LESSON 1: Introduction, Role of Chemists in crime detection, kinds and

forms of evidence, kinds of witnesses.

INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

Forensic Chemistry - that branch of Chemistry which deals with the application of chemical principles in the
solution of problems that arise in connection with the administration of justice. It is chemistry applied in the
elucidation of legal problems and used in the courts of law.

Forensic Chemist - is one who practices Forensic Chemistry.

Scope of Forensic Chemistry:

1. The study includes the chemical side of criminal investigation

2. It includes the analyses of any material the quality of which may give rise to legal
proceedings.
3. It is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal proceedings
4. It comes with other branches of forensic sciences as forensic medicine, ballistics, questioned
documents, dactyloscopy and photography.

Evidence - is a proof of allegation. It is a means, sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the
truth respecting a matter of fact.

Scientific evidence - may be defined as a means, sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the
truth respecting a matter of fact wherein scientific knowledge is necessary.

Physical evidence - any article or material found in connection with an investigation and which aid in
establishing the identity of the perpetrator or circumstances under which the crime was committed. It
encompasses any and all objects that can establish that a crime has been committed. It can provide a link between
a crime and its victim or a crime and its perpetrator.

Evidence may be:

1. Direct evidence - is simply that which the senses perceive. Any fact to which a
witness testifies based on what he saw, heard, smelled, touched or tasted.
2. Indirect evidence (which includes circumstantial evidence)
- Is a kind of evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by inferences from proved
facts.
- Is sufficient to prove conviction if there is more than one circumstance; the facts
from which the inferences are derived are proven; and the combination of all the
circumstances is such as to produce conviction beyond reasonable doubt.
3. Hearsay evidence - is a statement made by a witness on the authority of another and
not from his own personal knowledge or observation. This is inadmissible in court
except with certain well-defined exceptions. Some common exceptions to the rules of
exclusion generally applicable to hearsay evidences are declarations against interest,
dying declarations, public records and statements made at a prior time.
 Forms of Scientific Evidence:

1. Real or autoptic evidence – this is evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court. It
is not limited to that which can be known by the sense of vision but extends to those which
are perceived by the senses of hearing, taste, smell or touch.
2. Testimonial evidence – an expert may be placed on the witness stand and answer all
questions to be propounded by both parties in the case.
3. Experimental evidence – an expert witness may be required to perform certain experiments
to prove a certain matter of fact. The court, however, in its own discretion may or may not
allow this kind of evidence.
4. Documentary evidence – any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is
relevant to the subject matter in dispute and not excluded by the Rules of Court. Formal
written report, expert opinion, certificates and depositions are included in this group.

WITNESS -is one who testifies in court and has personal knowledge or experience of something. He may be a
person other than a suspect who is requested to give information concerning an incident or person. A witness may
be a victim, a complainant, an accuser, a source of information and/or observer of an occurrence.

A witness in court may be an ordinary witness or an expert witness.

An ordinary witness must:

1. have the organ and power to perceive

2. the perception gathered by his organ of sense can be imparted to others.

An expert witness is one whose opinion regarding a question of science, art or trade, where he is skilled therein,
may be received as evidence.

Differences between an ordinary and expert witness:

1. An ordinary witness can only state what his senses have perceived; while an expert witness may state
what he has perceived and also give his opinion, deductions or conclusions to his perception;
2. An ordinary witness may not be skilled on the line he is testifying; while an expert witness must be
skilled in the art, science or trade he is testifying;
3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or facts he has not perceived except those provided for by
law; while an expert witness may testify on things which he has not seen by giving his opinion,
deductions or conclusions on the statements of facts.

