WELDING INTERNATIONAL

2018, VOL. 32, NO. 4, 229–242

https://doi.org/10.1080/09507116.2017.1346216

ARTICLE

Automatic restraint and visual detection of fatigue crack growth when

applying an anti-fatigue smart paste to bolt holes
Ichihiko Takahashi and Yoshihisa Tanaka
National Maritime Research Institute

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
An anti-fatigue smart paste, which consists of fine alumina particles and silicone grease with Fatigue crack growth; smart
low viscosity, was applied to a bolt hole (and its periphery in some cases) in a steel plate paste; wedge effect;
specimen, and the effects of the smart paste on automatic restraint and visual detection of retardation; visual detection;
bolt hole; stop-hole;
fatigue crack growth were experimentally investigated through fatigue tests. Fractographic
fractography
observations using a scanning electron microscope were also carried out. As a result,
approximately 20∼410% increase in failure life was produced by the wedge effect of the
alumina particles in the smart paste. When the smart paste was applied, remarkable black
colour developed in the white paste along the paths of crack growth, exceedingly facilitating
the visual detection of the crack growth.

1. Introduction On the one hand, the present authors have pre-

viously conducted a study in which fine alumina pow-
Endo and Okada, having conducted fatigue tests on
der and grease, oil or the like are mixed into a paste
lined white metal in a range of oil environments, con-
thick enough not to drip and applied around the paths
cluded that the causes of fatigue strength varying
along which a fatigue crack is expected to originate and
according to oil viscosity were the wedge effect of oil
propagate in a plate or welded joint, after which the
that had infiltrated into cracks and the ease with which
alumina particles are automatically carried to the crack
oil infiltrates into cracks [1]. Generally, since the devel-
tip vicinity by the pumping effect caused by the opening
opment rate of a crack is governed by the effective stress
and closing of the crack and by capillary action, and
intensity factor range (ΔKeff) at the end of the crack,
they then block the crack so that a wedge effect man-
when a foreign body enters (or is created inside) the
ifests, automatically inhibiting crack development or,
crack, if the stress intensity factor increases when the
the wedge effect continues for a certain time if the crack
crack opens, with the upper limit of the stress intensity
develops further; and it was further shown experimen-
factor range maintained, this results in a decrease in
tally that when the powder ground from the surface of
ΔKeff and a reduction in the crack development rate.
the crack in the base material is strongly compressed
This phenomenon is known as the ‘wedge effect’ and
into the very hard alumina particles, it turns black and
there have been various reports describing different
flows returning to the outer surface of the paste, produ-
modes of its manifestation. It has been found, for
cing easily recognizable black spots in the white paste
instance, that the wedge effect of corrosion products
surface which results in a striking aid for visual detec-
in cracks plays an important role during the develop-
tion. This proposed paste has been named ‘fine-powder
ment of corrosion fatigue cracks [2].
paste’ [7,8], ‘alumina paste’ [9,10] and ‘anti-fatigue
Studies have been made of the active use of the
smart paste’ [11,12] (in this article it will be referred to
wedge effect as a simple repair method and a range of
as ‘smart paste’ or simply ‘paste’).
outcomes has been reported [3–6]. In each of these, an
In recent years, there have been attempts to use var-
artificial wedge was formed by forcing open a fatigue
ious fine powder pastes, which have crack retardation
crack that had already developed to some degree using a
effects on the same principle as the smart paste, as simple
passive tensile load and injecting a resin or other sub-
methods for repairing fatigue cracks in permanent struc-
stance and then hardening this, and subsequent crack
tures such as steel bridges and valuable research results
development is inhibited by this, but since to keep open
concerning the effects of, for example, stress conditions
a crack for a fixed time in an actual structure necessi-
and particle size have been reported [13,14].
tates a difficult (and often impossible) task and once the
As its name suggests, smart paste is a soft paste
wedge is hardened it cannot follow the crack any
and, when there is a risk of physical contact or
further, the wedge effect is gradually reduced if the
pressure, it is necessary to adopt measures to prevent
crack develops further.

Selected from Quarterly Journal of the Japan Welding Society 2015; 33: 211–223
© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
230 T. ICHIHIKO AND T. YOSHIHISA

