FORENSIC SCIENCE 4. Determination of direction of escape of victim or assailant.

5. Determination of origin of flow of blood.

6. Determination of approximate time crime was committed.
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND
TOXICOLOGY CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOOD

Compiled by: ARIANNE PATAGNAN SUPAT Circulating tissue of body

Top 2, June 2022 CLE 1 cc of blood: 5,000,000 red cells.
Man of average size: about 6 quarts of blood (5.68 li)

FORENSIC SCIENCE- is the application of scientific principles Made up of:

to matters involving the law.
A. FORMED ELEMENTS
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY -branch of chemistry which deals with i. RBC (Erythrocytes),
the application of chemical principles in the solution of problems -4.7 to 6.1 million (male), 4.2 to 5.4 million (female)
that arise in connection with the administration of justices
ii. WBC (Leukocytes)
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY- deals with the medical and legal -4,000–11,000 leukocytes
aspects of the harmful effects of chemicals on human beings -attacks and destroys harmful microorganism and
thus serve as one of the body’s defenses against
CRIME SCENE-An area or vicinity of occurrence of physical
infections
evidences

LOCARD’S EXCHANGE PRINCIPLE -“Whenever a criminal iii. PLATELETS (Thrombocytes)

comes into contact with a victim, an object, or a crime scene, he/ -about one platelet is found per 10 – 30 RBC
she will leave behind evidence, and will also take away - stops blood loss
evidence”
B. PLASMA (liquid portion of blood; composing about
SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY 65% of total blood volume)
-90% of the plasma is water. 10% of solids in plasma is
 Legal Medicine
protein
 Ballistics
 Questioned Document Examination
Serum – straw-yellowish liquid seen when blood clots
 Dactyloscopy
 Photography
PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD
FOUR STAGES IN THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC
A. Where blood has to be searched for.
CHEMISTRY
B. Collection, preservation and transportation of specimen
suspected to contain blood.
1. Collection or reception of specimen to be examined;
C. Does stain contain blood or another substance?
a. Sufficiency of samples
D. If stain is blood, is it human or animal? Precipitin Test
b. Standard for comparison
E. If stain is human blood, did it come from victim, accused or
c. Maintenance of individuality
from other persons? Blood Grouping
d. Labeling and sealing
2. Actual examination;
PRELIMINARY TEST TO DETERMINE IF SUBSTANCE IS
3. Communication of results of examination; and
BLOOD
4. Court appearance
1. ADLER’S TEST (BENZIDINE TEST) –
SIX GOLDEN RULES IN THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC
-developed in 1904 by Oskar and Rudolf Adler.
CHEMISTRY
- detects blood in a dilution of 1 to 300,000 parts.
Reagents
1. Go slowly
benzidine solution- dissolved benzidine sulfate in glacial acetic
2. Be thorough
acid + hydrogen peroxide(3% solution)
3. Take notes
positive- intense blue (or bluish-green) color
4. Consult others
5. Use Imagination
2. GUAIACUM TEST
6. Avoid complicated theories
AKA VAN DEEN’S, DAY’S OR SCHONBEIN’S TEST
-detects fresh blood in a solution of 1:50,000 dilutions
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS -does not detect old stains
Reagents
1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in
Guaiac + hydrogen peroxide
favor of perpetrator
Positive- blue
2. For disputed parentage
3. Determination of cause of death length of time victim
3. KASTLE-MEYER TEST (PHENOLPHTHALEIN TEST)
survived attack.
-detect blood in a dilution of 1:80,000,000 parts.
1
Reagents - determine the blood type or types, using the ABO, Rh, MN, and
Kastle- Meyer + hydrogen peroxide other systems described earlier.
positive - deep pink
OTHER BODILY FLUIDS
4. LEUCOMALACHITE TEST 1. Semen,
Reagents 2. Saliva,
Leucomalachite Green Reagent + Hydrogen Peroxide 3. Urine,
Positive reaction: Malachite green with a bluish-green or 4. Vaginal fluids
Peacock blue color

