Week 4: Solar Energy

PHOTOVOLTAICS

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
 Single p-n junction semiconductor

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE

multiple cells, packaged in a frame

 typically connected in series

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
PHOTOVOLTAIC ARRAY

 Multiple
interconnected
modules
 a string is a set of
series connected
modules
 strings are combined in
parallel for an array

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL MODEL

Ijunction ILoad

Ilight

Model PV cell as a current source.

5
© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
CURRENTS

 Light Current
 also Photon Current
 electron-hole pairs created by sunlight
 Junction Current
 Electron-hole pairs recombining within the cell
 Load Current
 Useful current to external devices

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
 PV CURRENT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC

𝑰𝑰𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 = 𝑰𝑰𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 − 𝑰𝑰𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋𝒋 Ij is the diode

𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞� voltage-current
𝐼𝐼𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 −1 relationship

𝑞𝑞 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐�𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 k is Boltzmann's

constant relating
molecular energy
−23 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗� to absolute
𝑘𝑘 = 1.38 × 10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 temperature.

𝑇𝑇 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡, 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 The reverse

saturation current is
𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 typically on the order
of nanoamperes.
𝐼𝐼𝑙𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
THEORETICAL I-V CHARACTERISTIC
PV I-V Characteristic
8

7 Plotted from previous

equation assuming a
6
module of 72 cells in
series, 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 5.8𝐴𝐴,
𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 = 6 × 10−9 𝐴𝐴,
5
Module Current [Amps]

4
𝑇𝑇 = 25℃.

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Module Voltage [volts]

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
PV SPECIFICATIONS

Manufacturers label each module with the

following electrical characteristics.
Short Circuit Current, 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Open Circuit Voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Maximum Power Voltage, 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Maximum Power Current, 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Rated Watts, 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
I-V KEY POINTS
PV I-V Characteristic

Short Circuit Current

8

7
(voltage is zero)

5
Module Current [Amps]

Open Circuit Voltage

2
(current is zero)
1

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Module Voltage [volts]

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

 Set the cell voltage to zero.

 q0

I sc = I l − I o  e kt
− 1 = I l
 

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
 OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
 qVkToc  Set the load current to zero.
0 = I l − I o  e − 1 Solve for Voc
 
qVoc
Il
=e kT
−1
Io
Il + Io
qVoc
Il
e kT
= +1 =
Io Io
qVoc  Il + Io 
= ln 
kT  Io 
kT  I l + I o  kT  I l  However…
Voc = ln  ≈ ln 
q  Io  q  Io  12
CE 101 © Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
MAXIMUM POWER

 Power = Voltage x Current

 At short circuit current, V = 0  P = 0
 At open circuit voltage, I = 0  P = 0
 At some point between, the product of V and
I is maximum.
 Consider the largest rectangle that will fit under
the I-V Characteristic curve

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
MAXIMUM POWER
PV I-V Characteristic
8 200
Pmax
180
7

160
6
140

5 Imp
120
Module Current

Module Power
[amperes]

[watts]
4 100

80
3
Vmp
60
2
40

1 Current 20
Power

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Module Voltage
[volts]
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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
STANDARD TEST CONDITIONS
for determining PV module electrical specifications

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼, 𝐺𝐺 = 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘� 2
𝑚𝑚

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1.5

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = 25 ℃

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
PV NAMEPLATE EXAMPLE

Photo: Timothy Cochran

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
PV CURRENT AND IRRADIANCE
If the PV current is known at standard test
conditions, the PV current at any irradiance is in
approximate proportion.

I l (G ) = I l (Go )
G
Go
Go = irradiance at standard conditions
Go = 1 kW 2 @ AM = 1.5
m

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
PV CELL CURRENT EXAMPLE

 If the current out of a PV cell is 250mA at

standard conditions, then when the solar
irradiance is 600 W/m2, the cell current is

600 W
I l (G ) =
2
m 250mA = 150mA
1 kW 2
m

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
I-V CHARACTERISTIC EXAMPLE

Module datasheet from

Mission Solar Energy,
San Antonio, TX.

 The maximum power

current changes in direct
proportion to irradiance.

 The maximum power

voltage is nearly constant
as irradiance changes.

https://secureservercdn.net/198.12.145.239/l7u.263.myftpupload.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/C-SA2-MKTG-0015-Data-Sheet-for-SQ9S.pdf

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
 The reverse saturation current is dependent
on temperature.
 So instead of the open circuit voltage being
directly proportional to temperature, the open
circuit voltage decreases with temperature.
 Datasheets list the temperature coefficient,
which varies among modules.

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

 PV Datasheets show temperature

coefficients, at standard test conditions
 From the Mission Solar Energy, MSE PERC 72 module

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT

 The parameter at any temperature is

𝛼𝛼
 𝑃𝑃 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃 25℃ + /℃ × 𝑇𝑇𝑋𝑋 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑃𝑃 25℃
100
 or

𝛼𝛼
𝑃𝑃 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃 25℃ 1+ /℃ × 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
100
 𝑇𝑇is the desired temperature
 𝑃𝑃 𝑇𝑇 is the parameter, 𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 , 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 , 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 at
temperature 𝑇𝑇.