In the practice of forensic chemistry, the work of the forensic chemist is divided into four stages:

1. Collection or reception of the specimen to be examined

2. The actual examination
3. The communication of results of the examination, and
4. Court appearance.
 COLLECTION OR RECEPTION OF THE SPECIMEN TO BE EXAMINED – is most important that
whenever possible the chemist should collect all specimens necessary for the examination. Furthermore, the
collection, preservation and transportation of specimens are very essential in the investigation of a crime. If the
investigators are given this delicate task, they must be guided by the following:

1. Standard for comparison which are known or genuine samples must be submitted with specimen in
question;
2. Maintenance of individuality – individual evidence must be collected and preserved as a separate
sample. A known and unknown specimen must not me mixed or intermingled.
3. Labeling and sealing -- evidence will have no value in court unless it can be identified with the proper
label and sealed for the possibility of tampering to be excluded.
LESSON 2: Blood and bloodstains; Semen and seminal stains.
Collection, preservation, identification and transmittal of blood,
bloodstains, semen and seminal stains.

BLOOD AND BLOODSTAINS

Importance of the Study of Blood:

1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of the

crime;
2. For disputed parentage
3. Determination of the cause of death and the length of time the victim survived the attack;
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood;
6. Determination of the approximate time the crime was committed.

BLOOD – is the circulating tissue of the body. There are about six (6) quarts of blood in a man of
average size. It is made up of formed elements suspended in liquid called plasma.

The formed elements consist chiefly of cells:

a. RED BLOOD CELLS or ERYTHROCYTES – contain hemoglobin and responsible to

carry oxygen to various cells in the body.
b. WHITE BLOOD CELLS or LEUCOCYTES – defend the body from invading
microorganisms help fight infection.
c. BLOOD PLATELETS or THROMBOCYTES – cells that are produced by the bone
marrow and are necessary for proper clotting of blood.
d.
To blood to which oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is allowed to stand, the formed elements
settle out leaving the plasma, a straw-yellow colored liquid at the top. About 65% of the blood is
plasma and about 90% of the plasma is water. The 10% of solids in plasma is largely protein in nature and
consists of albumen, globulins and fibrinogen.

ALBUMEN – is the most abundant protein in the blood and binds with many drugs.

GLOBULINS – have an important role in the immune system of the body.

FIBRINOGEN - is changed to an insoluble form called fibrin when blood clots. It is the soluble
precursor of fibrin which forms when blood clots.

If clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometime, the clot contracts, and a straw-yellow liquid called
serum is squeezed out. Serum contains no fibrinogen since when blood clots; the protein fibrinogen is
changed to an insoluble protein called FIBRIN.
FOUR TESTS FOR BLOOD:

1. PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD:

a. BENZIDINE TEST – this test never fails to detect even when very old, decomposed
stain with all sorts of contaminations is examined. The negative result is undoubtedly valuable
but a positive result is only indicative .An instant, intense blue color is indicative of a positive
result.
b. GUIACUM TEST (VAN DEEN’S or SCHONBEIN’s test)
c. PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST or KASTLE-MEYER test – a deep pink or
permanganate color is obtained instantaneously is indicative of the presence of
blood.
d. LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN test – a characteristic color of malachite green
appears if blood is present.
e. LUMINOL TEST – luminescence or emission of light indicates positive results.

2. CONFIRMATORY TEST – this test is the actual proof that a stain is blood in establishing
the presence of hemoglobin or one of its derivatives.
a. microscopic
b. micro chemical test
i. Haemin Crystal test
ii. Haemochromogen Crystal or Takayama test
iii. Acetone Haemin or Wagenhaar test
c. spectroscopic test

3. PRECIPITIN TEST – this test is to ascertain whether stain is of human origin or not.
4. BLOOD GROUPING – this is to determine the blood group if of human origin.

The four blood tests works on the principle that the peroxidase present in hemoglobin acts as carrier
of oxygen from hydrogen peroxide to the active ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac,
phenolphthalein and leucomalachite) and produces the characteristic colored compounds by oxidation.
Oxidase and peroxidase are also present in all animal cells but they are destroyed by boiling while the
peroxidase of hemoglobin is not affected by such treatment.

