FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

AND
TOXICOLOGY
Presented by:
Prof. Orland B. Badiango
Forensic Chemist
is a specialist who practice forensic chemistry

Role of Forensic Chemist in the

Scientific Criminal Investigation
Forensic chemist plays an important role in the scientific
criminal investigation; he may be called upon to aid an
investigation in;

1. Determining whether or not a place/location is a clandestine

laboratory.
2. Examination of marked bills/suspect during entrapment
operation in cases of extortion.
3. Administering paraffin test.
 Scope of Forensic Chemistry
1. It includes the chemical side of criminal investigation
2. It includes the analysis of any material in the quality
of which may give rise to legal proceedings.
3. It is not limited to purely chemical questions involves
in legal proceedings.
4. It invaded other branches of forensic science, most
notably, legal medicine, ballistics, questioned
documents, dactyloscopy, and photography.
 Four Stages of a Forensic Chemist Work

1. Collection or reception of the specimen/evidence

to be examined
2. Actual examination of the specimen
3. Communication of an examination result
4. Court appearance
Six Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry

1. Go slowly 4. Consult others

2. Be thorough 5. Use imagination

3. Take notes 6. Avoid complicated
theories
Physical Evidence
refers to articles and materials found
in connection with an investigation and which aid
in establishing the identity of the perpetrator

Evidence
refers to a proof of allegation. A mean suctioned
by law to ascertain in a judicial proceedings
respecting a matter of fact.
 Three Major Classification of Evidence

1. Direct Evidence
A kind of evidence that directly establishes
the main fact of issue, it may simply refer to what
the senses perceive. Any fact to which the
witness testifies based on what he saw, heared,
smelled, touched or tasted.
2. Circumstantial Evidence
A kind of evidence that seeks to establish
a conclusion by inferences from proven facts.
It establishes a fact or circumstances from which
the court may infer, another fact at issue.
3. Hearsay Evidence
Proceeds not from personal knowledge of
the witness but from the mere repetition of what
the witness heared from other people. A statement
made by a witness on the authority of another and
not from his own personal knowledge or observation.

Hearsay evidence is inadmissible in court except

with certain well-defined expectations, like
declaration against interest, dying declaration,
reputation, public records and statements made at a
prior time.
Scientific Evidence
Evidence wherein scientific knowledge
is necessary, based on conforming principles
and techniques of science.
Forms of Scientific Evidence
1. Real or Autoptic Evidence
A kind of evidence that addressed to court, it
is not limited to which can be known sense of vision
but extends to those which are peceived by the
senses of hearing, taste, smell, and touch.
2. Testimonial Evidence
Expert witness may be placed on the
witness stand to answer all the questions
profounded by both parties in the case. This
type of evidence is a declaration of truth by an
expert.

3. Experimental Evidence
An expert witness may be required to perform
experiments to prove a certain fact.
4. Documentary Evidence
Any written evidence presented by an expert
in court that is relevant to the subject matter
in dispute and not excluded by the rules of court.

WITNESS
A person, other than the suspect, who is
requested to give information concerning an
incident or person. He testifies in court, may be
a victim, complainant, accuser, source of
information, or an observer of an occurrence.
 SUSPECT
- is a person whose guilt is considered a reasonable
grounds to be a practical possibility.

A witness in court may be any of the following:

1. Ordinary Witness
States facts and may not express his/her opinion
or conclusion and may testify to impression of common
experienced.
2. Expert Witness
One who possessed a special skill.

3. Eye Witness
The person who saw the fatal act.
 BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
Blood is called the circulating tissue of the
body. It refers to a highly complex mixtures
of cells, enzymes, protein, and inorganic substances.

Composition of blood
1. Solid portion (45%) consist of red blood cells,
white blood cells, and blood platelets.
2. Liquid portion (55%) plasma.
PLASMA
yellowish fluid of blood in which several blood
corpuscles are suspended

SERUM
straw-yellow liquid formed when blood clott
are allowed to stand for some time and the
blood contracts.
 PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD
1. Where blood has to be search
2. Collection, Preservation, packing and transportation
of specimen suspected to contain blood.

Blood offers little resistance to decomposition.

It undergoes rapid change in its characteristics
with the passage of time as the process of
clotting and drying commences almost
immediately. Sodium Fluoride may be added to
blood to preserve it for a week at room temperature
or refrigerate at the temp. Of 40-500C
Fluid Blood is collected
1. Victims of violent crimes
2. Parents and child in case of disputed parentage
Dried Blood is collected
1. Smooth surfaces like walls, finished floors, table tops
2. Hard surfaces like axe, hammer, knives, stones,
crowbars
3. Glaze surfaces like glass, tiles, automobiles
4. Bulky objects like black board, linoleum sheets,
doors, window frames
5. Clothing
6. Blood absorbed by the soil
 FOUR TEST FOR BLOOD

1. Preliminary Test (Color Test) - determines

whether the stain contains blood or
another substance.
a. Benzidine Test (Intense Blue color)
b. Phenolpthalein Test (Deep Pink color)
c. Guaiacum Test (Beautiful Blue)
d. Leucomalachite Green Test (Bluish Green)
e. Luminol Test (Fluorescence)
2. Confirmatory Test - determines if the stain
really contains blood
a. Microscopic Test
b. Microchemical Test
c. Spectroscopic Test
3. Precipitin Test- used to determine whether the
stain /blood is of human or animal origin
4. Blood Groupings
The A-B-O system is used in the blood grouping of
fresh blood. Landsteiner who discovered the four
blood groups, namely, Group O, Group A, Group B, and
Group AB.
 FOUR BLOOD GROUPS
Antigen/Agglutinogen Antibodies/Agglutinins
Blood Group in serum
on RBC
A A Anti –
bB B Anti
–a
AB A and B Neither Anti-A nor
Anti-B
O Neither Antigen A Anti-A and Anti-B
nor Antigen B
Inheritance of blood groups
- are predetermined by the presence and absence of
two factors called Gene A and Gene B.

Genes
- complex chemical units in the chromosomes
by which hereditary characters are transmitted. They
are responsible for the transmission
of hereditary characteristics,
they occur in pairs. There are two genes or
factors called gene A and gene B, these are found in
the chromosomes.
Phenotypes
-used to denote the expression in the
inherited characteristics as found in the individual,
these are actually the blood groups.

Genotype
- paired genes
 Steps in the Inheritance of Blood Groups
1. Write the blood group or the phenotypes of the
parents
2. Bring the group of the parents down. Say A, this
contains agglutinogen A and this can be inherited
as established by Dungern and Hirszfeld, and this
one of the genes in the pair of genes called genotype
3. Match the pair of genes of the parents by employing
the criss-cross method to arrive the genotype of the
children.
4. Determine the dominant to determine the blood
group of the children
 SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS

SEMEN is a viscid whitish fluid of male

reproductive tract consisting of spermatozoa
suspended in the secretion of accessory glands.
Parts of Semen
1. Seminal Fluid
2. Formed Cellular elements which includes
- Spermatozoa or sperm cell
- Epithelial cells
- Crystals of choline and
- Lecithin
A healthy young man releases 400 to 500
million spermatozoa in a single ejaculation and 3.5
cc is the normal quantity of seminal fluid.

Ejaculation has no Spermatozoa

1. Aspermia - a condition wherein males have no
spermatozoa at all in their seminal fluid.
2. Oligospermia - a condition wherein males have
abnormally low sperm counts or with few
spermatozoa.
Semen can be found fresh in
q Vaginal contents of the
victim q Rectal contents of the
victim

Semen can be found as wet or dried condition/secretion

on: q Hair around the genitals
q Skin around genitals

Semen can be found as dry stain on

q Underclothing
q Bed clothing
 There are four examinations for seminal stains or
seminal fluid in the form of stain:
1.Physical Examination
2.Chemical Examination
a.Florence Test- the only preliminary test for the presence of
spermatozoa confirms the presence of seminal stains. Positive
result crystals of choline.
b.Barberios Test- almost specific for human semen it respond
to seminal stain as old as 6 years old. Positive result
slender yellowish, rhomboid needles with obtuse angle.
c.Acid-Phosphatase Test- is the best way to locate at the same
time characterized a seminal stain. The test replace Florence test
in reliability and was shown to be specific for human and higher
apes. Positive results orange-red pigment
 3. Microscopic examination - to determine the presence
of spermatozoa. Visible result small object with
pear shaped head behind which has a short neck and a
tail ten times as long as the head.
Elements which Obstruct Detection of Spermatozoa are
nature of the fabric, age of the stain, condition to which the
stain was exposed before reaching the laboratory, and
handling of specimen.
4. Biological Examination - for persons who are
“secretors”
Spermato-precipitin is of value in the identification of
seminal fluid in certain cases like bestiality.
Other Stains of Medico-legal Interest
1. Obstetrical and gynaecological stains
2. Excrements
Adults - yellowish brown and solid
Infants - greenish yellow
3. Paint stains
4. Rust stains
Rust - reddish brown in color, insoluble in water and soluble
in diluted acid resembles to blood.
5. Synthetic dye stains- resembles old blood stain, but can be
recognize by treating strong acids and alkalis.
6. Mineral stains - are due to red paints containing oxides of iron
7. Stain of vegetables origin - resembles blood, they may be
produced by fruit juices like mulberry and mangosten.
 GUN POWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES

In investigation of crimes involving the used of

firearms, three most important problems may arise:
1. Determination of whether or not a person has fired a
gun with bare hands within a pertinent period of time;
2. Determination of probable gunshot range, the distance
the firearm held from the body of the victim at the time
of discharge;
3. Determination of the approximate time of firing of the
gun or the approximate date of the last discharge.
Two Kinds of Gun Powder

1. Black Powder- consist of a mixture of charcoal or

carbon 15%, sulphur 10%, and potassium nitrate
75%

2. Smokeless Powder- consist of cellulose nitrate

combined with some stabilizer. Among this
stabilizers are nitrates, bicarbonates, and oxalates.
Organic stabilizers are nitro benzene, graphite, and
Vaseline. Stabilizer is added to reduce side
reactions.
Possible Locations of Nitrates when Black Powder
and Smokeless Powder Explode

1. Residue in the barrel of the gun

2. In or around the wound
3. On the clothing of the person fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing
the ground
 Factors that affect the presence and amount of
gun powder residues.

