Construction and Building Materials 196 (2019) 437–442

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Modeling and prediction of modulus of elasticity of laminated veneer

lumber based on laminated plate theory
Peixing Wei a,⇑, Brad Jianhe Wang b,⇑, Xiaojun Wan a, Xiaohan Chen a
a
School of Landscape Architecture, Jiangsu Vocational College of Agriculture and Forestry, Jurong 212400, China
b
Ningbo Sino-Canada Low-Carbon Technology Institute, Ninghai 315600, China

h i g h l i g h t s

The stiffness of laminated veneer lumber can be theoretically predicted based on laminated plate theory.

The contribution of glue to the resinated veneer mainly depended on the glue spread and veneer thickness.

The tensile modulus and bending modulus of LVL can be considered to be equal for engineering applications.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: To better guide the manufacturing and application of laminated veneer lumber (LVL), a theoretical model
Received 22 March 2018 to describe the formation of the modulus of elasticity for LVL based on the laminated plate theory is
Received in revised form 13 November 2018 described in this work. An experiment was designed to validate the model. The results showed that
Accepted 16 November 2018
the theoretical prediction agreed with the measured value. The contribution of glue to the resinated
Available online 23 November 2018
veneer mainly depended on the glue solid spread (GS) and veneer thickness, namely, for a GS of
50 g/m2, the glue effect can be ignored when the veneer thickness was more than 1.2 mm. However,
Keywords:
for a GS of 90 g/m2, the veneer thickness must be more than 2.1 mm to ignore the glue effect. From the
Laminated plate theory
Laminated veneer lumber
standpoint of engineering applications, the tensile and bending moduli of LVL can be considered as equal.
Modulus of elasticity Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Prediction
Validation

1. Introduction
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is a type of wood veneer-based
composite that is consolidated by laminating multi-layers of resi-
nated wood veneers in the longitudinal direction under a hot or
cold press. According to its characteristic structure, the LVL billet
can be viewed as a laminated plate composite, in which each layer
of resinated wood veneer is a single layer plate [1]. Western hem-
lock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.) represents the largest compo-
nent of forests in the coastal forest region of British Columbia,
Canada. It is traditionally used for lumber, pulp, and other low
value products. Thus, opportunities exist to utilize hemlock for
manufacturing high-value engineered wood products represented
by plywood, LVL or cross-laminated timber.
As for veneer-based composites, many scientists have carried
out studies of the relationship between the performance of
veneer-based products and the assembly of the billet [2–14].
⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: 147997564@qq.com (P. Wei), bradwang@shaw.ca (B.J. Wang).
Classical laminated plate theory can theoretically predict the stiff-
ness and strength of LVL and plywood [15]. In order to simplify the
analysis, the role of the glue line is generally ignored. Okuma [3]
noted that the veneer part of glue penetration can be considered
as the glue line in plywood. When the glue line is thick and the pro-
portion in the cross section is relatively large, the role of the glue
line should not be ignored. Some researchers reported that the glue
line effect can be negligible when the thickness of the wood is
greater than 1.2 mm according to the experimental experience
[3,6]. However, the theoretical basis for this has so far not been
provided. Additionally, the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of the glue
line is higher than the MOE of the wood or glue component. Fur-
thermore, wood veneers have been densified under heat and pres-
sure, and thus, the MOE of the wood veneer was improved [16].
Wang [16] conceptualized the glue line as a wood-glue mixed layer
and established a model for heat and mass transfer for a veneer-
based composite. This mixed layer included wood and glue and
its thickness is 12.5% of aspen veneer thickness (3.2 mm). There-
fore, the MOE of veneer should be affected by the mechanical prop-
erties of the glue components. However, the contribution of the