the paste being deformed or removed and one exam-

ple of such measures is to seal the paste in some form
of sealed structure. For example, when structural
members such as plates are joined by nuts and
bolts, the circular bolt holes made in the plates form
notches resulting in stress concentration and the pos-
sibility that fatigue cracks will originate. Since the
area around the hole is concealed by the bolt top,
nut, washer, etc., it is impossible to detect fatigue
cracks visually immediately after initiation.
Accordingly, smart paste is sealed in the small gap
between the bolt hole and bolt shaft, not only inhibit-
ing the development of fatigue cracks but also useful
because initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks
can be visually detected in the early stages by the
black discolouration of the paste. Similarly, smart Figure 1. SEM image of the alumina particles.
paste can be used in stop-holes as a simple repair
method for fatigue cracks in structures or to bolt temperature by a B-type viscometer (Fungilab;
tensioning stop-holes which prevents regeneration Viscolead One, R7 spindle used). During measure-
of cracks from the stop-holes and thus increases ment, the displayed value for viscosity as the rota-
repair effectiveness. tional speed of the spindle inserted into the sample
In this study, in consideration of the application of was increased in stages from a low speed was read to
smart paste to bolt and nut assembly, stop-holes and examine the effect of the shear speed of the sample on
bolt tensioning stop-holes, we conducted fatigue tests viscosity.
and in situ inspection using specimens of plates with a
bolt hole and a bolt and nut assembly, with a range of
different specifications for paste use and made a com- 2.2. Fatigue tests
parative study of the crack development inhibition
2.2.1. Test materials and samples
effects and visual detection effects. Macrostructural
The material used as the plate samples was 12-mm
and microstructural examinations of the fracture sur-
thick SM490A steel plate and the chemical compo-
faces were also performed in order to investigate the
nents other than the Fe were, per the mills sheet, C
mechanism by which the wedge effect manifests.
0.14, Si 0.35, Mn 1.36, P 0.008, S 0.002, Nb 0.01 (mass
%) and the mechanical properties were a tensile
strength of 529 MPa, yield stress of 399 MPa and
2. Experimental methods
failure elongation of 25%.
2.1. Preparation of smart paste and viscosity The shape and dimensions of the sample are
measurement shown in Figure 2. The sample steel plate was ground
to a thickness of 10 mm and cut to a specific shape,
Alumina powder with an average particle size of
with a 12 mm through bolt hole made at the centre of
15.2 µm, which has been recognized as producing a
the sample and then two 2-mm long sheet thickness
crack development inhibition effect and visual detection
penetrating notches (starter notches) introduced by
effect in the range of fatigue tests previously performed,
electric discharge machining on the extended line of
was used as the fine particles that are dispersed in the
the bolt hole diameter (normal to the longitudinal
smart paste and which play the role of acting as a wedge
direction of the sample).
in the crack [7,10]. The particle sizes were graded to 10–
20 µm and the nominal density of the particles was
1.2 g/cm3. Figure 1 shows a scanning electron micro- 2.2.2. Bolt–nut connection specifications and
scope (SEM) image of the alumina particles. smart paste application specifications
Grey-white silicone grease of relatively low viscosity Bolt–nut connection specifications and smart paste
(25°C mixture consistency 340–400 (catalogue values)) application specifications are shown in Table 1. The
was used as the binder in which the alumina particles details are below.
are mixed. This silicone grease and the above alumina
① Bolt–nut connection (BN)
particles were put together and a smart paste was pre-
pared by mixing these to a homogeneous and smooth The specifications of the bolt–nut connection are
paste using a small desktop mixer. shown in Figure 3. The bolt–nut connection was
Before the fatigue test, the viscosities of silicone tensioned manually using a small spanner and the
grease and smart paste were measured at room tensioning was continued until the spring washer
 WELDING INTERNATIONAL 231

After smart paste was applied onto the plate sam-

ple bolt hole and the bolt shaft, the bolt and nut were
tensioned as in ① (Figure 4). Paste squeezed out to
the exterior was wiped away after the nut and bolt
had been tensioned.
③ Application of smart paste to the gap between the
bolt hole and bolt shaft and the anticipated path of
the crack (BN + SP1 + SP2)
After smart paste was applied onto the plate sam-
ple bolt hole and the bolt shaft, the bolt and nut were
tensioned as in ① and then smart paste was applied
to both surfaces of the base material where the crack
was expected to develop (Figure 5).
A simple plastic applicator was used to apply the
paste onto both surfaces of the base material to a
Figure 2. Design of the plate specim en. thickness of approximately 0.7 mm (approximately
7% of the base metal sheet thickness).
Table 1. Specifications of the bolt–nut connection and the ④ Application of smart paste to the gap between the
smart paste application. bolt hole and bolt shaft and the anticipated path of
Notation Specification
the crack (BN + SP1 + SP3)
BN Bolt–nut connection with no smart paste
BN + SP1 Bolt–nut connection with the smart paste
application in the gap between the bolt hole and
the bolt stem
BN + SP1 + SP2 Bolt–nut connection with the smart paste
application in the gap between the bolt hole and
the bolt stem and on the specimen surfaces
(0.7 mm thick)
BN + SP1 + SP3 Bolt–nut connection with the smart paste
application in the gap between the bolt hole and
the bolt stem and on the specimen surfaces
(1.4 mm thick)

Figure 4. Specifications of the bolt–nut connection and the

smart paste application (BN + SPI).

Figure 3. Specification of thebolt–nut collection (BN).

was flat and there was no free rotation so that the

frictional force associated with bolt tensioning does
not have a great effect on the results of the fatigue
tests. As can be observed from Figure 3, the notch
ends, which would be the crack origins, were com-
pletely covered by the flat washer and invisible.
② Application of the smart paste to the gap between Figure 5. Specifications of the bolt–nut connection and the
the bolt hole and bolt shaft (BN + SP1) smart paste application (BN + SPl + SP2 or 3).
232 T. ICHIHIKO AND T. YOSHIHISA

After smart paste was applied onto the plate sam-

ple bolt hole and the bolt shaft, the bolt and nut were
tensioned as in ① and then smart paste was applied
to both surfaces of the base material where the crack
was expected to develop (Figure 5).
A simple plastic applicator was used to apply the
paste onto both surfaces of the base material to a
thickness of approximately 1.4 mm (approximately
14% of the base metal sheet thickness).