1. Type and calibre of the ammunition

2. Length of the barrel of the gun
3. Distance of the muzzule of the gun from the target
4. Humidity
5. Wind velocity and direction
6. Direction of firing
 Determination whether or not a person fired a gun with his
bare hands
The burned residues and partially burned particles may
escape around the breech of the gun and implanted on the
exposed surface of the hand holding the weapon and become
implanted into the skin. Test performed to determine whether a
person fired a gun or not with his bare hands

Two theories of DPA-Parrafin Test:

1. Paraffin Test - taking cast of the left hand and right hand to
extract the nitrates.
2. Diphenylamine Test/DPA Test - Determines the presence and
distribution nitrates, the chemical aspect of the examination.
Positive result deep blue specks develop when nitrates come
in contact with DPA reagent.
 Factors to be considered in the interpretation of DPA results
are time of reaction, number of blue specks, location of the
specks, and character of the specks.
Possibilities that a person may be found negative for
nitrates even if he actually fired a gun, use of automatic
pistol, wind direction, wind velocity, excessive perspiration,
use of gloves, and knowledge of chemicals that will remove
nitrates.
Possibilities that the person may be positive for nitrates even
if he did not actually fired a gun. It is possible that gun
powder particles may have been blown on the hand directly
from the barrel of the gun being fired by other person. An
attempt to shield the body by raising the hand in some
instances result in the implanting of powder particles on the
hand of a person close to one firing a gun.
Clothing is examined microscopically for possible
powder residues;

1. Singeing - slight burning

2. Burning - carbon presence
3. Smudging - blacking of area around the bullet hole
4. Tattooing - black coarsely peppered pattern
Distance from firearm was discharge
q 0-2 inches
q 2-36 inches
q Beyond 36 inches

Characteristics Pattern
gaping hole, smudging, singeing, tattooing, burning
tattooing and smudging
evidence of powder tattooing is seldom present
 Chemical Test for Gun Powder Residues
1. Method pattern after diphenylamine paraffin test
2. Walker’s Test - this method is used if the powder particles are
deeply embedded
Determination of Probable Time when the Gun has been fired
1. Rust - if a gun has not been fired at all, no rust can be
detected inside the barrel of the gun. If it has been fired, iron
salts are formed and are found inside the barrel. These iron salts
are soon oxidized, thus resulting in the formation of rust.
2. Nitrite - determined by addition of DPA reagent blue in color.
3. Nitrate - determined by addition of diphenylamine yellow green
in color.
4. Metallic Fragment
5. Soot - black substance that is formed by combustion .
Explosives - any substance that may cause an
explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES

1.View point of chemical composition

A. Inorganic Compound
example: lead azide

B. Organic Compound
examples:
TNT, picric acid, nitrocellulose, and mercury fulminate)
2. With respect to functioning characteristics

A. Propellants or Low Explosives - combustible materials

containing oxygen needed for their combustion(e.g. black
powder, smokeless powder, fire cracker, and pyrotechnics)

B. Primary Explosives or Initiators - materials that explode or

detonate when they are heated or subject to shock.(e.g.
mercury fulminate, and lead aside)

C. High Explosives - materials explode under the influence of

shock of the explosion of primary explosive.(e.g. ammonium
nitrate, TNT, Dynamite, nitroglycerine, picric acid, and plastic
explosive)
 HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBERS
Hair examination is one of the oldest forms of physical evidence. It
is used older that of fingerprints. It is valuable because the hair of
each kind of animal is different and distinct from all others.
Like fibers, it is most likely to be involved in contact between
the victim and suspect. Most crimes causes contact between one
person and another. As such, it results in the transfer of fibers
and hairs from the victim to the criminal and vice versa. The
successful investigation of crimes of violence such as rape,
murder, assault, kidnapping, as well as hit and run, among
others, are frequently materially assisted by the result of
examination of hair and fibers. Hair is very resistant in
decomposition and purification, thus they often remain as a
means of identification long after others such as facial and
fingerprints have been destroyed.
Hair - a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the
skin which occurs everywhere on human body except
on the palm of the hand and sole of the feet. It is an
appendage of the skin. Hair is not completely round
but may be oval or flattened. Its width is not always
the same along its length. It strays out pointed and
narrow and then strays more or less the same
 Kinds of Hair
(Among mammals including human beings)
1. Real Hair - generally long and stiff
2. Fuzz Hair - generally short, fine at all times curly and
woody

Parts of Hair
1. Root - portion embedded in the skin

Two kinds of roots

q Living Root - often found on hair in full growth
q Dry Root - dead roots
 2. Shaft - portion above the surface of the skin, the most
distinctive part of the hair.
Parts of Shaft
A. Cuticle - outermost covering of the hair. It consist of one layer of
non-nucleated polygonal cell which overlaps like scale of a fish.
B.Cortex- the intermediate and the thickest layer of the shaft and is
composed of elongated, spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere. They
contain pigment granules in varying portion depending on the type
of hair.
C.Medulla or Core- the most characteristic portion of the hair. It is
the central canal of hair that may be empty or may contain
various sorts of cell more or less pigmented and begins more or
less near the root. There are two classification, hair without
medulla and hair with medulla.
3.Tip-sometimes termed point, the distal end of an uncut hair.
 Microscopic Examination of Human Hair
1. Color
q With naked eye
q Under microscope
Melanin - the brownish black pigment in the hair and skin,
among others, the chemical responsible for the color of hair.
2. Length by actual measurement
3. Characteristics of hair
4. Width
5. Characteristics of hair tip if present
6. Manner by which hair had been cut
7. Condition of root or base or bulb of the hair
8. Characteristics of cuticle- the size, general shape and the
irregularity of the scale are observed
9. Characteristics if cortex - it is embedded with pigment granules that
impart hair with color. It is the color, shape and distribution of these
granules that provide chemist with important points of comparison
between hairs of different individuals.
10.Presence of Dye in Hair
Dye hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under
microscope, dyed hair has dull appearance and the color tone is
constant, whereas natural hair is not and the individual pigment
granules stand more sharply.
11.Determination of whether naturally or artificially curled
12.Character of medulla
Medullary Index - is the relationship between the diameter of the
medulla and the diameter of the whole hair. Its determination is
performed under microscope provided with micrometer eyepiece. Hair
with narrow medulla less than 0.5 belongs to human, hair with medium
medulla approximately 0.5 belongs to cows, horses, and others, and hair
with thick medulla greater than0.5 belongs to other animals not indicated
above.
 Comparison between Human Hair and Animal Hair
Human Hair Animal Hair
1. M.I. is less than 0.5 M.I. more than 0.5
2. Medulla may not be Medulla is always present
present
3. The scale pattern is fine Scale is coarse and
overlaps and each one less than 1/2
Overlaps the other more
than 4/3
4. Pigment granules are fine Pigment granules are
coarse
 Region of the Body from which Human Hair has been removed

1. Scalp Hair - they are more mature than any kind of human hair
2. Beard Hair - coarse, curved, very stiff, and often in triangular in cross section
3. Hair from eyebrows, eyelid, nose, and ear - short, stubby and have wide
medulla, eyebrow and eyelashes are usually very short and has a sharp tip
4. Trunk hair - vary in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are
somewhat similar to head hairs, they have fine, and long tip ends.
5. Limb Hair - similar o trunk hair but usually are not so long or so coarse and
usually contains less pigment.
6. Auxiliary Hair - is fairly long with unevenly distributed pigment. They
vary considerably in diameter along the shaft and have frequently a
bleached appearance. It has an irregular shape and structure. Looks like
pubic hair but the ends are sharper and the hair is not so curly.
7. Pubic Hair - similar to axillary hair but are coarse, and do not appear
bleach; more wiry, have more constriction and twist and usually have
continuous broad medulla, has many broken ends because the clothing rubs.
Approximate Age of an Individual through Hair
Examination

