Thermal rating of transformers

Introduction of multiflow principle

M. G. Carruthers and E. T. Norris, Fel.I.E.E.E., C.Eng., F.I.Mech.E., F.I.E.E.

Abstract
The thermal rating of power transformers has hitherto been based on the average temperature rise of
the windings as determined from the increase in resistance, because that has been the best practical
measurement. Unfortunately, for a given and guaranteed temperature rise by resistance, the hottest-spot
temperature can vary over quite a wide range depending on individual design characteristics. The introduc-
tion of the multiflow principle allows the hottest-spot temperature to be determined from measurements
made during a single temperature-rise test. Using this method, it is suggested that the temperature rise
by resistance should be abandoned as a standard guarantee, and replaced by the hottest-spot temperature,
this being the fundamental basis of the true thermal rating. The designer will then have wider latitude
in choosing his parameters, and freedom to exploit more intensive cooling systems such as increased oil
circulation and directed flow. The resulting reductions in both winding- and oil-heat-exchanger capacities
are substantial. As a broad comparison with existing practice, the principle of multiflow in forced-oil-
cooled transformers permits an increase in the average winding-temperature rise from the present
international guaranteed limit of 65°C to 75°C, or more, without any increase in the hottest-spot
temperature.

List of symbols into the bottom of the transformer tank, and from the top
9C — top-oil-temperature rise in heat exchanger of the tank back to the heat exchanger.
9W = top-oil-temperature rise in windings The hottest-spot temperature is not directly measurable,
9, = top-oil-temperature rise in tank
9mw = mean oil-temperature rise in windings top ec
9mc = mean oil-temperature rise in heat exchanger
9h = bottom-oil-temperature rise in heat exchanger
9r — temperature rise of windings by resistance
9h = hottest-spot-temperature rise in windings

g = average temperature gradient between oil and

windings
— ft — 0
Q= oil circulation, gal/min
P= dissipated power, kW
w2, .'. . = proportion of total oil circulation in windings
a2, . . . = proportion of total loss in windings
m= factor for nonlinear axial temperature rise
1 Introduction
The basis of the true thermal rating of a transformer
is the maximum temperature which the insulation will with-
stand without damage.
In the design of a transformer to meet any specified loading
conditions, calculation of the true thermal rating is necessary
to make the most economic and efficient use of the material.
• The foregoing is an extract from the summary of an earlier
paper of the same title.1 Jt is also the theme of the present
paper, which, however, introduces a new principle of applica-
tion.
The principle is applied to a study of the temperature
distribution in oil-immersed power transformers with natural
cooling, and with forced-oil circulation (with and without
directed flow).
2 Basic thermal diagram
2.1 Orthodox single-flow principle
The UK national standard specifications and loading
guides (such as BS 1712) and TEC recommendations 763, are
based on a single-flow temperature distribution, shown in
diagrammatic form in Fig. I (taken from the draft IEC
loading guide4). Oil is circulated from the heat exchanger
Paper 5915 P, first received 3rd January and in final form 2nd May 1969
Mr. Carruthers is with the Transformer Division, Ferranti Ltd.,
Hollinwood Avenue, Chadderton, Lanes., England. Mr. Norris is
a consultant to Ferranti Ltd.
1564
bottom
6b
temperature rise
Fig. 1
Standard single-flow thermal diagram
so that the observable temperatures 9,. and 9C become specifi-
cation guarantees. Since 9h is also measurable, 9mc is deducible,
and hence also the winding gradient g. It is customary to
increase this to 1 • 1^ for the hottest-spot temperature gradient,
giving2-4
0/. = 9C + 1" 1(0r - L ) (')
This derived value forms the basis of national specifications
and loading guides.
2.2 Proposed multiflow principle
The temperature distribution is not, in fact, nearly so
simple as envisaged in Section 2.1, even for naturally cooled
transformers. With normal forced-oil cooling, the greater
part of the oil flow will be between the windings and the tank
walls, and possibly through the core. Only a small part of
the oil wjll actually pass through the windings, because of
the higher impedance to oil flow. These two main paths con-
verge at the inlet to the heat exchanger. It is assumed that
the oil at the exit from the heat exchanger and in the bottom
of the windings and the tank is all at the same temperature.
It is now necessary to consider the following top-oil
temperatures:
(a) that of the oil external to the windings at the top of the
tank (9,)
(b) that of the oil at the top of each winding (#„,,, 9w2, . . .)
(c) that of the oil at the entrance to the heat exchanger (9C).
The hottest copper temperatures in the windings will be
higher than the adjacent oil temperatures 9W by the amount
PROC. /EE, Vol. 116, No. 9, SEPTEMBER 1969
1 • 1 g. These relationships are all shown graphically in Fig. 2, be no core loss, and only the stray loss need be considered.
the windings H>(, W2 etc. being combined for clarity in a single Standard corrections are used to convert from short-circuit
value 6W. heat-run to normal-loading conditions.2

