Accepted Manuscript

Low impact behaviour of hemp fibre reinforced epoxy composites

G. Caprino, L. Carrino, M. Durante, A. Langella, V. Lopresto

PII: S0263-8223(15)00706-0
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.08.029
Reference: COST 6727

To appear in: Composite Structures

Please cite this article as: Caprino, G., Carrino, L., Durante, M., Langella, A., Lopresto, V., Low impact behaviour
of hemp fibre reinforced epoxy composites, Composite Structures (2015), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.compstruct.2015.08.029

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 Low impact behaviour of hemp fibre reinforced epoxy composites

G. Caprino, L. Carrino, M. Durante, A. Langella, V. Lopresto

Department of Chemical, Materials and Production Engineering
University of Naples Federico II
Piazzale Tecchio 80, I - 80125 Naples, Italy

ABSTRACT

Natural fibre composite have a potential to be widely applied in the alternative to a

fibreglass composites in sustainable energy impact absorption structures.
In this study, the behaviour of hemp fibre epoxy composites subjected to a low-velocity
impact loading, using an instrumented falling weight impact equipment, is presented.
Two types of hemp reinforcements were used: unidirectional and bi-directional fabric
and three balanced laminates (0°/90°) different in thickness were studied: 4 plies, 8
plies, 12 plies. The results were compared.
The laminates were fabricated by RIFT process using a common epoxy matrix. The
reached volumetric fibre percentage Vf was not too high. It assumed a value of 34% for
the unidirectional reinforcement and an average value of 30% for the bidirectional one.
Some laminates were impregnated by PLA resin at the aim to obtain a completely
natural system.
The impact behaviour was analyzed carrying out tests impacting square specimens,
100x100mm, with a hemispherical tup geometry with a diameter of 19.8 mm and a
velocity of 4.0 m/s. Both penetration and indentation tests were performed at the aim to
investigate about the damage start and evolution.
The impact induced damage, characterised by an optical microscope, includes matrix
cracking, delamination, fibre breakage and fibre pullout. An interesting compressed
central zone of the laminate under the impact point was noted.

Key words: Low velocity, impact, natural, hemp, composite.

1
1. INTRODUCTION

From centuries ago, the ancient people began to use composite materials and it all
started with natural fibres. Later on, the natural fibre lost much of its interest to the
advantage of more durable construction materials like metals. During the last decade,
since the importance of the environmental aspect, there has been a renewed interest in
the natural fibre taking into account the ecological advantages of using renewable
resources [1, 2, 3]. The possible applications as a substitute for glass are under study [3,
4, 5], motivated by weight saving which results in a higher specific strength and
stiffness, lower raw material price and 'thermal recycling'. For example, flax, hemp and
sisal have replaced glass in a number of components in the German automotive
industries. Many automotive components are already produced in natural composites,
mainly based on polyester or PP [6, 7].
However, some problems related to durability, moisture absorption and mechanical
properties have to be solved even if recently developed fibre treatments have improved
these properties considerably [8, 9].
Moreover, they are producible with low investment at low cost, they are friendly
processing and present good thermal and acoustic insulating properties.
Since the recent rediscover, the use of natural fibres for technical composite
applications has recently been the subject of intensive research in Europe to investigate
their properties and thus the possible applications [3, 7, 10].
The present work had the main aim to investigate the impact properties of composite
laminates made by hemp fibre under form of unidirectional and fabric, different in
thickness and immersed in epoxy and PLA matrixes. The laminates made by epoxy
were obtained by RIFT process and were subjected to a low-velocity impact loading
using an instrumented falling weight impact equipment. The hot press was used to
obtain laminates made by PLA.
Both penetration and indentation tests were performed at the aim to investigate about
the damage start and evolution.
By the analysis of the results, it is possible to assert that natural fibre composite has a
potential to be widely applied alternatively to a fibre glass composites in sustainable
energy impact absorption structures. By the comparison, a better behaviour in terms of
damage was noted on bidirectional fabric but in general only high impact energies

2
produced severe damages and no delamination propagation was noted in all the
analyzed configurations.