BLOOD GROUPING TEST OF FRESH BLOOD

Blood is a slightly alkaline fluid made up of water, cells, enzymes, proteins, and inorganic
substances that circulate throughout the vascular system carrying nourishment and transporting oxygen
and waste. The most fluid portion of blood consists of plasma, which is mostly water, and the serum,
which is the yellowish portion and contains white cells and platelets. The most non-fluid portion of
blood consists of red cells which outnumber white cells by five hundred to one. While medical scientists
are more interested in white cells, forensic scientists are more interested in red cells and secondly with
serum. With serum, the analyst can determine the freshness of a blood sample because serum clots
several minutes after exposure to air. In serum are also found antibodies, which have important forensic
implications. With red cells, the analyst looks for smaller substances residing on their surfaces, such as
antigens, which have forensic implications. One might even say that forensic serology is all about
antigens and antibodies, the domain of immunology.
 In forensic law, blood has always been considered class evidence, but the potential exists for
individualized blood typing. Forensic serologists can provide testimony with some strong probability
estimates linking a single individual, and that individual only, to a bloodstain. Consider that identical
twins may have the same DNA profile but completely different antibody profiles, thus making the field of
forensic serology a really promising one.

The typing of blood, with what is now called the A-B-O system, was discovered in 1901. A few
years later, staring around 1937, a series of antigen-antibody reactions were discovered in blood, the most
common ones being ABH, MN, Rh, and Gm (over 100 antigens exist). Most people are only familiar
with the Rh factor which is technically the D antigen.

Antigens are chemical structures attached to the surfaces of red blood cells. Antibodies proteins
floating in blood fluid (the serum, specifically, and platelets, associated with clotting), and exist because
people have allergies or may have come in contact with common disease (TB, smallpox and hepatitis).
The most common problem (hematological condition) with blood is iron deficiency. Iron is essential for
the production of hemoglobin, the red pigment in cells, and iron also makes an excellent transport
vehicle for nutrients. Anemia is related condition involving a deficiency in the number of red blood cells.

The basic principle of serology is that for every antigen, there exists a specific antibody. ALL
BLOOD GROUPS ARE DEFINED BY THE ANTIGENS OR AGGLUTINOGENS ON THEIR
RED BLOOD CELLS AND ANTIBODIES OR AGGLUTININS IN THEIR SERUM.

TABLE 1

Blood Antigens/Agglutinogens Antibodies/Agglutinins

Type on RBC in serum

A A Anti-B

B B Anti-A

AB AB Neither anti-A or anti-B

O Neither A nor B Both anti-A and anti-B

 For routine blood typing, two antiserums: Anti-A and Anti-B, both easily available commercially,
are needed. By adding a drop of these antiserums in samples of blood, a blood of Group/Type A will
exhibit clumping or agglutination by anti –A serum; blood type B will be agglutinated by anti-B serum;
AB blood by both; and O blood by neither.

TABLE 2

Anti-A serum Anti-B Antigen Blood Group/Type

+ serum present
Whole blood +
Whole blood
_
+ A A
_
+ B B

+ + A&B AB
_ _
Neither A nor B O

It is the D antigen that controls the Rh factor. If the D antigen is present, a person is Rh-positive. If the D
antigen is absent, the person is Rh-negative. Thus, an “A+” type has antigen A and D present in the
blood; type “A-“ has antigen A; “B+” has antigen B and D; “B-“ has antigen B only; “AB+” has
antigen A,B,and D; “AB-“ antigen A and B; Type “O+” has antigen D only and type “O- “ with no
antigen D present.

Despite some racial and geographical variation, blood types are normally distributed in a
population as follows:

TABLE 4

Blood Type Population

Distribution

O 43 – 45 %

A 40 – 42 %
B 10 – 12 %

AB 3- 5%
In the Philippines, distribution in the population is as follows:

TABLE 5

Blood Population Distribution

Type (Philippines)

O 43.3%
A 26.3%

B 24.7%
AB 5.7%

The “O” type is most common among indigenous people (like Aborigines and Native Americans
and Latin Americans. The “A” type is most common among Caucasians and those of European descent.
The “B” type is most common among African-American and certain Asians (e.g. Thai). The “AB” type is
most common among the Japanese and certain Asians (e.g. Chinese). An interesting phenomenon is that
Middle Easterners are somewhat likely to have nucleated red blood cells, whereas normally red blood
cells contain no nucleus. Men generally have more red blood cells than women. Red blood cells are
originally formed from stem cells, and stem cells are found in bone marrow, the ribs, breastbone, pelvis,
and vertebrae, but red cells production is controlled by a hormone released by the kidney, which in turn,
instructs the bones to release more red blood cells.