5. HEMASTIX TEST SEMEN

Strip w/ o-toluidine + hydrogen peroxide
Positive: o-toluidine to a greenish product -Fluid produced by male sex organ
-USU. white to yellowish in color
6. LUMINOL TEST 2 parts:
-first developed by the German criminologist Walter Specht in -seminal plasma or fluid, and
1937. -spermatozoa or sperm cells.
-The test is conducted in a darkened room so that the -1 milliliter of semen : USU. 70,000,000 to 150,000,000 sperm
fluorescence produced by blood can be easily seen. cells per
-If blood is present, it fluoresces with a bluish-violet color
Flavins- helps give a yellowish color to semen and cause it to
CONFIRMATORY TEST TO DETERMINE IF SUBSTANCE IS fluoresce under ultraviolet lights
BLOOD
EXAMINATION OF SEMEN
Proof of Bloodstain: presence of characteristic blood
pigment, hemoglobin or one of its derivatives. A. Wet Specimen:
1. Odor: alkaline
Presence of hemoglobin: appearance of specific crystals 2. Preparation for Microscopic Examination
observed under microscope a. Drop of fluid (of semen): placed on glass slide, and
b. Drop of distilled water: added.
1.TEICHMANN OR HAEMIN TEST c. Cover slip: placed over preparation.
-Ludwig Karl Teichmann (1823–95). d. Specimen: examined under high power objective
Reagent
-glacial acetic acid + sodium chloride. B. Dried Specimen
Positive- dark brownish crystals 1. Physical Examination
a. Grayish-white or yellowish stain
2. TAKAYAMA TEST/ HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL b. Starchy stiffness to cloth
TEST c. Under UV light: fluoresces (unspecific for semen).
-Masaeo Takayama, developed in 1912. 2. Chemical Examination
Reagents a. Florence Test – Dark-brown crystals, rhombic or
pyridine- + blood needle-shaped.
positive-salmon-pink color b. Barberio’s Test – Slender yellow-tinted rhomboid
needles with obtuse angles.
3. WAGENHAAR TEST c. Acid Phosphate Test – Orange-red pigment.
a. Acetone-Haematin Test 3. Microscopic Examination
b. Small dark, circular crystals a.Specific test for semen: identification of sperm cell
under microscope.
4. SPECTROSCOPIC EXAMINATION b.Difficult because of many factors which affecting
a. Most delicate and reliable test for presence of blood detection of sperm cells:
b. Uses MICROSPECTROSCOPE: direct vision i. Nature of cloth,
spectroscope that fits into microscope tube in place of ii. Age of stain,
eyepiece. iii. Condition stain was exposed, and
c. Positive result: OXYHAEMOGLOBIN for recent iv. Handling of specimen.
bloodstain; METHAHEMOGLOBIN (converted
oxyhaemoglobin owing to exposure to air & light) in old INTERPRETATION
blood stains.
o Presence of sperm cells: stain is semen.
5. PRECIPITIN TEST/ HUMAN ANTISERUM TEST o Absence of sperm cells: not conclusive stain is not of
-Test to determine whether blood is of human or animal. seminal origin.
Positive: gray precipitin o Reason: These are some conditions which may lead to
non-detection of semen: ASPERMIA and
6. BLOOD GROUPING OLIGOSPERMIA.
-Developed by Karl Landsteiner in 1901

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ASPERMIA- Disorder produced by male organ which produces Muzzle imprint, barrel impression on skin
semen without sperm cells Radiating fracture
Fragmentation of skull
OLIGOSPERMIA-Semen with very few sperm cells Severe laceration of brain and its meninges
Fragments of lead bullet jacket
Singeing of hair

iii. LOOSE CONTACT OR NEAR FIRE

Entrance wound: large circular/oval

Abrasion collar/ring: distinct
GUNPOWDER AND EXPLOSIVES Smudging, burning and tattooing: prominent w/
singeing of hair
GUNPOWDER Muzzle imprint: may be seen
Blackening of bullet tract
1. DESCRIPTION: Carboxyhemoglobin: wound and surrounding areas
a. A.k.a. propellant
b. Primary propulsive force in cartridge iv. SHORT RANGE FIRE
c. When exploded: causes bullet to move forward
towards gun muzzle 1 to 15 cm. distance
Edges of wound: inverted
2. TYPES Area of burning: rifle & high powered firearms – about
a. Black Powder- 6 inches; ordinary handgun – 3 inches
charcoal 15%, sulfur 10%, & potassium or sodium Smudging due to smoke
nitrate 75% Powder tattooing: dense and limited dimension of
spread
b. Smokeless Powder Abrasion ring/collar: contact ring
cellulose nitrate/glycerol nitrate + stabilizers.
BALLISTITE (cellulose nitrate and glycerol nitrate + v. MEDIUM RANGE FIRE
Vaseline),
AXITE (cellulose nitrate, glycerol nitrate, Vaseline, More than 15 cm but less than 60 cm
barium nitrate, and potassium nitrate) Gunshot wound: inverted edges & abrasion collar
AMBERITE (cellulose nitrate, potassium nitrate, Smudging: present if less than 30 cm distance
barium nitrate, wood meal, and Vaseline) Gunpowder tattooing: lesser density and wider area
of distribution
STABILIZER – Organic and inorganic compounds which are Contact ring
added to the powder to stabilize side reactions and the
corresponding decomposition of the other ingredients of the vi. FIRED MORE THAN 60 CM. DISTANCE
powder. Ex: nitrates, biochromate, and oxalates
Gunshot wound: circular/oval
c. Semi-Smokeless Powder- Wound of entrance: no burning, smudging, tattooing
80% black powder+ 20% smokeless powder Contact ring

GUNPOWDER RESIDUES – partially burned particles 4. DETERMINING PRESENCE OF GUNPOWDER