2. Experimental procedure

2.1 Materials and specimens.

Two types of hemp reinforcements, Fig. 1, were used to fabricate natural composite
laminates: unidirectional, unid, with a weight of 340 g/m2 and bi-directional, bid; fabric
with a weight of 362 g/m2. Three types of balanced laminates (0°/90°) were studied: 4,
8, 10 and 12 plies resulting in three different thicknesses (see Table 1). Of course, to
obtain bidirectional laminates, 4, 8, 10 and 12 (0,90) layers were overlapped whereas 4,
8, 10 and 12 unidirectional layers, the one oriented at 0° and the successive at 90°, were
overlapped respectively to obtain the correspondent unidirectional plates.
Square laminates 300mm in side were fabricated by resin infusion under flexible tool
(RIFT) process using epoxy (Mates SX10) resin. Similar laminates were produced by
hot press using PLA matrix (Table 2 for properties). The impact behaviour was
analyzed carrying out dynamic tests by a falling weight machine Ceast Fractovis
impacting the square specimens, 100x100mm, cut from the original laminates, with a
cylindrical shape and hemispherical nose instrumented tup geometry with a diameter of
19.8 mm. The impact velocity of 4.0 m/s was measured.
The reached volumetric fibre percentage Vf was not too high. It assumed a value of 30%
for the unidirectional reinforcement and an average value of 28% for the bidirectional
one. It is due to the fact that, as shown in Fig.1, the hemp reinforcement presents a large
mesh that inhibit the possibility to have high values of Vf by RIFT process.

The average thickness and the fibre volumetric percentage are reported in Table 1.

The degree of wetting during the production is important for a good fibre and matrix
adhesion. With the thermoset matrix the viscosity is lower, which eases the wetting.
Problems can be encountered related to moisture, that can affect the chemical reaction,
and air, that is always present in fibres and resin. In room conditions, the moisture
content is about over 10 percent. In order to prevent this, the fibres have to be dried
before. The surface of the natural fibre has a geometry and a chemical condition on
which air bubble growth would be initiated, especially in vacuum processes. In order to

3
prevent many voids and a poor fibre matrix interface during vacuum injection it has
been necessary to degas the resin.
During the manufacturing of the specimens, the longitudinal permeability of the
reinforcements was measured and the values recorded were of 1.45E-09 for the
bidirectional reinforcement and of 2.03E-09 for the unidirectional one. These values
settle that it is more difficult to impregnate the bidirectional reinforcement than the
unidirectional one and this confirms the lower value of the volumetric fibre percentage
Vf measured for the unidirectional specimens.
In Fig. 2 a) and b), the microphotographs of the transverse section of the samples made
by epoxy resin with fabric and unidirectional reinforcement are respectively reported.
Similar images were obtained for PLA laminates.

It is possible to see that in the central zone of the tow, the fibres appear darker than the
borderline. In these areas the fibres are not impregnated since the difficulty of the resin
to reach the internal part of the tow due to a major difficulty of the impregnation.
Impact tests were, first, carried out up to the complete penetration of the coupons. The
square specimens were simply supported by a steel cylindrical support having an
internal hole 80 mm in diameter. The complete force-time and force-displacement
curves were recorded by DAS16000 acquisition program and successively studied to
evaluate the penetration energy and the points in correspondence of the variable energy
values chosen for the indentation tests. The latter were useful to study the damage
initiation and propagation. The apparatus allowed to vary the impact energy by
changing the impactor mass and the drop height. The load curves recorded in all the test
conditions were useful to evaluate also maximum forces and the correspondent
displacements, the absorbed energy as well as the first failure loads.
The indentation depth was measured by confocal microscope LEICA DCM3D
following the Standard EN6038 suggestions: it was possible to extract and record the
three-dimensional shape of the surface and to extract the section in correspondence of
which derive the information about the profile and the measurement of the indentation
depth left by the indenter.
The internal damage was observed by an optical microscope after sectioning the
specimens with a longitudinal cut along the impacted central zone. The images reported
hereafter were obtained by the Photoshop CC2014 program that allowed to have a

4
complete visualization of the entire section length of the specimen.
Hereafter, the results about the specimens made by PLA resin will be presented at the
end of the paper whereas, where no specification was done, it means that they are
results about epoxy matrix.

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Load curves

The force – time curves at penetration, for three bidirectional samples with the same
thickness, are shown in Fig. 3 a), while the force – deformation curves for three
indentation tests, carried out at increasing energy levels on specimens with the same
thickness, are shown in Fig. 3 b).