top 3 Winding-oil temperatures

If the temperature rise by resistance at shutdown is
measured on the principle shown in Fig. 2 of Reference 3,
and illustrated in Fig. 4, the asymptotic value of the tem-
perature curve is 8mw, with the slight correction for the fall
in temperature 0mc during the measurements.
The cyrves in Fig. 3 are taken from a heat run on a
60 MVA 132kV transformer, with the measurements con-
bottom tinued for some considerable time after shutdown. The
diagram shows how the corrected curve becomes asymptotic
temperature rise
Fig. 2
Multiflow thermal diagram

Relevant formulas for each individual winding are derived 5O-

in Appendix 11.
As a typical illustration of the multiflow principle, a tem-
perature-rise test on a 100 MVA 3-phase 132/33 kV forced- 40-
oil-cooled transformer is analysed in Table 1.

Table 1
30-
TEMPERATURE-RISE TEST ON 1 0 0 M V A FORCED-OIL-COOLED
TRANSFORMER

1Measured values « 2O
a a.
= 42 0 Vmw\ = 40- 5 E
= 38•3 = 45- 3
ob- IO-
From eqn. 9, Oyvl == 42 • 7 and 0H>2 = 52- 3
From eqn. 8, = 39-2 for a = 0-9 and w = 0- 45
o,=
Temperature rises are in degrees Centigrade IO 2O 3O 4O 50 6O
time from shutdown, min
In this particular case, four oil streams are considered: Fig. 3
(i) the upward flow through the high-voltage windings, with Temperature changes after shutdown
a Rise by resistance (measured)
a hottest-oil temperature rise at the top of the winding b Rise by resistance 6mi« corrected for fall in 6,,,c
of42-7degC c Mean oil-temperature rise 8)nc in cooler

