Developments in Structural Engineering Vol 1 - Bridges and Space Structures Edited by B.H.v. Topping

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Developments in
Structural Engineering
Volume One
Bridges and Space Structures
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Copyright CRC Press

Books and Journals on Structural Engineering
The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures

N.S. Trahair and M . A . Bradford
Expert Systems in Construction and Structural Engineering
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Edited by H . A d e l i
Fracture Mechanics of Concrete Structures: From Theory to

Applications
RILEM Report
Edited by L. Elfgren
The Maintenance of Brick and Stone Masonry Structures

Edited by A . M . Sowden
Reinforced Concrete Chimneys and Towers

G.M. P i n f o l d
Reinforced Concrete Designers' Handbook
C.E. Reynolds and J.C. Steedman
Structural Analysis. A Unified Classical and Matrix Approach

A . Ghali and A . M . N e v i l l e
Vibration of Structures
J.W. S m i t h
Structural Engineering Review (Editor B.H. V. Topping)

A quarterly journal w h i c h provides a focal point for the publication
of innovative ideas i n structural engineering and is p r i m a r i l y
concerned w i t h analysis, design and construction of c i v i l
engineering and b u i l d i n g structures, emphasizing the
interdependence of architectural and engineering design.
Publisher's Note
This book has been compiled from camera ready copy provided by
the i n d i v i d u a l contributors. This method of production has allowed
us to supply finished copies to the delegates at the Conference.
Copyright CRC Press

Developments in
Structural Engineering
Volume One
Bridges and Space Structures
Proceedings of the F o r t h Rail Bridge

Centenary Conference, h e l d o n 21-23 A u g u s t
1990 at t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g ,
H e r i o t - W a t t University, Riccarton,
Edinburgh, Scotland, U K
Edited by
B.H.V. Topping
Reader in Structural Engineering,
Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh
LONDON AND NEW YORK
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Copyright CRC Press

By Taylor & Francis,
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, 0X14 4RN
First edition 1990
Transferred to Digital Printing 2005
© 1990 Taylor & Francis
ISBN 0 419 15240 7 (set) 0 442 31262 8 (set)
0 419 15210 5
A l l rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
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any retrieval system of any nature, without the written permission
of the copyright holder and the publisher, application for which
shall be made to the publisher.
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Available
Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Available
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Copyright CRC Press

Contents
Acknowledgements xvi
Preface XVlll
V O L U M E ONE
B R I D G E S AND SPACE S T R U C T U R E S
PART ONE T H E HISTORY OF STRUCTURAL

E N G I N E E R I N G ( w i t h reference t o t h e F o r t h R a i l B r i d g e ) 1
The Forth Bridges 3

D.G. M c B E T H
Forth crossing challenges at Queensferry before the Rail Bridge 36

R A . PAXTON
American long span metal truss experience prior to the

Firth of Forth 64
F.E. GRIGGS
PART T W O RECENT S T R U C T U R A L ENGINEERING

PROJECTS I N S C O T L A N D 77
Railway engineering in Scotland today 79

W.D.F. G R A N T
The St Enoch Centre, Glasgow 91

D.S.BLACKWOOD
New visitor facilities at Edinburgh Castle 103

T.H.DOUGLAS
PART THREE BRIDGE ENGINEERING 115
Progress in bridge engineering 117

D.J. LEE
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The fixed traffic link across the Great Belt in Denmark
N.J. GIMSING
Corrosion resistance in steels for motorway bridges

K. JOHNSON, W . R A M S A Y
Fiber reinforced plastic bridges in Chongqing 1983-1988

R.N. BRUCE Jr
The test performance of a full-scale prestressed brickwork

bridge abutment
S.W. GARRITY, T.G. G A R W O O D
Optimum cost design of composite and noncomposite

steel bridges
M. MAFI
A computer-based methodology for investigation of bridge

vehicle/superstructure interaction
T.E. FENSKE, S.M. FENSKE
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A reliability-based capacity rating of existing bridges by

incorporating system identification
H - N . CHO, C-B. Y U N , A . H-S. A N G , M . S H I N O Z U K A
Bridge rail design and crash worthiness

M . E L G A A L Y , H . DAGHER, S. K U L E N D R A N
PART FOUR REINFORCED C O N C R E T E BRIDGES
A simple method for designing bridge deck slabs

B. de V. BATCHELOR, P. SAVIDES
Behaviour of integral reinforced concrete skewed slab bridges

H . DAGHER, M . E L G A A L Y , J. K A N K A M
Optimization of prestressed concrete single cell box

girder bridges
D . N . T R I K H A , P.C. JAIN, N . M . B H A N D A R I , B.R. B A D A W E
Study of cast-in-situ cement concrete multi-circular

vented highway bridges
K. L A K S H M I N A R A Y A N A , M . K . L . N . SASTRY
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The use of open thin-walled concrete structures as
rail bridges 276
S.A. E L - H A M M A S I
PART FIVE C A B L E BRIDGES 295
Some thoughts on cable bridge design 297

J.M. SCHLAICH
Developments in steels for cable-stayed structures 316

S.E. WEBSTER, T.J. PIKE, B . M . A R M S T R O N G
Dynamic behaviour of cable-stayed bridges under

moving loading 334
F. VENANCIO-FILHO, A . L . EL DEBS
P A R T SIX R A I L W A Y BRIDGES 347
Steel railway bridges: recent developments 349

A.C.G. H A Y W A R D , P.J.G. WIGLEY
On fatigue evaluation of riveted connections in railway

truss bridges 366
A. EBRAHIMPOUR, E.A. M A R A G A K I S , D . N . O'CONNOR
PART SEVEN M A S O N R Y A R C H BRIDGES 379
Analysis of masonry arch bridges by a finite element method 381

B. S. CHOO, M.G. COUTIE, N.G. GONG
The behaviour of masonry arch bridges - the effect of defects 393

C. MELBOURNE
PART EIGHT S T R U C T U R A L A N A L Y S I S O F BRIDGES 403
The Tay Bridge disaster - a study in structural pathology 405