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.137
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
438 P. Wei et al. / Construction and Building Materials 196 (2019) 437–442
glue line to the mechanical properties of veneer-based composites
has seldom been reported [17]. The mechanical properties of
veneer-based composites can be determined by two analytical
methods: macroscopic mechanics and microscopic mechanics
[18]. The macroscopic mechanical analysis assumes that the mate-
rial is homogeneous and does not consider the inhomogeneity
caused by component materials. Microscopic mechanics focus on
the interaction between the components and the composite is
not uniform. The properties of single-layer composites can be
determined by a physical method and can also be obtained by a
mathematical method of the properties of the component materi-
als, namely, the microscopic mechanics theory.
Based on the analysis of the MOE of resinated wood veneer [18],
this work proposes a prediction method for LVL according to the
microscopic mechanics. This quantitative study will help us to bet-
ter understand the stiffness formation of LVL.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The rotary-cut veneer sheets of western hemlock were sampled
from a plywood mill in Canada and sapwood veneer sheets without
knots or other defects were further picked out based on lighter
color to use in this work. The veneer sheets had a thickness of
3.2 mm and its initial moisture content (MC) was kiln-dried to
6–8%. A special phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin with a solid con-
tent of 45% was used as the glue. It had a broad molecular weight
(MW) distribution (from 1000 to 2000) and a pH of 9.0.
2.2. Test methods
2.2.1. Determination of tensile modulus of hemlock veneer
Until now, there has been no test standard for the tensile prop-
erties of wood veneer. Therefore, test specimens and a setup were
made according to ‘‘Standard Test Methods for Small Clear Speci-
men for Timber” (ASTM D7078/D7078M-12). Fifteen
1,200  600 mm hemlock veneer sheets were randomly selected.
Five 100  100 mm specimens were cut from each veneer sheet
to measure the weight and calculate the density. A total of 150 ten-
sile specimens of wood veneer were made from the remaining
parts of the fifteen veneer sheets, as shown in Fig. 1(a). The speci-
mens were placed in the clamping head of a universal mechanical
testing machine (MTS Systems Corporation, MN USA). Before the
(a)
PC
Fig. 1. Specimen test: (a) tensile test for hemlock veneer and (b) edge-wise bending test of hemlock LVL.
formal experiment, the MTS needed to be calibrated. After the
extension was set to zero and installed in the middle of the speci-
mens, each specimen was loaded with a speed of 2 mm/min. The
computer can collect the data of displacement and load at a given
time. Depending on the original length (25 mm) of the extensome-
ter and the effective cross-sectional size, stress r and strain e were
obtained by automatic treatment. Therefore, the stress increment
Dr and strain increment De can be obtained in the elastic stage,
and the elastic modulus can be obtained by dividing the stress
increment Dr by the corresponding strain increment De.
2.2.2. Manufacturing of hemlock LVL
Wood veneer was resinated in the single side (the glue solid
spread was 72 g/m2). A total of 31 veneer sheets
(1,200  600  3.2 mm) were assembled in the longitudinal direc-
tion and heated for 25 min in a high-frequency press with a pres-
sure of 1.44 MPa. After being taken out and balanced for 24 h, the
LVL billet was then cut into specimens according to the relevant
standard. Three repetitions were made.
2.2.3. Determination of vertical profile density (VDP) of hemlock LVL
Dense-Labx was used in this work to measure the vertical pro-
file density (VDP) of hemlock LVL by X-ray scanning. The five
50  50 mm LVL specimens were made and tested according to
the specification.
2.2.4. Determination of thickness of wood-glue mix in hemlock LVL
The thickness of the wood-glue mix was observed using scan-
ning electron microscopy (SEM) (JEOL Ltd. Tokyo, Japan) and a
stereo microscope (Leica Microsystems Inc. IL USA). Before the
SEM test, 10  10  1 mm thin slices were cut along the thickness
of the LVL. Then, the specimens were put into a vacuum spraying
instrument to obtain a conductive surface of 10–20 nm. After the
SEM setup was adjusted to the best working condition, the speci-
mens were placed into the sample room to observe. The specimens
for the stereo microscope were easy to make. Only one thin slice
was cut in the direction of the thickness and was then observed.
2.2.5. Bending test of hemlock LVL (edge-wise loading)
The LVL beam specimens with a nominal size of 920  40 mm
were made and tested according to the Chinese standard (GB/T
20241-2006, Laminated Veneer Lumber), as shown in Fig. 1(b).
(b)
 P. Wei et al. / Construction and Building Materials 196 (2019) 437–442 439