(ii) the upward flow through the low-voltage windings, with

a hottest-oil temperature rise of 52-3degC
(iii) the upward flow in the tank external to the windings,
with a hottest-oil temperature rise of 39-2degC. This
temperature is of no practical importance in itself, since
it is invariably below the winding hottest-oil temperatures
(iv) the combination of these three oil streams at the top of
the tank to give a flow through the cooler, with an
inlet-temperature rise of 42degC. This is the only
hottest-oil temperature recognised in the present stan-
dards.
In this particular case, the oil circulation was by directed
flow as described in Section 5.2. With normal oil circulation,
the range of hottest-oil temperatures, (i)—(iv), would be
even wider.
Although these multiflow oil streams have been segregated,
they must not be considered as strictly independent circuits.
There is nothing precise about any oil-flow temperature dis-
tributions. There are local eddies, backwashes and secondary-
flow circuits, especially in naturally cooled transformers,
dependent only on convection. Nevertheless, the main streams
are well defined in accordance with the multiflow principle.
The average temperature rise of the copper, at any position
axially up the winding, increases with the adjacent-oil tem-
perature rise. This increase is practically linear for transformers
with forced-oil circulation (Fig. 2), i.e. m = 0-5 in the relation
35.
-0b = mDw (2) 4 e
time from shutdown, min
With natural cooling, the temperature rise is usually not
Fig. 4
linear,5 and m becomes less than 0-5. Measured values are
given later, but 0-33 seems to be a typical figure. The lines Temperature-rise corrections
a Rise by resistance (measured)
for 6mw and 6,. in the diagram will then be curved. b Rise by resistance corrected for fall in Q,IW
The factor a takes care of the core loss, tank loss and stray r Mean oil-temperature rise 6uln> in winding asymptote of
d Mean oil-temperature rise 8,,l(: in cooler
losses in the structural work. e Top-oil-temperature rise 8C in cooler
/' Bottom-oil-temperature rise flft in cooler
With heat runs under short-circuit conditions there will 'g Fall in e,,,r
PROC. IEE, Vol. 116, No. 9, SEPTEMBER 1969 1565
to dmw, the mean oil-temperature rise in the windings at
shutdown. The measured curve becomes asymptotic to
6mc, although both these temperatures are falling together
to reach eventually the ambient temperature. This will happen
many hours later, owing to the relatively large transformer
thermal time constant.
This measurement of 6mw is recognised, but not utilised,
in the VDE rules for transformers and reactors.6
In this way, it is possible to obtain measured values of
6mw, 0,. and 6b from the heat-run test. Fig. 4 shows a typical
curve, with correction to shutdown, for the low-voltage
winding of a 23MVA 33kV transformer.
From the bottom-oil temperature 6b and the mean oil
temperature 6mw in the windings, it is possible to derive the
hottest-oil temperature in the windings, 6W, since the axial
relationship is linear for forced-oil-cooled transformers.
The correctness of this relationship has been established by
from eqns. 2 and 17. The last column gives the difference
between these two measurements, and shows that, out of
24 tests, 12 agree within ldegC and 18 within 2degC. For
this class of work, such agreement is good. It shows that
6mw, determined as in Fig. 4 from heat-run measurements, is
truly the mean oil-duct temperature at the instant of shutdown.
Incidentally, the first five runs were done with normal
forced-oil circulation, and the remainder with directed flow,
indicating that the corrections apply equally to both methods.
Corresponding measurements for naturally cooled trans-
formers are considered in Section 4.
'The hottest-spot temperature derived in Appendix 11 is
(4)
These measurements can all be made during a single heat run.
Since the essence of the new proposal is the measurement
of 9mw, it is suggested that this is as accurate and reliable as
the measurements of 6,. and 6b on which the present standard
ratings depend. There are, in fact, two checks on 9jmv. One is

1
the intersection with the ordinate, shown in Fig. 4, and the
other is the actual asymptotic value.

iX
This can be determined, after about 15min, as
°mw = "r + Vf
where Qf is the fall in the mean oil temperature 6mc after
shutdown.
Fig. 3 shows that dmw obtained in this way is constant for
an hour or more after shutdown, so that, if any doubt arises,
many readings can be taken.