T. M A R T I N , L A . M A C L E O D
Sensitivity analysis for short-span steel bridges 415

M. MAFI
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Live load analysis of bridges modelled as plane frameworks
A. FAFITIS, J.R. M C K E L L A R
A n improved numerical approach for dynamic analysis of

bridges to moving vehicles
M.R. T A H E R I , M M . Z A M A N , A . A L V A P P I L L A I
PART NINE BRIDGE D Y N A M I C S
The dynamic behaviour of bridges: prediction and performance

J.W. S M I T H
Dynamic behaviour of cable-stayed bridges

J.C. W I L S O N , T. L I U , W . GRAVELLE
Nonstationary analysis of suspension bridges for multiple

support excitations
C-H. H Y U N , C-B. Y U N , M . S H I N O Z U K A
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Microcomputer-based extraction of cable-stayed bridge

natural modes
A. N A M I N I
P A R T T E N BRIDGE ASSESSMENT, M A I N T E N A N C E
A N D REPAIR
Load testing as a means of assessing the structural behaviour

of bridges
A.E. LONG, A . T H O M P S O N , J. KIRKPATRICK
The management of information in bridgeworks maintenance

T . O B A I D E , N.J. S M I T H
The structural assessment and strengthening of

Kalemouth Bridge, Scotland
P. JACKSON
Steel truss bridge rehabilitation technique using superimposed

steel arches (the application to a Montana railroad deck
truss bridge)
R.H.KIM, J.B.KIM
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PART ELEVEN C A B L E A N D M E M B R A N E STRUCTURES 555
State of the art: nonlinear dynamic response of membranes 557

C. H . JENKINS, J.W. LEONARD
Dynamic analysis of transversely stiffened single curvature

cable suspended roof and application 569
T.JLJ.ZHAO
Design, analysis and response of double-layer tensegrity grids 579

A. HANAOR
Prestressed trusses: analysis behaviour and design 591

G.G. SCHIERLE
A C A D grid method for tensile prestressed structure concepts 604

D. A . C H A M B E R L A I N
The computer aided design of membrane structures 613

A.H. YOUSUFI
PART TWELVE SPACE STRUCTURES 619
A quest for glass space structures 621

M . EEKOUT
Orthogonal grid shell: static model tests comparing

deflections to forms 648
P.H. K U O , W. W U , G.G. SCHIERLE
Skyscrapers or spacetowns 657

J. FRANQOIS GABRIEL
Experimental and analytical study on the effect of joint

properties on the stability of space structures 667
F.A. F A T H E L B A B , R.E. McCONNEL
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VOLUME TWO
A N A L Y S I S , D E S I G N AND A S S E S S M E N T
OF S T R U C T U R E S
PART THIRTEEN STEEL STRUCTURES 679
Practical methods of second-order inelastic analysis for

frame design 681
W.F.CHEN
The influence of semi-rigid joint action on the behaviour of

steel frame structures 696
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D.A. NETHERCOT
Force distributions in large bracing connections 722

R.M.RICHARD
Distortional instability of very slender web beams 747

K.F. CHUNG, G.W. OWENS
The developed case - structural steel from 1890 to 1990 758

W.B.MORRISON
Curved steel sections 7 70

W.J.S. COVER
PART FOURTEEN REINFORCED CONCRETE

STRUCTURES 783
The structural assessment of concrete structures 785

L.A.CLARK
A l k a l i - s i l i c a reaction: its effect on concrete members

and structures 798
D.W. HOBBS
Sorpti vity of concrete 817

W.J. McCARTER, H . EZ1RIM
Copyright CRC Press

Displacement characteristics of full size stub-girder
floor systems under sustained in-service loading 825
M . A H M A D , E.Y.L. CHIEN, M . U . H O S A I N
Reinforced concrete deep beams with fixed boundary

conditions 833
N.K. SUBEDI, A . A R A B Z A D E H
Punching shear in the perimeter walls of concrete

offshore structures 846
D.I. M c L E A N , R.N. W H I T E
PART FIFTEEN T A L L BUILDINGS 859
Analysis of optimum rigidity distribution of tall building

under seismic action 861
Y. X I A O
Ultimate strength analysis of reinforced concrete coupled

shear w a l l structures 869
N.K. SUBEDI
A transfer matrix dynamic analysis of nonlinear frame-shear

wall systems 883
S. SYNGELLAKIS, I . YOUNES
PART SIXTEEN M A S O N R Y STRUCTURES 895
Behaviour of prestressed brickwork pocket type walls

under lateral loading 897
B.P.SINHA
PART SEVENTEEN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

A N D ASSESSMENT 907
Crictical design features of steel industrial storage structures 909

J.M. ROTTER
Uncertainty in design loads 929

R.L. SACK
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Military structures 946
P.S.BULSON
Spectator safety and the role of the structural engineer 956

J.F. DICKIE
Perfobond rib shear connectors in composite beams 978

E.C. OGUEJIOFOR, M.R. V E L D A N D A , M . U . H O S A I N
Tolerance limits for geometric imperfections in cooling towers 968

A. A L E X ANDRIDIS, N.J. GARDNER
Uplift behaviour of belled piers in sand 1000

E.A. D I C K I N
PART EIGHTEEN E A R T H Q U A K E ENGINEERING

A N D SEISMIC DESIGN 1009
Seismic design of nuclear facilities in the U K - an

evolving technology 1011
C.I. ROBERTSON, J.R. B A L L A N T Y N E
The earthquake as a catastrophic event for residential housing:

the flexo-torsional behaviour of reinforced concrete buildings
made of friction seismic resistant superimposed blocks 1033
M . C O N T A L D O , C. DE N A T A L E , S. SANTORELLI
Seismic force influence on R C walls with openings 1044

R.J. FOLIC, S.S. ZORIC
Analysis of aseismic strength for reinforced masonry wall 1056