DIFFERENT MATINGS POSSIBLE BETWEEN THE FOUR BLOOD GROUPS

PARENTS POSSIBLE CHILDREN IMPOSSIBLE

CHILDREN

OxO O A, B, AB

AxO A, O B, AB

AxA A, O B, AB

BxO B, O A, AB
 BxB B, O A, AB

AxB O, A, B, AB NONE

AB x O A, B O, AB

AB x A A, B, AB O

AB x B A, B, AB O

AB x AB A, B, AB O

If direct blood typing was done with fresh blood sample, indirect blood typing would have to be
done on dried bloodstains using the most common technique which is the absorption-elution test. It is
done by adding compatible antiserum antibodies to a sample, then allowing the sample to break the
antibody-antigen bonds, then adding known red cells from standard blood groups to observe agglutination
or clumping. In the dried blood, the red blood cells are ruptured or have disintegrated. However, the
antigens present are still intact and can still be identified by indirect method.

CRIME SCENE BLOOD PATTERNS. Blood begins to dry after 3-5 minutes of exposure to air.
As it dries, it changes towards brown and black. Blood at the crime scene can be in the form of pools,
drops, smears, or crusts. Pools of blood obviously have more evidentiary value in obtaining a wet
sample. Drops of blood tell the height and angle from which the blood fell. The forensic science of blood
spatter analysis says that blood which fell perpendicular to the floor from a distance of 0-2 feet would
make a circular drop with slightly frayed edges. Drops from a higher distance would have more
pronounced tendrils fraying off the edges (a sunburst pattern). A blood smear on the wall or floor tells
the direction of force of the blow. The direction of force is always in the direction towards the tail, or
smaller end, of the smear, or splatter. The largest area of the smear is the point of origin.

Large spots - the blood was traveling at a relatively low velocity.

Small spots - the blood was traveling at a relatively high velocity. (More force equals smaller
splatter)

Elongated drops - victim was moving, their speed relative to the amount the spots are stretched
and how far they are spaced apart. (Also indicates direction).
 Contact - large stain on a surface caused by contact with a bloody object.

Void in otherwise uniform splatter – something blocked the blood spray.

Cast-off - straight, elongated lines of splatter indicating that blood was thrown by a moving
object in a change direction. (Can show how many times a victim was struck)

Even when the blood stain is not evident it may still leave a tell tail fingerprint. To detect
invisible blood stains, the luminol test is used, which is a chemical sprayed on carpets and furniture which
reveal a slight phosphorescent light in dark where bloodstains are present.
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN
As the number of rape cases are increasing the need for the detection of semen and seminal stain
even if present in small quantity is necessary. The detection is of great importance in cases of rape,
sodomy, bestiality, sexual murder.

Semen is a viscid, gelatinous human body fluid with faint yellow color and is present in human
males. It is slightly alkaline with a pH of 7.4 and is a suspension of spermatozoa in seminal plasma. A
single ejaculation has a volume of about 3 ml and a number of over 20 million spermatozoa per milliliter
of ejaculate are considered normal.

Semen consists of the following:

1. Spermatozoa (10%)
2. Seminal Plasma (90%)
3. Epithelial Cell (<1%)

The Spermatozoa is produced in the testis by the process of spermatogenesis. It contains lipids,
proteins and enzymes. The length of Spermatozoa is about 50microns and consists of head and tail. The
head is flat oval shaped and the tail portion is responsible for the movement of the sperm. The seminal
plasma is a mixture of secretion derived from the male accessory reproductive organs and contains among
others Choline Phosphate, Spermine and Alkaline Phosphatase.

