but will have its own temperature at datum pressure and its
own temperature-height profile. Any atmosphere that does not conform to the ISA
profile is referred as an off-standard atmosphere.

Aircraft are required to operate in a wide range of atmosphere states and their
performance will need to be estimated in off-standard conditions. The design
atmospheres are defined to cover the likely extreme variations in datum level
temperatures and temperature-height profiles mostly parallel to the ISA model profile
but displaced by an increment in datum temperature as shown in Fig. 1.2.

3
Fig. 1.2 Design atmosphere (a) Pressure heights (b) Geopotential heights

4
1.1.1 Definition of Altitudes (Height scales)

The geometric altitude, hG, is the geometric (or true) height above the sea level
(datum).

From hydrostatic equation (fluid at rest), we have

dp = − g dhG (1.1)

where  is the density the fluid element and g is the local gravitational acceleration
which is not constant over the surface of the earth. The local gravitational
acceleration at a given altitude is

2 2
 r   r 
g = g o   = g o   (1.2)
 ha   r + hG 

Where ha is the absolute altitude measured from the center of the earth, go is the
gravitational acceleration at standard sea level, and r is the local radius of the earth.

To avoid the complexity of further calculations, an alternative altitude is defined in

which it is assumed that the gravitational field is uniform over the Earth’s surface and
at all height, and equal to its value at the standard sea level g 0. Hence,

dp = − g o dh (1.3)

(g0 = 9.806 65 N/m2 = 32.174 ft/s2)

Note that the altitude h must be slightly different from hG to compensate for the fact
that go is slightly different from g. The h is called the geopotential altitude (h ≠ hG).

As a result,

dp − g dhG
=
dp − g o dh

2
g  r 
dh = dhG or dh =   dhG (1.4)
go  r + hG 

and at standard sea level h = hG = 0, thus

5
 h hG
r2
0 dh = 0 (r + hG )2 dhG

r
h= hG (1.5)
r + hG

(r = 6.356766 x 106 m at a latitude of 45 )

There is little difference between h and hG. Only at altitudes above 65 km does the
difference exceed 1% (h > hG).

Note that the geopotential height is used for the definition of the properties of the
atmosphere in the ISA model.

In the isothermal regions of the ISA, the pressure and density variations are given by

p 
= = e −go /( RT ) ( h−h1 ) (1.6)
p1 1

where the subscripts 1 represent the condition at the base of the isothermal layer which
is considering.

In the gradient regions of the ISA, the pressure and density variations are given by
− g o /( aR ) −{[( g o /( aR )]+1}
p T   T 
=  and =  (1.7)
p1  T1  1  T1 

where T = T1+ a(h-h1) and a is the given lapse rate (see Fig. 1.1). The subscripts 1
represent the condition at the base of the gradient layer which is considering.

6
Fig 1.3 Atmospheric properties in the US standard atmosphere

7
Fig. 1.4 Atmospheric structure

8
1.1.2 Pressure Altitude

In an off-standard atmosphere, the temperature T  T0 and generally lapse rate a  a0;

thus, the relationship between pressure and geopotential height will not be the same as
in the standard atmosphere model. To enable the relationship between pressure and
height to be applied to all atmosphere states, a further height scale needs to be defined;
this is the pressure altitude (height).

The pressure altitude, hp, in an off-standard atmosphere is the geopotential altitude, h,

in the standard atmosphere at which the same pressure occurs. In the standard
atmosphere, h = hp by definition.

Note: The pressure (temperature or density) altitude is the geopotential altitude in the
standard atmosphere which corresponds to the actual outside air pressure
(temperature or density) measured in flight.

These altitudes generally are not equal at a flying altitude. These altitudes are just
convenient numbers that are related to the actual p, T and  for the actual altitude at
which the airplane is flying.

The difference between pressure altitude and geopotential altitude in an off-standard

atmosphere can be determined from

dp g
= − 0 dh (off-standard atmosphere) (1.8)
p RT

dp g
= − 0 dh p (h = hp in ISA) (1.9)
p RTstd

T
dh = dh p (1.10)
Tstd

9
1.1.3 Relative Properties of the Atmosphere

The relative properties are a convenient means of expressing and manipulating the
atmosphere properties and avoiding the need to use the gas constant.