Infant hairs - are fine, short in length, have fine pigment

and are rudimentary in character, children’s hair through
adolescence is generally finer and more immature
than adult hair but cannot be definitely differentiated
with certainty. It is noted that the pigment is missing or
starting to disappear in the hair, it can be stated that
the hair is from an adult. It is common for a
relatively young person to have prematurely grey or
white hair but not body hairs.
Textile Fibers - fibers that can be converted into yarn
Yarn - made of fibers which have been twisted together
like a thread.
Classification of Textile Fibers
1. Natural Fiber
q Vegetable Fibers - made of cellulose. (eg. Seed
fibers, stem bark, leaf fibers, cotton, woody fibers,
and fruit or nut fibers.
q Animal Fibers - made up of protein (e.g. wool, silk,
and hair)
q Mineral Fiber - (e.g. asbestos)
2. Synthetic or Artificial Fiber

q Organic fiber may be cellulosic(e.g. rayon), and non

-cellulosic (e.g. nylon, casein fiber, and resin fiber)

q Inorganic fiber may be mineral fiber (e.g.

glass fiber, wool glass rock, and slug wools) and
metallic fiber (e.g. fine wire filament, steel wool,
and tensile threads.
Test for fibers
1. Burning test or ignition test - is a simple preliminary,
microscopic examination, it determines whether fiber is
mineral, animal or vegetables.
2. Fluorescence test - used to determine general group to which
a fiber belong. It is not reliable for positive identification of fiber.
3. Microscopic test - it is the most reliable and best means
of identifying fibers
4. Chemical test
q Staining - the fiber is stained with picric acid, million reagent,
stannic chloride or iodine solution
q Dissolution - the fiber is treated with chemicals
 Characteristics of Common Textile Fiber

1. Cotton - unicellular filament, flat, ribbon like twisted spirally to right or left on
its axes, central canal is uniform in diameter.
2. Mercerized Cotton - straight, cylindrical with occasional twist; unevenly
lustrous, smooth except for occasional transverse folds or wrinkles and cuticle
are mostly lacking.
3. Linen - multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical not twisted and flattened,
tapering to a sharp point. The cell wall are thick, the lumen appearing is narrow
and dark line in the center of the fibers to appear jointed resembling bamboo.
4. Cultivated silk - smooth cylindrical lustrous thread, usually single but often
double, the twin filament held together by an envelope of gum. They are more or
less transparent, and without definite structure.
5. Wild silk - similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline.
Mark by very fine longitudinal striation with infrequent diagonal cross
markings.
6. Artificial silk - cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod.
7.Wool - easily distinguished by the presence of flattened,
overlapping epidermal scales not found in silk or any of the vegetables fibers.
 Chemical Test for Fibers

1. Staining Test - fiber is stained with picric acid,

million reagent stannic chloride or iodine solution.

2. Dissolution Test - if fiber is white or light colored it

is treated with the following chemicals 10% NaOH, 5
% oxalic acid, half saturates oxalic acid,
concentrated oxalic acid, concentrated and
diluted ammonium hydroxide and concentrated nitric
acid.
 Chemical Aspects of Document Examination

Document - an original or official written or printed

paper furnishing information or used as a proof of something
else, it may refer to any object that contains handwritten or type
written markings whose source or authenticity is in doubt.

Examination and Comparison of Paper

The essential materials in a document examination of any
kind are the paper and ink or pencil or writings. The
examination of paper may be necessary if we want to know
the age of the document, presence of alterations, erasures,
and other forms of forgery.
Problems Encountered in Document Examination
1.Determination of whether two pieces of paper
originated from the same source;
2.Determination the probable age of the paper;
3.Determination of the composition of paper.

Egyptian Papyrus
one of the earliest substance used for
writing, derived from the name papyrus from which
the paper word derived
Composition of Paper

1. Fiber Composition - practically all papers may be

classified from the stand point of their basic fiber
composition into sets of fiber mixtures namely
mechanical pulp, soda-sulfate mixture, and rag sulfate
2.Sizing Material- improve the quality of paper
(texture) such as rosin, casein, gelatin, and starch.
3.Loading Material- add weight to the paper it partially
fill the pores between the fibers of the papers such as
calcium sulphate and barium sulphate.
Four Test of Paper

1. Preliminary Examination
deals with the appearance of the document
as observed the folds and creases, odor,
impression caused by transmitted
light and presence of
discoloration in daylight and under ultra violet light.
Water Marks - distinctive marks or designs placed in the paper
at a time of its manufacture by a roll usually a dandy roll.
Wire Marks- marks produced on paper by a flexible
wire soldered on the surface of the dandy roll that carries the
water marks.
2. Physical Test Causing No Perceptible Change

Test applied on the paper without perceptibly

changing or altering the original appearance of
the document (measurement of lengthand
width, measurement of thickness,
measurement of weight/unit area, color of
paper, texture, gloss, microscopic examination
and opacity (the quality of paper that does not
allow light to pass through in an object.
3. Physical Examination Causing a Perceptible Change

This is done only when sufficient samples are available

and if proper authorization from the court is acquired. (a.)
Bursting strength test or POP test apparently pressure
necessary to burst a hole in a sheet when properly
inserted in suitable instrument (b.)Folding endurance test
it is obtained on an instrument which registers the number
of alternate folds the
paper will stand before breaking. (c.) Accelerated aging test
there are some methods of artificially aging document.
Soaking in coffee solution, soaking in tea solution,
exposure to charcoal, ironing, heating in an oven, exposure
to ultraviolet. (d.) Absorption test made to determine either
the rate of absorption of the paper.
4. Chemical Test
determines the fiber composition, loading material,
and sizing material used in the paper

q Fiber composition - examination is purely microscopic

and it determines the material used in the paper.

q Sizing material- may be tested for the fallowing test

gelatin, rosin, starch, casein and, loading material.
 INK
Some of the most important question arises in
the analysis of inks are whether the ink is of the same or
alike or different in kind from ink on other parts of the
same document or in other document, whether the two
writings made with the same kind of ink were made
with the identical ink, or inks of different qualities or in
different condition, whether an ink is also as old as it is
supposed to be and, whether documents of different
dates or a succession of differently dated book
entries shows the natural variation in ink writing or
whether the conditions point to one continuous writing at
one time under identical condition
Types of ink

1.Gallotannic ink or iron ink - the most frequently

used ink for making entries in the record of book
and for business today, it is made up of iron salt and
nutgall this ink penetrate into interstices of the fiber
and not merely on the surface

2. Loll logwood ink - made up of saturated solution of

logwood and very small amount of potassium
dichromate, this ink is inexpensive, does not corrode
steel pen
3. Negrosine ink or aniline ink - made up of coal tar product called
nigrosine dissolve in water, it easily smudges, affected by
moisture may be wash off from the paper with little difficulty.
4.Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India ink - the oldest ink
material known, made of carbon in form of lampblack it does not
penetrate deeply on the paper so that it may be easily washed off
5. Colored writing ink – composed of synthetic aniline dyestuffs
dissolved in water, ammonium vanadate is added to render
writing more permanent.
6. Ball point ink - made up of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type
of solvent as carbitol, glycol or oleic acid.
 Test for Ink
1. Physical test - applied to determine the color and
presence of alteration, erasures, destruction of size
with the use of stereoscope, hand lens or microscope.
2.Chemical test - different chemicals or reagents are
applied on the ink strokes the color reactions and
other changes are being observed some of the
chemicals are 5% HCl, 10% oxalic acid, tartaric acid,
2%NaOH, 10% NaOCl, Chlorine water, KCNS and water.
3.Paper Chromatography- a reliable procedure that can
adopted to identify and compare the ball
point ink
DETERMINATION OF APPROXIMATE AGE OF
DOCUMENT

Age of ink - there is no definite procedure which can be

given determination of age of ink except when the color is
black, because on the observation that within a few hours
the color of ink writings becomes darker because the dye
were being influence by light of the room, oxygen of the
air, acidity, and alkalinity of the paper.
Age of the paper - can be determined through water
marks and in certain cases from the composition of
paper.
 OTHER ASPECTS OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

Illegible Writings - Unnecessary writings that are not

capable of being read, this are usually made on
checks, birth certificates, passports, and transcript of
records.