3. DISTANCE DETERMINATION a. GROSS EXAMINATION A.K.A. EXAMINATION W/ USE OF

HAND LENS
i. CONTACT FIRE
-Particles: fine black powder particles of varying sizes
Barrel- contact w/ skin -Possible locations:
Gasses- goes into subcutaneous tissue Region of gunshot wound of entrance
Star-shaped laceration On dorsum of hands
Grey-black discoloration Outer surface of wearing apparel of victim
Faint abrasion ring -Interpretation of Examination: not conclusive; reason: other
foreign particles appear gunpowder or primer components
ii. PRESSED AND FIRM CONTACT FIRE
b. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
On Parts of Body Where Bone Is Superficial
Wound of Entrance: star-shaped -Fine particles: magnified
Edges of Wound: everted -No characteristic shape, color or consistency of gunpowder
Areas in entrance wound: blackened by burns,
tattooing and smudging; singeing of hair: confined c. CHEMICAL TESTS
at site of wound of entrance
Blood and tissue: PINK by CO -Laboratory Test to Determine Firearm Residues
3
-Presence of burning, tattooing and smudging: inference of
contact or near distance
-Gradual disappearance of burning and tattooing: distance
increases
-Appearance of minute particles of burning and unburned
residues and primer constituents
Dermal Nitrate Test – not conclusive but corroborative
evidence Nitroglycerine – most widely used commercial explosive.

EXPLOSIVES

Explosion – A rapid combustion, decomposition of gases, and

consequent violent increase of pressure, usually causes a loud
report. A sudden breaking apart, shattering or bursting in
pieces by internal pressure, as that of gas or steam (pressure RDX – considered as one of most important military explosive
explosion). used today.

Detonation – One resulting from the practically instantaneous

decomposition or combustion of unstable compounds such as
nitroglycerine, TNT1 or mercury fulminate, as distinguished
from explosions of black powder.

Explosive – Any substance that may cause an explosion by its

sudden decomposition or combustion.

Bomb – A hollow projectile of iron generally spherical,

containing an explosive material which is fired by concussion or
C4 – plastic explosive which is white and dough like in texture.
by a time fuse

1. CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES

A. LOW EXPLOSIVES
-Low burning
-Used mainly as propellants, like black powder and smokeless
powder.

B. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVES AKA INITIATING EXPLOSIVES

-Extremely sensitive to detonation by heat, shock friction and Chloroacetophenone – CN is principal component in filler used
impact. in tear gas solutions.
-Detonate without burning, like lead oxide and mercury
fulminate.

C. HIGH EXPLOSIVES
-Detonate under influence of shock of explosion of primary
explosive.

Examples: Fire Bombs – Molotov cocktail which is incendiary device, acids

mixed with gasoline, alcohol and gasoline, etc.
Ammonium nitrate –cheapest and most readily available salt
of nitric acid.

2. TYPES OF EXPLOSION
TNT (trinitrotoluene) –most widely used explosive.
A. MECHANICAL EXPLOSION A.k.a. Hydraulic Explosion

Occurrence: pressure inside container exceeds its structural

strength

4
Ex: Air pressure tanks for cleaning or paint spray, Water
pressure tank, Air pumped kerosene burner
B. ELECTRICAL EXPLOSION
When happens:
Electricity arcs through air, 2 objects of different electrical
potential: brought close to one another, Large amount of heat
develops, Heat rapidly expands air in and around arc producing
popping sound of arc.
Ex: lightning
C. NUCLEAR EXPLOSION
Release of significant amount of energy by fusion or fission
Result: significant increase of destructiveness
Ex: Atomic Explosion
D. CHEMICAL EXPLOSION
When happens:
Chemical reaction producing heat and gas at rate faster than
surroundings can dissipate
3. BASIC RESULTS OF EXPLOSION
A. Sudden release of energy, accompanied by light, heat and
noise
B. Sudden or sharp rise in pressure. Result: generation of two
pressure waves – one positive and other negative.
C. Moving of materials.
POSITIVE WAVES
- Force of explosion away from center of the explosion in all
directions
NEGATIVE WAVES
- Results from first
-Air rushing back toward center of explosion to fill vacuum
created by passage of positive wave.
-Has about 60% of power developed by positive wave.
4. CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIONS AND EXPLOSIVES
LOW AND HIGH ORDER OF EXPLOSION- Describes manner
explosives have performed
LOW ORDER EXPLOSION- Indicates that, owing to some
defect either in explosive or in manner in which it was
assembled, entire charge of explosive failed to be consumed
and some portions of it remains
HIGH ORDER EXPLOSION- Explosive, regardless of type, was
totally used up by explosion
LOW AND HIGH EXPLOSIVE- Refers to velocity generated by
explosive when it is properly and completely used up in
explosion.
--Describes speed of chemical reaction.
If charge of dynamite fail to be totally consumed, it has sustained
low-order explosion.
-Dynamite is classified as high explosive
LOW EXPLOSIVE- Speed deflagration (burning)
-Result of deflagration: pushing effect
Example: Black powder safety fuse burns at rate of 40 seconds
per foot. Black powder is low explosive
HIGH EXPLOSIVE- Speed of detonation
-Result of detonation: pushing effect
Example: Detonating cord, sometimes called primacord,
containing PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate), detonates at rate
of 21,000 ft/sec. PETN and primacord are both high explosives.
5. EFFECTS OF EXPLOSION
-Same with all common fuel gases, either used individually or
mixed
-Possibility of considerable increase in violence if any of the
gases or mixtures were to become ignited near the middle of the
flammability range
BACKDRAFT – rapid combustion of flammable gases, carbon
particles, and tar balloons that have been heated well above
their ignition point
HAIR IDENTIFICATION
HAIR
Appendage of skin
Occurs everywhere on human body except on palms of hand
and soles of feet.
Generally long & stiff.
Consists of ROOT, SHAFT & TIP.
CUTICLE
Outmost covering
Consists of one layer of non-nucleated polygonal cells (overlap
like scales of fish)
Free edges of cells are directed toward distal end of hair.
CORTEX
Intermediate and thickest layer of shaft
Composed of elongated, spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere
Contains pigment granules in varying proportions depending on
type of hair.
MEDULLA
Central canal of hair
Empty or may contain various sorts of cells, more or less
pigmented.
5
 FIBER IDENTIFICATION
COTTON FIBERS
CONTINUOUS MEDULLA
Found in large number of animals – Flattened, twisted fibers with thickened edges. Irregularly
granulated cuticle. No transverse markings. Fibers w spiral twist.
INTERRUPTED MEDULLA - Fibers swell in a solution of copper sulfate and sodium
Very often in humans, monkeys, and horses carbonate dissolved in ammonia.