3. Results and discussion
In this section, the prediction formula of the longitudinal MOE
of LVL was presented. And the experimental results were com-
pared and analyzed.
3.1. Prediction of longitudinal MOE of LVL
Before modeling the system, the following assumptions were
made for the LVL:
(1) the veneers were closely combined by glue;
(2) strains of veneer and glue were consistent in the direction of
the grain;
(3) the glue solid was a homogeneous and isotropic material;
(4) LVL was regarded as an isotropic material only when consid-
ering the mechanical property of its longitudinal direction,
although the veneer was an anisotropic material.
3.1.1. Calculation of longitudinal MOE of LVL
The basic element of LVL was veneer. The MC affects the physical
and mechanical properties of wood [19]. However, minimal
changes in MC have less effect on the MOE of wood [20]. To keep
the wood MC of 5–8% in this work, the dryer was used in our exper-
iment and the temperature was 103 °C and the drying time was
10 min. In a previous study [18], the formation of a wood-glue
mixed layer, owing to glue penetration, was discussed. Wang [16]
measured the VDP of LVL by X-ray scanning and the results showed
that there was no apparent high density area, meaning the thick-
ness of pure glue between the two elements can be assumed as
zero. Thus, the MOE of resinated wood veneer along the longitudi-
nal direction can be calculated by the following model [18]:
q0 GS
Ev ¼ Ef þ
ð1  CRÞqf t0 ð1  CRÞqg
content. qg is the density of glue solid. t0 is the thickness of wood
veneer.
Poplar (q0 = 400 kg/m3, Ef = 18,000 MPa [21]) was taken as an
example. PF resin was used as a glue (qg = 1,500 kg/m3,
Eg = 8,800 MPa [21]. The relationship between the tensile modulus
and the thickness of the resinated wood veneer with a given com-
pression ratio (CR, 20%) was described based on Eq. (1).
As shown in Fig. 2(a), for a given CR, the longitudinal MOE of the
resinated wood veneer reduced along with the increment of wood
veneer thickness. An increase in the glue spread (GS) improved the
tensile modulus of the veneer and the effect of the glue on the MOE
of the resinated wood veneer was gradually reduced, which
depended on the thickness of the wood veneer. When the thick-
ness of the wood veneer was less than 1.2 mm, the glue had a sig-
nificant influence on the MOE of the resinated wood veneer. This
trend was also discovered for the performance of plywood [3,6].
In general, the amount of glue solid applied to a wood veneer is
between 50 and 90 g/m2 in wood industry. Therefore, the two
extremes (GS of 50 and 90 g/m2) were further studied. Fig. 2(b)
shows the contribution of glue to the MOE of resinated wood.
When the thickness of the wood veneer was greater than 1.2 mm
and the GS was 50 g/m2, the contribution of glue to the MOE of
the resinated wood veneer was less than 5%, which can be ignored.
However, for a GS of 90 g/m2, when the thickness of the wood
veneer was greater than 2.1 mm and the contribution of the glue
to the MOE of the resinated wood veneer was less than 5%, it can
be ignored under this situation. In other words, whether the glue
effect can be ignored or not depends on the thickness of the wood
veneer and the GS.
When no glue was applied (GS of 0), the relationship between
the tensile MOE (Ew ) of wood veneer and CR can be expressed as
follows:
q0
Eg ð1Þ Ew ¼ Ef ð2Þ
ð1  CRÞqf

where, Ev is the MOE of resinated wood veneer along the longitudi-
nal direction. Ef and Eg are the MOE of wood fibers or cell walls and
the MOE of glue solid, respectively. q0 is the oven-dried density of
wood veneer, and qf is the cell wall density of dry wood veneer,
generally 1,500 kg/m3. CR is compression ratio of wood veneer. GS
is the glue solid spread (namely, glue solid weight per area), which
can be calculated by glue liquid spread multiplying by glue solid
In this work, considering the glue penetration, LVL can be
viewed as one laminated composite with N layers of wood veneer
(marked by wood grain) and N-1 layers of wood-glue mix (marked
by red thick line), as shown in Fig. 3. It should be noted that,
although the glue permeation was considered in this work, the
chemical reaction between wood veneer and glue was not consid-
ered. It was assumed that the strain of each element in the LVL was

10000
The Contribution of Glue to the MOE of Reainated Wood (%)

25
9500
(a) (b)
9000
Tensile MOE of Resinated Wood (MPa)

GS=50 20
GS=50
8500 GS=60

GS=70 GS=90
8000 15
GS=80
7500
GS=90
7000 10

6500

6000 5

5500

5000 0
0.2 0.6 1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3 3.4 3.8 4.2 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4

Wood Thickness (mm) Wood Thickness (mm)