The previous graphs about bidirectional laminates were reported as example since some
features were noted. The same was observed on unidirectional fibre laminates not
reported here for brevity. First of all, from the perfect overlapping of the curves, the
repeatability of the tests was confirmed. From the experimental tests up to complete
penetration (Fig. 3a), the penetration energy was evaluated like the area under the curve
whereas from the curves obtained by indentation tests at different energy values, the
absorbed energy was evaluated like the area between the loading and unloading part of
the curve. A different behaviour was noted on the first part of the curve between thin
and thick laminates: the latter didn't shown the characteristics load drops, more marked
in thin laminates, common in impacts on carbon or glass composites. It denotes a
different behaviour in terms of damage between thin and thick hemp composites and
between thick hemp and classical composite laminates. What asserted is clear in the
previous figures comparing the curves at penetration (a) that are about 4 layers
laminates and the indentation curves (b) that are about 12 layers ones. It is also clear in
the graphs in Fig. 4, where a comparison between curves at penetration about 4 and 12
layers for bidirectional and unidirectional laminates was reported. It will be hereafter
better explained.

Looking at Fig. 4 it is possible to note, as expected, an increasing in maximum force at

the increasing of the thickness, with different initial rigidity, and a lower maximum

5
force value for unidirectional laminates. The maximum force, Fmax, was plotted against
the specimen thickness in Fig. 5. The symbols indicate mean values of at least three
tests. The solid lines in the figure represent the power law best-fitting the experimental
data. It has been seen that an equation having the form:

‫ܨ‬௠௔௫ ൌ ܽ ή ‫ ݐ‬௜ (1)

is adequate to accurately describe the Fmax trend. From the best-fit curve, the values

a=308.03 and a=143.6 N/mmi and i = 1.49 and i = 1.73 for bidirectionals and

unidirectionals respectively, were obtained.

Studying the contact between a rigid sphere and a laminate, some researchers [11, 12]

demonstrated that the elastic Hertzian contact law could be successfully applied.

Looking at Eq. (1), the experimental values of the exponent i (i=1.49 and 1.73)

compares well with that expected from the Hertzian contact law, in particular way the

one about bidirectional panels. Therefore, the importance of the Hertzian contact law is

devised in determining the main laminate failure as well.

3.2. Indentation test

The dent depth, I, on impacted composite laminates, represents the plastic deformation left
by the contact between the indenter and the surface. It is naturally the higher, the higher the
impact energy, U, is.
Of course, if an explicit form would be available for this relationship, the unknown impact
energy, resulting in a known indentation, could be found through a simple indentation
measurement [13]. The importance of the mentioned relationship is in the fact that in
literature, some models have been proposed [14, 15] aiming to predict the residual strength
of a composite laminate as a function of the impact energy. In principle the possibility to
predict the residual strength from indentation is devised [13].
In [13, 16] low velocity impact tests were carried out on a variety of laminates, different in
thickness, lay-up, and material system impacted at various energy levels: the indentation
was measured and plotted against U for all the laminates. It was found that the indentation
6
depth increases with the increasing of impact energy in a more than linear trend and for a
given energy and material system, the dent depth is the higher, the lower the plate thickness
is.
As shown in Fig. 6, the same behaviour was confirmed here for both unidirectional and
bidirectional hemp laminates: different more than linear curves for each investigated
thickness were obtained. The different trends are less clear for unidirectional laminates (Fig.
6b) since the larger scale due to the higher value obtained on the thicker specimens.
It seems that this behaviour is negligibly affected by the laminate type and thickness, fibre
architecture, matrix type, and constraint conditions.
By the comparison it seemed that no big differences were found in terms of indentation
depth values between the two configurations, except for the thicker laminate impacted at the
higher energy value.

In [13], plotting the same experimental indentation measurements against the non-
dimensional energy, U/Up, it was seen that, when the latter parameter is adopted, all the
indentation curves concerning a single material system, irrespective of the actual thickness,
sensibly converged to a single master curve. Interestingly, the same happened for the
laminates tested in the present work as it is confirmed by Fig. 7 a) and b).

