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CHAPTER 4: Moral Theories

Lesson 1: Ancient
A. VIRTUE ETHICS / ARISTOTLE (348-322 BCE)
In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle suggested the possibility of an ethics built around the formation of
character through the acquisition and practice of virtues. The other term for virtue is excellence. Aristotle posited
four things about virtue: first, one must exercise reason in determining virtue; second, virtue is found in the middle
of two extremes; third, virtue must be practiced repeatedly; and fourth, virtue is needed in achieving the purpose
of human life, which he called eudaimonia or happiness.

For Aristotle, human persons are rational beings which means that human beings are defined by their
ability to reason. Reason aids humans in deciding what good must be done or be pursued. Each action, therefore,
is accompanied by deliberation or weighing of options.

Virtue, he said, is the middle between two extremes. Take for example the virtue of courage. According to
Aristotle, a person who truly possesses the virtue of courage is someone who acts neither without fear (rashness)
nor with absolute fear (cowardice) but with moderate amount of fear. To act virtuously, therefore, is always to
choose the middle between two possible excesses and, as previously pointed out, the faculty of reason facilitates
such choice. This is essentially Aristotle’s doctrine of the Golden mean. A person needs to rely constantly on
rational faculty to help him or her assess constantly changing circumstances and adjust his or her mean
accordingly. This ability to act with moderation, according to Aristotle, is derived from phronesis or practical
wisdom. In the realm of ethics, nothing illustrates the indispensable role of reason than the exercise of such
faculty.

The third aspect of Aristotle’s virtue ethics involves constancy and excellence. To be constant is to
commit oneself to a worthy undertaking repeatedly. To be excellent means to strive towards an ever-improving
degree of perfection in doing a particular activity.

The fourth aspect of Aristotelian ethics pertains to happiness or eudaimonia. Happiness is the ultimate
purpose of life. Like everything within the Aristotelian ethical framework, life itself has a purpose but unlike other
purposes, it is considered supreme. Happiness, for Aristotle, is not simply the satisfaction one gets from eating a
good dinner or viewing a superb piece of art. Following his teleological notion of ethics, Aristotle thought of
happiness as the fulfillment of human life.

For Aristotle, happiness is the chief purpose of human life but it is different from other purposes because
it does not serve a purpose other than itself. Hence, happiness is aptly considered the ultimate end because it is
the only purpose for which all other purposes can be attained. A person is deemed happy upon achieving the
purposes of all his or her tasks and is able to reach a point of being content in knowing that his or her life is
complete.
B. EGOISM
Epicurus
Epicurus’ ethics is a form of egoistic hedonism; i.e., he says that the only thing that is intrinsically valuable
is one’s own pleasure; anything else that has value is valuable merely as a means to securing pleasure for oneself.
However, Epicurus has a sophisticated and idiosyncratic view of the nature of pleasure, which leads him to
recommend a virtuous, moderately ascetic life as the best means to securing pleasure.

a. Hedonism, Psychological and Ethical

Epicurus’ ethics starts from the Aristotelian commonplace that the highest good is what is valued for its
own sake, and not for the sake of anything else, and Epicurus agrees with Aristotle that happiness is the highest
good. However, he disagrees with Aristotle by identifying happiness with pleasure. Epicurus gives two reasons for
this. The main reason is that pleasure is the only thing that people do, as a matter of fact, value for its own sake;
that is, Epicurus’ ethical hedonism is based upon his psychological hedonism. Everything we do, claims Epicurus,
we do for the sake ultimately of gaining pleasure for ourselves. This is supposedly confirmed by observing the
behavior of infants, who, it is claimed, instinctively pursue pleasure and shun pain. This is also true of adults, thinks
Epicurus, but in adults it is more difficult to see that this is true, since adults have much more complicated beliefs
about what will bring them pleasure. But the Epicureans did spend a great deal of energy trying to make plausible
the contention that all activity, even apparently self-sacrificing activity or activity done solely for the sake of virtue
or what is noble, is in fact directed toward obtaining pleasure for oneself.
The second proof, which fits in well with Epicurus’ empiricism, supposedly lies in one’s introspective
experience. One immediately perceives that pleasure is good and that pain is bad, in the same way that one
immediately perceives that fire is hot; no further argument is needed to show the goodness of pleasure or the
badness of pain.
Although all pleasures are good and all pains evil, Epicurus says that not all pleasures are choiceworthy or
all pains to be avoided. Instead, one should calculate what is in one’s long-term self-interest, and forgo what will
bring pleasure in the short-term if doing so will ultimately lead to greater pleasure in the long-term.