L. SONGBUO
Seismic analysis of building structures with foundation uplift 1067

D-G. LEE, Y - H . SONG
Characteristics of a tall and narrow building subjected to

earthquake motions: experiments and analysis 1080
T. S U G I Y A M A , S. K A T O
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PART NINETEEN NON-CONVENTIONAL
STRUCTURES
J. Sainsbury pic supermarket at Camden

R.E. SLADE
Maleo: lunar base assembly in low earth orbit

M . T H A N G A V E L U , G.G. SCHIERLE
PART TWENTY STRUCTURALANALYSIS

A N D DESIGN
Recent developments in the second-order analysis of

framed structures
H.B.HARRISON
On estimation of buckling loads for disks with encastre

hinged and free edge conditions
R. DELPAK
Curvilinear section torsion by finite differences

D. JOHNSON
Soil-structure interaction problems in the presence of

conservative soil
N . M . AUCIELLO
PART T W E N T Y ONE D Y N A M I C PROBLEMS I N

STRUCTURAL A N A L Y S I S A N D DESIGN
Computer aided seismic design

G.G. SCHIERLE
Dynamic analysis of marine riser systems

S.C.DAS
Vibration reduction using prestress in wood floor framing

R. A R A P E T Y A N , G.G. SCHIERLE
Inelastic dynamic response of space steel frames under

bi-directional horizontal earthquakes
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G-Q. L I . Z - Y . S H E N
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PART T W E N T Y T W O FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
I N STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Developments in the finite element analysis of plates

E. H I N T O N , W. A T A M A Z - S I B A I , A . S E L M A N
Nonlinear plate element for modelling laterally loaded

flat-plate R C structures
H . O M A R , G. MORRIS
Combined ring element/quadrilateral element method for

the analysis of shells of revolution
A.C. LOCK, M . C . M . FONSEKA
Finite element formulation of distortional warping in

multi-cell box girders
A . G. RAZAQPUR, H . G . L I
A theoretical algorithm for determination of geometrically

nonlinear behaviour of loaded elastic rotational shells
R. DELPAK, V.G. P E S H K A M
Exact analysis of variable cross section frames by the

exact element method
M . EISENBERGER
A numerical study of large deflection/post-buckling

characteristics of stressed rotational elastic skins
V.G. P E S H K A M , R. D E L P A K
PART T W E N T Y THREE STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

COMPUTATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Developments in computational technology for structural

engineering
B. H.V. TOPPING
Parallel and vector computational procedures in structural

engineering
D.T. N G U Y E N , Z. R A Z Z A Q
Some thoughts on K B E s for structural design

S.H. S I M M O N D S , Y.K. ELEZABY
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Finite element translator and critic for design synthesis
M . EISENBERGER
Fixed point theory and structural optimization

R. L E V Y
Integrated design systems, 'expert systems' or

systems for experts
M . H . BENNENK
Index
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Acknowledgements
I w o u l d like to thank Professor A . D . Edwards, Dean of the Faculty of

Engineering, H e r i o t - W a t t University w h o first suggested to me that I
might consider organizing a conference to celebrate the Centenary of the
Forth Rail Bridge.
I should also like to thank the i n v i t e d speakers at the conference, many
of w h o m assisted w i t h the selection of papers and advised on the
conference programme and i n many other ways:
Dr M.R. Barnes, City University, London;
Dr P. Bulson, Advanced Mechanics and Engineering L i m i t e d , Guildford,
Surrey;
Professor W.F. Chen, Purdue University, West Lafayette, United States
of America;
Dr L . A . Clark, The University of Birmingham;
Dr J.F. Dickie, Department of Engineering, University of Manchester,
Manchester;
Professor N.J. Gimsing, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby,
Denmark;
W.D.F. Grant, Scotrail, Edinburgh;
Professor H.B. Harrison, University of Sydney, Australia;
Professor E. H i n t o n , University College of Swansea, University of Wales,
Swansea;
Dr D.W. Hobbs, British Cement Association, Wexham Springs, Slough;
D.J. Lee, G. Maunsell and Partners, London;
Professor A.E. Long, The Queen's University of Belfast;
D.G. McBeth, Kenchington Little pic, Edinburgh;
Professor D.A. Nethercot, University of Nottingham;
R.A. Paxton, Lothian Regional Highways Department, Edinburgh;
Professor R.M. Richard, The University of Arizona, United States of
America;
Professor J.M. Rotter, University of Edinburgh;
Professor R.L. Sack, University of Oklahoma, United States of America;
Professor J. Schlaich, Universitat Stuttgart, West Germany;
Dr J.W. Smith, Department of C i v i l Engineering, University of Bristol.
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Finally, I should like to thank Professor Paul W. Jowitt, Head of
Department of C i v i l Engineering, Heriot-Watt University, for his col-
laboration, support and encouragement of this and other projects.
Barry Topping
Department of Civil Engineering
Heriot-Watt University
Riccarton
Edinburgh
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Preface
Structural Engineering has been defined as 'the science and art of