Cases or conditions when there is the absence of spermatozoa:

1. Aspermia - condition wherein there is the absence of spermatozoa in the seminal fluid.

2. Oligospermia – condition wherein there is a low number of spermatozoa

Where to look for Seminal Stains:

1. Clothes: underwear, bed sheet, carpet, towel, pillow cover

2. Body: Thigh, vagina, pubic hair

3. Scene of crime: On the floor, on the bed, etc.

Methods Applied for Detection of Seminal Stains are:

1. Physical examination

2. Chemical examination

3. Microscopic examination
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION: This includes visual examination. Semen when dry gives stiff, starchy
feeling. To the naked eye seminal stains generally appear translucent or opaque spots, at times with
yellowish tint. It exhibits bluish fluorescence under ultraviolet light.

CHEMICAL EXAMINATION: These include the following:

1. Florence Test –The basis of this test is the presence of CHOLINE. The procedure is to cut a
portion of the stain and soak it in saline solution. A few drops of the solution of the stain is
extracted and taken on a slide and a drop of Florence reagent (is1.65 gm potassium iodide and
2.5gm iodine in 30cc water) is added and allowed to mix slowly. Dark brown crystals of choline
periodide, generally needle shaped, are formed within a few minutes.

2. Barberio’s Test – The basis of detection is the presence of SPERMINE. The procedure is to
cut and soak a piece of stained material in 2.5% solution of trichloroacetic acid for an hour.
Centrifuge and drop the solution of the stain extracted in a glass slide. Add an equal amount of
Barberio’s reagent (saturated aqueous solution of picric acid) and observe under a microscope
crystal of sperm in picrate (needle shaped, rhombic and yellow color).

3. Acid Phosphatase Test – This test is the best way to locate and characterize a seminal stain. The
test is based on the extraordinarily high acid phosphatase content of human male ejaculation.
Phosphatase the enzyme present in semen. Modified Fishman and Lerner’s Method can be used:
The fluid obtained after thorough maceration of a small piece of cloth with water is placed in a
cavity on a porcelain tile. Add two drops each of citrate buffer (pH4.9) and 1% w/v aqueous
solution of Phenyl phosphate. Let stand and after 10min add 2drops of phenol reagent & 2drops
of 20%w/v solution of sodium carbonate. Blue color which will develop indicated the presence
of acid phosphatase.

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION: This examination is based on the morphology of spermatozoa. The

determination of spermatozoa in fresh semen is relatively easier that in seminal stains. The procedure
calls for a transfer of a drop of fresh semen in a glass slide. Add water of saline solution and cover with
cover slip. Examine under a high power objective and observe the presence of spermatozoa. For seminal
stain in a piece of cloth, this piece of material is taken in a beaker containing water. After a few minutes
the extract and piece of material is delicately teased with a needle in a glass slide. Threads are removed
and the residual liquid is gently evaporated to dryness. Residue obtained is then stained with Loffler’s
Methylene blue for a few minutes. It is then washed with water, dried and examined under the
microscope. A POSITIVE RESULT FOR SPERMATOZOA IS UNQUESTIONABLY AN
INDICATION OF THE PRESENCE OF SEMEN.
LESSON 3 - 4: Gunpowder residues, explosives and post blast
residues. Gunshot range (approximate distance of firing).
Determination of approximate time of firing. Classfication of
explosives and analyses.

GUNPOWDER & GUNSHOT RESIDUE (GSR)

When a firearm is discharged, an assortment of vapors and particulate material are expelled in the
area around the firearm. These products of firearm discharge can be collectively referred to as gunshot
residues (GSR) or sometimes cartridge discharge residues (CDR). Gunshot residues have been used in
criminalistics to: estimate firing distances; identify bullet holes; and to determine whether or not a
person has discharged a firearm.