4 Naturally cooled transformers

Since the only driving force for oil circulation is the
i.v.3 u2 l.v.,
heat generated in the windings and core, it might be expected
that, for naturally cooled transformers, w would equal a. For
heat runs on short circuit (nowadays the usual method),
Fig. 5 where a is unity, w would also be unity. This would mean
Thermocouples in windings (eqn. 7) that
Dw = Dc
direct thermocouple measurements of 6W in a 20MVA 33kV
forced-oil-cooled transformer. The results are given in and hence 6W = 6C.
Table 2, and the location of the thermocouples is shown in It was mentioned in Section 3 that, in naturally cooled
Fig. 5. transformers, the temperature rise of the oil axially up the
In Table 2, 6wa is the average thermocouple measurement, winding was not linear as in forced-oil cooling, i.e. m < 0-5.
and 6wb is the value calculated from the shutdown measure- From eqn. 9,
ment, i.e.
'wb 'b (3)
Table 2 These relationships have been confirmed by the measurements
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN WINDINGS shown in Table 3.
In the first five runs, thermocouple measurements of the
Qwb V\va "wa — U\vb oil temperature 6wa in the top of the winding ducts (Fig. 5
degC degC degC
and Table 2) were made. These measurements show 6W to be
Run 1 h.v. 44-6 450 + 04 practically the same as 6C, indicating that w — 1. This is true
l.v. 40-8 42-0 + 1-2 with and without directed flow, and covers a wide range of
Run 2 h.v. 36-4 36-8 +0-4
l.v. 37-2 37-7 +0-5 Table 3
Run 3 h.v. 26-6 31 - 5 +4-9
l.v. 25-8 27-2 + 1-4 NATURAL COOLING—ANALYSIS OF HEAT RUNS
Run 4 h.v. 20-7 20-8 +01
l.v. 21 -4 21 -4 +0
Run 5 h.v. 46-1 460 -01 Run Cooling "wa Vmw Or ob
l.v. 42-9 430 +0-1
Run 6 h.v. 37-1 35-6 -1-5 degC degC degC degC
l.v. 36-9 370 +01 1 43-7 28-8 43-4 21-4
Run 7 h.v. 38-1 35-3 -2-8 2 B 28.0 10-2 29-1 4.4
l.v. 37-3 36-3 -10 3 D 44-2 26-6 44-5 220
Run 8 h.v. 46-5 44-6 -1-9 4 B, D 27-4 101 280 40
l.v. 47-3 460 -1-3 5. D 45-5 • 29-1 . 450 23-5
Run 9 h.v. 43-7 430 -0-7 6 D 260 44-5 19-2
l.v. ' 440 440 — 7 D 26-3 44-5 19-7
Run 10 h.v. 52-5 480 -4-5 8 D — 29-9 45-9 250
l.v. 51-7 49-5 -2-2 9 D 27-5 430 23-4
Run II h.v. 54 1 480 -61 10 D — 27-6 430 230
l.v. 51-5 50-2 -1-3 II B, D 22-7 41-4 14 6
Run 12 h.v. 50-5 47-6 -2-9 12 ' B, D — 25-2 45-4 16-2
l.v. 49-3 48-8 -0-5
B = air-blast cooling
thermocouple measurements D = directed (low
calculated from shutdown measurements ini = thermocouple measurements
1566 PROC. ZEE, Vol. 116, No. 9, SEPTEMBER 1969
loading, dc varying from 29-1 to 46degC and 6b from 4-2 of this oil will be inversely proportional to the flow rate,
to 25degC. we have, from eqn. 8,
Fig. 6 shows a histogram of 66 heat runs on naturally

and, from eqns. 17 and 8,

66 results
fl
»-°-^-(!vJ-0 • • (6)
^ 10 and, from eqns. 4 and 6,

(7)

w = 05a (8)