2.2.3. Fatigue tests and in situ inspection

All fatigue tests, for which an electric-hydraulic servo
fatigue tester with a dynamic capacity of 98kN was
used, were performed under complete pulsating axial Figure 6. Viscosity characteristics of the smart paste and
load control (the load waveform was a 4.1 Hz fre- silicone grease.
quency sine wave).
The bolt hole periphery was at times visually
smart paste associated with high thixotropic charac-
inspected during the tests and, when necessary, load-
teristics were due to the viscosity characteristics of
ing was temporarily halted and a photograph was
the silicone grease used as binder.
taken or the length measured. For length measure-
These high thixotropic characteristics are an
ment, the distance from the left and right notch end
advantage for the application of paste and even if a
tips, the crack origins, to the crack tip or black area
smart paste is applied to a vertical surface, descend-
tip was measured, using a CCD microscope lens
ing surface or complex shape, in a sound portion
mounted on a servo-motor-type X-Y table operated
where there is no cracking and the shear velocity is
under PC control at a pitch of 0.01 mm. Since, how-
approximately zero, it will maintain the shape in
ever, the notch ends were covered by the plain washer
which it was applied without slumping under its
and invisible from the exterior, their location was
own weight and thus has excellent process charac-
decided on the basis of the distance the table had
teristics, shape stability and homogeneity (particle
moved from the side edge of the specimen.
holding characteristics), but near the crack the shear
When tests were performed with the bolt and nut
velocity increases due to the opening and closing of
connection alone, without any application of smart
the crack and there is a local decrease in viscosity
paste (referred to hereafter as ‘the BN series’), loading
and increase in fluidity so that the paste enters the
was performed for a set number of cycles, with a
crack, which facilitates the main functions of the
number of cycles suitable for the load to be raised
smart paste (i.e. crack retardation and visual inspec-
from the lower limit to ¾ the upper limit, when
tion functions).
beach marks were formed on the fracture surface.

3.2. Crack retardation effect

3. Results and discussion
3.1. Viscosity measurement results
Figure 6 shows the results of measuring the viscosity
ηP of the smart paste and the ηG of the silicone grease
used as the binder. As the rotational speed of the
spindle NR increased and the shear velocity of the
specimen increased, the nominal viscosities of the
alumina paste and the silicone grease both decreased
and when linear regression by the least squares
method was performed on a logarithmic chart, the
gradients of the lines were, respectively, −0.87 and
−0.88 (and the thixotropic indices TI were, respec-
tively, 0.87 and 0.88), indicating marked thixotropic
characteristics. The ratio between ηp and ηG at each
of the spindle rotational speeds was approximately
1.65 and, although there was a slight increase in
viscosity due to the admixture of alumina particles,
it was clear that the viscosity characteristics of the
3.2.1. Comparison of S–N relationships
Four series of fatigue tests (BN, PA, PB and PC) were
performed, with one series comprising four stress
levels for each of the four types of bolt and nut
connection described in Section 2.2.2 and smart
paste application specifications. There was thus a
total of 16 tests. The bolt–nut connections and
smart paste application specifications and the rela-
tionship (S–N relationship) between nominal stress
range Δσn (in a fracture surface with no notch) and
the failure life Nf are shown in Table 2 and Figure7.
In this study, the failure life Nf is defined as the
number of cycles to ductile fracture of the crack
front ligament on one or both sides. When there is
a scale factor, such as ‘×1.6’, next to a plot point in
Figure 7, this refers to the failure life for the BN series
(Ο) at the same stress level for comparison. Below,
the test results are given for each series separately.
 WELDING INTERNATIONAL 233