designing and making, w i t h economy and elegance, buildings, bridges,
frameworks, and other similar structures so that they can safely resist the
forces to w h i c h they may be subjected'. The Forth Rail Bridge was
opened on 4 M a r c h 1890 by the then Prince of Wales and has success-
f u l l y resisted the forces to w h i c h it has been subjected for over a century.
The Bridge has been described as 'the greatest monument to engineering
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skills of its era'. By contrast W i l l i a m Morris described it as 'the supremist
specimen of all ugliness'. Regardless of your point of view, no one can
dispute that the Bridge is an icon for engineers and that unlike the Eiffel
Tower, w i t h w h i c h it has frequently been compared, the structure has a
function. It is of course a symbol to the Scottish nation and has been a
source of great national pride. W h e n the Bridge was opened it was the
longest i n the w o r l d and the construction had taken seven years w i t h
over 4000 men w o r k i n g on i t .
Of the great engineers associated w i t h its construction only the
contractor Sir W i l l i a m A r r o l was a Scot. The Bridge is regarded
w o r l d w i d e as a t r i u m p h of British and Scottish engineering. The
Scottish people celebrated its centenary i n a variety of ways. The object
of this conference was to celebrate the centenary of the Forth Rail Bridge
by reviewing the many aspects of c i v i l engineering structures. Of course,
as anticipated, many papers review aspects of bridge engineering. The
f u l l range of structural engineering topics considered by the papers is
m u c h w i d e r and I w o u l d like to thank the authors of the papers included
i n these conference proceedings for w r i t i n g their papers i n celebration of
the Forth Rail Bridge Centenary. They range from historical papers to
those describing recent construction projects i n various parts of the
w o r l d . The research papers discuss recent progress on long standing
problems such as a l k a l i - s i l i c a reaction to the latest developments i n
structural engineering computation. It is particularly gratifying that
papers have been w r i t t e n i n celebration of the Bridge Centenary by
authors not o n l y from the U n i t e d K i n g d o m but also from Europe, India,
China, Japan, Australia, Canada and the United States of America.
It is particularly appropriate that this conference should have been
held at H e r i o t - W a t t University, since the Riccarton Campus is only a few
miles away from the Bridge. Indeed the young c i v i l engineers of tomor-
row can v i e w the Forth Bridges from the top floor of their b u i l d i n g as
xviii
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they look northwards across the Forth Estuary to Fife.
H e r i o t - W a t t University had its beginnings i n Victorian Scotland i n
m u c h the same ethos as characterizes the Forth Rail Bridge. The name
H e r i o t - W a t t commemorates two famous Scots. George Heriot was the
jeweller and financier to King James V I of Scotland w h o , after the U n i o n
of the crowns i n 1603, became King James I of England. Heriot be-
queathed his fortune for educational purposes to the City of Edinburgh.
James Watt was the great Scottish engineer and pioneer of steam power
w h o died i n 1819. Heriot-Watt University originated i n the School of
Arts of Edinburgh, Britain's first Mechanics' Institute, founded i n 1 8 2 1
t w o years after James Watt's death. The Watt Memorial subscription
f u n d , established i n 1824, was eventually applied towards the purchase
of new premises for the School w h i c h , i n 1852, was re-named the Watt
Institution and School of Arts. Following the amalgamation of the
endowments of the Watt Institution w i t h those of George Heriot the
name H e r i o t - W a t t College was adopted i n 1885. Even i n those days the
college was a unique educational institution and one of only three non-
university institutions i n the country permitted by Act of Parliament to
appoint professors. The college was accorded university status i n 1966
by Royal Charter.
Today H e r i o t - W a t t University, Edinburgh's vibrant technological
university on a 370 acre parkland campus at Riccarton, continues the
spirit of the great Scottish engineers.
Barry Topping
Department of Civil Engineering
Heriot-Watt University
Riccarton
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Edinburgh
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PARTONE
THE HISTORY OF
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
(with reference to the Forth Rail Bridge)
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THE F O R T H BRIDGES
D.G. M c B E T H
K e n c h i n g t o n L i t t l e pic, Consulting Engineers, Edinburgh,
Scotland, U K
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The F o r t h B r i d g e s a r e among t h e most famous b r i d g e s i n t h e W o r l d .

I n d e e d on c o m p l e t i o n i n 1890 t h e R a i l B r i d g e was d e s c r i b e d as t h e
E i g h t h Wonder o f t h e W o r l d . I t s two c l e a r spans were o v e r 3| t i m e s
as b i g as any s i m i l a r b r i d g e t h a t had been b u i l t a t t h a t t i m e . The
Road B r i d g e was c o m p l e t e d i n 1964 and was t h e l a r g e s t b r i d g e t o be
b u i l t o u t s i d e t h e USA. B o t h b r i d g e s were m a j o r m i l e s t o n e s i n t h e
development o f B r i d g e E n g i n e e r i n g . The paper d e s c r i b e s t h e d e s i g n and
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b o t h b r i d g e s and h i g h l i g h t s t h e developments i n
s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g a c h i e v e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b o t h these
structures.
Keywords: B r i d g e s , C a n t i l e v e r B r i d g e s , I n n o v a t i o n s i n D e s i g n ,
Suspension b r i d g e s , S t e e l C o n s t r u c t i o n .
THE RAIL BRIDGE
The R i v e r F o r t h
Over t h e c e n t u r i e s t h e r i v e r has been c r i s s - c r o s s e d w i t h f e r r i e s , b u t
w i t h t h e p r e v a i l i n g w i n d s , c u r r e n t s and h i g h seas e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e
F o r t h t h e s e c o u l d be o f t e n r a t h e r hazardous c r o s s i n g s . However, i n
t h e 1 8 t h and 1 9 t h c e n t u r i e s t h e a l t e r n a t i v e was a l o n g c i r c u i t o u s
coach t r i p v i a S t i r l i n g and so t h e f e r r i e s were an i m p o r t a n t and busy
means o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
E a r l y Schemes F o r C r o s s i n g The F o r t h
T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y v a r i o u s schemes t o c o n s t r u c t a v e h i c l u a r
c r o s s i n g were p r o p o s e d . I n 1805 t h e Scots Magazine p u b l i s h e d a r e p o r t
on a scheme f o r t w i n t u n n e l s and t h e n i n 1818 Anderson p u b l i s h e d h i s
p a p e r on a p r o p o s e d "Chain B r i d g e " o v e r t h e r i v e r . However, t h e
economic c l i m a t e wasn't r i g h t f o r an i n v e s t m e n t o f t h e s c a l e t h a t was
necessary t o c o n s t r u c t a b r i d g e over the F o r t h .
R a i l w a y C o n s t r u c t i o n I n The 19th Century

I t was i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y t h a t t h e r a i l w a y boom t o o k
o f f as r a i l w a y s d r a m a t i c a l l y became t h e p r i m e mode o f t r a n s p o r t i n t h e
c o u n t r y . The r a i l w a y f e v e r r e s u l t e d i n p e o p l e i n v e s t i n g and
s p e c u l a t i n g i n l i n e s a l l o v e r B r i t a i n and abroad. Among t h e more
s u c c e s s f u l o f t h e many r a i l w a y companies was t h e N o r t h B r i t i s h Company
who a l o n g w i t h t h e G r e a t N o r t h e r n R a i l w a y Company, N o r t h E a s t e r n
Copyright CRC Press