SOME ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS

1. Erasures - means removal on writing from paper, it can
be made chemically or mechanically.
2. Obliteration - obscuring of writing by superimposing
ink, pencil or other marking materials.
3. Sympathetic ink or invisible ink - substance used
for invisible writing
4. Indented writing - term applied to partially visible
depression appearing on the sheet of the paper
underneath the one that the visible writing appears.
5. Writings on carbon paper - used sheets of carbon
paper can be made readable.
6.Contact Writing- blank paper may contain traces of
ink because of previous contact with some
 GLASS, GLASS FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES
Glass - super cooled liquid that possess high viscosity and
rigidity, it is non crystalline in organic substance.
COMPOSITION OF GLASS
Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO2 (silica) B2O3 (boric oxide),
P2O5 (phosphorous pentoxide). Silica is the most important oxide for
commercial used, it is the base of commercial glasses. Oxides is for
fluxing, durability and reduction. Glass items like windows and plates that
are made in mass production are fairly uniform in composition these may
contain incidental impurities and the presence of this substances is
valuable for the identification and comparison of glass by
spectrographic analysis, it also contains traces elements which may be
sufficient to negate the fact of common source for two samples of
glasses.
 ANALYSIS OF GLASS
The most important problem commonly referred to an analysis is the comparison of
two or more samples of glasses.
1. Spectrographic test - an instrumental method of analysis that determines the
presence of trace elements, it shows the constituent elements of glass.
2. X-Ray diffraction analysis - not as effective as spectrographic test,
it determines the type of glass pattern but the pattern depends on the
composition of the glass.
3. Physical properties examination - the most sensitive method of determining
the differences of composition in glass samples and it depends upon the
study of the physical properties of glass such as specific gravity or density,
refractive index.
4. Ultra violet light examination - determines the differences in appearance of their
fluorescence, thus indicating physical and chemical differences.
5. Polish marks - optical glass and other fine glass wares are usually polished,
in polishing glass fine marks are often left on the surface which can
sometimes serve as a basis for comparison.
 GLASS EVIDENCE OF CRIME
In the field of forensic chemistry emphasis is placed on

1. Automobile glass in hit and run cases

2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullets
in robbery cases
3. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found in
the scene of assault or other violent crimes
 HOW GLASS BREAK?

When a blow strikes a glass on one of its surface, the front

for example, the glass bends first a little owing to its
elasticity. When the limit of elasticity is reached the glass
breaks along radial lines starting from the point where the
destroying force is applied originating from the opposite
surface of the glass because this is a portion or surface
which is more subjected to stretching by bending. The front
surface is only pushed. While the radial fractures are taking
place, the newly created glass triangle between radial rays
also bend away from the direction of destroying.
 ANALYSIS OF GLASS FROM VEHICLES
Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage
of crimes. If an automobile or any vehicle for that
matter is discovered in which the fragment of the
lens can be found, a comparison may be made with
the fragments found at the scene of accident employing
the methods of analysis of glass.
 ANALYSIS OF BROKEN WINDOWS
Examination of broken window fragments in robbery
cases is important when there is a question of “as to
what glass was broken from the outside or inside”. Since
our penal law specifically the direction provides the mode
of entrance before a crime may be classified as robbery,
this particular kind of examination becomes very
important. The general procedure to determine whether a
glass was broken from the outside or inside is to collect
and piece together as much of the glass as possible in
order to study the patterns of cracks.
BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY BULLET HOLES

It is easy to determine the direction from which the shot was fired

1.On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be
found to have been blown away giving the hole appearance of
volcano creater.
2.If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the flake
marks are evenly distributed around the hole
3.If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will
suffer more flaking than the right
4.Excessive flaking’s on the right side of the window pane
indicate the shot fired at an angle from the left.
 BROKEN WINDOWS CAUSED BY STONE
The direction of the blow in case the window was smashed
by fist or stone is quite difficult but the principle of radial crack
and concentric crack or fracture will apply.
THE PRINCIPLE OF 3R’s RULE FOR RADIAL CRACK AND
RFC RULE FOR CONCENTRIC
3R’s Rule - states that the “stress lines on radial cracks will be at
the right angle to the rear side of the glass”.
RFC Rule - states that the “stress lines on concentric cracks
will be at the right angle to the front side of the glass”.
 FOOT IMPRESSION AND TOOL IMPRESSION
Impression - is a strong mark produced by a pressure
that goes below the surface. This can refer to a stamp
form or figure resulting from a physical contact and it
caused damage to an object.

Moulage - is a faithful reproduction of an impression with

the used of casting materials.
Casting Materials - any material which can be change from
a plastic or liquid state to the solid condition.
Plaster of Paris - best casting materials for foot impression
and tire impression.
 OTHER CASTING MATERIALS
1. Wood metal - used for small impression
2. Plastic Material - like plasticine and dental
composition used for small impression in dental
3. Negocoll - used for human body as cast of hand or face
(Gelatinous material consist of colloidal magnesium
soap)
4. Hominit - for human body
 METALLURGY
Metallurgy - the art of extracting and working on metals by
the application of chemical and physical knowledge.

Metallography - branch of metallurgy that involves

the study of microstructure of metals and alloys
Application of Metallurgy in Criminal Investigation
Robbery, theft, bomb and explosion, nail
examination, counterfeit coins, and restoration of
tampered serial numbers.
Counterfeit coins - are coins made up to imitate the
real thing and used for gain
TWO KINDS OF COUNTERFEIT COINS

1. Cast coin - cast made on molds

2.Struck coins - made by striking or stamping method

RESTORATION OF TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS

Tampered serial numbers are restored by the

application of itching fluids
SOIL (PETROGRAPHY as APPLIED to CRIME DETECTION)

Petrography - branch of geology that deals with the

systematic classification and identification of rocks, rock forming
minerals and soil also includes the study of dust, dirt, safe
insulation, ceramics, and other materials both natural and artificial.

Types of soil

1. Alluvial - formed from soil particles that were washed blown

or move by gravity to the low lands.
2. Colluvial – formed from decomposition of igneous rock,
metamorphic and sedimentary
3. Sedentary – inactive, not migratory soil
 CONSTITUENT OF SOIL

1. Primary Minerals - includes undecomposed rock fragments ranging

from down through pebbles, stone
Important Primary Minerals
Quartz - from silica, crystalline minerals usually color less
and transparent Calcite/lime stone- white in appearance and
reacts with acid with the evolution of carbon dioxide.
Feldspar (silicate of aluminum, sodium or barium, calcium,
potassium
Dolomite - white mineral obtained from sedimentary
rocks, similar to lime stone. Mica- mineral that crystallizes
in thin, flexible layers and is resistant to heat.
Other primary minerals like gypsum, talc, kaolinite, limonite, and
magnetite
2. Clay Minerals - a product of decomposition of primary
minerals, pure clay is considered by criminologist to be
hydrated aluminum silicate. The color of clay soil varies
from white to red, yellow green, green or blue depending
on the nature of mixed impurities.

3. Organic Constituents - these are peculiar importance

in the identification of soil.
ANALYSIS OF SOIL

Several methods of petrographic analysis that

are being used in laboratory to established the
identity of two or more samples of soil.
Density Gradient Apparatus is a simple
apparatus utilizing simple procedure in determining
their identity or non-identity of soil samples base on
density distribution.
APPLICATION OF SOIL TO SCIENTIFIC CRIME
DETECTION The value of soil as evidence depends
wholly upon the
fact that soil differs in various characteristics over the
surface of earth.

DUST AND DIRT

They have been describe as “matter in wrong
place”. The study of such pieces of evidence may
be often provide the investigator with clues as to
occupation or previous whereabouts of a person.
Dust - matter which is dry and finely divided form

Mud - dust mixed with water

Grime (heavy dirt) - this is formed when dust is mixed with sweat
and grease with human body

COMPOSITION OF DUST
Whatever is the origin of dust and wherever it is found, it
always contain substances derived from substances of plant and
animal origin and substances of mineral origin.
 CLASSIFICATION OF DUST
1.Dust deposited from the air
2.Road and footpath dust
3.Industrial dust
4.Occupational dust

ANALYSIS OF DUST AND DIRT

The identification of dust/dirt is usually made for
the purpose of determining the occupation of the
suspect or finding the evidence which may be similar or
identical with that found at the scene of crime.
ARSON
One of the most heinous crimes committed by man.
An offense of great malignity and probably more
destructive than murder.
What constitute Arson?

1. Willfulness - intentional and implies that the act

was done purposely and intentional
2. Intent - is the purpose or design with which the act is
done and involves the will. This is an essential element
of arson while motive is not.
3. Motive – is the moving cause that induces
the commission of a crime.
4. Malice – denotes hatred or ill will or a desire for
revenge. It is the intent to do injury to another.
 There is a deliberate intention of doing unjustified harm for the satisfaction
of doing it.

1. A fire can only be considered as arson if all accidental and natural

causes of fire can be eliminated. The mere burning of a building does
not constitute the body of the crime.