Fig. 2. Relationship between longitudinal MOE of resinated wood veneer between glue solid spread (GS) and wood veneer thickness. (a) Relationship between tensile MOE of
resinated wood veneer and wood veneer thickness. (b) Contribution of glue to MOE of resinated wood veneer.
440 P. Wei et al. / Construction and Building Materials 196 (2019) 437–442
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of axial stress acting on LVL.
equal when axial loading was applied. Based on the mechanics of
composite materials [14], the equation for the longitudinal tensile
MOE of LVL can be derived by:
El ¼ Ew  ð1  mm Þ þ Em  mm
where, El is the longitudinal tensile MOE of LVL. Ew is the tensile
MOE of wood veneer. Em is the tensile MOE of wood-glue mix layer.
And mm is the volume fraction of wood-glue mix layer.
By combining Eqs. (2) and (3), the equation for calculating the
longitudinal tensile MOE of the LVL is as follows:
q0
El ¼ Ef  ð1  mm Þ þ Em  mm
ð1  CRÞqf
According to the above analysis, the tensile MOE of LVL was
affected by the MOE and volume fraction of the wood-glue mix.
If the thickness of the veneer was thick and the GS was small,
the effect of the glue on the tensile MOE can be negligible. Under
this situation, Eq. (4) can be further simplified as:
q0
El ¼ Ef
ð1  CRÞqf
3.1.2. Calculation of bending MOE of LVL
A third-point bending test (edge-wise loading) was carried out
on the LVL beam specimens, as shown in Fig. 4. It can be assumed
that the LVL was composed of several layers of virtual veneer. Each
virtual veneer layer was made up of wood and wood-glue mix.
Thus, the tensile MOE of each virtual veneer layer can be calculated
by Eq. (1) (with glue) or (2) (without glue).
The interface slip between wood and glue played an important
role in the controlling the mechanical behavior of LVL. But its effect
was little when the bond quality between wood and glue was good.
This work assumed that the bending MOE and tensile MOE of LVL
were equal. Thus, the bending rigidity of LVL can be calculated
without considering the interface properties between wood and
glue by the following equation:
X wood veneer. In this layer, the wood cells were filled with glue
EI ¼ Ei Ii
where, E is the bending MOE of LVL, I is the inertia moment of LVL,
th
Ei is the tensile MOE of the i veneer layer and Ii is the moment of
th
inertia of the i veneer layer.
Fig. 4. Third-point loading scheme of LVL (edge-wise).
Probability distribution of hemlock veneer
2.4E-04 1.2
Cumulative distribution of hemlock veneer
tensile modulus of elasticity (MOE)
tensile modulus of elasticity (MOE)
2.0E-04 1.0
1.6E-04 0.8
1.2E-04 0.6
8.0E-05 0.4
4.0E-05 0.2
0.0E+00 0.0
ð3Þ 7000 9000 11000 13000 15000 17000
Hemlock veneer tensile modulus of elasticity (MOE) (MPa)
Fig. 5. Probability distribution and cumulative distribution of hemlock veneer.
3.2. Comparison of calculated and experimental results
ð4Þ The measured average density of hemlock veneer was 420 kg/m3
and the standard deviation was 36.7 kg/m3. Fig. 5 shows the
probability and cumulative distribution of the hemlock veneer
tensile MOE. It can be seen that the tensile MOE of the hemlock
veneer was consistent with a normal distribution, and this work
took the mean value of 12,058 MPa as an input parameter.
The VDP of hemlock veneer is shown in Fig. 6. The observation
results of SEM and stereoscopic microscopy of the wood-glue mix
ð5Þ interface are shown in Fig. 7. In Fig. 6, the density of the mixed
layer of wood-glue was much higher than that of wood veneer,
so the VDP of the LVL showed that high alternated with low. This
can also be reflected in Fig. 7, where the densification of the mixed
layer of wood-glue can be seen clearly.
During manufacturing of hemlock LVL, after resinated veneers
were assembled and before they were put into the hot press, there
was a certain time interval. During this period, the liquid glue grad-
ually penetrated into the wood veneer on both sides and formed a
wood-glue mixed layer. In the later process of the hot press, wood
veneers were compressed and the glue curing reacted. Thus, wood
veneers bonded together. The pure glue layer was almost nonexis-
tent. As shown in Fig. 7(a), a deeper color layer existed between
two wood veneers, namely, a phenolic resin and wood mix layer.
This layer thickness had a close relationship with penetration of
glue and wood surface properties. In Fig. 7(b), the SEM showed
more clearly the microform of the wood-glue mixed layer and
ð6Þ (marked by pentacles). The part of the wood-glue mix close to
the wood (marked by triangle) was not filled with glue. In the fur-
ther area (marked by oval), there was no adhesive in the wood cell
and the wood cell wall was only compressed and not crushed, so it
can maintain the original strength. This revealed the distribution
Virtual veneer layer
 P. Wei et al. / Construction and Building Materials 196 (2019) 437–442 441