Table 2. Fatigue test conditions and results. A comparison of the BN series (Ο) and the PB
Nominal stress range Failure life Nf series (♦) in Figure 7 shows that the divergence
Specimen Specifications Δσn (MPa) (cycles)
between these, in terms of life ratio, is 1.8–3.1 and
BN-1 BN 108.9 243,420
BN-2 BN 88.7 438,060 it is thus evident that the SP1+ SP2 specification has a
BN-3 BN 77.9 721,812 life-prolonging effect (the gradient of the PB series
BN-4 BN 68.3 1,424,440
PA-1 BN + SP1 108.9 294,648 regression line is m = 4.8). Under the two conditions
PA-2 BN + SP1 88.7 714,612 where the stress range is higher, the life-prolonging
PA-3 BN + SP1 78.3 1,345,990
PA-4 BN + SP1 68.3 >7,283,000
effect of the SP1+ SP2 specification, where paste is
PB-1 BN + SP1 + SP2 109.0 535,283 applied to both surfaces of the specimen, is greater
PB-2 BN + SP1 + SP2 88.6 1,011,020 than the SP1 specification where it is applied to the
PB-3 BN + SP1 + SP2 78.4 1,297,000
PB-4 BN + SP1 + SP2 68.7 4,398,760 bolt hole gap alone, but as when Δσn = 78 MPa, this
PC-1 BN + SP1 + SP3 108.9 395,267 becomes nearly equal, and the relationship between
PC-2 BN + SP1 + SP3 88.5 1,130,590
PC-3 BN + SP1 + SP3 78.2 2,012,260 these becomes reversed at the lowest stress range and
PC-4 BN + SP1 + SP3 68.7 4,934,690 variations are evident in the effect of the SP2 specifi-
cation (0.7 mm thick).
④ PC series (BN + SP1+ SP3 specification)
A comparison of the BN series (Ο) and the PC series
(■) in Figure 7 data for both are located on regression
lines that slope downward to the right (the gradients of
the lines are, respectively, m = 3.8 and m = 5.4) and the
divergence between the life ratio of these is 1.6–3.5, so
that the life-prolonging effect of the SP1 + SP3 specifi-
cations becomes greater towards the lower side of the
stress range. On the other hand, a comparison between
the PB series (♦) and the PC series (■) shows that under
the three conditions on the low side of the stress range,
the life-prolonging effect of the SP3 specification, where
paste is applied at a thickness of 1.4 mm to both surfaces
Figure 7. Fatigue test results (S–N relations). of the specimen, is greater than the SP2 specification
where it is applied to a thickness of 0.7 mm but at the
① BN series (BN specification) maximum stress range Δσn = 109 MPa, the relationship
From the results for the bolt and nut connection between these becomes reversed. A comparison
only BN series (Ο) shown in Figure 7, it is clear that, between the regression lines (the dotted line ♦ and the
under all stress conditions, these are located near the solid line ■) shows that there is little difference between
regression line descending to the right on the loga- these but, in terms of scattering around the line, the PC
rithmic chart and the gradient of the line is m = 3.8. series (■) is less than the PB series (♦), indicating a
relatively stable life-prolonging effect.
② PA series (BN + SP specification) It is clear from the test results for the four series that,
From the results for the PA series (●), the although the PB series shows somewhat more scatter-
BN + SP1 specification where smart paste is sealed ing, there was a general tendency for the gradient of the
into the bolt hole gap, shown in Figure 7, it can be regression line to be become less steep as the life-
seen that for PA1–3, where the stress range is Δσn ≧ prolonging effect due to use of smart paste becomes
78 MPa, the plot is on the regression line descending more marked and a larger effect is achieved at a lower
to the right (and the gradient of the line is m = 4.6) stress range. If the life-prolonging effect of the smart
and the divergence from the BN series results (Ο), as paste is due to the wedge effect of alumina particles and
a life ratio, is 1.2–1.9 and it is observable that, as the the ground base metal powder, then within the variable
stress range reduces, the divergence between these entire stress range of nominal stress from zero to Δσn,
increases slightly and that SP1 thus has a life-extend- stress variations in the fixed range in which the wedge
ing effect. In the case of PA-4, on the other hand, acts and the crack is blocked can be regarded as being
when the stress range is at the smallest, without benefit (viewed in terms of their contribution
Δσn = 68.3 MPa, the failure life becomes markedly to fatigue damage). Accordingly, an attempt was made
longer (no failure even at N = 7.28 × 106) than the by simple calculation to find how the S–N relationship
regression line to which the PA-1–PA-3 data are changed when it was tentatively assumed that a fixed
fitted, and the life ratio with BN-4 (Ο), for the same range within the nominal stress range Δσn in the BN
levels of stress range, is at least 5.1-fold. series was ineffective. Specifically, Δσn’, a reduction by a
③ PB series (BN + SP1 + SP2 specification) fixed quantity from Δσn, was substituted into the BN
234 T. ICHIHIKO AND T. YOSHIHISA
series regression formula and the corresponding failure
life Nf ‘ found, and the position of (Nf ‘, Δσn) was plotted
on an S–N graph which was the same as that in Figure 7.
Figure 8 shows the results; the calculation results when
10 MPa and 20 MPa were subtracted from Δσn are
shown, respectively, as a dashed line and dotted line.
The dashed line tends to show a close resemblance to
the PA-1–3 data of the PA series and the dotted line to
the data of the PB and PC series, indicating that the
assumption that a fixed range within the stress range
becomes ineffective due to the wedge effect is qualita-
tively valid.
3.2.2. Comparison of α–n relationships
Figure 9 shows a plot of the relationship between the
number of repeated cycles and the fatigue crack
length and black indicator length for BN-3, PA-3,
PB-3 and PC-3, which were tested at a nominal stress
range Δσn ≃ 78 MPa. With BN-3, where beach marks
are formed on the fracture surface, the surface crack
length was read from the beach marks after fracture.
When, however, the surface of the specimen was
covered by the black substance that flowed out as
the cracks progressed and when the SP2/SP3 specifi-
cation smart paste and superficial cracks could not be
Figure 8. Results of fatigue tests and trial calculations (S–N
relations).
Figure 9. Crack length and black colour indication plots in
the cases of Δσn=78 MPa.
directly measured by the CCD microscope, the dis-
tance from the notch tip to the front tip of the black
area was measured as the black indication length (all
the black and coloured plot points in Figure 9). With
PA-3, in particular, during the initial stage of crack
development (N ≦ 9.6 × 105) when the front tip of the
crack was hidden by the black substance, the length
from the notch tip to the front tip of the black area
was calculated and taken as the black indicator length
(●) and after the tracking of the crack by the black
colour decreased and the crack overtook the black
area (N ≦ 1.056 × 106), the black indicator length and
the length to the surface crack front tip (● and Ο)
were measured directly by CCD microscope.
Therefore, when PA-3 was in the range
N < 9.6 × 105, the only data was the black indicator
length, but since the fact that the surface crack length
does not exceed this can be confirmed by direct
observation, this data marks the upper limit of the
crack length. In Figure 9, the number of cycles
equivalent to the failure length Nf is shown by the
perpendicular dashed line and the magnitude corre-
lation is BN-3< PB-3≒PA-3< PC-3.
In Figure 9, comparison of the PA-3 data (● and
Ο), where smart paste is applied to the bolt hole, and
the BN-3 data (Δ) shows that crack development was
markedly inhibited by application of smart paste and
although there is some variation in the black indica-
tor length data (●), the BN-3 plot points are in a form
which has moved in parallel towards the longer life
side, at a cycle ratio of 1.8-fold. However, the PA-3
black indicator length (●) hardly increased at all
following colouration at 6.65 mm at N = 1.2 × 106
and did not track the actual crack development (Ο).
This is because the smart paste applied to the bolt
hole is transported into the crack, limiting its scope of
action as a wedge and it is thus appropriate to under-
stand the BN + SP1 specification black colouration
not as a means of continuously tracking long cracks
but as a means of detecting the occurrence of cracks
some millimetres in length.
Next, considering the PB-3 black indicator length
data (♦) for the BN + SP1 + SP2 specification in
which 0.7 mm thick paste is applied to the surfaces
of the specimen rather than the bolt hole alone, there
was no particularly evident crack retardation effect
due to the SP2 specification addition and the results
were similar to the PA-3 data (Ο) after the black
colour discontinuation. The fact that, at the initial
stage where the crack length was no greater than
5 mm, ♦ was positioned lower than ● seems to be
due to the black substance with the SP1 specification
being hidden due to the SP2 specification and requir-
ing a certain number of cycles to come to the paste
surface. Unlike PA-3 when the smart paste is applied
only to the bolt hole, the PB-3 black colour, although
discontinuous, is detected up to immediately before
 WELDING INTERNATIONAL 235