2. To prove the body of the crime is necessary to show:

a. First, the building in question is burned.
b. Second, it was burned as a result of the intentional criminal act of
the accused.
c. To constitute burning, there must be some burning or charring, that is,
the fiber of the wood must be destroyed, and it’s identify changed. It
is not necessary that the building be seriously damaged. A
mere smoking, scorching or discoloration of the wood is not sufficient.
BASIC LINES OF INQUIRY IN THE INVESTIGATION OF
ARSON

1.Origin of fire
2.Motive
3.Identification of prime suspect
4.Identification of fire setter.
Origin of the Fire - the first step in recognizing arson is
the exclusion if all accidental and natural causes of fire.
CAUSES OF FIRE
Fire may belong to anyone of the following,
1. Natural causes without human intervention
q Lightning
q Explosion
q Spontaneous combustion
q Miscellaneous causes, examples: damage to
electric cables due to earthquake or storm,
breaking of gas, pipes, etc.
2. Accidental causes with or without human intervention
a.Faulty wiring
b.Careless handling of inflammables
c.Children playing with match
d.Careless smokers
e.Careless handling of electric stoves, candle cigarette butts,
mosquito coils
f.Arson or touch off fires (a set of fire) – when all natural and
accidental cause have been eliminated then the fire is
classified as suspicious and it is then the task of the
investigation
to determine if it is in fact a “touch off” fire.
TELL TALES SIGNS – signs that may be obvious
for the firemen to suspect arson. These are to
be observed to determine if it is really arson.
SOME TELL TALE SIGNS OF ARSON:

1. Burned building – a type of building may indicate a

set fire under some circumstances
2. Separate fire – the fire is certainly suspicious when
two or more separate fires broke out within a
building.
3. Color of smoke – some fire burn with little or no smoke
but they are the exceptions. The observation of the smoke must be
made at the start of the fire since once the fire has assumed a
major proportion, the value of smoke is lost because the smoke
will not indicate the materials used by the arsonists.
q White smoke appears before the water comes in contact with the
fire – indicates humid materials burning like burning hay,
vegetable materials phosphorous (with garlic odor).
q Biting smoke, irritating the nose and throat and causing
lacrymation and coughing –indicates presence of chlorine.
q Black or grayish smoke – indicates lack of air if accompanied by
large flame, it indicates the presence of petroleum and
petroleum products and rubber, tar, coal and turpentine.
q Reddish brown smoke – indicates nitrocellulose, sulfur,
sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric acid.
4. Color of flame – the color of the flame is a good indication of
the intensity of fire and sometimes of the nature of the
combustible substance present.
Examples: burning alcohol – blue flame
Burning petroleum products – red flame
5. Size of fire – the size of the fire should be noticed at the time
of arrival and at the subsequent intervals thereafter. The
rapid extension of the fire is indicative of the use of accelerants.
6. Direction of travel – fire normally sweeps upward, the
travel of fire is predictable from a knowledge of the
construction of the building. Flames tend to rise until meeting
obstacles they project horizontally to seek other vertical outlets.
The extent and rate of travel depend primarily on the direction of
the wind and on ventilating condition like open doors and
windows.
5.Intensity – the degree of heat given off by a fire and the color
of its flame often times indicate that some accelerants have
been added to the material normally present in a building.
6. Location of flame – investigator should note whether there
is more than one apparent point of origin and should try
to estimate the approximate location of each.
9. Odors – many accelerants emit characteristics odors
especially liquid like turpentine, alcohol, kerosene and gasoline.
POINT OF ORIGIN OF THE FIRE
In cases of arson, it is in the area that the physical
evidence if the criminals design is likely to be discovered.
This may be established by an examination of the witnesses
at the scene and by inspecting the debris at the fire scene
or by both. To be able to conduct a thorough examination of
the scene, it is important to interrogate the following
witnesses:

a.The discoverer of the fire

b.The second person who activated the alarm
c.And lastly, any other witness that can be found. Inspection
of the crime scene must be done immediately to determine
the point of origin and possibly to establish the arsonist’s
technique.
FIRE SETTING MECHANISM
The technique, devices, and materials employed by the
arsonist vary with his mentality and with his emotional
condition immediately prior to the commission of the
offense. An arsonist may use the simplest method such
as using a match and some papers or he may use an
elaborate mean to start the fire. He may use a mechanical
method or a chemical method to start the fire.
TWO METHODS TO START FIRE:
1. Mechanical method
o Matches
o Candles, cigarettes -slow burning initiating arrangement
o Mechanical devices as clock mechanism, altered equipment, magnifying glass,
animals tied to ignition devices like portable lamp or stove – usually time delay
arrangement.
o Electrical system/mishap – usually occurs in modern building that are heavily
equipped with electrical wirings to supply fixtures, machines and heating
purposes.
o Inflammable gases such as illuminating gas and sewer gas.
o Heating appliances as heaters, sparklers – heater like flat iron and toaster,
sparklers like electrical switches, doorbells and telephone boxes.
o Explosive – nitroglycerine, TNT, mercury fulminate, and gun powder. Fire is a
common consequence of explosion. Nitroglycerine is the most common
employed explosive.
2. Chemical method
o Hot water or ice bag used as receptacle for
phosphorous and water ignition device.
o Metallic sodium ignited by drops of water.
o Potassium chlorate, sugar and sulfuric acid
o Chemical devices such as thermit bombs and
phosphorous.
INCENDIARY MATERIALS – are materials used to start fire. They
are combustible such as fuels.
1. Arson chemicals – are often used by arsonists as accelerants.
They possess excellent incendiary properties. Examples:
alcohol, benzene, petroleum, ether, gasoline, kerosene, naphtha
and turpentine.
2. Gases such as acetylene, butane, CO, ethylene, hydrogen,
natural gas, and propane. – These are common gases resulting
in fires from explosion.
3. Solid such as chlorates, perchlorates, chromates, bichromates,
nitrates, permanganates – these are typical families of oxidizing
agents which give off oxygen on decomposition, thus, aid in
explosion,
MOST COMMON ACCIDENTAL CAUSES OF FIRE
1.Careless discarding of cigarettes
2.Careless disposition of readily combustible materials
3.Poorly managed or defective heating system
4.Spontaneous combustion
5.Sun rays focused by bubbles in window pane
6.Explosion from petroleum products, alcohol and other
substances
7.Lightning
8.Electrical mishaps
MOTIVE – although it is not necessary to establish a positive
motive, the fact that the element of intent is essential in
proving arson suggests the importance of showing motive. In
cases where great dependence is placed in circumstantial
evidence, it is especially important to prove a motive.
FIVE MOTIVES THAT PREDOMINATE IN ARSON CASES:
1. Economic gain
2. Concealment of crime
3. Punitive measure
4. Intimidation and economic disabling
5. Pyromania
TYPES OF PRSON WHO SET FIRES
1. Person with motive
2. Person without a motive
PERSON WITH MOTIVE TO SET FIRE
a. Those with motive to defraud the insurer
b. Employees or such other persons who have grievances
c. Those desire to conceal evidence of other crimes
d. Those who set fire for intimidation
e. Pyromania – an uncontrollable impulse toward incendiarism. A term used to
describe a condition of mind leading to an act of arson.
Pyromaniac – a type person who has passions for fire that can be satisfied
only by watching flames. Person who derives pleasure in watching a
fireman put out the fire.
PERSON WITHOUT MOTIVE TO START FIRE:
a. Mental cases
b. Pathological fire-setters
c. Pyros
d. Psychos

IDENTIFICATION OF FIRE SETTER

The final basic line of inquiry to be pursued by an arson
investigator concerns which one of the prime suspects is the
fire setter and who were his accomplices if any. This
identification results to the full development of leads, clues, and
traces. The testimony of persons particularly the eyewitness
and the development of expert testimony may be of value.
 GUIDE IN THE INVESTIGATION OF FIRE SCENE
The fire scene holds and thorough search of the scene of
a suspicious fire is a basic part of the initial investigation.
The following points must be given due attention:

1.The scene must be protected so that evidence is not

destroyed or removed either by careless persons or the
guilty party.
2.Mechanics of search
3.Collection and preservation of evidence
4.Laboratory aids
COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF AR ON
EVIDENCE
1.Two or three quartz of ash and soot debris must be
collected at the point of origin of the fire.
2.Specimens should be immediately packed in an airtight
container.
a.Newly cleaned paint cans with friction lids can be used
because they are airtight and unbreakable.
b.Wide-mouthed jars can be used provided they contain
airtight lids,
c.Leave an air space in the container above the debris.
3. Plastic polyethylene bags are not suitable for
packaging.
4. Fluids found in open bottles or cans must be collected
and sealed.
5. A thorough search of the scene should be undertaken
for ignitors.
6. Collector clothing of the suspect/perpetrator and place
in a separate airtight container
7. Freeze sample containing soil or vegetation.
DETERMINATION OF ARSON CHEMICALS IN DEBRIS
1.Preliminary test – the debris is reacted with rhodokrit
powder for the possible presence of inflammable
substances such as gasoline, kerosene, turpentine,
alcohol, etc.
2.The debris is steam distilled and the distillate collected.
3.The distillate is analyzed in one of the following
instrument for confirmation:
Ø Gas-chromatograph-mass spectra
Ø Gas-liquid chromatograph
Ø High performance liquid chromatography
 DNA
During the mid-1980, DNA was first recognize as having application to forensic
science by the British molecular biologist Alex Jeffreys. From work in his
laboratory, as well from others, it is realized that DNA at a vast number of sites
was unique between individuals. As such, DNA has been utilized as a new
powerful tool for human identification. It offers the following advantages:

1. DNA IS STABLE – it can be isolated from material that is months or even

years old.
2. DNA can be obtained from a wide variety of biological sources like blood,
semen, hair, saliva, and bone.
3. DNA can be replicated in the laboratory from a very small amount of initial
material through the process of POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION.
4. DNA shows greater variability from one individual to the next.
What is DNA?
- DNA is functionally the hereditary material that contains the
genetic information necessary for the duplication of cells and
for the production of proteins. Chemically, it is an acid, is
phosphorous rich, it contains a deoxyribose sugar, it contains
the four bases adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and
guanine (G), and that bases show the unique property of
pairwise equivalency. It is a double helix composed of two
complimentary strands.
FACTS ABOUT DNA
1. DNA = de-oxy-ri-bo-nu-cle-ic acid
DNA is a chemical substance found in all cells whose composition
have been passed from parents to their children. All cells in the
body have the same DNA composition except individual egg and
sperm cells.
2. BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCES – that can be submitted for DNA analysis:
ü Blood and bloodstain
ü Semen and seminal stain
ü Hairs with follicles or roots
ü Saliva or buccal swab
ü Bones and organs
ü Tissues and cells
3. LINE UP CASES where DNA analysis can be of help:
ü Sexual assaults like rape
ü Murder
ü Homicide
ü Extortion
ü Paternity case
ü Identification of remains from
ü Robbery mass disaster cases and missing
ü Hit and run cases persons
4. How DNA analysis is used to identify with accuracy
the perpetrators of the crime?
Human tissues such as hair, blood, semen are
often left in places where a crime has been
committed. By careful collection, such as bits of
tissues, hair in kidnapper’s lairs, bloodstains in
clothing associated with murder, saliva stains in
cigarettes butts, stamps, envelopes associated with
extortion have all been used to help identify
criminals.
GUIDELINES FOR THE COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF SA PLE
EVIDENCE FOR DNA ANALYSIS
There are hundreds of varieties of physical evidence commonly submitted
for examinations for forensic science laboratories by law enforcement
agencies. Evidence that can be subjected to DNA analysis is genetically
limited to substances that are biological in nature. The following is a list of
biological materials from which DNA has been successfully isolated and
analyzed:
1. Blood and bloodstains
2. Semen and seminal stains
3. Saliva and buccal swab
4. Hairs with follicles
5. Tissues and cells
6. Bones and organs
DNA ANALYSIS
There are many types of DNA testing that are presently available. One
detects the presence of RFLP’S (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism)
in the DNA. This is commonly known as “DNA Profiling” or “DNA
fingerprinting” and in the most cases results in neither a positive or exclusion
of an individual as a donor. This analysis requires approximately 100
nanograms of high quality DNA for a successful examination. DNA analysis in
forensic casework was first performed using this technique. In this approach,
purified DNA is first cut with certain restrictions endonucleases and the run
on an agarose gel. The separated DNA fragments are subsequently blotted
onto a membrane and exposed to radioactivity, labeled probes specific for
regions, located between restriction sites, which vary in length within the
population. Autoradiography then reveals labeled restriction fragments, the
banding pattern of which is used for comparison between victim and suspect
for comparison with a database.
The advent of PCR technology and its application to
forensic science, brought a new way of examining
biological evidence and has paved the way for other
technique, the PCR amplification and typing of typing of
the HLA DQA1 and 5 Polymarkers (PM) loci which
requires only 2 nanograms of DNA. PCR analysis of
biological evidence was first used in a criminal case in
the United States in 1986 and has been used in a large
number of court cases and has proved a reliable and
widely accepted method of examination of human
identity.
TOXICOLOGY
TOXICOLOGY – the branch of science which treats of
poison, their origin, physical and chemical properties,
physiological action, treatment of their noxious effect
and methods of detection.

TOXICOLOGY:

TOXIC – means poison

OLOGY – means science
Poison – from the medical point of view, is a substance
which when introduced into the body and is absorbed
through the blood stream and acting chemically is
capable of producing noxious effect or even causes
death.
 CLASSIFICATION OF POISON
1. According to kingdom
§ Animal – ex. Cantharides
§ Vegetable – ex. Strychnine
§ Mineral – ex. Hydrochloric acid
2. According to chemical properties
A. Inorganic poisons
§ Volatile and non-volatile – ex. Bromine, chlorine,
iodine, sulfuric acid
§ Mineral acid – ex. Hydrochloric acid
§ Mineral Alkali – ex. Sodium hydroxide
B. Organic poisons
§ Volatile – ex. Alcohol, chloroform
§ Alkaloids – ex. Strychnine
Alkaloids – are nitrogenous organic basic compound
with bitter taste containing usually oxygen that occurs
especially in seed plants.
§ Animal poison – ex. Snake venom
§ Bacterial poison – ex. Ptomaine
§ Organic poison – Salicylic acid
§ Glucosides – ex. Digitalis
4. According to physical Actions
v Corrosives – these are highly irritant poisons which cases
local destruction of tissues and characterized by nausea,
vomiting, and great local distress. Ex. Strong acids and
alkalis.
v Irritants – One which produces irritation or inflammation
of the mucus membrane and characterized by vomiting,
pain in abdomen, and purging. Ex. Arsenic
v Narcotics – poisons which produce stupor, complete
insensibility or loss of feeling.
Ex. Opium, Demerol, cocaine.
v Neurotics – one which act chiefly on the nervous system
producing delirium, convulsion, and
v Tetanics – substance which acts directly upon the
spinal column producing such spasmodic and
continuous contraction of muscles as a result of
stiffness or immobility of the parts to which they are
attached.
v Depressants of sedatives – agents which retard or
depress the physiological action of organ.
Ex. Nicotine and cocaine
v Aesthenics or exhaustive – agents which produce
exhaustion, marked loss of vital or muscular power.
Ex. Hyrdrocyanic acid.
4. According to Pharmacological Action
• Substance characterized but local action.
Ex. Volatile oils, skin irritants
• Substances characterized by their action after
absorption.
Ex. Alkaloid
• Heavy metals and metalloids.
Ex. Arsenic and mercury
5. According to method isolation
• Volatile poisons and those that are isolated by distillation
with or without current of steam.
Examples: alcohol, phenol, chloroform
• Non-volatile poisons – those that are isolated by extraction
with organic solvents.
Examples: alkaloids, organic acids
• Metallic poisons
Examples: arsenic, mercury
• Substances for which special method of isolation are
required.
Examples: acids and alkali metals are extracted by water.
TYPES OF POISONING
1. From medical point of view.
2. From the legal point of view.
TYPES OF POISONING FROM THE MEDICAL POINT OF VIEW
1. Acute poisoning – one in which there is prompt and marked
disturbance of function or death within a short time due to either
taking a strong poison in excessive single dose or several doses at
short interval.
2. Sub-acute poisoning – cases of short duration and extreme violence
which may include symptoms of chronic poisoning
3. Chronic poisoning - a kind of poisoning in which there is
gradual deterioration of tissue function and may or may not result in
death. It is produced by either taking several small doses at long
intervals or taking only toxic doses of the drug.
TYPES OF LEGAL POISONING FROM THE LEGAL POINT F VIEW
1. Accidental poisoning – those in which the poison was taken
without intention to cause death. It may be taken by mistake or
without knowing that it is poisonous.
2. Suicidal poisoning – those in which the poison was taken by the
victim voluntarily for the purpose of taking his own life.
3. Homicidal poisoning – those in which the poison was given
willfully and with intent to cause the death of the victim.
4. Undetermined – those in which the history is hazy as to how the
poison was obtained and why it was administered.
ACTIONS OF POISONS
a. Local – the changes or disturbance produced on the
part with which the poison comes in contact. Ex. The
corrosions produced by corrosive poisons
b. Remote – the changes or disturbance produced in
distant part from the site application. Ex Dilation of the
pupils when belladonna is taken orally.
c. Combined – the effect of the poison is not only localized
on the site but also affect remote organs. Ex. Phenol
causes corrosion of the gastro-intestinal tract (local) and
causes convulsion (action on the cord).
CONDITIONS MODIFYING THE ACTION OF POISONS
A.THOSE ATTRIBUTED TO THE INDIVIDUAL
• Age and sex
• Health
• Habit – the repeated taking of small doses of drug
• Idiosyncrasy – a term applied to individuals who
exhibit unusual reactions to certain substances.
• Diseases
• Food
• Sleep
• Exhaustion
B. THOSE ATTRIBUTED TO THE POISON:
• Physical stated or form of the poison
• Dilution
• Solubility if the poisons
• Mode of administration at one time
• Chemical combination
• Mechanical combination
• Dose – is the quantity of a poison to be administered.
POSOLOGY – a branch of science, which treats the form and
quantity of medicine to be administered within a certain period
of time.