MICROMETER -It is insoluble in strong sodium hydroxide but soluble in strong

Instrument attached to microscope and is used to measure sulfuric acid and partially dissolved in hot strong hydrochloric
diameter of hair. acid.

MEDULLARY INDEX FLAX FIBERS

Ratio of size of medulla to diameter of shaft.
– Apex tapering to fine point. Transverse sections are polygonal
and show a small cavity.
FUZZ
Generally short, fine and at times curly and wooly. -Gives blue or bluish-red color when treated with a weak solution
of potassium iodide saturated in iodine and sulfuric acid.
HUMAN VS ANIMAL HAIR
-Shows transverse lines, usually seen in group formation,
dissolve in a solution of copper sulfate and sodium carbonate in
Human Animal ammonia.

HEMP FIBERS
Air network in fine Air network in form of
– Fibers show transverse lines and consist of cellulose. Large
grains. large or small sacks.
oval cavities are seen in transverse sections. The end is usually
blunt, and there is often a tuft of hair at the knots.
Cells invisible without Cells easily visible
treatment in water. Medulla -Stains are bluish-red with phloroglucin, and yellow with both
aniline sulfate and weak solution of potassium iodide saturated
Value of medullary Value of medullary in iodine with sulfuric acid.
index is lower than 0.5 index is higher than
0.5 ABACA FIBERS

Fuzz without medulla. Fuzz with medulla. –Smooth Fibers, no transverse or longitudinal markings.
Cavities are large and uniform. The walls are lignified. The tips
Looks like thick muff Looks like fairly thin are fine points.
Cortex hollow cylinder
JUTE FIBERS
Pigment in form of very Pigments in form of
–Are quite smooth without either longitudinal or transverse
fine grains. irregular grains –
markings.
larger than human
-Non-uniform large cavities

- Blunt endings

-fibers are stained red with aniline sulfate, also with iodine and
sulfuric acid.

WOOL FIBERS
6
-Interiors are composed of fibrous tissues but sometimes the EXAMINATION OF PAPER
medulla is present.
EXAMINATION BY LAB
-Do not dissolve in a solution composed of copper sulphate,
sodium carbonate and ammonia. 1. Physical Test –

-Stain is yellow with iodine and sulfuric acid and also with picric A. Thickness, measurement of length and width;
acid. Do not dissolve in sulfuric acid. Smell of singeing on
burning. B. Weight per unit area;

C. Color;
SILK FIBERS
D. Finish such as bond, laid, smooth or glossy;
–Almost structureless, microscopically.
E. Opacity, capacity of paper for transmission of light;
- Fiber’s stain is brown with iodine and sulfuric acid and yellow
with picric acid. F. Folding endurance as determined by instrumentality by
number of alternate folds paper will stand before breaking;
-dissolve slowly in a mixture of copper sulphate, sodium
carbonate and ammonia. G. Bursting strength as determined by measurement of pressure
necessary to burst hole in sheet of paper;
LINEN FIBERS
H. Accelerated aging test performed by means of high
– Straight and tapering to a point.
temperatures or strong artificial light.
-Cortical area shows transverse lines which frequently
2. Chemical test -
intersects, simulating a jointed appearance.
A. FIBER COMPOSITION-
-They do not dissolve in concentrated sulfuric acid. If placed in
1% alcoholic solution of fuchsin and then in a solution of -Chemical reagents are applied to small sections of paper to
ammonium hydroxide, they assume a bright red color. determine nature of constituents of fibers.