GUNPOWDERS: The use of black powder as a propellant for bullets has largely been discontinued.
Black powder is composed of 75% potassium nitrate or sodium nitrate, 15% sulfur, and 10% charcoal.
Smokeless powders, which are commonly used as propellants, are composed of nitrocellulose in single
base powders and nitrocellulose together with nitroglycerine in double base powders. In some double
base powders a portion of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine has been replaced by nitroguanidine. These
are sometimes referred to separately as triple base powders. Typical single based powders are found in
rifle cartridges and some rim fire rifle and revolver cartridges, whereas double based powders are used in
revolver and pistol as well as shotguns.

Nitrocellulose is used, not only in propellants and explosives, but also in lacquers, varnishes
celluloid films and printing and pharmaceutical industries.

All smokeless powders, in addition to explosive ingredients, contain a number or additives.

These additives fulfill the role as stabilizers, flash inhibitors, coolants, surface lubricants, and antiwear
additives.

When a gun has been fired, gunshot residues can arise from the primer, propellant, lubricants, and
metals that are found in the bullet, bullet jacket, cartridge casing, and gun barrel. When a weapon is
discharged, gunshot residues are mixed with propulsive gases and deposited on nearby objects, including
the person who fired the weapon. The amount of deposition is determined by several factors such as the
type and condition of weapon, number of shots fired, and the amount of oil, moisture or perspiration
material on the deposited surface, and the direction and force of air currents.

Gunshot residues originating from the primer contain elements of primer components mainly
lead, antimony and barium. Elements such as copper, iron and some nonspecific elements such as
aluminum, silicon, sulfur, potassium, and calcium are also often found associated with them. These latter
elements can originate from other sources such as etched bullets, cartridge casings or barrel. Lead
particles, when abundant can arise from the lead bullets themselves. Under ideal circumstances it would
be expected that all of the propellant powder would be consumed in the burning process and would be
converted into gases. However, in practice this is not the case because the whole powder charge is never
totally burnt.

Techniques for inorganic analysis of gunshot residues include SEM (Scanning Electron
Microscopy) combined with EDX (Energy Dispersive X-ray) or the AAS (Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy) to name a few.

However, the less expensive way that is utilized to determine whether a person has fired a gun or
not is by the DIPHENYLAMINE -PARAFFIN TEST or DERMAL NITRATE TEST or LUNGE
DIPHENYLAMINE TEST which is a test for the presence of nitrates.

The diphenylamine reagent (0.5gm diphenylamine crystals dissolved in 100cc of sulfuric acid).
Deep blue specks that develop when nitrates come in contact with the reagent are the visible positive
results. The presence of nitrites is visibly seen with a yellow green color.

There are possibilities that a person may be found negative for the presence of nitrates even if he
actually fired a gun. This may be due to the kind of weapon used, the direction and velocity of wind,
excessive perspiration, use of gloves and chemicals to remove the nitrates from the hands.

Gunshot Residue Deposition (PROBABLE GUNSHOT RANGE)

If the muzzle of the discharging firearm is sufficiently close, gunshot residues will deposit on the
target in an approximately circular area around the bullet hole. The residues include not only those burned
and unburned primer and propellant materials ejected forward with the bullet, but also some material
ablated from the bullet or jacket. The deposition of gunshot residues around holes in tissue, clothing,
wood metal, and glass permits identification of the bullet entrance holes.

The clothing is examined microscopically for the presence of singeing, burning, smudging and
powder tattooing. Singeing is characterized by slight burning of the fabric on the area of the gunshot hole.
Smudging as a blackening characteristic surrounding the bullet hole and tattooing is the presence of
specks of nitrates and nitrites around the bullet hole visible to the naked eye. It can be described as a
black peppered pattern.

A distance of 0 – 2 inches has a characteristic pattern of gaping hole (torn fabric) with the
presence of smudging, singeing, tattooing and burning.

A distance of 2 - 8 inches show the presence of smudging and tattooing.

A distance of 8 – 36 inches tattooing is visible.

 A distance of beyond 36 inches show absence of characteristic patterns. Evidence of tattooing is
seldom visible.