The degree of forced-oil circulation can be either normal

Ol O-2 O-3 O-4 O-5 0-6 flow, in which (as described in Section 2.1) oil is circulated
m from the heat exchanger direct to the bottom of the trans-
Fig. 6 former tank and from the top of the tank back to the heat
Histogram of test results showing measured values of m
exchanger. Alternatively, in directed flow, the oil circulation
is, to some degree, forced through the windings in pre-
cooled transformers of varying sizes, m may be chosen determined proportions.
conservatively as 0-33.
Thus, for naturally cooled transformers, we have 5.1 Normal flow
The greater part of the oil flow will be between the
windings and the tank walls, and only a small proportion
will actually flow through the windings owing to the higher
= Dc =O;33 impedance to oil flow. The impedance ratio will vary widely
w
for different transformers. Measured values of w calculated
The formula for the hottest-spot temperature becomes, from from eqn. 8 range from 0 1 5 to 0-30. A mean value of 0-25
eqn. 4, and with m = 0-33, may be assumed.
A low w means, of course, a restricted flow of oil through
h = l'ldr+\-90mw-2-Odb (5) the windings, and this necessarily increases the rise in tem-
In preparing national loading guides, it has been necessary perature in the windings (as shown by eqn. 6) and leads to
to assume typical values for those temperatures not guaranteed higher temperatures over a range of about lOdegC.
in the standard specification, i.e. other than 6,. and 6C.
These values are given in Table 4 for the IEC draft loading 5.2 Directed flow
guide4 and for the BS code of practice CP 1010.7 Any degree of directed flow is possible up to a maxi-
mum of w — a. The complication of transformer windings
Table 4 and the comparatively flabby nature of the insulation pre-
STANDARD NATURALLY COOLED TEMPERATURES cludes any precise mechanical design of oil-flow paths. The
relative impedance of the flow paths in windings of differing
IEC CP 1010 types (high-voltage and low-voltage) makes calculation
draft loading guide loading guide
difficult.
However, an analysis of over 100 heat runs shows that
Single flow Multiflow Single flow Multiflow
assured values of w above 0-5 are practicable.
A straight comparison of directed flow with normal flow,
Or. 55 55 50 50
44 44 37-5 in which these were the only variables, was made possible
0,nc 37-5 by tests on the same transformer with and without the
Dc = Dw 22 22 25 25
om b 33 33 25 25 directed-flow baffles.
0-5 0-33 0-5 0-33 The results are shown in Table 5. Both OFN and OFB*
w 10 10 10 10
a 10 10 10 10 Table 5
COMPARISON BETWEEN NORMAL AND DIRECTED FLOW
Omw 44 40-3 37-5 33-3
55 55 50 50 OFN OFB OFB
g 21 24-7 22-5 26-7
Or 65 65 60 60 Normal Directed Normal Directed Normal Directed
oh 78 82-1 74-5 79-4 351 35-4 180 18-4 34-3 33-7
0mc
39-6 36-1 21-7 19-2 38-7 34-2
owmw 0-29 0-73 0-21 0-57 0-23 0-52
Thus, Table 4 shows that the standard specifications for
113 102 1-20 104 118 105
naturally cooled transformers are thermally efficient, in that "me
the hottest-spot temperature is reached under standard load-
ing conditions and the material ratings realised. It will be Mean values
seen later that this is far from being the case for forced-oil- Normal flow Directed flow
cooled units. "mw
117 1-04

5 Forced-oil-cooled transformers
The comparatively feeble convective flow in natural
cooling can be greatly increased by forced-oil circulation,
usually by submerged pumps.8 (Convective circulation can
then be ignored.) The cooling conditions and the proportion
w of oil circulation actually flowing through the windings
are now completely determined by the hydraulic circuit, and
are thus under the control of the designer.
Since, for a given power dissipation, the rise in temperature
PROC. /EE, Vol. 116, No. 9, SEPTEMBER 1969
0-24 0-61
Temperature rises are in degrees Centigrade
cooling were included, with loads giving oil-temperature rises
ranging from 18 to 35-4degC. It is seen that w ranged from
0-21 to 0-29 for normal flow and from 0-52 to 0-73 for
directed flow.
Because w cannot be measured directly, and because it
• The corresponding IEC symbols are OFAN and OFAF
1567
involves a small difference between relatively high tempera-
tures, it is very sensitive to very small errors in the tem-
perature measurements. It is suggested, therefore, only as a
theoretical basis for deriving the temperature relationships,
and is not intended for use in design or test formulas.
If H > > 0 - 5 is considered a practical requirement, i.e. if
at least half the circulated oil is being directed through the
windings, from eqn. 8, 6mw < 0C.
Fig. 7 shows a histogram of heat-run measurements for
2O-
\3 directed flow 110 results
U nondirected flow
wide range of ratings and voltages. It will be seen later to
justify, by itself, a suggested increase of 5degC in the standard
guarantee of 65degC rise by resistance.
Apart from the benefit of directed flow of circulating more
oil through the windings, reducing Dw and the hottest winding-
oil temperature 6W, there is the very important effect of
reducing the winding gradients. These gradients consist of
(a) the temperature drop through the conductor insulation
and (b) the surface drop between the insulation and the oil.
The latter depends on the velocity of the oil flow over the
surface of the insulation, 9 as shown qualitatively in Fig. 8.
By designing the series and parallel flow paths through the
winding to give appropriate velocities of oil flow over the
insulation surfaces, gradient reductions of one-third or more
are practicable. This, in turn, reduces the number of oil
ducts and cooling surfaces necessary for meeting the
8 results guaranteed 65degC rise by resistance. It also considerably
reduces the hottest-spot temperature—a reduction which,
though genuine, has been of no technical or commercial
benefit to either manufacturer or user because it has not
hitherto been measurable. The proposals in Section 6 remove
this handicap.