R a i l w a y Company and t h e M i d l a n d R a i l w a y Company formed t h e F o r t h
B r i d g e R a i l w a y Company i n o r d e r t o b r i d g e t h e r i v e r .
Bouch's Scheme
(See F i g No 1)
Thomas Bouch was a p p o i n t e d E n g i n e e r and commenced w i t h a scheme f o r a
m u l t i p l e span b r i d g e , s i m i l a r t o h i s Tay B r i d g e d e s i g n , a t Blackness
P o i n t . T h i s g o t no f u r t h e r t h a n a t r i a l c a i s s o n i n t h e r i v e r and he
t h e n proceeded w i t h h i s scheme f o r a m i g h t y double s t a y e d suspension
b r i d g e a t Queensferry. Work s t a r t e d on t h e b r i d g e b u t w i t h t h e
c o l l a p s e o f Bouch's Tay B r i d g e i n December 1879 t h e Company l o s t
c o n f i d e n c e i n Bouch and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n was h a l t e d . Following the
C o u r t o f I n q u i r y i n t o t h e Tay B r i d g e D i s a s t e r Bouch d i e d a broken man.
A l l t h a t remains o f t h e scheme i s an i s o l a t e d p i e r i n t h e m i d d l e o f
the r i v e r adjacent t o the c e n t r a l foundations of the present bridge.
Fowler and Baker Scheme

(See F i g No 2)
Two o f t h e f o r e m o s t e n g i n e e r s i n t h e c o u n t r y , John Fowler and Benjamin
Baker were e v e n t u a l l y a p p o i n t e d t o d e s i g n a n o t h e r b r i d g e f o r t h e
c r o s s i n g . They o p t e d f o r t h e c a n t i l e v e r scheme known t h r o u g h t o u t t h e
w o r l d f o r i t s grandeur. The d e s i g n was a m a j o r i n n o v a t i o n i n i t s day.
Not o n l y was i t s c a n t i l e v e r d e s i g n concept unique b u t a l s o i n i t s use
o f s t e e l , t h e n a c o m p a r a t i v e l y new b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l , and by a d o p t i n g
t u b u l a r s e c t i o n s as t h e main compression members.
The b a s i c l a y o u t o f t h e b r i d g e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e was d i c t a t e d by t h e
t o p o g r a p h y and g e o l o g y o f t h e r i v e r bed. The N o r t h Tower r e s t s on t h e
bed r o c k a t N o r t h Q u e e n s f e r r y . The Centre Tower u t i l i s e s I n c h g a r v i e
and t h e South Tower i s bedded i n dense b o u l d e r c l a y a t a depth o f
about 50 f e e t below h i g h w a t e r .
Each o f t h e t o w e r s a r e b u i l t on 4 p i e r s . Those on t h e two s i d e
t o w e r s a r e a t 120 f e e t by 260 f e e t c e n t r e s . The towers t a p e r t o 33
f e e t c e n t r e s a t t h e t o p 330 f e e t above t h e f o u n d a t i o n s .
The c a n t i l e v e r s a r e each b u i l t o u t 680 f e e t f r o m t h e towers and
c a r r y t h e c e n t r a l s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d spans, each 350 f e e t g i v i n g a
c l e a r a n c e o f 150 f e e t above h i g h w a t e r .
The b a s i c dimensions o f t h e b r i d g e a r e as follows:-
Overall length 8296 f e e t

South approach 10 spans o f 168 f e e t
N o r t h approach 5 spans o f 168 f e e t
Length P o r t a l t o P o r t a l 5329.5 f e e t
L e n g t h Tower t o Tower 1912 f e e t
Cantilever lengths 680 f e e t
Simply s u p p o r t e d spans 350 f e e t
Height of towers 330 f e e t
R a i l l e v e l f r o m h i g h w a t e r mark 158 f e e t
C l e a r headway f o r s h i p p i n g 150 f e e t
Based on r e s e a r c h e s c a r r i e d o u t by Baker a l l t h e compression members

a r e t u b u l a r and a l l t e n s i o n members f a b r i c a t e d i n l a t t i c e s t e e l w o r k .
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F i g s 1 & 2 - Bouch*s Scheme
Copyright CRC Press

The main columns a r e 12 f e e t d i a m e t e r s and t h e b o t t o m booms o f t h e
c a n t i l e v e r s t a p e r f r o m 12 f e e t d i a m e t e r a t t h e skewback t o 6 f e e t
diameter a t t h e i r e x t r e m i t y .
Construction
The c o n t r a c t was awarded i n 1882 t o Tancred A r r o l and was c a r r i e d o u t
under t h e p e r s o n a l s u p e r v i s i o n o f W i l l i a m A r r o l .
A r r o l had been t h e c o n t r a c t o r f o r t h e abandoned Bouch scheme and
had a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d a w o r k i n g s i t e a t South Q u e e n s f e r r y . The
s i t e , t o t h e E a s t o f t h e l i n e o f t h e South approach v i a d u c t , was
g r e a t l y e x t e n d e d t o accommodate t h e works necessary f o r t h e new
s t r u c t u r e . Furnaces were b u i l t , h y d r a u l i c benders and r i v e t t e r s
built. R a i l s i d i n g s and s t o c k p i l e s l a i d o u t .
Amomg t h e more i n g e n i o u s o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l p l a n t s p e c i a l l y designed
f o r t h e work were A r r o l s t u b e d r i l l i n g machines. By u s i n g t h e s e
!
e n t i r e rows o f h o l e s c o u l d be d r i l l e d a t one go.