WALKER’S TEST – test can be used if gunpowder is deeply embedded on the fabric. It is based on the
conversion of nitrites to a dye. The visible result is orange-red spots imprinted on the photographic paper.
PROBABLE TIME OF LAST DISCHARGE OF FIREARM

In the determination of the probable time of last discharge of the firearm the barrel is swabbed
and the presence of rust, soot, metallic fragments, nitrites and nitrates are examined microscopically and
chemically. Diphenylamine reagent is utilized to test for the presence of nitrites and nitrates. The
presence of nitrites visible by a yellow green color is indicative that the firearm could have been recently
fired.

EXPLOSIVES
An explosive is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or
combustion. It is a material (chemical or nuclear) that can be initiated to undergo very rapid, self-
propagating decomposition that results in the formation of more stable material, the liberation of heat, or
the development of a sudden pressure effect through the action of heat on produced or adjacent gases. All
of these outcomes produce energy. The effectiveness of a weapon is measured by the quantity of energy
or damage potential it delivers to the target.

A chemical explosive is a compound or a mixture of compounds which, when subjected to heat,

impact, friction, or shock, undergoes very rapid, self-propagating, heat-producing decomposition. This
decomposition produces gases that exert tremendous pressures as they expand at the high temperature of
the reaction. The work of an explosive depends primarily on the amount of heat given off during the
explosion. The term detonation indicates that the reaction is moving through the explosive faster than
the speed of sound in the unreacted explosive; whereas, deflagration indicates a slower reaction (rapid
burning). A high explosive will detonate and a low explosive will deflagrate. All commercial explosives
except black powder are high explosives.

Relative effectiveness factor (R.E. factor) is a measurement of an explosive’s power for military
demolition purposes. It measures the detonating velocity relative to that of TNT, which has an R.E. factor
of 1.00.

Explosives are classified as primary or secondary based on their susceptibility to initiation.

Primary explosives, which include lead azide and lead styphnate, are highly susceptible to initiation.
Primary explosives often are referred to as initiating explosives because the can be used to ignite
secondary explosives. Secondary explosives, which include nitroaromatics and nitramines are much more
prevalent at military sites than primary explosives and are often used as main charge or bolstering
explosives.

Propellants or low explosives (LE) include both rocket and gun propellants. They are
combustible materials containing within themselves oxygen needed for their combustion. One group of
gun propellants is called “single base” (principally nitrocellulose), “double base” (nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine) or “triple base” (nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, and nitroguanidine). Common examples are
black powder, smokeless powder, firecrackers and pyrotechnics.

Pyrotechnics include illuminating flares, signaling flares, colored and white smoke generators,
tracers, incendiary delays, fuses and photo-flash compounds. It is usually composed of an inorganic
oxidizer and metal powder in a binder, illuminating flares contain sodium nitrate, magnesium, and a
binder. Signaling flares contain barium, strontium, or other metal nitrates.

Primary explosives or initiators explode or detonate when heated or subjected to shock. They do
not burn but the materials themselves explode. Common examples are mercury fulminate, lead azide
which is usually found in blasting caps.

High explosives (HE) explode under the influence of shock of the explosion of a primary
explosive of initiator. It is a compound or mixture which, when initiated, is capable of sustaining a
detonation shockwave to produce a powerful blast effect. A detonation is the powerful explosive effect
caused by the propagation of a high-speed shockwave through a high explosive compound or mixture.
During the process of detonation, the high explosive is largely decomposed into hot, rapidly expanding
gas. Ammonium nitrate which is the cheapest salt of nitric acid is readily available is a good example.

Plastic explosive means an explosive material in flexible or elastic sheet form formulated with
one or more high explosives with a binder material, and is a mixture malleable or flexible at normal
temperature. C-4 is often referred to as a plastic explosive.

The energetic material used by the military as propellants and explosives are mostly organic
compounds containing nitro (NO2) groups. The three major classes of these energetic materials are:
nitroaromatics (e.g., tri-nitrotoluene or TNT); nitramines (e.g., hexahydro-1, 3, 5 trintroazine or
RDX); and nitrate esters (e.g., nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine).