In [13], all the experimental points were fitted by a power law equation whereas in [17] an
exponential trend was revealed more effective in describing the trend at higher energy
values too. The effectiveness of an exponential equation, satisfying the boundary condition
U/Up = 0 ⇒ I = 0, was verified:

U
γ⋅
Up
I = k ⋅(10 − 1) (2)

k, γ are two constants. From Eq. (2) it was simple to obtain the same relationship under the
form:
I
+ 1 = γ ⋅
U
Log (3)
k  Up

that was useful to simply obtain the two constant values. Plotting, in fact, the term on the left
against the non-dimensional energy, U/Up, a straight line passing through the origin was
observed, adopting the correct value for k. From the slope of the straight line, the constant γ
was evaluated.

7
 The same procedure was adopted at the natural hemp composites: assuming an attempt
value for k, the quantity on the left of Eq. (3) was calculated for each one of the
experimental points from Fig. 7. k was varied until the straight line that best fit the data in
the log (I/k+1) – U/Up diagram, passed through the origin (Fig. 8). The values k = 0.22 mm
and γ = 1.24, very similar to what found for carbon laminates [17], were obtained.

As it is clear from Fig. 7b, the unidirectional configuration showed a larger dispersion that
is evident also in Fig. 8 where the data are plotted against the non dimensional energy.
Since the importance of the absorbed energy, Ua, that represents a part of the impact energy
absorbed by the specimens to create damage, the same procedure was repeated considering
Ua instead of U. In this way, from a simple measurement on the surface of the laminate, it
could be possible to have information about the qualitative severity of the internal damage.
As shown in Fig. 9 a) and b)., also the non dimensional Ua/Up parameter was revealed able
to collect all the experimental measurements on a single master curve, independently of the
thickness and fibre configuration.

Repeating the procedure adopted above for the constant evaluation, k = 0.35 mm and γ =
1.6 were found approximately good for both the laminates. The values are higher than what
found using the non dimensional impact energy and also higher respect to classical
laminates.

3.3. Penetration law

The importance of the above discussion depends on the possibility to predict the penetration
energy appearing in Eq. 2. In [18], the authors proposed an interesting power law equation
able to give information about the energy necessary to completely penetrate the laminates as
a function of the fibre volume fraction , Vf, and tup diameter, Dp, only. The law put in
evidence the importance of the fibre content respect to the layup. The power law wasn't
validated here by hemp fibre laminates. In fact, plotting Up against the product (t*Vf*Dp),
where Vf is the fibre volume fraction and t the thickness, a linear trend was found (Fig. 10)
having equation:

U p = a ⋅ (t * V f * D p ) + b (4)

where the constants a = 0.5 and b = 13.4 were found by the best fit methods.

8
The same linear trend was found for both unidirectional and bidirectional fabric laminates
showed for simplicity on the same graph in Fig. 10.

3.4. Absorbed energy

The absorbed energy represents an important parameter in the analysis of the damage. It
was evaluated from the area within the loading-unloading load curves recorded during non-
perforating impact tests (Fig. 3b) and it is an index of which part of the impact energy is
used to create damage. Correlating the absorbed energy and the impact one, a very simple
equation was found: all the data, irrespective of the panel thickness and fibre configuration,
collapse into a single linear trend (Fig. 11) having equation:

Ua = a ⋅U − b (5)

where a = 0.745 and b = 3.66 were determined by the best fit method.

A similar correlation between U and Ua was found by Sutherland and Guedes Soares [19]
plotting the energy absorbed during low-velocity impact tests on GFRP laminates made of
different woven roving architectures, thicknesses and resins, against impact energy, U: they
observed a bi-linear trend, with the knee corresponding to the onset of fibre failure.
Moreover, the virtual non-dimensional energy, Uo, resulting in Ua=0 and graphically
represented by the intercept of the straight line with the x-axis, was calculated and it
represents the threshold impact energy below which no energy is absorbed to create damage.
It represents an important limit for the damage initiation. Considering Ua = 0 in Eq. 5, Uo =
4.9 J was found. Therefore, would the linear relationship hold also at very low energies, a
perfectly elastic impact should occur when the initial energy is 4.9 J, or lower. The latter
value is higher than the equivalent one found about carbon and glass composites [20, 21]. It
means that higher energies are necessary for the beginning of the damage in natural fibre
composites respect to commonly used laminates.

3.5 Internal damage

The specimens were sectioned in correspondence of the impacted central point and the
sections were observed by an optical microscope.