KINDS OF DOSE
1. Safe dose – one that does not cause any harmful effect.
2. Toxic or Poisonous dose – one that is harmful to both the healthy and
sick
3. Lethal dose – one that kills
4. Minimum dose – is the smallest amount that will produce the
therapeutic effect without causing harm.
5. Maximum dose – is the largest amount that will cause no harm and at
the same time produces the desired therapeutic effect
 ENTRANCE OF POISON
POISON MAY ENTER THE BODY THROUGH:
1. Mouth are absorbed into the circulation after passing
through the stomach and intestinal wall.
2. The noses and enter the blood from the upper
respiratory passages or lungs.
3. Eyes
4. Rectum, vagina, urethra, bladder and ureter by
injection.
5. Hypodermic injection
6. Intravenous injection
 ELIMINATION OF POISONS
Poisons may be eliminated by:
1.Emesis
2.Respiration
3.Feces
4.Urine
5.Milk
6.Saliva
7.Sweat
8.Tears
DIAGNOSIS OF POISONING BEFORE DEATH –
Diagnosis of poisoning before death is very difficult
because of:
1. The large number of poison and the factors
modifying them
2. Some of the symptoms observed in cases of
poisoning are also seen in certain diseases.
 DISTINGUISHING POISON FROM DISEASE
1. Symptoms of poisoning come suddenly in a person who
previously has been in good health, while diseases are usually
preceded by a number of hours, days, or even weeks of local or
general disposition.
2. In case of poisoning, the symptoms commonly make their
appearances after taking of food and medicines.
3. If several persons take the same food and drinks, they should
all show similar symptoms.
4. Diseases are generally much slower in their progress and are
preceded by circumstances such as exposure, recognized
symptoms and general or local indisposition of longer duration.
 SYMPTOMS CAUSED BY POISONING AND DISEASE
1. Vomiting (frequently associated with purging and abdominal pain)
POSIONS: arsenic, antimony, corrosive acid and alkali, barium,
cantharides, digitalis, copper, iodine, mercury, phosphorous, phenols,
wood, alcohol
DISEASE: gastritis, gastro-enteritis, choler, acidosis, early stage of
pregnancy, brain tumor.
2. Convulsion
POISON: cyanide, strychnine
DISEASE: tetanus, epilepsy, uremia
3. Coma
POISON: opium, and most of its derivatives, chloral hydrate, paraldehyde,
CO2, chloroform, atropine, various alcohols and phenols
DISEASE: uremia, acidosis, cerebral thrombosis
4. Dilation of pupils
POISON: belladonna, cocaine, nicotine
DISEASE: certain nervous diseases cause optic atrophy
5. Contraction of pupils
POISON: opium and its derivatives, physostigmine and
its derivatives
DISEASE: certain diseases of the nervous system
6. General and partial paralysis
POISON: cyanides, CO and CO2, botulism
DISEASE: brain tumor, meningitis.
7. Slow respiration
POISON: opium and its derivatives, CO
DISEASE: uremia, compression of the brain as from
hemorrhage
8. Rapid respiration
POISON: atropine group, cocaine, C02
DISEASE: acute respiratory disease
9. Delirium
POISON: atropine group, cannabis, cocaine
DISEASE: epilepsy, insanity, meningitis
10. Cyanosis
POISON: nitrobenzene, aniline, acetanilide, opium
DISEASE: disease of cardiac and respiratory system
GENERALL TREATMENT OF POISONING
After the physician has recognized that he is dealing
with poisoning cases, his chief effort should be directed
towards treatment of the patient.
The plan of the procedure as it follows:
1.Removal of poison from the stomach
2.Administration of antidotes
3.Elimination of poison by excretion
4.Stimulation and other symptomatic treatment
5.Special treatment
REMOVAL OF POISON FROM THE STOMACH
If the poison is taken orally, the removal of the poison
is brought about by:
1. Inducing vomiting using emetics
EMETIC- substance or agent that produces vomiting
2. Use of stomach pump of stomach tube
If the poison is applied or instilled – wash
If the poison is injected – ligatures and bleeding
ANTIDOTES – are any agents which neutralize a poison or otherwise
counteract of oppose it or its effects.
ADMINISTRATION OF ANTIDOTES
KINDS OF ANTIDOTES
A. Mechanical antidote – an agent that removes the poison without
changing it or coats the surface of the organ so that absorption is
prevented.
Examples of mechanical antidote:
1. Stomach or tubes of pumps
2. Emetics
3. Cathartics
4.
Demulcents
 5.
Precipitants
EMETIC – is a substance the produces vomiting.
CLASSES OF EMETICS
a. Local Emetics – produce their effects by their irritation of the
terminal nerve filaments of the pharynx, esophagus or stomach.
b. System or general emetics – produce their effects through the
medium of circulation.
CATHARTICS – agents which produce intestinal evacuation.
DEMULCENTS – substance which soothe and protect the part which
they are applied.
PERCIPTANTS – these are substances which prevent absorption of
poisons by precipitating them and rendering them soluble.
A. Chemical Antidotes – is a substance that makes the
poison harmless by chemically altering it.
B. Physiological Antidotes – sometimes called
antagonist. An agent that acts upon the system so as
to counteract the effect of the poison. It merely mask
the symptoms produced.
ELIMINATION OF POISON BY EXCRETION
Poison are eliminated through the excretory
organs. This is done by the intravenous infusion of
saline solution, diluted alkali solution or diluted
solution of glucose. The poison is generally
excreted through the urine, feces, vomitus or
saliva.
STIMULATION OF OTHER SYMPTOMATIC TREATMENTS
1. Fore excessive pain – morphine or analgesic
2. For convulsion – chloroform
3. For shock – oxygen inhalation
SPECIAL TREATMENT
a. If the poison is a gas – there is an immediate need for fresh air
and artificial respiration.
b. If the poison is external, like burn on the hand by concentrated
acid – wash with plenty of water or with alcohol, sodium
bicarbonate, lime water, or milk of magnesia.
c. If alkali burn – wash with lemon or other citrus fruits.
d. If the poison came from a bite or injection – the poison can
be checked from spreading through the body by
applying tourniquet or a restricting band tightly above the
wound. This retards the absorption of the poison by the
blood. The poison may then be removed by sucking.
INVESTIGATION OF FATAL CASES
In the investigation of fatal cases, it is not necessary that an investigator
should be an expert in poisons since he will be assisted in his investigation by
a medico legal officer and a toxicologist. Then again, it is important and will be
of great help to him if he knows the following:
1. Symptoms of various kinds of poisoning
2. The lethal dose of poisoning
3. The length of time that may elapse after the poison has been taken before
death occurs
4. Where the poison was obtained
5. The chemical formula of the poison
6. Other names it is known in the market
7. Use of poison
8. Antidote of the poison
EVIDENCE OF POISONING IN THE LIVING BODY
The evidence of poisoning will depend upon whether
the poisoning is acute or chronic. In acute poisoning,
the symptoms appear suddenly while the individual is in
good health. The person is usually affected with a
group of symptoms of definite characteristics out of
consonance with his precious state of health. In chronic
poisoning, the onset of symptoms is more gradual and
insidious due to the small quantity of poisons which has
been administered on such occasion since the intention
of the prisoned is to kills the victim slowly in order to
advert suspicion.
EVIDENCE OF POISONING IN THE DEAD
In all cases of poisoning whether homicidal or suicidal, fatal
or not, the presence of poison must be proven and proofs
of poisoning in the dead may be obtained from:
1. The post - mortem examination or autopsy – an examinations of
a dead body especially to determine the cause of death.
2. Evidence from chemical analysis of the organs taken from the
body – the most important proof of poisoning is the detection of
the poison within the body. In some cases, however, on account
of the decomposition of the tissue, the lapse of time between
death and examination, and the instability of some poisons,
negative results may be obtained even if the time of death
certain poisons are present.
 SPECIMEN/ ORGANS TO BE SUBMITTED FOR CHEMICO-TOXICOLOGICAL ANA YSIS
SPECIMEN/ORGANS MINIMUM AMOUNT POISONS FOR WHICH BEST
SUITED
1. Stomach content all available in case of poisoning in which it is suspected that the
poison was taken by mouth within a few hours.
2. Stomach the whole stomach for all types of poisoning taken by mouth
3. Intestinal contents all available for cases in in which poison was taken by mouth
within one or two days.
4. Liver 300 grams metals, barbiturates, fluorides, oxalate, sulfonals and many other
poisons.
5. Kidney one kidney metals, especially Hg, sulfonamides Blood at least 10 cc all gas
poisons, sulfonamides, bromides alcoholism, drowning for chloride contents.
6. Brain 500 grams volatile poisons, barbiturates, alkaloids, alcoholism
7. Urine all available in nearly all types of poisoning
8. Bone 200 grams lead, arsenic, radium
9. Muscles 200 grams in most acute poisoning and internal organs are badly putrefied
10.Hairs 5 grams chronic arsenic poisoning
REASONS FOR NEGATIVE RESULTS OF THE TOXICOL GI AL
EXAMINATION
1. Some poisons may be rapidly altered in the body to a form
which is not detectable by the methods of analysis employed.
2. Some poisons with or without previous chemical change may
be rapidly excreted although its toxic effect remains, and may
only be detectable in the urine but not in the body tissues or
organs.
3. Sometimes symptoms of poisoning may appear, which may be
fatal fallowing the administration of even small and ordinarily
harmless quantity of a substance classed as a poison.
FORENSIC QUESTIONS FOR THE TOXICOLOGIST TO EXPLAIN/ANSWER:
In every case of poisoning, the expert is often confronted with forensic questions
which he should explain in order to help the investigator in assessing the evidence.
1. Was the death or illness of the subject cause by poison?
2. What poison produced the illness or death?
3. When and how was the poison administered?
4. Could the substance that was administered cause illness or death?
5. Was the poison found by the toxicologist in the body the poison which caused the
death?
6. Is the substance given in minute quantity a poison?
7. Was the poison taken in sufficient quantity to produce death?
8. May poisoning have occurred and the poison either be or become detectable?
9. May the poison extracted from the body have an origin other than that of
poisoning?
10.May the poisoning be stimulated?
PRESERVATION OF SPECIMENS FOR TOXICO OGICAL
EXAMINATION
1. Blood – place in a tube test with sodium oxalate or
anticoagulant.
2. Refrigerate with solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) good for 72 hours
3. Chemical preservative – 100 cc ethyl alcohol (95%) for each
100
grams of sample and extra 250 cc for analysis.
4. Do not use denatured alcohol, rubbing alcohol, or similar
preservative since denaturant will give false and misleading
results in the analysis.
5. Formalin – extremely undesirable as preservative of specimen
for toxicological examination since it will seriously interfere
with the test for most organic poisons.
LABORATORY METHODS USED IN TOXICOLIGICAL
ANALYSIS
1. Physical test
2. Crystalline test
3. Chemical test
4. Spectrophotometric test
5. Chromatographic test
LAWS REGARDING THE SALE AND STORAGE OF ONS
– The laws controlling the sale and storage of poison are
found under Section 755 to 757 of the Administrative Code.
1. Section 755 – provisions relative to dispensing of violent
poisons like arsenic, cyanide, atropine, cocaine, morphine,
strychnine
2. Section 756 – provisions relative to dispensing of less
violent poisons like aconite, belladonna, cantharides,
digitalis, ergot, carbolic acid, chloroform
3. Section 767 – receptacle for poisonous drugs
THREE STAGES IN CHLOROFORM POISONING
1. Stage of excitement
2. Stage of surgical anesthesia
3. Stage of paralysis
COMMON VOLATILE, NON-VOLATILE AND METALLIC POISONS:
1. Benzene – also called Benzol. A solvent for rubber, gums resins and fats.
2. Carbon disulfide – a solvent for sulfur. Burns with bluish flame giving carbon
dioxide and carbon disulfide.
3. Nitrobenzene – a pale yellow, oily liquid with sweet odor. Resembles oil of bitter
almond.
4. Acetone – used as solvent for cellulose acetate and nitrocellulose. Colorless liquid
of characteristic odor.
5. Ether – highly volatile and inflammable liquid. Transparent, colorless, mobile
liquid. Used as general anesthesia. Safer than chloroform
6. Caffeine – found in coffee
7. Salicylic acid – found in “ap-ap” solution.
8. Formalin – an embalming fluid
9. Cocaine – found in coca leaf
10. Picrotoxin – derived from fish berries (the fruit of pictroxin.) Locally known as
“lagtang”.
11. Ethyl alcohol or ethanol – alcohol found in wine. Also called grain
alcohol.
12. Ergot – develops in rye plants. A fungus that grows in kernels of rye
and other cereal grains.
13. Barbiturates – sleeping pills. A derivative of malonyl urea or barbituric
acid. Example: secobarbital, Phenobarbital, amobarbital
14. Strychnine – an alkaloid found in dried ripe fruits of nux vomica.
15. Nicotine – found in leaves of tobacco plants.
16. Morphine – found in poppy plants (papaver somniferum). An alkaloid
present in opium by about 9%; white crystals.
17. Physostigmine – also called serine. Found in calabar beans.
18. Chloral hydrate – used as “knock out” drops.
19. Carbolic acid or phenol – obtained from coal tar. A very violent poison.
20. Arsenic – a rat poison. Brittle, steel gray.
21. Lysol – a disinfectant. A brown liquid from cresol and soap emulsion.
22. Methyl alcohol or methanol – causes blindness. A solvent for varnish. An
anti-freeze in automobiles. Also called wood alcohol.
23. Chloroform – colorless liquid with sweet taste and suffocating odor. An
anesthesia.
24. Carbon tetrachloride – a dry cleaning agent. Found in “pyrene” fire
extinguisher.
25. Formic acid – acid found in ants and spiders.
26. Hydrogen cyanide – found in kamoteng kahoy. Also called hydrocyanic
acid of prussic acid.
27. Acetic acid – acid found in vinegar. In pure form, it is called glacial acetic
acid.
28. Aspirin – an analgesic. Its chemical name is acetosalicylic acid.
29. Atropine – obtained from the plant group “SOLANACEAE”
30. Phosphorous – glows in the dark.
 ADDITIONAL NOTES IN TOXICOLOGY