B. ABSORPTION-

-Strips of paper are suspended in liquids to determine either rate

of absorption or total absorption of paper

C. LOADING MATERIALS-
VEGETABLE VS ANIMAL FIBER
-Test is performed by burning and ashing greater part of ordinary
Test Vegetable Animal sheet of paper
-Ash is analyzed
-If limited sample of evidence: test not recommended.
Ignition Test Rapid combustion, Burn and fuse;
end charred and smell of burnt hair, D. SIZING-
break sharply; smell fused and globular;
-By use of few drops of chemical reagent, sizing of two different
of burning wood; fume turns red
specimens of paper can be compared.
,vapor turns blue litmus to blue.
- Small perceptible stain results from these tests.
litmus red.
3. Watermark- Chief characteristics indicating the source or
Chemical Tests origin of paper.

It is distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the time of

Concentrated No change in color Turn yellow
its manufacture by passing the paper under a “DANDY ROLL”.
Nitric Acid
By examining the watermarks, the examiner is able to identify
Picric Acid Cellulose Wool and Silk the paper as to the product of a particular manufacturer
Test – No change – Yellow

Million’s Cellulose Fibers Wool and Silk INKS AND AGE OF DOCUMENTS
Reagent Test – Turn Black – Turn Brown
TYPES OF INK
Soaked in Cellulose Fibers Wool and Silk Iron Gallotannate Ink/ Nutgall inks
Tannic Acid - Black – No Change
-iron salts + tannic acid from vegetables

7
-This type of ink has long been used for entries in record books
and for business purposes in general.
-capable of penetration into the interstices of the fibers of the
paper, thus rendering its removal more difficult
Logwood Inks –
Haematoxylon tree + crystallized sodium carbonate
The color of logwood inks depends upon the inorganic salt which
is added; but, on drying and standing, they turn black.
The addition of chromium salts will yield the deepest black
At the present time logwood inks are practically obsolete,
although they are reported to be still in use in Germany.
Nigrosin Ink or Black Aniline Ink – synthetic ink
Water solution of a synthetic black compound prepared from
aniline and nitrobenzene.
-No new compound is formed by oxidation after this ink applied
to the paper, so that lines are merely deposited organic solids
that were in solution before the ink dried.
Ball Point Ink
-color dissolved in oil or water
– Because of the differences in construction of ball point pens,
a different type of ink is required.
-It has been noted that many ball point inks have a tendency to
fade.
COMPARISON OF INKS
-A 5% solution of hydrochloric acid is the most generally used
chemical reagent to determine whether 2 docs were written in
same type of ink. The reagent may be applied with a sharpened
wooden toothpick to a small area of writing.
-The naked eye, color filters, and infra-red photography usually
reveal differences in color.
-Hydrochloric acid is placed on iron nutgall ink, the color
disappears and turns to light blue;
-On logwood ink a red color develops; on Nigrosin or carbon ink
there is no reaction.
-To distinguish Nigrosin from carbon ink, a 10% solution of
sodium hypochlorite is used.
AGE OF INKS
-In any case, age determination will depend on the composition
of the inks, its condition with respect to fluidity and impurities,
the nature of the paper used in the writing, and the conditions
under which the paper was preserved.
GLASS FRACTURES
GLASS is best described as a supercooled liquid which
possesses high viscosity and, hence, rigidity.
Composition- silica (SiO2), boric oxide (B2O3) and phosphorus
pentoxide (P2O5)
TYPES OF GLASS FRACTURES
Radial Fracture – primary fracture resembles the spokes of a
wheel radiating outward from the point of impact.
Concentric Fracture – secondary fracture having the
appearance of circles around the point of impact connecting one
radiating crack to the other, thus forming triangular pieces of
glass.
From the study of these two types of fractures (impact) it is
possible to derive the following:
POINT OF IMPACT – The front of the glass can be determined
due to the accumulation of dust and dirt on the glass.
DIRECTION OF IMPACT
– a bullet will make a clear cut hole in the side of the entrance
rather than on the exit side.
- If a shot is fired perpendicularly it will give a crater of uniform
cratings, or flakings.
- If the shot is fired at an angle from the right, the left exit side of
the glass will give more flakings and vice versa.
- Depression will be produced on the exit side of the glass due
to the rebound of the glass.
-Radial fracture can be felt on the exit side and the concentric
fracture on the entrance side.
CAUSE OF FRACTURE
– Fracture due to heat does not exhibit a definite pattern of
radial and concentric fractures but are characteristically wavy.
-Fractures due to mechanical means show a definite pattern of
radial and concentric fractures.
Determination of the First Shot from a Series of Shots
The radial fracture of the first bullet hole will end/stop the radial
fractures of the succeeding bullet holes.
ORIGIN OF GLASS
Comparing fracture pattern is one method for instance in
determining if glass fragments found on a suspect’s clothing
came from a window at the scene of a burglary. In the analysis
of fracture patterns the investigator must consider three
dimensional aspects of the evidence. For example, a headlight
8
has a clearly pronounced curved inner surface that may match
even if the outer surfaces are broken.
The analysis of ream marks is related to fracture pattern
comparison. Ream marks are present, but not readily visible in
drawn glass samples. These ream marks resemble tool marks
striations.
MOULAGE AND OTHER CASTING
TECHNIQUES
Criteria of a Good Casting Material
CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF LATENT FINGERPRINTS
Classification of Crime Scene Prints:
VISIBLE PRINT – a print that results after a finger, which has
previously touched contaminants as blood, grease or ink
touched a clean surface.
PLASTIC PRINT – a print that results when a finger touches a
plastic material such as wax, soap, or dust, and creates a
negative impression of its ridge pattern.