6 Standard multiflow thermal rating based

on hottest-spot temperature
O8
It is now possible to derive the basic equations for
determining the hottest-spot temperature, either by design
calculation or from heat-run measurements.
Fig. 7 For naturally cooled transformers, 0,, is (eqn. 5)
Histogram of0mwj0c
0, = 1-10, + l-90 mu , - 2 0 0 ,
more than 100 transformers. This histogram is a little unusual
in that it is not a scatter diagram showing the variations from and, for forced-oil-cooled transformers, from eqn. 10,
a design mean. The individual design values were themselves
variable, and were based on different degrees of directed oil (10)
flow. Even so, the results clearly differentiate between normal eh =
and directed flow. These temperatures can all be measured during a single
If we allow a practical margin for test variations, the temperature-rise test as described in Section 3.
histogram suggests For design purposes, the temperature rises of importance
which the designer has to calculate are 0C, g and Dc. The
6mw< I-O60C (9)
hottest-spot temperature expressed in these terms becomes
as a criterion, if desired, for directed flow.
Table 6 shows some typical measured values covering a . . . . . (II)
Table 6
TYPICAL MEASURED VALUES It is not practicable to predetermine w with much accuracy
for the various windings as detailed in Appendix 11, and, in
Power Voltage IV e,,w/9r general, assured minimum values must be used.
MVA kV
Typical formulas are given below, including average
14 33 0-6 0-99 values for w in calculating 0IMll!.
45 132 0-7 100
50 400 0-55 102 Natural cooling (w = 1 0 m = 0-33 a — w):
100 275 0-55 100
100 132 0-55 103 0,,= I 10,.+ \-90mw-200b (15)
570 430 0-93 0-93
600 330 0-71 0-96 = 1-10, + O-630C - 0-730/, (12)
Forced-oil, natural flow (w = 0-24 m = 0-5 a = 0-80):
10-1
0 h = ]-\0 r + |-50 f - l-60 6 . . . . ' . . . (13)

Forced-oil, directed flow (w = 0 5 m — 0-5 a — 0 8 ) :

0,, = \\0r + O-720 r - 0-8206 (14)

6- The multiflow principle shows that, for the national stan-

dard ratings based on 0, = 65oegC, the actual hottest-spot
temperature, as determined from eqn. 4, is greater than would
I4 be supposed from the single-flow diagram (Fig. 1).
The general assumption in preparing loading guides is that