fracture and thus the BN + SP1 + SP2 black colour is ② Application of smart paste to the gap between the
effective not only for detecting the occurrence of bolt hole and bolt shaft (BN + SP1 specification)
short cracks but also for progressively tracking crack The colouration state on the bolt head side for PA-
development. 3, tested for N = 9.6 × 105 cycles and 1.2 × 106 cycles,
Consideration of the PC-3 data (■) for the in a nominal stress range of Δσn = 78.3 MPa, is
BN + SP1 + SP3 specification, in which 1.4 mm shown, respectively, in Figure 11(a,b). An obvious
thick paste is applied to the surfaces of the specimen, black colouration developed from the left and right
indicates that this is the smart paste application with sides of the washer during the initiation and propa-
the most marked crack retardation effect of those gation of cracks and black substance also exuded
considered in this study, with a failure life 2.8-fold from the periphery of the washer (the bottom),
that of the BN specification. However, since the SP3 which facilitated visual detection. In both the right
specification layer of paste is thick, compared to the and left sides, however, the black colouration was
specifications SP1 and SP2, a large number of cycles interrupted at a crack length less than 7 mm and
is required for the black substance to appear on the did not subsequently track crack progression. As sta-
surface of the paste and become observable and the ted in Section 3.2.2, it is appropriate to understand
tracking of the crack progression subsequently dete- the BN + SP1 specification black colouration as no
riorates so that there was no colouration at the crack more than a means of detecting occurrence of short
tip for a crack length after 5.03 mm. Therefore, when cracks some millimetres long.
the layer of paste applied to the specimen surface is
③ Application of smart paste to the gap between the
thick, as in the SP3 specification, a relatively stable
bolt hole and bolt shaft and to the anticipated crack
life extension effect can be achieved, as seen in
path (BN + SP1 + SP2 specification)
Figure 7, but there is also the opposite consequence
The colouration state on the bolt head side for PB-3,
of a deterioration in the sensitivity and accuracy of
tested for N = 9.6 × 105 and 1.272 × 106 cycles, in a
visual detection and in practical use, the intervals
nominal stress range of Δσn = 78.4 MPa, is shown,
between visual inspections and methods used should
respectively, in Figure 12(a,b). A clear black colouration
be considered along with the balance between them.
developed from the left and right sides of the washer
during the initiation and propagation of cracks and
black substance also exuded from the periphery of the
3.3 Visual detection effect
① Bolt and nut connection (BN specification)
In BN-1–4, where no smart paste was applied,
visual detection of crack progression was difficult
under usual conditions, except immediately before
failure.
As one example of this, the observation results for
BN-1 at N = 2.34 × 105 cycles of testing in a nominal
stress range of Δσn = 108.9 MPa are shown in
Figure 10. Actually, fatigue cracks occurred at
α1 = 12.94 mm on the left side and α2 = 13.51 mm
on the right side (although a part of the crack was
covered by a washer) but no visual observation was
possible at the scale shown in Figure 10. (a) N=9.6 × 105 cycles