(See F i g No 3)
An i n c l i n e was c o n s t r u c t e d down t o t h e r i v e r shore and s e c t i o n s o f t h e
b r i d g e were winched down t h i s b e f o r e b e i n g l o a d e d o n t o one o f t h e
e i g h t b a r g e s o r f o u r steam launches used t o t r a n s p o r t m a t e r i a l s t o t h e
working s i t e s i n the r i v e r .
Labour camps were e s t a b l i s h e d on b o t h shores and a l s o accommodation
f o r w o r k e r s was b u i l t i n t h e o l d c a s t on I c h g a r v i e - (where 90 workmen
l i v e d during thesinking of the caissons).
Foundations
F i f e and t h e n o r t h I n c h g a r v i e p i e r s a r e founded on r o c k . D u r i n g
c o n s t r u c t i o n i t was f o u n d t h a t t h e r o c k head was v e r y i r r e g u l a r and
b e f o r e t h e c o f f e r d a m s c o u l d be s e a l e d d i v e r s had t o c u t o u t p r o t r u d i n g
edges and t h e b o t t o m was p l u g g e d w i t h cement bags and p u d d l e c l a y .
(See F i g No 4 )
The South I n c h g a r v i e p i e r s were c o n s t r u c t e d b y f i r s t s i n k i n g pneumatic
c a i s s o n s t o l o c a t e t h e r o c k head.
The Q u e e n s f e r r y p i e r s were c o n s t r u c t e d i n b o u l d e r c l a y a g a i n u s i n g
pneumatic c a i s s o n s . These were 70 f e e t i n d i a m e t e r by 90 f e e t h i g h
c o n s t r u c t e d o f an o u t e r s h e l l o f r i v e t t e d p l a t e s over a c u t t i n g edge.
Above t h i s edge t h e r e was a buoyant c o l l a r used t o f l o a t t h e c a i s s o n s
into position.
When i n p l a c e t h e l o w e r s e c t i o n was c o n c r e t e d l e a v i n g a 7 f e e t
w o r k i n g space f o r e x c a v a t i o n . Access t o t h i s was a c h i e v e d b y two
t u b e s w h i c h were e n t e r e d v i a a i r l o c k s a t t h e s u r f a c e . The p r e s s u r e
under w h i c h t h e men were w o r k i n g when t h e c a i s s o n s were a t t h e i r
deepest was 3 atmospheres ( 4 2 1 b / f t 2 )
When f l o a t i n g t h e Q u e e n s f e r r y , N o r t h West c a i s s o n i n t o p l a c e i t was
i n c o r r e c t l y anchored, t i l t e d on t h e sea bed and t h e n f l o o d e d . The
a c c i d e n t t o o k t e n months f r o m December 1884 t o r e c t i f y and caused a
s e r i o u s d e l a y t o t h e main c o n s t r u c t i o n programme.
(See F i g No 5)
P i e r s were f i l l e d w i t h c o n c r e t e , up t o t h e topmost 36 f e e t w h i c h
c o n s i s t e d o f a c o r e b u i l t f r o m A r b r o a t h s t o n e and f a c e d i n Aberdeen
and C o r n i s h G r a n i t e . To t h e t o p f o each p i e r was f i t t e d a base p l a t e
h e l d down b y 48 no 21/2" d i a m e t e r b o l t s each 25 f e e t l o n g .
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F i g No 3 - Tube D r i l l i n g Machine
Copyright CRC Press

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F i g No 4 - I n c h g a r v i e Caisson
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Superstructure
The F o r t h R a i l B r i d g e was t h e f i r s t m a j o r s t r u c t u r e i n t h e w o r l d t o be
b u i l t in steel. I t was m a n u f a c t u r e d u s i n g t h e Siemens Open H e a r t h
p r o c e s s and s u p p l i e d by t h r e e f o u n d r i e s . B l o c h a i r n and Newton
(Glasgow); D a l z e l l s Works ( M o t h e r w e l l ) and Landore Foundry (Swansea).
I n t o t a l t h e r e was 54,160 t o n s used i n t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e p l u s 4,200
t o n s o f r i v e t s (6,500,000).
The i n i t i a l assembly o f t h e T u b u l a r S e c t i o n s was c a r r i e d o u t on
l a n d i n t h e f a b r i c a t i o n y a r d s . The b e n t p l a t e s were clamped i n t o
p l a c e i n t h e t u b e and p r e d r i l l e d w i t h A r r o l ' s t u b e d r i l l i n g machines.
S e c t i o n s were t h e n numbered, d i s m a n t l e d and s h i p p e d o u t t o t h e r i v e r
t o be e r e c t e d .
From t h e skewbacks on t h e p i e r s t h e main towers were e r e c t e d w i t h
a l l t h r e e b e i n g b r o u g h t up a t t h e same t i m e . A l l s c a f f o l d i n g and
t e m p o r a r y works were k e p t t o a minimum. E r e c t i o n g a n t r i e s were
c o n s t r u c t e d so as t o c l i m b up t h e t o w e r s as t h e s e were e r e c t e d . These
g a n t r i e s s u p p o r t e d s m a l l ' G o l i a t h ' cranes and 'Scotch' d e r r i c k s .
Access t o t h e g a n t r y was by means o f a h o i s t .
(See F i g No 6)
P l a t e s were l i f t e d by crane and h e l d i n p o s i t i o n t e m p o r a r i l y w i t h
b o l t s . A t u b e r i v e t t i n g cage was assembled round t h e t u b e s and teams
o f r i v e t t e r s worked i n t h e c o m p a r a t i v e s a f e t y o f t h e s e e n c l o s u r e s
r i v e t t i n g t h e t u b e s . These a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 r i v e t s p e r f o o t on
t h e b r i d g e and t o speed e r e c t i o n A r r o l i n v e n t e d a h y d r a u l i c r i v e t t i n g
machine.
(See F i g No 7)
On c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e t o w e r s , work s t a r t e d on t h e b u i l d i n g o u t o f t h e
c a n t i l e v e r s . A l l s i x c a n t i l e v e r s were b u i l t t o g e t h e r and g r e a t c a r e
was t a k e n t o ensure t h a t c a n t i l e v e r s on e i t h e r s i d e o f each tower were
e q u a l l y b a l a n c e d . A g a i n temporary s c a f f o l d i n g was k e p t t o a minimum
w i t h each s e c t i o n b e i n g b u i l t o u t f r o m t h e s e c t i o n p r e v i o u s l y e r e c t e d .
S p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d cranes and g a n t r i e s c r a w l e d o u t a l o n g t h e members.
As w i t h t h e t o w e r s t h e same method was adopted, o f h o l d i n g t h e
s e c t i o n s i n p l a c e t e m p o r a r i l y and r i v e t t i n g them i n p l a c e by t h e team
o f men f o l l o w i n g up. The t u b e r i v e t t i n g machines were a l t e r e d because
o f t h e a n g l e o f t h e members. These were winched o u t a l o n g t h e booms
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t o a l l o w men t o work i n c o m p a r a t i v e s a f e t y .
To t r a n s p o r t m a t e r i a l s o u t t o t h e w o r k i n g p o s i t i o n s on t h e
c a n t i l e v e r s , tramways were c o n s t r u c t e d a l o n g t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e b o t t o m
booms. P l a t e s and s t r u c t u r a l s e c t i o n s c o u l d t h e n be winched o u t f r o m
t h e j e t t i e s o f each p i e r .
(See F i g No 8)
The c e n t r a l s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d spans were a l s o b u i l t o u t f r o m t h e
c a n t i l e v e r s by b e i n g connected t e m p o r a r i l y a t t h e i r p o i n t o f s u p p o r t .
The f i n a l c l o s u r e was a c h i e v e d by t a k i n g t e m p l a t e s o f t h e members on
e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e gap and f o r m i n g p l a t e s t o match. However, due t o
d e l a y s i t was d i s c o v e r e d , on one span, t h a t when connected, t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e had dropped and t h e b o l t h o l e s d i d n ' t match up. As t h i s
was i n November and t h e r e was t h e r e f o r e l i t t l e chance o f g e t t i n g a
warm sun t o h e l p expand t h e b r i d g e a g a i n , i t was d e c i d e d t o s t a c k
t i m b e r on t h e c a n t i l i v e r , cover t h e s t e e l w o r k i n naptha and s e t f i r e
to i t ! T h i s d i d t h e t r i c k and t h e l a s t p l a t e s were b o l t e d t o g e t h e r .
10
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F i g No 7 - F i f e P i e r C a n t i l e v e r
12
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F i g No 8 - I n c h g a r v i e : South C a n t i l e v e r
Copyright CRC Press