1150
(a) (b)
1025

Density (kg/m3)
775

Density (kg/m3)
900

775 650

650 525

525 400
32 33 34 35
400 Thickness of LVL (mm)
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Thickness of LVL (mm)

Fig. 6. Vertical density profile of hemlock LVL. (a) Density distribution of wood and glue layer in the direction of the thickness of veneer. (b) Wood-glue mixed layer.

(a) (b)

wood-
wood-
wood glue wood
wood glue
mix wood mix

Fig. 7. Wood glue mixing layer: (a) microscope (100) and (b) SEM.

Table 1
Longitudinal elasticity of hemlock LVL.

Tensile MOE of Tensile MOE of Bending MOE of Bending MOE of LVL

LVL (formula 1) LVL (formula 2) LVL (formula 1 and 3) (measured values)
13,676 13,191 13,676 13,205 ( ± 620)

Note: () represents standard deviation.

state of the glue in the veneer layer, and also explained the reason
for the high and low VDP of LVL in Fig. 6.
According to Eq. (1), glue penetrated into the wood veneer, and
in turn improved the MOE of the wood veneer. For the calculation
of the MOE of the wood-glue mixed layer, Eq. (1) was adopted, and
the MOE of glue was Eg = 8,800 MPa and the density of the cell wall
was 1,500 kg/m3. Thus, the MOE of the mixed layer of wood-glue
was 18,394 MPa.
By comparison of the SEM and stereoscopic microscopy results
for the wood-glue mixed layer, its thickness was 80 lm. The final
thickness of the hemlock LVL was 88 mm and the average CR was
11%.
According to Eqs. (1)–(3), the longitudinal tensile MOE and
bending MOE of hemlock LVL can be calculated and compared with
the measured data, as shown in Table 1.
In Table 1, ignoring the effect of glue (Eq. (2)), the tensile MOE
of LVL only reduced by 3.55%. This proved that when the veneer
thickness was above 2.1 mm, and only veneer CR was considered
and the effect of glue was ignored, the prediction of stiffness can
fully satisfy the engineering application. The model assumed that
the bending MOE and tensile MOE of LVL were equal, and the mea-
sured results were reasonably close to the theoretical value, which
also proved the correctness of the model. During actual applica-
tion, the veneer thickness of the wood was usually greater than
1.4 mm, so the effect of glue on the LVL mechanical properties
can be ignored.
4. Conclusions
In this study, the formation of the MOE of LVL was analyzed the-
oretically and the results were verified by testing of hemlock LVL.
The main findings are summarized as follows:
(1) Based on the theory of a laminated plate, the prediction
models of the MOE of LVL were established. The experimen-
tal results showed that the measured values agreed well
with the theoretical value, and the validity of the model
was proved.
(2) The theoretical analysis showed that with the amount of
glue commonly used, the glue contribution in LVL mainly
depended on the glue solid spread (GS) and veneer thick-
ness, namely, when the GS was 50 g/m2 and the veneer
thickness was greater than 1.2 mm, the effect of glue can
be ignored. However, only when the GS was 90 g/m2 and
the veneer thickness was greater than 2.1 mm could the
effect of glue be ignored.
(3) Under the consideration of production application, the
veneer of LVL used in the bearing component was thick,
and the stiffness prediction of the final product can ignore
the glue effect and only consider the mechanical properties
and compression ratio (CR) of wood veneer. In addition,
the tensile and bending moduli of elasticity of LVL were
equal in engineering application.
442 P. Wei et al. / Construction and Building Materials 196 (2019) 437–442
Conflict of interest
None.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the science project of Jiangsu Voca-
tional College of Agriculture and Forestry (2017kj04 and 2017kj14)
and the natural science research general project of Jiangsu Province
of China (16KJD220001).
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