Explosive and incendiary (fire) bombs are further characterized based on their source.
“Manufactured” implies standard military-issued, mass produced, and quality-tested weapons.
“Improvised” describes weapons produced in small quantities, or use of a device outside its intended
purpose. Manufactured (military) explosive weapons are exclusively HE-based. Terrorists will use
whatever is available – illegally obtained manufactured weapons or improvised explosive devices (also
known as “IEDs”) that may be composed of HE, LE, or both.

Molotov cocktail which is an incendiary and is petroleum- based consists of a fragile container
like glass bottle filled with petroleum with a piece of absorbent cloth as wick or fuse.
Chloroacetophenone (CN) is commonly used as a tear gas.
 LESSON 5: Hair and textile fibers. Differential kinds and parts of
hair and fibers and proper identification. Collection, preservation,
identification and transmittal of hair and fibers.

HAIR and FIBER

A hair may be defined as a slender threadlike
outgrowth from the follicles of the skin of mammals,
composed essentially of keratin and having three
anatomical parts: the root, the shaft, and the tip. It is
an appendage of the skin.

Root - portion which is embedded in the skin or the part

attached to the follicle.

Shaft - portion above the surface of the skin and is the

most distinctive part of the hair.

Tip – portion which is the distal end of an uncut hair

shaft.

The shaft is composed of:

1. Cuticle – is the outer covering of the hair. It consists of tough overlapping scales that point
toward the tip end.

2. Cortex - contains pigment granules and gives hair its color. It is the thickest layer of the shaft.

3. Medulla – is a hallow tube or the central canal that runs the length of the hair. Sometimes it is
present, sometimes it is not. The canal (medulla) is sometimes continuous, while in other cases it
is fragmented or interrupted.

Except for the Asian race, human head hairs usually have fragmented medullae or no medullae at
all. Among Asians, head hair generally has continuous medullae. Sometimes the hair found at a
crime scene is from an animal. This too may be helpful, for it is possible to identify the species.
Different species have different scale patterns on the cuticle of the hair. Animal hair has a
characteristically thicker medulla and cuticle than in human, since their hair is their means of
warmth.

MEDULLARY INDEX – is the ratio between the diameter of the medulla and diameter of the whole
hair. Human hair has a medullary index less than 0.5 while animal hair has a medullary index of more
than 0.5.
FIBERS

A fiber is the smallest unit of a textile material that has a length many times greater than its
diameter. Textile materials can be converted into yarns which are fibers that have been twisted together.
Fibers can occur naturally as plant and animal fibers, but can also be man-made. They are considered as a
form of trace evidence that can be transferred from the clothing of a suspect to the clothing of a victim
during the commission of a crime. These transfers can either be direct (primary) or indirect (secondary).
A primary transfer occurs when a fiber is transferred from a fabric directly onto a victim’s clothing,
whereas a secondary transfer occurs when already transferred fibers on the clothing of a suspect transfer
to the clothing of a victim.

Fibers are classified into:

1. natural fibers

2. man-made fibers or synthetic or artificial fibers

Subdivisions of Natural Fibers:

1. Vegetable fibers – these originated from plants and are made of cellulose. These are used in the
production of fabric and textile materials. Examples: cotton, flax (linen), ramie, jute, kapok.

2. Animal fibers – these are made of protein and the most frequently used in the production of
textile material is wool. Examples: alpaca, camel, cashmere, mohair, silk.

3. Mineral fiber – asbestos is a good example of this kind of fiber.

Man-made or synthetic fibers may be:

1. organic fiber - examples: polyester, nylon, acrylics, rayon

2. inorganic fiber – examples: fine wire filament, steel wool

Textile fibers can be tested by:

1. Burning or ignition test - the simplest preliminary macroscopic examination. This test determines
whether fiber is of animal or vegetable origin.

2. Fluorescence test

3. Microscopic examination

4. Chemical test – includes staining test and dissolution test