At any point in the atmosphere,

p = RT (1.11)

and at the ISA datum (standard sea level),

p 0 =  0 RT0 (1.12)

Thus,

𝑝 𝜌 𝑇
= or 𝛿=𝜎𝜃 (1.13)
𝑝0 𝜌0 𝑇0

where  = p/p0 is the relative pressure;  = /0 is the relative density; and  = T/T0
is the relative temperature.

10
Fig. 1.5 International Standard Atmosphere; relative properties

11
12
1.1.4 Measurement of Altitude

Since the altimeter calibration is based on the model of the standard atmosphere, it
will use the ISA values of temperature and temperature lapse rate to measure altitude
in any atmosphere state. The height indicated will then be the pressure altitude
relative to the ISA datum pressure, 101,325 N/m2 (or 1,013 mb). Therefore, by setting
the altimeter to the ISA datum pressure, pressure altitudes indicated by the altimeter
can be converted into static pressure by the calibration equation, thus enabling one of
the properties of atmosphere – static pressure − to be measured.

Although the standard atmosphere model uses a static pressure of 1,013 mb as its
datum, in practice height is measured with respect to other datum pressure, one of
which is Mean Sea level. Because the sea-level pressure of the atmosphere at any
geographical location changes from day to day, the static pressure at sea level will
probably not be 101,325 N/m2. Therefore, the altimeter would not read zero at sea
level when set to the 1,013 mb datum. This can be overcome by including a facility in
the altimeter (a knob) to enable the pressure datum to be selected so the heights can
be measured from any convenient datum as shown in Fig. 1.6, for examples.

Fig. 1.6 Altimeter reference pressure settings

During the take-off or landing phase, heights above the airfield level are required and
the local static pressure at the airfield level, pa, is used as the datum. This setting is
known as the QFE. When QFE is set the altimeter will read heights above airfield
level.
When flying across country, height relative to topographical features is required and,
since these are charted with respect to regional mean sea-level, the sea-level pressure,
psl, in that region is set. This is known as the QNH and, when QNH is set, the

13
altimeter reads altitudes above mean sea level. The QNH is a regional pressure
setting and aircraft on long flights would need a change of the altimeter setting as they
crossed the regional boundaries.

When 1,013 mb is set, the altimeter readings are referred to as flight levels (FL). A
vertical increment of 100 ft is taken to be the increment between flight levels so that
altitude indications of 4,000 ft and 10,500 ft would be referred to as FL 40 and FL 105,
respectively.

14
1.2 Basic Aerodynamics

1.2.1 Airfoil

Fig. 1.7a Three ways of representing the actual distributed load by a concentrated force at a point
and a moment at that point

15
The center of pressure is that point on the body about which the aerodynamic
moment is zero.

The aerodynamic center is a certain point on the airfoil about which moment
essentially do not vary with .

16
17
In summary, the lift, drag and pitching moment coefficient acting on an airfoil is
defined, respectively, as

L D M
cl = cd = cm = (1.14)
q S q S q Sc

where cl , cd , cm are function of f(, M, Re).

Fig. 1.7b Variation of lift coefficient with angle of attack

Fig. 1.7c Sketch of a generic moment curve

18
Reynolds Number
effects

Fig. 1.8 Lift, drag and moment coefficients of an airfoil at low speed (M < 0.3)

Fig. 1.9 Variation of lift coefficient with Mach number at a given angle of attack

19
Since the moment on the airfoil is due mainly to the surface pressure
distribution, the variation of cm with Mach number will qualitatively
resemble the variation of cl.

20
The total drag of an airfoil is the sum of three contributions:

D = Df + Dp + Dw (1.15)

where D = total drag an airfoil.

Df = skin friction drag.
Dp = pressure drag due to flow separation also called “form drag”
Dw = wave drag (zero for subsonic speed below
the drag-divergence Mach number)

In terms of coefficients,

cd = cd,f + cd,p + cd,w (1.16)

The sum cd,f + cd,p is called the profile drag coefficient. The profile drag coefficient is
relatively constant with M at subsonic speeds.

Fig. 1.10a Variation of drag coefficient with Mach number

21
 Fig. 1.10b Definitions of drag divergence Mach number

Fig. 1.10c Effect of airfoil thickness on drag divergence Mach number

Note that
1. Skin friction drag is less for laminar, more for turbulence.
2. Pressure drag due to separation is more for laminar, less for turbulence.