2- (0
= 1-10,.+ O-450C - 0 - 5 5 0 , ,

2 4 The multiflow analysis therefore increases the nominal

oil velocity over surface hottest-spot temperature by

Fig. 8 (a) 1 -O5(0C — 6b) for forced-oil cooling with normal flow
Surface-temperature gradient in windings (b) O-27(0C — 6b) for forced-oil cooling with directed flow
1568 PROC. IEE, Vol. 116, No. 9, SEPTEMBER 1969
Table 7
STAGES OF COOLING
Directed Multiflow
IEC Increased flow flow hottest spot
Oc 40 38 42-6 46-1 56-2
Dc 8 4 4 4 4 (i)
Bw 58-6 47-3 52-0 51-7 58-6
g 19-7 24-4 19-7 19-7 19-7
Or 65 65 65 65 751
o,, 80-3 74-2 73-7 70- 2 80-3
Temperature rises are in degrees Centigrade
Taking standard values of (6C —6b from Table 7, these
increases become 8-4degC and 1 -08degC, respectively.
Jt is important to realise that these higher hottest-spot
temperatures are not new. They have been there all along but
have not been appreciated; the overload tables are therefore
not affected.
7 Practical application
As explained in Section 5, the national standard
specifications for naturally cooled transformers are thermally
efficient, in that the standard hottest-spot temperatures are
utilised. This is not so for forced-oil cooling.
In this Section, an attempt is made to give a broad picture
of the effect of the various degrees of controlled forced-oil
cooling, including directed flow.
For this purpose, the IEC recommendations 76 are taken
as a basis, and the following stages of cooling considered:
(a) IEC recommendations 76
(b) increased oil flow
(c) directed flow
id) multiflow thermal rating based on hottest-spot temperature
as in Section 6.
The results are assembled in Table 7.
A value of a = 0-80 is assumed to cover the no-load loss
and stray losses in the tank, core and structural work. The
oil flow in the windings is assumed to be w — 0-24 for normal
flow and w = 0-5 for directed flow.
The first column of Table 7 gives the IEC basis. The
temperature rise by resistance of 65degC is taken directly
from the IEC recommendations. Values of 6C = 40 and
Dc — 8 are considered in the draft IEC loading guide as
representative of standard practice. These values lead, in the
orthodox single-flow diagram of Fig. 1, to a hottest-spot
temperature of 80-3° C.
In accordance with the principle in this paper that the
thermal rating should be based on the hottest-spot tem-
perature, and not on the rise by resistance, stage id) is calcu-
lated assuming the same hottest-spot temperature 6h of
8O-3°C, letting the temperature rise by resistance fall where
it will. It can never, of course, exceed the hottest-spot
temperature.
The second and third columns of Table 7 show the effect
of increasing the oil flow through the heat exchanger, so that
the difference Dc between the inlet and outlet temperatures
is reduced from 8 to 4degC. This is quite a practical reduction.
Alternative designs are here possible (as are, of course,
intermediate combinations). In the second column, the cooler
is unchanged, but higher winding gradients are permissible
and the cooling ducts in and between the windings are
correspondingly reduced. In the third column, the winding
gradients are the same, but, in consequence, higher oil tem-
peratures are possible and the heat exchanger is smaller.
The fourth column shows the effect of directed flow, and
the last column is for the 'multiflow' thermal rating.
In all these alternatives, the hottest-oil temperature is no
greater than that for the standard IEC design.
The practical economic effect can be shown by comparing
the cooling capacity required of what are virtually the heat
exchangers between the windings and the oil and between the
oil and the surroundings. The former is inversely propor-
tional to g and the latter to 6mc. Table 8 shows this compari-
son. The full application of multiflow reduces both the
required oil-cooling capacity and the winding-cooling capacity
PROC. 1EE, Vol. IH5, No. 9, SEPTEMBER 1969
Table 8
RELATIVE COOLING CAPACITY REQUIRED
Oil- Winding-
cooling cooling
capacity capacity
IEC standard. 100 100
(ii) Increased flow 88 or 81
(iii) Directed flow 88 and 66
(iv) Multiflow hottest-spot rating 66 and 66
to 66%. Stages (ii) and (iii) are not in themselves new (as
the references show), but have been limited in realisation