The guys t e m p o r a r i l y s u p p o r t i n g t h e s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d spans c o u l d
t h e n be c u t away and t h e b r i d g e f u n c t i o n as designed. I n c u t t i n g away
these guys some o f t h e temporary b o l t i n g sheared d r a m a t i c a l l y w i t h an
e x p l o s i o n t h a t caused p a n i c among t h o s e s t i l l w o r k i n g on t h e b r i d g e .
However, an i n s p e c t i o n r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e was no damage t o t h e
s t r u c t u r e and a l l t h e r o c k e r s and s l i d i n g j o i n t s were f u n c t i o n i n g
satisfactorily.
The o f f i c i a l o p e n i n g t o o k p l a c e on March 2 0 t h , 1890 when t h e P r i n c e
o f Wales c e r e m o n i o u s l y drove t h e l a s t r i v e t i n t h e c e n t r e o f t h e N o r t h
span.
Labour
Over t h e e i g h t y e a r s d u r i n g which t h e b r i d g e was b e i n g b u i l t t h e r e had
been up t o 4,600 men w o r k i n g on i t . Some s p e c i a l i s t s i n compressed
a i r w o r k i n g came f r o m t h e c o n t i n e n t t o c o n s t r u c t t h e f o u n d a t i o n s ,
o t h e r s were f u l l t i m e n a v v i e s who moved f r o m j o b t o j o b " o n t h e tramp".
The m a j o r i t y came f r o m t h e E d i n b u r g h area and were t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e
s i t e e i t h e r by t r a i n t o Dalmeny o r f r o m L e i t h by steamer which
d e p a r t e d a t 4.00 am e v e r y morning r e t u r n i n g a t 7.00 pm i n t h e
evenings.
A w e l f a r e and s i c k f u n d was c r e a t e d by t h e c o n t r a c t o r f o r h i s
employees, Each c o n t r i b u t e d 8d a week towards t h i s . There were many
minor a c c i d e n t s and h o s p i t a l cases. The t o t a l deaths t o l l on t h e
c o n t r a c t was 57.
Each o f t h e c a n t i l e v e r s was p r o v i d e d w i t h a b o a t and boatman as a
rescue s e r v i c e . I t i s r e c o r d e d t h a t t h e s e boatmen saved a t o t a l o f
e i g h t l i v e s , 8000 caps and "numerous o t h e r a r t i c l e s "
Painting
The p a i n t i n g o f t h e F o r t h B r i d g e has become a l e g e n d . I t i s t r u e when
work f i n i s h e s a t one end t h e n i t has t o recommence a t t h e o t h e r . I n
a l l t h e r e a r e 145 a c r e s o f s u r f a c e a r e a t o p a i n t i n t h e most awkward
o f l o c a t i o n s b o t h o u t s i d e and i n s i d e t h e members. I t t a k e s f r o m 4 t o
5 years t o p a i n t the e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e .
The s p e c i f i c a t i o n was f o r two u n d e r c o a t s o f Red Lead f o l l o w e d by
two o f Red Oxide. The same Red Oxide p a i n t i s used t o day i n t h i s
continuous o p e r a t i o n .
Costs
B r i d g e and r a i l w a y c o n n e c t i o n s £2,549,200
A b o r t i v e work on Bouch's scheme £ 250,000
P a r l i a m e n t a r y expenses and f e e s £ 378,000
£3,117,206
Cost o f p a i n t i n g £ 50,000
Saving on r e s a l e o f m e c h a n i c a l plant
and s c r a p £ 120,000
The b r i d g e i s s t i l l used t o d a y f o r t h e same f u n c t i o n f o r which i t was
14
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d e s i g n e d and b u i l t . T r a i n s have become h e a v i e r b u t s t i l l a r e somewhat
l i g h t e r t h a n t h e t e s t l o a d o f 1800 t o n s t h a t was t r u n d l e d o v e r t h e
c o m p l e t e d s t r u c t u r e i n January 1890.
An i n s p e c t i o n , a few y e a r s ago, o f t h e b r i d g e gave i t a c l e a n b i l l
o f h e a l t h and c o n f i r m e d t h a t i t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o serve i t s f u n c t i o n
f o r many y e a r s t o come as p r o b a b l y t h e most famous r a i l b r i d g e i n t h e
world.
15
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THE FORTH ROM) BRIDGE
History
I n January 1926 Messrs M o t t Hay and Anderson, C o n s u l t i n g E n g i n e e r s ,
were a p p o i n t e d by t h e M i n i s t r y o f T r a n s p o r t t o survey and r e p o r t on a
p o s s i b l e r o a d c r o s s i n g o f t h e F o r t h a t Queensferry. Borehole
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t and i n 1930 and t h e y r e p o r t e d on 4
possible sites. T h i s concluded t h a t t h e most economical l o c a t i o n f o r
a b r i d g e was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3/4 m i l e upstream f r o m t h e R a i l B r i d g e .
T h i s scheme made use o f t h e M a c k i n t o s h Rock, a submerged r o c k on t h e
n o r t h s i d e o f t h e e s t u a r y , w h i c h was c o n s i d e r e d s u i t a b l e f o r f o u n d i n g