Consequently, it cannot be said in general that either laminar or turbulent flow is

preferable, depending on the specific application. In general, for blunt body such as a
sphere, the drag is mainly pressure drag due to separation; hence, turbulent boundary
lagers reduce the drag on spheres and are therefore preferable, On the other hand, for
streamlined bodies such as a thin airfoil at small angles of attach, the drag is mainly
skin friction drag; hence, laminar boundary layers are preferable.

22
Pressure Drag due to Flow Separation:

Fig. 1.11 Boundary layer flow with pressure gradient

Note that an adverse pressure gradient, dp/dx > 0 is a necessary condition for
separation. The point on a solid surface at which du/dy = 0 is defined as the point of
separation (the fluid element in the neighborhood of a solid surface is brought to zero
velocity).

Fig. 1.12 Real fluid flow about an airfoil

23
Fig. 1.13 Ideal fluid flow about an airfoil

Fig. 1.14 Pressure drag due to separation

24
Fig. 1.15 Qualitative comparison of pressure distribution, lift and drag for
attached and separated flows.

25
Wave Drag:

− High subsonic flow

Fig. 1.16 Wave drag in high subsonic flow

Note that when the (normal) shock wave presents on the airfoil at high subsonic flow
(M > Mcr), it causes the sharp pressure increase behind the shock wave, and the
velocity drops from supersonic in front of the shock to subsonic behind shock. The
shock wave itself is dissipative phenomena (the loss of total pressure across the shock
wave), which result in an increase in pressure drag on the airfoil. In addition, the
sharp pressure across the shock wave creates a strong adverse pressure gradient,
causing the flow to separate from the surface resulting in substantial increase in
pressure drag. Thus, the wave drag is the combined effect of the shock wave and flow
separation.

26
− Supersonic Flow

Fig. 1.17a Wave (pressure) drag on a plate at a setting angle of attack in supersonic flow

27
Fig. 1.17b Wave drag on a wedge at 0 angle of attack in supersonic flow

28
Fig. 1.18 Effect of Mach number on the lift coefficient for a given AoA and on the drag coefficient
for a given lift coefficient.

29
30
1.2.2 Finite Wing

If the wing has lift, then obviously the average pressure over the bottom surface is
greater than that over the top surface. Consequently, there is tendency for air to flow
around the wing tips, from the high to the low pressure sides. This flow establishes a
circulatory motion which trails downstream of the wing.

The trailing circular motion is called a vortex, a major one at each wing tip. The wing
tip vortices downstream of the wing induce a small downward component of air
velocity in the neighborhood of the wing itself. The downward component is called
downwash, given the symbol w.

Fig. 1.19 Wing-tip vortices on a finite wing

31
 Fig. 1.20a Upwash and downwash fields around an airplane

Fig. 1.20b The origin of induced drag

It can be seen that in the immediate vicinity of the wing, V and w add vectorally to
produce a local relative wing which is canted downward from the original direction of
V. This has several consequences:

• The angle of attack of the airfoil sections of the wing is reduced. The local
airfoil sections of the wing see an angle of attack lower than that of infinite
wing (airfoil). Hence, the lift coefficient for the finite wing CL is smaller than
the lift coefficient for the infinitive wing (or airfoil) cl.

32
 • Since the local relative wind is canted downward, the lift vector is tilted back.
Hence it contributes a certain component of force parallel to V that is a drag
force called induced drag. Note that induced drag is a type of pressure drag.

For all wing in general, the induced drag coefficient is

C L2
CD,i = (1.17)
 e AR

where e is a span efficiency factor. For elliptical planforms, e = 1; for all other
planforms, e < 1. Thus, CD,i and hence induced drag is a minimum for an elliptical
planform.

Therefore, the total drag coefficient for a finite wing at subsonic speed is

C L2
CD = cd + (1.18)
 e AR

Total drag = Profile drag + Induced drag

33
34
1.2.3 Lift for a Finite Wing:

The compressible lift slope for the subsonic finite wing -a- can be given as

a0 cos 
a= (1.19)
1 − M 2 cos2  + [(a0 cos ) /(AR )]2 + (a0 cos ) /(AR )

(Subsonic swept wing)

where a0 is the lift slope for the airfoil section perpendicular to the leading edge (per
radian), and  is referenced to the half-chord line.

Fig. 1.21a Effect of aspect ratio on the lift curve

Note that the L=0 is the same for all seven wings with the same airfoil cross section;
at zero lift the induce effects theoretically disappear. As sketched, experiments show
that as AR is reduced, CLmax is also reduced.