1. Must be readily fluid or plastic when applied. INVISIBLE PRINT – latent print
2. Must harden rapidly to a rigid mass
3. Must be deformable nor shrink Locating visible or plastic prints at the crime scene normally
4. Must be tough presents little problem to the investigator, because these prints
5. Must be easy to apply are usually distinct and visible to the eye. Latent prints, on the
6. Must have no tendency to adhere to the impression other hand, are difficult to locate. They can only be seen after
7. Should have a fine even composition and surface the surface on which they are imprinted has been treated with
8. Should not injure the impression powders or chemicals.
9. Should be easily obtainable
- prints on porous evidence such as paper, unfinished wood,
10. Should be cheap
cardboard, etc. are normally developed by treatment with a
chemical.
The commonly used casting material in the Philippines is
- prints on nonporous evidence such as plastic, glass, metal,
PLASTER OF PARIS. (yung pinanggagawa ng molding sa
foil, etc., are either developed by powdering method or super
dentures)
glue fuming method.

POWDERING METHOD – commonly used materials are black

and gray powder.

IODINE FUMING – vapors of iodine are brown in color and

differentially absorb into the debris forming the print, causing the
ridge detail to stand out.

SOME TECHNIQUES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USED OF
PLASTER OF PARIS
Hastening – add ½ teaspoonful of table salt to the plaster
Retarding – add 1 part of a saturated solution of borax to 10
parts of water to be used in making the plaster. One teaspoonful
of sugar may also be used.
Hardening – soak in sodium bicarbonate
CAST OF HUMAN BODY
Negocoll – this is a rubbery gelatinous material made of colloidal
and magnesium soaps.
A cast made from face of a dead
human
SILVER NITRATE – the process employs a 0.2 % solution of
silver nitrate in distilled water that is used to spray on or saturate
the paper, producing silver chloride only in the ridge areas. The
paper is exposed to light, and the print turns black.
NINHYDRIN – develops prints on porous surfaces in violet color.
SUPER GLUE – develops prints on nonporous surfaces in white
color.
METALLURGY APPLIED TO CRIME
DETECTION
METALLURGY – the art of extracting and working in metals by
the application of chemical and physical knowledge.
METALLOGRAPHY – the branch of metallurgy which involves
the study of the microstructures of metals and alloys.

Application of Metallurgy in Criminal Investigation

1. Robbery (with force upon things) – where entrance is by

Hominit – a flesh colored resinous substance used for making breaking doors with the use of metallic tools. Traces of these
positives from negocoll negatives. tools can be examined under a metallographic microscope.
2. Hit and run cases
Celerit – a brown colored substance used for backing and 3. Bomb and explosion
strengthening the hominit. 4. Nail examination
5. Counterfeit coins