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
NOMINAL OPERATING CELL TEMPERATURE

 NOCT
 Temperature at which the cell will operate.
 The cells will be at a higher temperature than
the ambient (surrounding) temperature since
most of the irradiance is absorbed as heat
 20% efficient means
 20% electricity
 80% heat
 Wind speed and direction are assumed for
convective cooling of the module.

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
STANDARD OPERATING CONDITIONS
 Nominal Operating Cell Temperature
specifications
 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇: 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 20℃
Not 25℃ as for electrical specifications


 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼: 𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 0.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘�𝑚𝑚2

 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆: 𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 1 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠
 wind parallel to open back array

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
 NOCT EQUATION
This equation results in the collector temperature given the specified
NOCT, the air temperature, and the irradiance.

𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 − 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = 𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 + 𝐺𝐺𝑎𝑎
𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
VOC AND TEMPERATURE

 Determine the local temperature extremes.

 For example, Alfred, NY

https://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weather-summary.php3?s=580003&cityname=Alfred,+New+York,+United+States+of+America

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© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
EXAMPLE: NOCT
 Suppose the MSE PERC 72 module is
experiencing an irradiance of 1000 W/m2 on
a 101°F day.
 101°F = 38°C
 What will be the collector (module)
temperature?
 For design, use worst case NOCT =46+2°C

48℃ −20℃
𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐 = 38℃ + 900 𝑊𝑊⁄𝑚𝑚2 = 70℃
800 𝑊𝑊�𝑚𝑚2

© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E. 27

EXAMPLE: HIGH TEMPERATURE VOC

𝛼𝛼
 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 25 1+ /℃ × 𝑇𝑇𝑋𝑋 − 𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
100

 Open Circuit Voltage at 70℃

−0.29
 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 70℃ = 40.0𝑉𝑉 1 +
100
/℃ × 70℃ − 25℃

 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 70℃ = 34.8 V

28
© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
EXAMPLE: LOW TEMPERATURE VOC
 Open Circuit Voltage at −35℃

−0.29
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 −35℃ = 40.0𝑉𝑉 1 + /℃ × −35℃ − 25℃
100

 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 −35℃ = 46.9 V

 A 30% difference in open circuit voltage over
the temperature range!

29
© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
HIGHEST ARRAY VOLTAGE

 The coldest time of the day is typically at

sunrise. This also has lowest irradiance,
thus lowest current, and highest voltage.
 To prevent exceeding voltage ratings, the
highest possible array voltage must be
calculated.

30
© Timothy J. Cochran, P.E.
ARRAY WIRING

 Suppose a 500 watt PV array with modules

rated for 100 W at 20 volts feeds a wire with
1 Ω resistance to the inverter.
 How should the array be wired?
 Series?

 Parallel?

31
© Timothy J. Cochran
 PARALLEL CONNECTION
Same voltage, current adds.

1Ω

1Ω

𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 500 𝑊𝑊 − 250𝑊𝑊

= 250 𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 20 𝑉𝑉 × 5𝐴𝐴 × 5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 500 𝑊𝑊 Or a 50% loss

𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅 = 5 𝐴𝐴 2 × 5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 1 Ω × 2 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 250 𝑊𝑊

32
© Timothy J. Cochran
 SERIES CONNECTION
Same current, voltage adds.
1Ω

1Ω

𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 500 𝑊𝑊 − 25𝑊𝑊

= 475 𝑊𝑊
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 20 𝑉𝑉 × 5 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 × 5 𝐴𝐴 = 500 𝑊𝑊 Or a 5 % loss

𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅 = 5 𝐴𝐴 2 × 1 Ω × 2 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 25 𝑊𝑊

© Timothy J. Cochran 33
GOAL

 High voltage, low current transmission

 Connect PVs in series strings up to the limit
of the system.
 Small systems, a few kW, Vmax = 150 V
 Medium  600 volts
 Large  1000 volts

34
© Timothy J. Cochran
QUICK ARRAY CALCULATION

 Suppose you want to maximize the PV array

to a grid tied Sunny Boy 7700 watt inverter.
 Maximum dc input voltage is 600 V.
 The chosen PV is a Seraphim 300 watt
module.
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 7700 𝑊𝑊
 # 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃� = 300 𝑊𝑊 = 25
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 �𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

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WORST CASE TEMPERATURE
 Recall the voltage increases with decreasing temperature.
 Suppose the location has a record cold temperature of -30°
F (-34°C).
 From Seraphim datasheet,
 Voc = 39.7 V @ 25°C (STC)
 αvoc = - 0.32%/ °C
𝛼𝛼𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
 Voc@ -34°C = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 1 + 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
100

−0.32
 39.7𝑉𝑉 1+ −34℃ − 25℃ = 47.2 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
100

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© Timothy J. Cochran
NUMBER OF PV IN SERIES
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 600 𝑉𝑉
 # 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = = = 12.7
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 47.2 𝑉𝑉
 Cannot have a fraction of a module, cannot
go higher so truncate to whole number.
 Choose 12 modules in series.

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© Timothy J. Cochran
PARALLEL MODULES

 Goal: 25 modules.
 Given 12 in series then can make two parallel
strings of 12 modules each for a total of 24
modules.
 Or could go higher
 Use 3 parallel strings of 9 modules for 27 modules

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