35
There is no convenient engineering formula for the rapid calculation of the lifting
properties of a swept wing in supersonic flow. The US Air Force prepared a series of
charts for quick, design-oriented for swept wings.

Fig 1.21b Normal-force-curve slope for supersonic wings. (From USAF DATCOM)

36
1.2.4 The Drag Polar of Airplane

The total drag of an airplane can be given as

Total drag = parasite drag + wave drag + vortex induced drag

C L2
C D = C D ,e + C D , w + (1.20)
eAR
The parasite drag coefficient, CD,e, contains not only the profile drag of the wing (cd)
but also the friction and pressure drag of the tail surfaces, fuselage, engine nacelles,
landing gear and other component of the airplane that is exposed to the airflow.

The parasite drag coefficient can be treated as the sum of its value at zero lift CD,e,0
and the increment in parasite drag CD,e due to lift. Note that CD,e is due to the
change in  required to produce the necessary lift. That is, the skin-friction drag to a
lesser extent and the pressure drag due to flow separation (to a greater extent) change
when  changes; the sum of these changes creates CD,e.

As CD,e is itself a function of lift coefficient, a reasonable approximation for this

function is

C D ,e = C D ,e, 0 + C D ,e = C D ,e, 0 + k1C L2 (1.21)

where k1 is a suitable proportionality constant.

Similarly, the wave drag coefficient CD,w can be expressed as the sum of the zero-lift
wave drag coefficient CD,w,0 and the change CD,w due to lift.

C D ,w = C D ,w,0 + C D ,w = C D ,w, 0 + k 2C L2 (1.22)

Therefore, the drag polar for the complete airplane is then given as

C L2
C D = C D ,e,0 + C D ,w,0 + k1C + k 2C +
2 2
(1.23)
L
eAR
L

Define

C D 0 = C D ,e , 0 + C D , w , 0 (1.24)

37
and
1
K = k1 + k 2 + (1.25)
eAR

As a result, the total drag coefficient is

C D = C D 0 + KC L2 (1.26a)

or
C L2
CD = CD0 + (1.26b)
ea AR

which ea is called the Oswald efficiency factor (W. Bailey Oswald); The CD0 is the
parasite drag coefficient at zero lift called zero-lift drag coefficient and the term
C L2 /(ea AR ) = KC L2 includes both induced drag and the contribution to parasite drag
due to lift called drag due to lift coefficient or CDI.

Fig. 1.22 Airplane drag polar

38
Note that the zero-lift drag CD0 may not be the minimum drag CD,min because L=0 for
most airplane is a small but finite negative value. The minimum drag coefficient
occurs when the airplane is more aligned with the relative wind, that is, when  is
slightly larger than L=0.

Fig. 1.23a Drag polar where zero-lift drag is not the same as the minimum drag

(C L − C L min,drag ) 2
C D = C D,min + (1.27)
ea AR

Quantitatively, there is only a small difference between the two representations. For
our considerations of airplane performance, we will adopt the simple drag polar, Eq.
1.26, as the representation of the airplane drag.

Note that CL and CD are functions of Mach number; hence the same airplane will have
different drag polars for different Mach numbers (the differences will be large at high
subsonic and supersonic Mach number).

In addition, the minimum drag coefficient CD,min is increased as the Mach number is
increased through the transonic regime due to the drag-divergence effects.

39
40
Fig. 1.23b Variations of drag polar with Mach numbers

41
42
43
44
45
Fig. 1.24 Local lift coefficient distribution and stall characteristics

46
 CL

(c)

Fig. 1.25 Aerodynamic characteristics of an airplane

47
Fig. 1.26 Effect of aspect ratio on lift and induced drag

48
Fig. 1.27 Sweep contribution to tip-stall

49
Fig.1.28 General effects of sweepbacks

50
0

51
Equivalent Airspeed

The equivalent airspeed is defined as the velocity at which it would have to fly at
standard sea level to experience the same dynamic pressure.

𝑞𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = 𝑞𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 (1.29)

1 2 1 2
𝜌0 𝑉𝐸𝐴𝑆 = 𝜌𝑉𝑇𝐴𝑆
2 2

Therefore,
𝜌
𝑉𝐸𝐴𝑆 = 𝑉𝑇𝐴𝑆 √ = 𝑉𝑇𝐴𝑆 √𝜎 (1.30)
𝜌𝑠

Giving the equivalent airspeed of an airplane is the same as stating its dynamic
pressure.