RESTORATION OF SERIAL NUMBERS

9

Restoration of Serial Numbers: Principles Behind
When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline
structure of the metal in the neighborhood of the stamp is
disturbed. This disturbance penetrates to an appreciable
distance into the substance of the metal, but is not visible to the
naked eye once the actual indentations caused by the punch
have been removed.
However, when etching fluids are applied to this surface, the
disturbed or strained particles of the metal differ in the rate of
solubility than those of the undisturbed particles and this
difference in solubility makes it possible, in many cases, to
restore the numbers to such an extent that they can be read and
photographed. In most cases, the criminal restamps the gun
with new numbers after filing off the old numbers. By the process
of etching, it is found possible to render the original numbers
visible.
1. CAST IRON AND CAST STEEL – a 10% solution of sulfuric
acid and potassium dichromate.
2. WROUGHT IRON AND FORGED IRONS AND STEELS
Solution 1: Hydrochloric acid, 80 cc; water, 60 cc., copper
chloride, 12.9 gm, alcohol, 50 cc.
Solution 2: 15% nitric acid.
METHOD: Apply with a swab a little of the acid copper chloride
solution (solution 1). Dry with cotton and then apply solution 2.
Alternate the swabbing until the numbers appear.
3. ALUMINUM – Glycerine, 30 cc., hydrofluoric acid, 20 cc.,
nitric acid, 10 cc. Due to the dangerous nature of hydrofluoric
acid, only experienced chemists should use the solution. An
alternate and safer formula is made as follows: Copper chloride,
200 gm., hydrocholoric acid, 5 cc., and water 1000 cc. This
reagent gives good results but almost as soon as it is applied, a
copper deposit is formed. The copper deposit must be removed
as it forms by means of water.
4. COPPER, BRASS, GERMAN SILVER, AND OTHER
COPPER ALLOYS – Ferric chloride, 19 gm, hydrochloric acid,
6 cc., and water, 100 cc. Since the reagent is slow in its action,
it is recommended that “retaining wall” method should be
employed. The reagent can remain for 24 hours.
5. STAINLESS STEEL – Use dilute sulfuric acid or 10%
hydrochloric acid in alcohol.
6. LEAD (MOTOR CAR BATTERIES, ETC.) – Glacial acetic
acid, 3 parts, hydrogen peroxide, 1 part.
7. ZINC – 10% sodium hydroxide solution. The “retaining wall”
method is recommended.
8. GERMAN SILVER – Ferric chloride syrupy solution, 25%
concentrated hydrochloric acid, 25%, and water 50%.
9. TIN – 10% hydrochloric acid.
10. SILVER – Concentrated nitric acid solution.
11. GOLD AND PLATINUM – Aqua regia.
12. WOOD – Erased numbers and figures on wood can also be
treated and excellent results have been obtained by subjecting
the suspected areas to a jet of steam. Liquid that is SYRUPY is
sweet or thick like syrup; a SYRUPY quality of behavior is
sentimental in an irritating way.
PETROGRAPHY APPLIED TO CRIME
DETECTION
Petrography is that branch of geology which deals with the
systematic classification and identification of rocks, rock forming
minerals, and soils.
SOIL
Soil as evidence has been overlooked by most investigators
probably because it is such a commonplace substance is more
or less taken from granted.
1. Alluvial Soil – its particles may be derived from almost infinite
number of sources, and since the action of water and wind would
in a few cases be identical over long periods of time in different
spots, great variations in composition would be expected.
2. Colluvial Soil – soil in which some movement and
intermingling of parts has occurred would be expected to be less
variable.
3. Sedentary Soil – least variable
CONSTITUENTS OF SOIL
1. Primary Minerals – undecomposed rock fragments ranging
from stones down thru pebbles, sand, and silt.
2. Clay Minerals – may be found in nearly all soils and is the
major constituent of most heavy soils. It imparts to a soil
cohesiveness and plasticity, and becomes hard and adherent
on heating.
3. Organic Constituents – organic matter is one of the most
variable of all soil constituents and is of peculiar importance in
the identification of soils.
DUST AND DIRT
Dust and dirt has been described as “matter in the wrong
place”.
Classification of Dust
1. Dust deposited from the air
2. Road and footpath dusts
3. Industrial Dusts
4. Occupational Dusts
ARSON
Additional Information to Be Obtained Thru Observation of the
Colors of Smokes/Fumes and Odor Evolved:
White Smoke – indicates burning of humid materials
Black smoke accompanied by large flame – indicates
petroleum products or rubber
Reddish Brown Smoke – presence of nitrocellulose sulfur,
sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid
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Red Flame – presence of petroleum Coca Plant – Erythroxylon Coca Lamarch

Blue Flame – presence of alcohol, aldehyde or ketone Marijuana – Cannabis Sativa L.

Biting Smoke – irritating to nose and caused coughing Opium – Papaver Somniferum
indicate presence of chlorine.
Shabu – Methamphetamine Hydrochloride
Garlic Odor Smoke – presence of phosphorus
Ecstasy – Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
DRUGS
PRELIMINARY TEST
TOXICOLOGY
Drugs Test Used Reactions Noted TOXICOLOGY - science of poisons: the scientific study of
poisons, especially their effects on the body and their antidotes

POISON – anything other than physical agencies which is

Opium and Marquis Purple or violet color
capable of destroying life, either by chemical action on the
derivatives
tissues of the living body, or by physiological action by
absorption into the living system.
Heroin Nitric Acid Yellow or green color
SITE OF ACTION OF POISON

1. Local Action – The poison may act on the skin or on the

Morphine Nitric Acid Red orange to yellow mucous membrane or on any part of body where it is applied.
color
Example: Sulfuric acid
Cocaine Cobalt Blue precipitate 2. Remote Action – The poison may act remotely in any of the
Thiocyanate following ways:

Barbiturates Dillie- Violet color By production of shock. - Ex. Poisoning by strong acid.
Koppanyi By absorption into the blood and being carried to the organs they
effect. -Ex. Morphine is absorbed by the blood and carried to the
Amphetamines a. Marquis a. Red orange to brain and depresses it.
b. Mandelin darkbrown
b. Green to reddish By transmission through the nerves of local parts affected going
brown color to the nerve centers and then reflected to the organs on which
they act.
LSD PABA Purple color
Site of Remote Actions of the Different Poisons are:

On the Brain: Narcotics, alcohols, cerebral stimulants like

Marijuana Duquenois- Violet color caffeine.
Levine Red bottom layer
KN On the Cord: Strychnine (Poisonous plant product: a bitter white
poisonous alkaloid obtained from nux vomica and related plants,
used as a poison for rodents and medicinally as a stimulant for
the central nervous system. Formula: C21H22N2O2 )
Confirmatory Tests
On the Peripheral Nerves: Curare (plant resin causing
MICROCRYSTALLINE EXAMINATION paralysis: a dark resin obtained from certain South American
-A small amount of the drug is dissolved in a few drops of a plants, used by indigenous hunters to poison their arrows and in
solvent on a slide. Then a reagent is added, forming crystals medicine as a muscle relaxant)
characteristic of the drug. This is observed under the On the Alimentary Tract: Corrosives
microscope.
On the Kidneys: Cantharides (insects European beetle: a
THE UV AND IR SPECTROPHOTOMETERS AND THE GAS green European blister beetle, used as a source of the stimulant
CHROMATOGRAPH can also be used for positive identification and irritant cantharides. On the Salivary Glands: Mercury
of the drugs.
On the Liver: Phosphorus
Another method employed is THIN LAYER
CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC) which is rapid, sensitive, easy to On the Mucous Membrane: Arsenic
sue and inexpensive.
On the Heart: Digitalis
SCIENTIFIC NAME OF CERTAIN DRUGS

Cocaine – Benzol Methyl Ecgonine

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On the Blood Vessels: Ergot (fungus attacking cereals: a Administration of Emetics - causing vomiting: causing a
disease of cereals caused by a parasitic fungus that grows in person or animal to vomit Neutralization of the Poison that
dense black masses (sclerotia) in the grains of the ear, Nitrites Remains in the Stomach

On the Blood Cells: Snake venom
Both Local and Remote: The poison may act at the site of
application and in some distant place. Ex. Carbolic acid is an
irritant to the alimentary tract and also toxic when absorbed.
CIRCUMSTANCES AFFECTING ACTION OF POISON
Method of Administration: Poisons may enter the body in the
following ways:
Orally – Except irritants and corrosives, poisons must be
digested or absorbed in the gastric or intestinal mucosa before
producing effect.
Hypodermically – Poison reaches the blood stream without
passing the digestive organs. This method is only available for
such substances that are soluble in the lymph and tissue juices.
Application of Physiological Antidotes - substance that
counteracts poison: a substance that counteracts the effect of a
poison or toxin
Eliminating the Poison: The elimination of the poison is aided
by purgatives, sudorifics, and diuretics. Sweating may be
encouraged by hot bath, warm packing, and injection with
apomorphine
SUDORIFICS - causing production of sweat: causing the
production of sweat.
DIURETICS - causing increased urine output: causing
increased flow of urine
The Forensic Chemistry Division of the NBI made the
following classification based on the Chemical Standpoint:

Intramuscularly – Absorption is faster than in the hypodermic 1. Gaseous Poisons (Poisons Present in the Gaseous State):
method. 2. Carbon dioxide
3. Carbon monoxide
Endodermically – The poison may be rubbed into and 4. Hydrocarbons
absorbed through the skin. 5. Hydrogen sulfide
6. Sulfur dioxide
By Rectum, Vagina or Bladder – Absorption through the 7. Oxides of nitrogen (Nitrous oxide, Nitric acid and Nitrogen
rectum is about twice as much as absorption through the mouth. dioxide)
8. War gases
By the Lungs – Poison through this route may be made of a
Idiosyncrasy: Some persons posses sensitivity to certain foods
or drugs. The most common drugs are potassium iodide,
arsenical preparations, aspirin and the sulfas. As to foods, the
most common are fish, shrimps, eggs and oysters.

Age: There are substances which are considered

poison for babies but wholesome for adults, while the opposite
is true for other substances. substance which can be
transformed to gaseous state.
Habit: The body may acquire tolerance to some drugs.
Habit diminishes the effect of certain poisons. Tobacco, alcohol,
opium, barbiturates, arsenic are good examples of this.
Dose: The effect of drugs and poisons in the body is
usually proportional to the dose taken. Ex. Alcohol, when taken
in small dose, stimulates body reflexes and tone, while large
amount depressed the whole body.

Fatal Dose: This is the smallest dose known to cause death: not
the smallest amount which will certainly cause death.

TREATMENT OF PATIENT SUFFERING FROM ACUTE

POISONING

Evacuation of the Stomach:

A long rubber tube is introduced to the mouth and allowed to
reach the stomach. Fluid must first be introduced into the
stomach to prevent the tube to come in close contact with its
wall. Fluid is withdrawn and introduced until traces of the poison
are removed. The procedure is contra-indicated in poisoning by
corrosives on account of the danger of tear or laceration of the
stomach wall.

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