IB

SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Topic 2: Atomic Structure

2.1 The Nuclear Atom

Atomic Structure
Atoms contain a positively charged dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons
(nucleons). Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus.

subatomic particle relative charge (DB.4) relative mass (DB.4) location
proton 1+ 1 nucleus
neutron 0 1 nucleus
electron 1- 1/1836 (negligible) energy levels


Atomic Number and Relative Atomic Mass
atomic number = number of protons

mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

Atoms of the same element always have the same number of
protons.

number of protons = number of electrons

The opposite charges of the protons and electrons cancel out,
leaving the atom electrically neutral with no overall charge.

Ions are charged particles. They have the same number of protons but a different
number of electrons. If an atom loses electrons the charge will be positive. If an atom
gains electrons the charge will be negative.

DB refers to the data booklet (papers 2 & 3).

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number (number of
protons) but a different mass number (number of neutrons).

Isotopes of a particular element have the same chemical properties because they have
the same number of electrons.

They have different physical properties, because their mass number is different. This
means melting and boiling points may be different.

Radio Isotopes
Radioisotopes (radioactive isotopes) are used in:
• Nuclear medicine
o Diagnostics
o Treatment
o Research
• Tracers in biomedical and pharmaceutical research
• Geological and archaeological dating

Spectrometry







A mass spectrometer is an instrument used to determine the relative atomic mass of an
element and its isotopic composition.

The mass spectrum is a plot of the relative abundance of each isotope versus the mass
number (m/z).


𝐴! = % 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝐴! + % 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝐴! + ⋯

DB refers to the data booklet (papers 2 & 3).

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

2.2 Electron Configuration

Energy Levels
Electrons exist in energy levels. The further the energy level is from the nucleus, the
higher its integer number (n) and the higher its energy.

Sub energy levels contain a fixed number of atomic orbitals, or regions of space where
there is a high probability of finding an electron.

Each orbital has a defined energy state for a given
electronic configuration and chemical
environment and can hold two electrons of
opposite spin.

sub level maximum number of electrons
s 2
p 6
d 10
f 14

principle energy level number of sub levels names of sub levels
n = 1 1 s
n = 2 2 s, p
n = 3 3 s, p, d
n = 4 4 s, p, d, f

maximum number of electrons in main energy level, n = 2n2


s atomic orbitals are spherical and p atomic orbitals are dumbbell shaped. The p sub
level contains three p orbitals (Px, Py, Pz) orientated perpendicularly to each other:

DB refers to the data booklet (papers 2 & 3).

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Electronic Configuration
Principles of electronic configuration
Aufbau principle – electrons must always occupy the lowest energy levels first.

Pauli exclusion principle – two electrons cannot occupy the same orbital unless they
have opposite spins, denoted by upwards and downwards arrows.

Hundu’s maximum multiplicity principle – when filling degenerate orbitals (orbitals of
equal energy / orbitals of the same sub-level), the electrons fill the orbitals singly first to
avoid repulsion.

Electronic configurations
Order of filling sub levels
Electronic configurations show how the electrons are

arranged in an atom.










Orbital diagrams
The boxes represent the orbitals
and the arrows represent the
electrons. The arrows point in
opposite directions to represent
the opposite spins of electrons
(Pauli).


Copper and chromium
The 4s sub level is filled before the 3d sub level because the 4s sub level is lower in
energy than the 3d sub level.



Exception: half filled and fully filled orbitals are
more stable than any other amount, so 4s and
3d sub levels are filled differently in copper and
chromium.

DB refers to the data booklet (papers 2 & 3).

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Copper: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1 à half filled 4s1 is relatively stable; more stable than
3d9 and 4s2.

Chromium: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 à half filled 3d5 and 4s1 are relatively more stable
than 3d6.

Electronic configurations of ions
Ions are formed when atoms gain or loose electrons from the valence orbitals (outer
energy level in the electronic configuration – energy level with highest n value).

Condensed electronic configurations
To reduce space, electronic configurations of atoms and ions are often written in
relation to the nearest noble gas in front of an atom, plus its valence electrons.

For example, electronic configuration of bromine: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p5

Condensed electronic configuration: [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p5

Because argon is the closest noble gas (group 8) in front of bromine, the beginning of
bromine’s electronic configuration can be replaced by [Ar].


Electromagnetic spectrum (DB.3)

Wavelength (lambda, λ) = the distance between two crests in a wave (in metres, m).

Frequency (f) = the number of waves that pass a point in one second (in hertz, Hz, or s-1).

c = f x λ (DB.1)

. Where c = speed of light (DB.2)

DB refers to the data booklet (papers 2 & 3).

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section

Energy (E) of electromagnetic radiation (in Joules, J) depends on its frequency /
wavelength:

Higher energy = higher frequency = shorter wavelength

Lower energy = lower frequency = longer wavelength

Emission spectra
Emission spectra are produced when photons are emitted from atoms as excited
electrons return to a lower energy level.
• When an electron is excited, it moves to a higher energy level for a short time.
• When the electron falls back down to a lower energy level, it emits a photon (a
discrete amount of energy).
• This photon corresponds to a particular wavelength depending on the energy
difference between the two energy levels.

A continuous spectrum shows all the wavelengths of visible light.

A line spectrum shows discrete wavelengths of visible light.

Emission spectrum for hydrogen atom (for nfinal = 2).

DB refers to the data booklet (papers 2 & 3).

IB SL Chemistry DB = data booklet section


nfinal ninitial region of EMS

1 2+ UV

2 3+ visible & UV

3 4+ IR



The hydrogen emission spectrum suggests the existence of electrons in discrete energy
levels, which converge at higher energies.

The energy levels converge at higher energies:

DB refers to the data booklet (papers 2 & 3).