Lesson 2: CHRISTIAN ETHICS

St. Augustine
The Two Cities
The idea of two cities came to Augustine at an early stage in his Christian life
In a magnificent visión, he identifies the history of the world with the history of two cities
The Two Loves
Augustine says: “two loves thus established two cities:
 Love of self unto contempt of God built the earthly city
 Love of God unto contempt of self built the heavenly city
It raises a major difficulty:
 How can love of self and love of God be opposed if it be true that only love of God makes possible an
authentic love of self?
 The opposition have something mysterious about it.
 In his writings we find two series of texts:
 One that, like the one just cited, emphasizes the opposition between love of God and love of self
 Light can shed on this enigmatic situation by appealing to another pair of concepts that Augustine brings.
Social love and Private love
  This radical opposition becomes intelligible only if we realize that “social” love means for Augustine a love
of the common good
 Private love is a love of particular good that is a good possessed to the exclusión of others
Sin is a love of the part instead of the whole.
 It is from these roots that the city of the wicked springs.
 A city established on the foundation of private love
The city of the just, on the other hand, loves and seeks common good; in the enjoyment of this good it finds
reciprocal communion, in communion unity, and unity happinesss
The collision of these two loves produces the drama of history
 Five acts, in the vast drama that is history he distinguishes:
 Creation, the fall, the Law, the coming of God and the final outcome

Lesson 3:

A. Sartre (Existentialism)

For Sartre, there is no preordained plan that makes us the kind of beings that we are. We are not made for any
particular purpose. We exist, but not because of our purpose or essence; our existence precedes our essence.

Defining ourselves

This is where we begin to see the connection between Sartre’s claim that “existence precedes essence” and his
atheism. In claiming that existence comes before essence, Sartre is setting out a position that he believes is more
consistent with his atheism. There is no universal, fixed human nature, he declares, because no God exists who
could ordain such a nature.

Here Sartre is relying on a very specific definition of human nature, identifying the nature of something with its
purpose. There is a sense in which Sartre is offering a theory of human nature, by claiming that we are the kinds of
beings who are compelled to assign a purpose to our lives. With no divine power to prescribe that purpose, we
must define ourselves.

Defining ourselves, however, is not just a matter of being able to say what we are as human beings. Instead, it is a
matter of shaping ourselves into whatever kind of being we choose to become. This is what makes us, at root,
different from all the other kinds of being in the world—we can become whatever we choose to make of
ourselves. A rock is simply a rock; a cauliflower is simply a cauliflower; and a mouse is simply a mouse. But human
beings possess the ability to actively shape themselves.

Responsible freedom

By making choices, we are also creating a template for how we think a human life ought to be. If I decide to
become a philosopher, then I am not just deciding for myself. I am implicitly saying that being a philosopher is a
worthwhile activity. This means that freedom is the greatest responsibility of all. We are not just responsible
for the impact that our choices have upon ourselves, but also for their impact on the whole of mankind.
And, with no external principles or rules to justify our actions, we have no excuses to hide behind for the choices
that we make. For this reason, Sartre declares that we are “condemned to be free.”
Lesson 4: ORIENTAL TRADITIONS

 Chinese
 CONFUCIUS (551–479 BCE)
Confucius sought constants in a world of change, and for him this meant a search for moral values that could
enable rulers to govern justly.

The Analects

The main source we have for the teachings of Confucius is the Analects, a collection of fragments of his writings
and sayings compiled by his disciples. It is primarily a political treatise, made up of a sort of rule book for good
government—but his use of the word junzi (literally “gentleman”) to denote a superior, virtuous man, indicates
that his concerns were as much social as political. Indeed, many passages of the Analects read like a book of
etiquette. But to see the Analects as merely a social or political treatise is to miss its central point. At its heart lies a
comprehensive ethical system.