(b) N=1.2 × 106 cycles

Figure 10. Visual observation of BN-1 at N = 2.34 × 105 cycle.
s (a1 = 12.94 mm, a2, = 13.5I mm). Figure 11. Black colour development in PA-3.
236 T. ICHIHIKO AND T. YOSHIHISA
(a) N=9.6 × 105 cycles
(b) N=1.272 × 106 cycles
Figure 12. Black colour development in PB-3.
washer, which facilitated visual detection. As stated in
Section 3.2.2, although the PB-3 black colouration was
discontinuous, it was observed, along with dimples
produced on the paste surface, following the crack as
the crack progressed, until immediately before failure
and the BN + SP1 + SP2 specification smart paste can
thus be used not only for the detection of the occurrence
of short cracks but also for the continued tracking of
crack progression.
④ Application of smart paste to the gap between the
bolt hole and bolt shaft and to the anticipated crack
path (BN + SP1 + SP3 specification)
The colouration state on the bolt head side for PC-
3 tested for N = 1.632 × 106 cycles in a nominal stress
range of Δσn = 78.2 MPa is shown in Figure 13. A
clear black colouration developed from the left and
right sides of the washer during the initiation and
propagation of a crack and black substance also
exuded from the periphery of the washer, which
facilitated visual detection. However, as stated in
Section 3.2.2, many cycles were required for the
black colouration to appear, and be observable, on
the surface of the paste and no colouration appeared
at the tip after the crack had reached 5.03 mm in
length and no dimples appeared on the paste surface,
and thus crack detection sensitivity was greatly infer-
ior to the specifications in ② and ③.
Figure 13. Black colour development inPC-3 at
N = 1.632 × 106 cycles.
3.4. Fracture surface examination results
3.4.1. Macrostructure examination results
Figure 14 shows matching upper and lower fracture
surfaces immediately after PA-3 fracture. In both the
lower and upper fracture surfaces, paste flows from
the bolt hole into the crack and the part where
alumina particles act as a wedge is markedly coloured
black.
Next, photographs of PA-3, PB-3 and PC-3 frac-
ture surfaces tested under almost identical stress con-
ditions of nominal stress Δσn ≃ 78 MPa, and
ultrasonically washed with acetone after completion
of fatigue tests are shown in Figure 15(a–c). At the
portion where it is thought that alumina particles of
the paste that had flowed into the crack had acted as a
wedge, there is a dark blackish fracture surface clearly
different from the light grey fracture surface of the
surrounding original base material. Focusing on the
central area in the plate thickness through which the
front edge of the crack passes, the range of the PC-3
dark-coloured fracture surface spreads wider in the
left-right direction than PA-3 and PB-3, and the
paste, which is applied 1.4 mm thick on both sides
of the base material, flows into the crack and is taken
as far as the central area in the sheet thickness
through which the front edge of the crack passes.
Figure 14. Matching fracture surfaces of PA-3.