hitherto by the guaranteed rise by resistance of 65degC.
This can now be raised to 75degC for no increase in the
hottest-spot temperature.
The economic effect may be judged broadly from these
figures but will depend on individual circumstances.
Instead of reducing the cooling capacity, the power rating
of the transformer could be increased to utilise it. These
and other possibilities have been discussed in Section 7 of
Reference 10, with the important difference that, in this case,
there is no increase in the hottest-spot temperature, and the
transformer is therefore never overloaded.
The whole of this Section must be regarded as a broad
exposition of the versatility of the multiflow principle, and
the values given in the tables as particular examples among
a wide range of alternatives at the disposal of the designer.
8 Conclusions
(a) The present universal standard rating of a trans-
former, based on the temperature rise 6,. of the windings as
measured by the increase in resistance, is unsatisfactory, since,
for a given 6n the hottest-spot temperature dh (which is the
fundamental basis of transformer thermal rating) can vary
over a range of lOdegC or more, depending on individual
designs.
(b) The present position is that the standard rating of a
transformer is determined by a single indirect measurement
(the temperature rise by resistance), whereas the national
overload guides, which deal with more onerous conditions,
are based more logically on the hottest-spot temperature, even
though this had to be assumed, and, from conclusion (a),
assumed wrongly in many cases.
(c) Using the multiflow principle described in the paper, the
hottest-spot temperature can be determined from measure-
ments made in a single temperature-rise test.
(d) The temperature rise of the windings by resistance should
therefore be abandoned as a standard guarantee, and replaced
by the hottest-spot temperature.
(<?) The designer is then free of the artificial restriction of the
rise by resistance and has wider latitude in the design. It is not
necessary to distinguish between normal and directed flow.
(/) The substantial reductions in oil- and winding-cooler
capacities are shown in Table 8 of Section 7.
(g) As a broad comparison with existing practice, the principle
of multiflow in forced-oil-cooled transformers permits an
increase in the average winding-temperature rise from the
present international guaranteed limit of 65degC to 75degC,
or more, without any increase in either the hottest-spot
temperature or the hottest-oil temperature.
(h) This substantial increase has been released, not created,
by the multiflow principle. The existing standard temperature
limits have hitherto prevented its utilisation by both the
manufacturer and the user.
9 Acknowledgments
Thanks are due to Ferranti Ltd. for permission to
publish the paper.
10 References
1 NORRIS, E. T. : 'The thermal rating of transformers', J. IEE, I928,
66, pp. 841-854
2 BS 171: 1959. 'Power Transformers'
3 'Power Transformers', IEC publication 76
4 Draft IEC loading guide for oil-immersed power transformers,
document 14
5 TAYLOR, E. D., BERGER, B., and WESTERN, B. E. : 'An experimental
1569
 approach to the cooling of transformer coils by natural convection', (2)
Proc. IEE, 1958, 105 A, pp. 141-152
6 'Rules for transformers and reactors', VDE 0532/8-64, clause 536
7 'Guide to loading of transformers', British standard code of (17)
practice CP 1010: 1959
8 NORRIS, E. T.: 'Safe loading of oil-immersed transformers', Trans: (is)
Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs., 1929, 48, p. 1206
9 PALUEV, K. K., and BURNHAM, L. H.: 'Cooling power transformers
by forced circulation of the cooling medium', AlEE paper 43-56 (19)
10 NORRIS, E. T.: 'Loading of power transformers', Proc. IEE, 1967,
114, (2), pp. 228-232
(8)

11 Appendix
Multiflow formulas
( 20 )
All winding temperatures must be determined separately
for each winding. From eqns. 2 and 17,
Tank and core Winding I Winding 2 Cooler
(20

DTQT + D W 1 Q I \ + D W 2 Q T 2 + . . . = DCQC From eqns. 18, 19 and 21,

w,+ wx + w2 + . . . = 1 -0

= ^> (15)
From eqns. 17 and 18,

D «*<£
w
(16)
w P

1570 PROC. IEE, Vol. 116, No. 9, SEPTEMBER 1969