The virtuous life

Before the appearance of the Hundred Schools of Thought, the world had been explained by mythology and
religion, and power and moral authority were generally accepted to be god-given. Confucius is pointedly silent
about the gods, but he often refers to tian, or Heaven, as the source of moral order. According to the Analects,
we humans are the agents that Heaven has chosen to embody its will and to unite the world with the moral order
—an idea that was in line with traditional Chinese thinking. What breaks with tradition, however, is Confucius’s
belief that de—virtue—is not something Heaven-sent for the ruling classes, but something that can be cultivated
—and cultivated by anyone. Having himself risen to be a minister of the Zhou court, he believed that it was a duty
of the middle classes, as well as the rulers, to strive to act with virtue and benevolence (ren) to achieve a just and
stable society.

Confucius argues that the virtuous man is not simply one who stands at the top of the social hierarchy, but
one who understands his place within that hierarchy and embraces it to the full. And to define the various
means of acting in accordance with de—virtue—he turns to traditional Chinese values: zhong, loyalty; xiao, filial
piety; li, ritual propriety; and shu, reciprocity. The person who sincerely observes these values Confucius called
junzi, the gentleman or superior man, by which he means a man of virtue, learning, and good manners.

Confucius also believes in the power of benevolence—arguing that ruling by example rather than by fear would
inspire the people to follow a similarly virtuous life. The same principle, he believes, should govern personal
relationships.

 Lao Tzu
Chinese philosophy evolved from practical politics and was therefore concerned with morality and ethics rather
than the nature of the cosmos.

One of the most important ideas to appear at this time came from the Daode jing (The Way and its Power), which
has been attributed to Laozi (Lao Tzu). It was one of the first attempts to propose a theory of just rule, based on
de (virtue), which could be found by following dao (the Way), and forms the basis of the philosophy known as
Daoism.

Cycles of change

In order to understand the concept of dao, it is necessary to know how the ancient Chinese viewed the ever-
changing world. For them, the changes are cyclical, continually moving from one state to another, such as from
night to day, summer to winter, and so on. They saw the different states not as opposites, but as related, one
arising from the other. These states also possess complementary properties that together make up a whole. The
process of change is seen as an expression of dao, and leads to the 10,000 manifestations that make up the world.
Laozi, in the Daode jing, says that humans are merely one of these 10,000 manifestations and have no special
status. But because of our desire and free will, we can stray from the dao, and disturb the world’s harmonious
balance. To live a virtuous life means acting in accordance with the dao.

Following the dao, however, is not a simple matter, as the Daode jing acknowledges. Philosophizing about dao is
pointless, as it is beyond anything that humans can conceive of. It is characterized by wu (“not-being”), so we can
only live according to the dao by wu wei, literally “non-action.” By this Laozi does not mean “not doing”, but
acting in accordance with nature—spontaneously and intuitively. That in turn entails acting without desire,
ambition, or recourse to social conventions.

 Hinduism

Hinduism was primarily known because Aryans left behind religious texts, the earliest of which is called the Vedas.
The Vedas are also the earliest texts of what will come to be known as Hinduism.

The Caste System

The caste system is one of India’s most enduring and fascinating institutions. One of the Vedas, Purusha, is the
universe-pervading spirit. His mouth became the Brahmin, his two arms were made into the Kshatriya; his two
thighs the vaisyas; from his two feet the shudra was born. This section gives a divine explanation for the caste
system.

Brahmins – who as Purusha’s mouth speak to the gods are at the top.
Kshatriyas – from Purusha’s arms became the warriors.
Vaisyas – the merchants and artisans who provide money for the priests and the warriors came from Purusha’s
thighs. Because everybody knows that the thighs are the money makers.
Shudras – are the feet, the laborers and farmers who are the foundation of the social order.

The Caste System is the foundation for another big concept in Hinduism, Dharma. Dharma is basically one’s role
in life and society and it is defined primarily by birth and by caste. Basically, one is better off fulfilling its own
dharma poorly than doing someone else’s well.

Saṃsāra, Moksha, and Karma – there are both personal and social reasons for doing dharma. The social reason
is obvious that dharma and caste combine for excellent social cohesion. The concept of Saṃsāra, or the cycle of
rebirth often called reincarnation. The basic idea is that when someone dies his soul is transferred to another
living thing as it is being born. And if he fulfills his dharma, things improve, and he get re-born into a higher
being. The ultimate goal is to be released from the caste. And that release is called moksha. The law that holds all
this together is Karma which is summarized really nicely in the Aranyaka Upanishad. "The doer of good becomes
good. The doer of evil becomes evil. One becomes virtuous by virtuous action, bad by bad action."