9
No damage was found up to 40J of impact energy, U, as it is possible to note in Fig. 13: it is
evident the difficulty in fibre impregnation discussed at the beginning of the paper.

50J of impact energy begin to cause some damage inside the laminate (Fig. 14): the
indentation is more marked (arrow in figure a) and b)) and 45° fractures starting from the
indentation, begin to appear. The discussed damage mechanism is obviously more clear in
Fig. 15 where a 12 layers specimen impacted by 75J of energy is reported. In Fig. 15 it is
also possible to observe fractures on the opposite side respect to the impacted one and a
compressed zone under the impactor - material contact point evidenced in Fig. 16.
In the following figures (17-19), what showed above about bidirectional laminates was
reported for unidirectional ones. More or less the same characteristics were evidenced. In
Fig. 17, it is possible to observe the higher impragnation discussed above evidenced by the
higher compactation along the thickness.

However, looking at Fig. 19, a more marked internal and external damage respect to the
bidirectional laminates was produced by 75J of impact energy.

4. Results about PLA

4.1. Indentation and absorbed energy

The same experimentation was carried out on laminates made by hemp fibres, unidirectional
and bidirectional, and PLA resin. It was found a completely different behaviour about
external damage respect to the previous presented laminates made by epoxy resin. The
indentation measurement, in fact, doesn't verify the exponential law showed above and
largely validated in literature [13] but, plotting the indentation depth values against the non
dimensional impact energy, the data follow a linear trend with a slope dependent on the
thickness and fibre configuration (Fig. 20): the data against the non dimensional energy,
U/Up, don't converge to a single master curve irrespective of the thickness and material, as
observed above.

It is important to observe that the 12 layers bidirectional laminate impacted at 50J of impact
energy, showed a very high indentation of about 3.3mm, sensibly higher than the
correspondent value obtained on the unidirectional specimen. The value is not reported on
the graph in Fig. 20 to don't get less clear the other lower data.

10
However, also in this case it was possible to find a threshold value of impact energy below
which no energy is absorbed by the laminate to create damage. Plotting, in fact, the absorbed
energy against the impact energy (Fig. 21), a linear trend having equation:

Ua = a ⋅U − b (6)

was found with a = 0,653 and b = 2.713 determined by the best fit method.

The threshold value was found to be 4,154 J that means that would the linear relationship
hold also at very low energies, a perfectly elastic impact should occur when the initial
energy is 4.154 J, or lower. It is important to note that these values found for hemp fibre
laminates are higher than the equivalent ones found about carbon and glass composites [20,
21]. This is a good results since higher energies are necessary for the beginning of the
damage in natural fibre composite laminates.
Since the very similar values of the a and b constants in Eqs. (5) and (6) found in the present
research about epoxy and PLA laminates, all the data from Fig. 11 and 21 were collected in
a single graph (Fig. 22): all of them follow, as expected, the same linear trend.

4.2. Internal damage

As explained above, the specimens were sectioned in correspondence of the impacted

central point and the sections were observed by an optical microscope. As it is possible
to note in Fig. 23, also in this case, for the thicker specimens, no damage was found up
to 50J of impact energy, U, for both unidirectional and bidirectional laminates.

At an impact energy of 75J, a little damage inside the laminate, on the opposite side
respect to the impacted one (black arrow in Fig. 24a), and a small indentation were
noted on unidirectional laminates (Fig. 24a) whereas only a small indentation was noted
on bidirectional fabric (Fig. 24b).

No significative damage was found on thinner laminates too.

5. Conclusions

The aim of the research was to study the possibility to apply natural composites in
applications subjected to low velocity impact loads such as in automotive and naval

11
fields. The results showed also a comparison between two different fibre architectures
and two different resin types.
In general, all the existing semiempirical models valid for classical composites were
validated here for laminates made by epoxy matrix: Hertzian contact law and
exponential indentation law. The laminates made by PLA showed a different behaviour.
A linear trend was found to predict the penetration energy instead of the power law
existing in literature but a threshold limit of impact energy for the beginning of the
damage formation was found in both epoxy and PLA laminates. The values found here
are higher respect to what found on classical laminates: an higher impact energy is
necessary to obtain damage inside hemp composites.
Very interestingly, a very limited delaminated zone was found below the impact point
and a high compression zone was noted due to the impactor material contact. For a fixed
impact energy, the unidirectional laminates showed a more severe damage but no
significative damage was observed below 75J of impact energy in both cases.
The results about the damage and the absorbed energy lead to the conclusion of a
potential replacement of glass fibre with hemp fibre in no structural applications.

AKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the ONR Solid Mechanics Program, in the person of Dr.
Yapa D.S. Rajapakse, Program Manager, for the financial support provided to this research.

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14
 Figure Captions

Fig. 1. Bidirectional and unidirectional hemp dry reinforcements.

Fig. 2. Transverse section of the samples: fabric (a), unidirectional (b).
Fig. 3. Load-displacement curves: a) up to penetration; b) indentation tests.
Bidirectionals.
Fig. 4. Penetration load-displacement curves thin and thick laminates: a) bidirectional
fabric; b) unidirectional fibre.
Fig. 5. Maximum load, Fmax, against thickness panel, t.
Fig. 6. Indentation, I, against impact energy, U: comparison between thicknesses. a)
bidirectional laminates; b) unidirectional fabric.
Fig. 7. Indentation, I, against non dimentional impact energy, U/Up: comparison between
thicknesses. a) bidirectional laminates; b) unidirectional fabric.
Fig. 8. Indentation law: fabric (a), unidirectional (b).
Fig. 9. Indentation, I, against non dimentional absorbed energy, Ua/Up: comparison between
thicknesses. a) bidirectional fabric; b) unidirectional laminates.
Fig. 10. Penetration energy law.
Fig. 11. Absorbed energy, Ua, against impact energy, U.
Fig. 12. Sample after penetration test.
Fig. 13. Fractographic image, Bid. U = 40J.
Fig. 14. Fractographic image, Bid. U = 50J. a) entire section; b) magnification of the central
zone.
Fig. 15. Fractographic image, Bid. U = 75J. a) entire section; b) magnification of the central
zone.
Fig. 16. Compressed impact point.
Fig. 17. Fractographic image, Unid. U = 40J. Entire section.
Fig. 18. Fractographic image, Unid. U = 50J. a) entire section; b) magnification of the
central zone.
Fig. 19. Fractographic image, Unid. U = 75J. a) entire section; b) magnification of the
central zone.
Fig. 20. Indentation, I, against non dimensional impact energy, U/Up: comparison between
thicknesses and fibre configuration.
Fig. 21. Absorbed energy, Ua, against impact energy, U.

15
Fig. 22. Absorbed energy, Ua, against impact energy, U. Comparison between epoxy and
PLA laminates.
Fig. 23. Fractographic image, Bid. U = 50J.
Fig. 24. Fractographic image, U = 75J. a) unidirectional; b) bidirectional.

16
Table 1: Laminates thickness and fibre volume fraction.
Average
Average thickness Vf % Vf %
Reinforcement thickness
Epoxy (mm) Epoxy PLA
PLA (mm)
Unidirectional
4 plies 3.78 35 3.80 -
8 plies 6.92 37 7.31 30
10 plies 8.87 - 9.09 31
12 plies 10.33 33 9.53 29
Bidirectional
4 plies 4.12 32 3.30 -
8 plies 8.45 30 6.54 26
10 plies - - 7.75 30
12 plies 11.12 28 9.07 28

Table 2: PLA properties

Properties Unoriented Oriented
Tensile strenght (MPa) 47,6-53,1 47,6-166
E (MPa) 3447-4000 3889-4137
Y (MPa) 45,5-61,4 n.d.
ε (%) 3,1-5,8 15-160
HR 82-88 82-88
Tg (°C) 57-60 57-60

17
Fig. 1.

18
a) b)
Fig. 2.

19
a) b)
Fig. 3.

20
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a) b)
Fig. 4.

21
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22
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Fig. 6.

23
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Fig. 7.

24
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a) b)

25
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a) b)
Fig. 9.

27
 ϴϬ
ŝĚŝƌĞĐƚŝŽŶĂů
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Fig. 10.

28
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Fig. 11.

29
Fig. 12.

30
Fig. 13.

31
 a)

b)
Fig. 14.

32
 a)

b)
Fig. 15.

33
Fig. 16.

34
Fig. 17.

35
 a)

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Fig. 18.

36
a)

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37
 Fig. 19.

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Fig. 20.

38
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40
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41
Fig. 23.

42
 a)

b)
Fig. 24.

43