(a) PA-3 (BN+SP1) (Nf=1345990)
(b) PB-3 (BN+SP1+SP2) (Nf=1297000)
(c) PC-3 (BN+SP1+SP3) (Nf=2012260)
Figure 15. Macroscopic observation on the washed fracture.
surfaces of PA-3,PB-3 and PC-3.
3.4.2. Microstructure examination results
In order to make a more detailed study of the wedge
formation by alumina particles in the smart paste that
flows into the cracks, the microstructure of the paste-
free BN-3 fracture surface, tested at Δσn ≃ 78 MPa
and the fracture surfaces to which paste had been
applied as shown in Figure 15 were examined
by SEM.
(1) BN-3 (BN specification)
First the paste-free specification BN-3 fracture sur-
face was subjected to SEM microscopy in order to use
it in a comparative examination of cases when paste
was applied. Below, the development direction of the
cracks in the BN-3 SEM images is from left to right in
all cases.
Figure 16(a) shows a SEM image of the notch root
in the middle of the plate thickness which is the crack
origin. The vertical patterns of the beach marks,
formed between N = 192,000 cycles to 48,000 cycles,
were observed but overall the fracture surface was
homogenous with no anomalies. Figure 16(b), an
enlargement of the notch root area, was a fracture
surface with a fine-striped pattern, frequently
observed in fatigue fracture surface.
Next, Figure 17(a) shows an image of the specimen
in the middle of the plate thickness at a position
5 mm from the notch root. Compared to Figure 16
(a), the spacing between the beach marks is wider but
the fracture surface is uniform, with no changes in its
properties. The further enlarged image in Figure 17
(b) shows a fatigue fracture surface similar to that in
Figure 16(b).
(2) PA-3 (BN + SP1 specification)
An SEM image was taken as comparison of the
fracture surface of the right side of the bolt hole in
Figure 15(a). Below, the development direction of the
WELDING INTERNATIONAL 237
(a)
(b)
Figure 16. SEM images of the fracture surfaces in the vicinity
of the notch root in BN-3.
cracks in the PA-3 SEM image is from left to right in
all cases.
First Figure 18(a) shows the observation in the mid-
dle of the plate thickness of the notch root where the
crack originates. It is clear that an area of different
appearance (rather flatter and smoother) is extending
in ribbons forward (on the right side) from within the
area of 1.5–2 mm from the root notch. Inspection of
Figure 18(b), an enlargement of the notch root, reveals
that this has an appearance that is entirely different
from the BN-3 fatigue fracture surface shown in
Figure 16(b). For reference, the results of the elementary
analysis (area analysis), performed using an electron
probe microanalyser (APMA), of the aluminium con-
centration on the washed fracture surface after smart
paste had been applied and fatigue tests performed on a
notched SM490A steel plate specimen (sheet thickness:
5 mm) as previously reported by the present authors
[9], are shown in Figure 19. In this, the lighter the
image, the greater is the concentration of aluminium
and there is clearly a high concentration of aluminium
on the area some millimetres from the root notch,
which supports the finding that fragments of alumina
particles compress into fracture surfaces. In this experi-
ment, EPMA analysis was performed in conjunction
with x-ray diffraction analysis of the black substance
238 T. ICHIHIKO AND T. YOSHIHISA
(a)
(b)
Figure 17. SEM images of the fracture. surfaces in the middle
of plate thickness at a distance of 5 mm from the notch root
in BN-3.
taken from the fracture surface immediately after frac-
ture and Al2O3 (alumina) and Fe were clearly identified
from the diffraction peaks thus obtained, indicating that
the black substance was a mixture of alumina particle
fragments and base material steel dust liberated by
frictional rubbing from the fracture surface and silicone
grease. It is therefore evident that in Figure 18(a) and
(b), the area with the distinctive appearance observed
near the root notch was a mixture of fine fragments of
alumina particles pulverized in the crack with dust
rubbings from the base material that was compressed
into the crack surface to form a conspicuous anchored
wedge layer.
Next, Figure 20(a) shows an SEM image of the frac-
ture surface in the middle of the plate thickness at a
distance of 5 mm from the notch root. The fracture
surface state is uniform, without any particular differ-
ence from that of BN-3 shown in Figure 17(a) except for
the lack of beach marks. The further enlarged Figure 20
(b) shows that, apart from a small portion of granular
adhesions, there is no major difference from the BN-3
shown in Figure 17(b) and no marked anchored wedge
layer has been formed in the notch root area.
(a)
(b)
Figure 18. SEM images of the fracture surfaces in the vicinity
of the notch root in PA-3.
Figure 19. Area analysis of aluminium on the fracture surface
of a 5-mm thick steel plate specimen by EPMA.
(3) PB-3 (BN + SP1 + SP2 specification)
An SEM image was taken of the fracture surface of
the left side of the bolt hole in Figure 15(a). Below,
the development direction of the cracks in the PB-3
SEM images is from right to left in all cases.
Figure 21(a) shows an image of the area of the
notch root in the centre of the plate thickness, the
origin of the crack. There is ribbon-form area of quite
light grey 2.5 mm extending from the root notch and
in part of this area, electron charging causes white
colourations. Figure 21(b), an enlargement of the
notch root, has an appearance that is quite different

(a)
(b)
Figure 20. SEM images of the fracture surface in the middle
of plate thickness at a distance of 5 mm from the notch root
in PA-3.
from the usual steel fatigue fracture surface and, as in
the case of PA-3 (Figure 18(b)), small fragments of
alumina particles pulverized in the crack have mixed
with dust rubbed with friction from the base material
and adhered to the crack surface to form a conspic-
uous anchored wedge.
Next, Figure 22(a) shows SEM images of the area
near the plate surface at a distance of 5 mm from the
notch root. A rather light grey wedge area is evident
extending from the notch root at the right edge of the
image and there is also a wedge area formed by paste
flowing (downwards in the image) from the specimen
surface due to the application of alumina paste in the
SP2 specification. Parts of this area are white due to
electron charging. Figure 22(b), a further enlargement
of the area near the surface of the specimen, shows a
fracture surface similar to that shown in Figure 17(b)
and it is clear that a conspicuous adhered wedge layer
has formed in an area near the surface of the
specimen.
Figure 23(a) similarly shows an SEM image of the
fracture surface in the middle of the plate thickness at
a distance of 5 mm from the notch root. Whereas
there is a rather light grey wedge area extending from
the notch root on the right edge of the image, there is
no evident wedge area formed by the paste that has
WELDING INTERNATIONAL 239
(a)
(b)
Figure 21. SEM images of the fracture surfaces in the vicinity
of notch root inPB-3.
flowed from both surfaces of the specimen. Figure 23
(b), a further enlarged image of the area in the middle
of the plate thickness, shows that, although there was
a granular adhesion in a very small part, as in
Figure 20(b), the appearance was not greatly different
from the BN-3 shown in Figure 17(b) and it is clear
that no conspicuous anchored wedge layer has
formed near the notch root.
(4) PC-3 (BN + SP1 + SP3 specification)
An SEM image was taken of the fracture surface of the
left side of the bolt hole in Figure15(c). Below, the devel-
opment direction of the cracks in the PC-3 SEM images
are from right to left in all cases. Since the inspection
results for the area of the notch root in the middle of the
plate thickness and the specimen surface area 5 mm from
the notch root were similar to the PB-3 results (an
anchored wedge layer had been formed), the examina-
tion area selection was pared down to solely the area at
the centre of the specimen 5 mm from the notch root and
shown in Figure 24(a,b). In Figure 24(a), as in the PB-3 in
Figure 23(a), a fairly bright grey wedge area extends from
the notch root on the right side of the image and no
wedge area, formed due to paste that has flowed from the
upper and lower surfaces of the specimen, is observed.
Examination of Figure 24(b), an enlargement of the area
in the middle of the plate thickness, shows that the
240 T. ICHIHIKO AND T. YOSHIHISA