 Buddhism

Buddhists believe that human life is a cycle of suffering and rebirth, but that if one achieves a state of
enlightenment (nirvana), it is possible to escape this cycle forever. Siddhartha Gautama was the first person to
reach this state of enlightenment and was, and is still today, known as the Buddha. Buddhists do not believe in
any kind of deity or god, although there are supernatural figures who can help or hinder people on the path
towards enlightenment.

The Buddha taught about Four Noble Truths. The first truth is called “Suffering (dukkha),” which teaches that
everyone in life is suffering in some way. The second truth is “Origin of suffering (samudāya).” This states that all
suffering comes from desire (tanhā). The third truth is “Cessation of suffering (nirodha),” and it says that it is
possible to stop suffering and achieve enlightenment. The fourth truth, “Path to the cessation of suffering
(magga)” is about the Middle Way, which are the steps to achieve enlightenment.

Buddhists believe in a wheel of rebirth, where souls are born again into different bodies depending on how they
conducted themselves in their previous lives. This is connected to “karma,” which refers to how a person’s good or
bad actions in the past or in their past lives can impact them in the future.

Lesson 5: THE FILIPINO ETHICS

The weakness of the Filipino character
Extreme family centeredness
 Excessive concern for family means using one’s office and power to promote family interest and thus
factionalism patronage, political dynasties and the protection of erring family members.
 It results in lack of concern for the common good, and acts as a block to national consciousness.
Extreme personalism
 “Take things personally,” and cannot separate objective task from emotional involvement.
 He uses personal contacts and gives preference to family and friends in hiring, services and even
voting.
Lack of discipline
 A causal attitude toward time and space, manifested in lack of precision and compulsiveness, in poor
time management and procrastination.
 Aversion to following procedures strictly results in a lack of standardization and quality control.

Passivity and lack of initiative

 Waiting to be told, reliance on others, complacence, lack of a sense of urgency.
 There is a high tolerance for inefficiency, poor service, and even violations of one’s basic rights.
 Too patient and matiisin, too easily resigned to his fate, the Filipino is easily oppressed and exploited.
Colonial mentality
  Lack of patriotism, or of an active awareness, appreciation and love of the Philippines and an actual
preference for things foreign.
Kanya-kanya syndrome, talangka mentality
 It is done by tsimis, intriga, unconstructive criticism.
 It is evident in the personal ambition that is completely insensitive to the common good.
Lack of self-analysis and self-reflection
 The tendency to be superficial and somewhat flighty.
 In the face of serious personal and social problems, there is a lack of analysis or reflection and instead
satisfaction with superficial explanation and solutions.
Emphasis on porma rather than substance
 This lack of analysis and emphasis on form is reinforced by an educational system that is more form
than substance.
The strengths of the Filipino Character
Pakikipagkapwa-tao
 It is demonstrated in the Filipino’s openness, helpfulness, and generosity.
 Ex. Bayanihan and Filipino Hospitality
Family Orientation
 Filipinos also possess a genuine love for family
 This love is shown through giving honor and respect to parents and elders, care for the children,
generosity towards kin, and the personal sacrifice that a Filipino endures for the welfare of the family.
 This gave a Filipino a sense of belonging and security.
Joy and Humor
 Filipinos are also cheerful and fun loving.
 Even in most trying times, Filipinos will always find a reason to smile or laugh.
 This pleasant disposition contributed to our ability to overcome life’s challenges.
Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity
 Filipinos are also tremendous in adjusting and adapting to any circumstances.
 These are the reasons why many Filipinos thrive in various parts of the world.
Hard work and Industry
 This trait is most noticeable in our willingness to take risk and work in other countries.
Faith and Religiosity
 This can be related to our bahala na mindset.
 For Filipinos the bahala na attitude could serve as a “kickstarter” or a “ pampalakas loob” to move him or
her into action.
Ability to Survive
 We can endure, make do, and get by on so little while looking forward to the coming of better days.
 This trait is the reason why Filipinos continue to carry on even through harsh economic and social
circumstances.