1. ETHYL ALCOHOL/ETHANOL- The most heavily abused drugs in the

western world. Alcohol found in wine, beer, gin, vodka, scotch, cognac,
whiskey, brandy, lambanog.

2. POISON -found in the stomach is considered outside the body.

3. LIVER- part of the body where the oxidation of alcohol takes place almost
entirely.

4. OXIDATION AND EXCRETION- way by which elimination of alcohol from the

body is accomplished.

5. CO2 and H2O- 95% to 98% ethanol (C2H5OH) is oxidized in the body.
6. BOTULISM - poisoning from eating foods in which certain bacillus has developed
because of improper canning and preserving.

7. CYANOSIS - the bluish or purplish discoloration of the skin due to deficient

oxygenation of blood.

8. DROSS - the product that remains in the pipe after opium has been smoked.

9. TOXIC - poison produced by microorganism. Poison formed by certain plants and secreted
by certain animals.

10. MESCALINE - the principal alkaloid of the cactus which grows in northern region of
Mexico.

11. HALLUCINOGENS - drugs that produce perceptual alteration, varying emotional

changes, ego distortion and thought disruption.

12. INHALANTS - substance such as glue, gasoline, paints, solvents and the l likes that
are sniffed to obtain intoxication.
13. URINE- the sample of choice for the detection of doping in athletes. The
concentration of a drug in urine maybe about 100 times that in the blood
and it is free from protein with a consequent
low background of interference. The disadvantage of urine is that some
drugs/poisons are excreted almost entirely by this route.

14. SODIUM FLOURIDE - A preservative for blood. It prevents the degradation of blood to
proceed further.

15. BLOOD - the primary specimen used for alcohol analysis.

16. STOMACH CONTENTS- where drugs or poisons when taken orally can be
found in its highest concentration.

17. LIVER - the most useful and best sample for toxicological examination. 18. Saline
Solution – 0.09% NaCl dissolved in Water.
18. STOMACH CONTENTS, BLOOD, URINE, LIVER, BILE,
BRAIN, AND KIDNEYS - Visceral organs often used and best sample
for toxicological examination.
19. BRAIN - the specimen best suited for solvent and cyanide
poisoning.

20. LUNGS - the internal organ to be submitted to the

laboratory for examination in case of poisoning by inhalation.

21. GLASS CONTAINERS - the best containers for liquid

samples for toxicological examination.

22. PLASTIC CONTAINERS - best containers for solid samples for

toxicological examination.
 SOME DEFINITION OF TERMS IN CONNECTION WITH DRUGS
1. DRUGS - is a substance that has an effect upon the body or mind.

2. HALLUCINOGENIC DRUGS - drugs that cause mental disorder causing a

person to perceive objects or experience feeling that have no cause
outside one’s mind.

3. NARCOTIC DRUGS - drug that dull the senses, induces sleep, and with
prolong use becomes addictive.

4. SEDATIVE - agents or drugs that can cause calmness, relieves tension or

irritability. Retards or depress the physiological action of
an organ.
5. STIMULANTS - drugs that temporarily increase the functional activity
of an organ or any of its parts.

6. HYPNOTIC DRUGS - are sleep inducing agents.

7. TRANQUILIZERS - drug that reduces anxiety and tension.

Relieves emotional stress.

8. DRUG DEPENDENCE- is a state of psychological dependence or physical

dependence or both which results from chronic, periodic or
continuous use.

9. HABITUATION – is the psychological desire to repeat the use of a drug

intermittently or continuously because of emotional reasons.
10. ADDICTION – physical dependence upon drug. It scientific definition
includes the development of tolerance and withdrawal.

11. CLANDDESTINE LABORATORY - any facility used for the illegal

manufacture of any dangerous drug and/or controlled
precursors and essential chemicals.

12. PDEA – refers to the Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency under

Sec.82, Article IX of this act.

• Philippus Aurelus Paracelsus – determined that the Specific Chemicals were actually
responsible for the Toxicity of a Plant or Animal Poison.

• Mathieu Orfila – The first to describe a systematic correlation between the Chemical and
Biological properties of poisons of the time. He was considred as the Father of
Toxicology.
EFFECTS OF BLOOD ALCOHOL (ETHANOL) N
CONCENTRATIO
STAGE OF PRESENCE CLINICAL
INTOXICATIO OF MANIFESTATION
N ETHANOL IN
Stimulation BLOOD
0.01 – 0. 10 normal by ordinary
observation
Apparent Stimulation 0.05 – 0.20 decreased inhibition
emotional instability
in coordination
slowing of reaction to stimuli
Confusion 0.10 – 0.30 disturbance of sensation
decrease pain sense
staggering gait
slurred speech
Stupor 0.25 – 0.40 marked decreased to stimuli
approaching paralysis
Coma or Death 0.35 – 0.50 complete unconsciousness
subnormal temperature
anesthesia
impairment of circulation
stertorous breathing
 END!!!
Thank You