(a) (a)

(b) (b)

Figure 22. SEM images of the fracture surface near the plate Figure 24. SEM images of the fracture surface in the middle of
surface at a distance of 5 mm from the notch root in PB-3. plate thickness at a distance of 5 mm from the notch root in
PC-3.

irregularities are somewhat larger and coarser than the

PB-3 in Figure 23(b) but it is clear that the kind of
conspicuous anchored wedge layer seen in Figure 22(b)
has not been formed. From the differences between the
macrostructural images of the fracture surfaces of PB-3
and PC-3 shown in Figure 15(b,c), it is expected that
there is a definite difference in the way the anchored
wedge layer is formed in this part but the results of
microscopic examination show no anchored wedge
layer even in this part of PC-3. Instead of this, the
fracture surface is coarser, with an increase in irregula-
(a) rities and some indentations. It is evident from this that
there are two modes, as described below, in which the
smart paste produces the wedge effect.

(1) One in which there is a marked anchored wedge

layer formed within 2–3mm from the paste inlets
(the notch root and the crack openings on the
top and bottom surfaces of the specimen).
(2) Another in which even if no anchored wedge
layer is formed, alumina particles and black
base material ground powder that have arrived
in a wider region are sandwiched between the
(b) crack surfaces. This changes the macro frac-
Figure 23. SEM images of the fracture surface in the middle ture surface to dark black and increases the
of plate thickness at a distance of 5 mm from the. notch root irregularities of the micro fracture surface
in PB-3. and, as it becomes coarser, acts as a wedge.
 WELDING INTERNATIONAL 241

4. Conclusion was for application of the paste at a thickness of

0.7 mm to both the top and bottom surfaces of
In this study, in consideration of the application of
the specimen, although the black colouration
fatigues arresting smart paste to bolt and nut assem-
was discontinuous, it, along with the formation
bly, stop-holes and bolt tensioning stop-holes, we
of dimples, was observable until immediately
conducted fatigue tests and in situ inspection using
before failure and it was thus clear that this
specimens of plates with a bolt hole and a bolt and
could be used for continuous tracking of crack
nut tightened with a range of different specifications
development, not just the detection of short
for smart paste application and made a comparative
cracks.
study of the crack development inhibition effects and
(5) Macro-inspection of the fracture surfaces
visual detection effects along with macrostructural
showed that when paste was efficiently sup-
and microstructural examinations of the fracture sur-
plied to the area in the centre of the plate
faces. The results are as follows:
thickness through which the crack tip passed,
this increased the crack retardation effect and
(1) When the viscosities at room temperature of the
prolonged life. By compiling the results of
smart paste and the silicone grease used as the
micro-inspection of the fracture surfaces with
binder were measured, both showed marked
previous investigation results, it was found
thixotropic characteristics, with thixotropic
that a conspicuous anchored wedge layer was
indices (TI) of, respectively, 0.87 and 0.88.
formed when mixed small fragments of alu-
These high thixotropic characteristics are advan-
mina particles and ground dust of the base
tages for the use of the paste in actual structures.
material adhered to the crack surface near the
(2) In both paste application specifications, there
crack notch root in the cases when paste was
was a life prolongation effect due to crack retar-
applied to the bolt hole and when paste was
dation. In particular, with a paste application
applied to both top and bottom surfaces of the
specification which combines application to the
specimen, in every event in the area 2–3mm
bolt hole and application 1.4 mm thick to the top
from the paste flow inlet.
and bottom surfaces of the specimen, a stable life
(6) The modes in which the smart paste produced
prolongation effect with less variation was
the wedge effect were: one in which an anchored
achieved and, compared to the bolt and nut
wedge layer was formed 2–3mm from the paste
connected without paste, there is a life prolonga-
flow inlet and another in which even though no
tion effect 1.6-fold in the high stress range and
wedge layer was formed, alumina particles and
3.5-fold in the low stress range.
black base material dust that had spread over a
(3) One tendency in the entire experimental series
wider area were sandwiched between the side
is that as the life prolongation effect became
surfaces of a crack and then acted as a wedge.
more marked, the gradient of the S–N data
regression line became shallower and a larger
effect was achieved in the low stress range.
Funding
When simple calculations were performed,
with the assumption that stress variation This study was supported by JSP Science Research Fund
made no contribution to fatigue damage in a 25420040.
fixed range where the wedge acted and the
crack was blocked, the results showed a
marked similarity to the said tendency. References
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