52
 Reviews of Airplane Performance

STEADY LEVEL FLIGHT:

Fig. 2.1 Aircraft in level flight

L = W; TR = D (2.1)

C D = C D 0 + KC L2 (2.2)

1/ 2
 (T / W )(W / S )  (W / S ) (T / W ) 2 − 4C K 
V =  
R R D,0
(2.3)
   C D,0 
 

Fig. 2.2

53
 1/ 2
 2 K W 
V(TR )min = V( L / D )max =   (2.4)
   C D,0  S 

Note that the velocity for minimum TR is also the velocity for maximum L/D.

L 1 1 C D , 0 = KC L2
  = = ; (2.5)
 D  max ( D / L) min 4C D , 0 K

 C L3 / 2  1  3 
3/ 4
1
  = 
 1/ 3 
; C D,0 = KC L2 (2.6)
 C D  max 4  KC D , 0  3

1/ 2
 2 K W
V(C 3 / 2 / C ) =   = 0.76V( L / D )max (2.7)
L D max
   3C D , 0 S 

1/ 4
 C L1 / 2  3  1 
; C D , 0 = 3KC L
2
  =  (2.8)
 
 C D  max 4  3KC D , 0 
3

1/ 2
 2 3K W 
V( C 1 / 2 / C =  = 1.32V( L / D )max (2.9)
  
D ) max
L
C D , 0 S 

54
MAXIMUM VELOCITY:

Fig. 2.3

1/ 2
 (T ) / W (W / S ) + (W / S ) (T ) / W 2 − 4C K 
= 
A max A max D,0
Vmax (2.12)
   C D ,0 
 

Note that
1. Vmax increases as (TA)max/W increases.
2. Vmax increases as W/S increases.
3. Vmax decreases as CD,0 and/or K increases.
4. Vmax decreases as altitude increases for a turbojet airplane, (TA  /0).

For jet airplane intended to be limited to subsonic flight, the sizing of the engine was
influenced by other considerations, such as takeoff, turn rate and rate of climb. On the
other hand, for aircraft designed to fly at supersonic speeds and which have to
penetrate the large transonic drag rise, engine size is still primarily driven by
consideration of Vmax.

55
STALL SPEED:

1
W =L=  V2 SC L (2.10)
2

2 W 1
Vs = (2.11)
  S (C L ) max

Note the followings;

1. Vs increases with increasing altitude (lower )
2. Vs increases with increasing wing loading W/S
3. Vs decreases with increasing (CL)max. The (CL)max can be increased by using high-
lift devices.

56
Flight Envelope:

Flight envelope with no compressibility effects

57
Flight envelope with compressibility effects (shaded region)

58
Typical flight envelope of a commercial jet aircraft

59
RATE OF CLIMB (STEADY CLIMB):

Fig. 2.4 Aircraft in a climb

T − D − W sin  = 0 (2.13)

L − W cos  = 0 (2.14)

𝑇−𝐷
sin 𝛾 = (2.15a)
𝑊
TV − DV excess power
V sin  = R / C = = (2.15b)
W W

𝑇 1 𝑊 −1 𝑊 2𝐾 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾
𝑅/𝐶 = 𝑉∞ [ − 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2 ( ) 𝐶𝐷,0 − ] (2.16)
𝑊 2 𝑆 𝑆 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞2

The normal climb angles of conventional airplanes are usually less than 15.

60
TIME TO CLIMB:

(2.17)

(2.18)

Assume the rate of climb versus altitude is linear (at least piecewise), then

(2.18)

(2.19)

61
GLIDING (UNPOWERED) FLIGHT:

Fig. 2.5 Gliding Flight

1
tan 𝛾 = (2.20)
𝐿/𝐷

1
L = W cos =  V2 SCL (2.21)
2

2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 𝑊
V = √ (2.22)
𝜌∞ 𝐶𝐿 𝑆

DV
Vv = (sink rate) (2.23)
W

1/ 2
 2 K W   C L3 / 2 
(V)min sink rate=  at   (2.24)
  C D , 0 S   C D  max

62
SERVICE AND ABSOLUTE CEILINGS:

Fig. 2.6

1/ 2
 (W / S ) Z  3/ 2
 Z  
(R/C)max=  T  3
   1 − −  (2.25)
 3   C D , 0  W   6 2(T / W ) ( L / D) max Z  
2 2

 3 
Z = 1 + 1 +  (2.26)

2
( L / D) max (T / W ) 2 

The absolute ceiling is that altitude where (R/C)max= 0.

The service ceiling is conventionally defined as that altitude where (R/C)max= 100
ft/min.

63
RANGE :

Jet Airplane:

V L W
R= ln 0 (Breguet range: Cruise-climb) (2.27)
ct D W1

At a given altitude and airplane weight, for a given fuel load, there exists a velocity
that will maximize the range by minimizing the fuel burned per distance covered. This
will be called the best range condition.

𝜕 𝜕𝑅 𝜕 𝑉
(− 𝜕𝑊) = (− 𝑐 𝐷) =0
𝜕𝑉 𝐵𝑅 𝜕𝑉 𝑡 𝐵𝑅

𝜕𝐷 𝐷 𝑇𝑅
= =
𝜕𝑉 𝑉 𝑉

Thus, the best range conditions will be achieved when the slope of the drag curve
equal to the ratio of the drag over velocity. This occurs when the slope of the drag
curve (or thrust required curve) goes through the origin which also corresponds to the
minimum ratio of drag over velocity i.e. (𝐷⁄𝑉 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 .

𝐷 𝑇𝑅 1 1 2𝑊 𝜌∞ 𝑊𝑆 𝐶𝐷
= = 𝜌∞ 𝑉∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐷 = 𝜌∞ √ 𝑆𝐶𝐷 = √
𝑉∞ 𝑉∞ 2 2 𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 2 𝐶 1/2
𝐿

1/2
𝐷 𝐶
( ) ∝( 𝐿 )
𝑉∞ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐷
𝑚𝑎𝑥

where
𝐶𝐷0 = 3𝐾𝐶𝐿2

𝐶𝐷0
𝐶𝐿,𝐵𝑅 = √
3𝐾

2𝑊 2𝑊 4 3𝐾
𝑉𝐵𝑅 = √ = √ √𝐶 = 1.32𝑉(𝐶𝐿/𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 (2.27a)
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿,𝐵𝑅 𝜌 ∞𝑆 𝐷0

𝐿 𝐶 √𝐶𝐷0 /3𝐾 √3/4 𝐶

(𝐷) = ( 𝐿) = (4/3)𝐶𝐷0
= = 0.866 ( 𝐿 ) (2.27b)
𝐵𝑅 𝐶𝐷 𝐵𝑅 √4𝐶𝐷0 𝐾 𝐶 𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥

64
For Breguet range equation assuming flight at constant V,, ct and L/D, then the
best range is obtained by

𝑉𝐵𝑅 𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅= (𝐷) ln (2.28)
𝑐𝑡 𝐵𝑅 𝑊1

Propeller-Driven Airplane:

𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐾𝐶𝐿2

𝐶𝐿,𝐵𝑅 = √𝐶𝐷0 /𝐾

𝐿 𝐿
(𝐷) =( ) (2.29)
𝐵𝑅 𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥

2𝑊
𝑉𝐵𝑅 = 𝑉(𝐶𝐿 /𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ (2.29a)
𝜌 ∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿,𝐵𝑅

For Breguet range equation assuming flight at constant V,, c, pr and L/D, then the
best range is obtained by
𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝐿 𝑊0
𝑅= (𝐷) ln (2.29b)
𝑐 𝐵𝑅 𝑊1

65
ENDURANCE:

Propeller-Driven Airplane:

𝜕𝑡 1 𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝐿
− = = =
𝜕𝑊 𝑐𝑃 𝑐𝑃𝑅 𝑐𝑉∞ 𝑊 𝐷

𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝑊0 𝐿 1 𝑑𝑊
𝑡= ∫
𝑐 𝑊1 𝐷 𝑉∞ 𝑊

Assumed flight at constant c, pr, V and L/D. Hence,

𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝐿 𝑊0
𝑡= ln (2.30)
𝑐𝑉∞ 𝐷 𝑊1

As the endurance for a propeller-driven airplane is maximized when flying at the

condition minimum power required, we obtain

3𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐾𝐶𝐿2

𝐶𝐿𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √3𝐶𝐷0 /𝐾

𝐿 𝐿 √3𝐶𝐷0 /𝐾 √3/4 𝐿
( ) =( ) = = = √3/4 ( )
𝐷 𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷 𝑃𝑅,𝑚𝑖𝑛 4𝐶𝐷0 √4𝐶𝐷0 𝐾 𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥

2𝑊
𝑉𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑃𝑅,𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜂𝑝𝑟 𝐿 𝑊0
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐷) ln (2.30a)
𝑐𝑉𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊1

66
Jet Airplane:

Assumed flight at constant ct, and L/D. Hence,

1 𝐿 𝑊0
𝑡= ln (2.31)
𝑐𝑡 𝐷 𝑊1

As the endurance for a jet airplane is maximized when flying at the condition
maximum lift-to-drag ratio (or minimum thrust required), we obtain

𝐶𝐷0 = 𝐾𝐶𝐿2

𝐶𝐿𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝐶𝐷0 /𝐾

𝐿 𝐿
(𝐷) =( ) (2.31a)
𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑥

2𝑊
𝑉𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉(𝐶𝐿/𝐶𝐷 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ (2.31b)
𝜌∞ 𝑆𝐶𝐿 𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥

1 𝐿 𝑊0
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐷) ln (2.31c)
𝑐𝑡 𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑊1

67
LEVEL TURN:

Fig. 2.8 Aircraft in a level turn

𝐿
=𝑛 (2.32)
𝑊

V2
R= (2.33a)
g n2 −1

g n2 −1 V
= = (2.33b)
V R

For sustained turn,

1
T =D=  V2 S (C D ,0 + KC L2 ) (2.34)
2

1
L = nW =  V2 SC L (2.35)
2

1/ 2
 1 
 2  V  T 1
2
C  
n=  −  V2 D ,0  (2.36)
 K (W / S )  W 2 W / S 
 

68
 1/ 2
 1 
 2  V   T 
2
1 C D , 0 
n max =     −  V2
 (Thrust constraint) (2.37)
 K (W / S )   W  max 2 W / S 
 

L 1 S
n= =  V2 C L (2.38)
W 2 W

1 (C )
nmax =  V2 L max (CL,max constraint) (2.39)
2 W /S

2 W n
Vs = (Stall speed constraint) (2.40)
  S (C L ) max

For good turn performance (low Rmin and high max ), W/S should be low and T/W
should be high. Also note that Rmin and max depend on , that is, altitude. Turning
performance increases with . Hence, the best turning performance is achieved at
sea level.

Furthermore, good turning performance is also enhanced by low values of C D,0 and K.
K reduces as AR increases. However, structural design limitations place a major
constraint on the allowable design aspect ratio. Airplanes with high maneuver
performance simply do not have large wingspans, in order to keep the wing bending
moment within reasonable design limits.

69
SPECIFIC EXCESS POWER:

(2.41a)

(2.41b)

(2.41c)

70
TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE:

Fig. 2.9 Total takeoff distance

1.21(W / S )
sg =
g  (C L ) max T / W − D / W −  r (1 − L / W )0.7VL 0
2 W 1
+ 1.1N (2.42)
  S (C L ) max

The velocity at liftoff VLO should be no less than 1.1Vstall and N = 3 for large aircraft
and N = 1 for small aircraft.

sa = R sin OB (2.43)

(1.15Vstall ) 2
R= (2.44)
g (1.19 − 1)

R − hOB h
cos OB = = 1 − OB (2.45)
R R

The obstacle of a specified height is generally 50 ft for military aircraft and 35 ft for
commercial aircraft.

71
LANDING PERFORMANCE:

Fig. 2.10 Total landing distance

The velocity of the airplane at the instant it clears the obstacle denoted by Va is
required to be equal to 1.3Vstall for commercial airplanes and 1.2Vstall for military
airplanes.

The velocity at the touchdown VTD is 1.15Vstall for commercial airplanes and 1.1Vstall
for military airplanes.

50 − h f
sa = (2.46)
tan a

V f2
hf = R(1 − cos a ); R = (2.47)
0.2 g

72
 1 T
sin a = − (normally a  3) (2.48)
L/ D W

The average Vf = 1.23Vstall for commercial airplane and 1.15Vstall for military airplanes.

sf = R sin f = R sin a (2.49)

2 W 1 j 2 (W / S )
sg = jN +
  S (C L ) max g  (C L ) max (Trev / W + D / W +  r (1 − L / W )) 0.7VTD

(2.50)

The touchdown velocity VTD should be no less than jVstall, where j = 1.15 for
commercial airplanes and j = 1.1 for military airplanes. The free roll time N depends
partly on pilot technique and usually lasts for 1 to 3 seconds.

73