a p i e r o f a l a r g e suspension b r i d g e . For t h e main p i e r on t h e s o u t h
s i d e , b o r i n g s i n d i c a t e d t h a t good r o c k o v e r l a i n by b o u l d e r c l a y would
be met a t a d e p t h n o t g r e a t e r t h a n 110 f t below h i g h w a t e r . This
w o u l d e n t a i l a b r i d g e w i t h a main c e n t r a l span o f 3,000 f t and s i d e
spans o f 1,350 f t c o s t i n g £3.5m, t h e b i g g e s t suspension b r i d g e i n t h e
w o r l d . The n a t i o n a l economic c r i s i s i n 1934 p u t p a i d t o p l a n s t o
c o n s t r u c t the bridge a t t h a t time.
I n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , schemes were b e i n g
c o n s i d e r e d f o r a b r i d g e a t K i n c a r d i n e on F o r t h some 27 m i l e s upstream
from the R a i l Bridge. A b r i d g e i n t h i s l o c a t i o n was e s t i m a t e d t o
c o s t £311,000 and a p p r o v a l was g i v e n t o p r o c e e d . The K i n c a r d i n e
B r i d g e , d e s i g n e d by S i r A l e x a n d e r Gibb, was completed i n 1936 and was
t h e l a r g e s t swing b r i d g e i n t h e w o r l d w i t h 2 0 f t wide c a r r i a g e w a y and
two 6 f t w i d e f o o t p a t h s .
S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e War, work s t a r t e d on p r o p o s a l s f o r a l o n g span
b r i d g e o v e r t h e Severn. Messrs M o t t Hay & Anderson and Freeman Fox &
P a r t n e r s were a p p o i n t e d j o i n t c o n s u l t a n t s . Research p r o g r e s s e d i n t o
s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e d e s i g n and i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s a w i n d t u n n e l was
c o n s t r u c t e d a t T h u r l e i g h near B e d f o r d . When d e s i g n work s t a r t e d on
t h e F o r t h B r i d g e much o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l work and t e s t i n g c a r r i e d o u t
f o r t h e Severn B r i d g e was i n v o l v e d i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e d e s i g n .
I n 1947 t h e F o r t h Road B r i d g e J o i n t Board was s e t up and i n 1948
t h e y a p p o i n t e d M o t t Hay & Anderson as C o n s u l t i n g E n g i n e e r s f o r t h e
b r i d g e . S i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , surveys and p r e l i m i n a r y designs
p r o g r e s s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1950s and i n 1958 a u t h o r i t y was g i v e n by t h e
S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e t o p r o c e e d w i t h t h e scheme. Messrs M o t t Hay &
Anderson i n v i t e d Freeman Fox & P a r t n e r s ( t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s on t h e
Severn B r i d g e p r o j e c t ) t o a s s i s t i n t h e d e t a i l e d d e s i g n work. the
C o n s u l t a n t A r c h i t e c t s were S i r G i l e s S c o t t , Son & P a r t n e r s . ]
Design
As has been p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , much o f t h e e a r l y d e s i g n work on t h e
F o r t h Bridge b e n e f i t t e d from the e a r l y research c a r r i e d out f o r the
Severn B r i d g e . V a r i o u s c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f b r i d g e deck were examined i n
t h e w i n d t u n n e l a t t h e N a t i o n a l P h y s i c a l L a b o r a t o r y and t h i s r e s u l t e d
i n an arrangement w i t h t h e decks on t h e t o p o f t h e main s t i f f e n i n g
trusses. The t r u s s e s a r e 27 f t 6 i n i n d e p t h , g i v i n g a span/depth
r a t i o o f 120:1. T h i s arrangement gave a l a r g e improvement i n t h e
t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s o f t h e suspended s t r u c t u r e and a s i g n i f i c a n t
improvement o f t h e aerodynamic b e h a v i o u r .
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F i g No 9 - E v o l u t i o n and S t i f f e n i n g T r u s s and Deck C o n f i g u r a t i o n
The p a n e l l e n g t h s were 60 f t w i t h 30 f t c r o s s g i r d e r s s u p p o r t i n g t h e
deck. T h i s gave a good t r u s s c o n f i g u r a t i o n and members o f
r e a s o n a b l e s i z e f o r t r a n s p o r t and h a n d l i n g . The h o r i z o n t a l a i r gaps
were e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l when i t came t o t h e d e s i g n o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l
c o n n e c t i o n s . The main c a b l e s and hangers a r e p o s i t i o n e d between t h e
r o a d deck and t h e c y c l e t r a c k s . I n f a c t t h e towers t o o a r e n e a t l y
l o c a t e d between t h e s e t r a c k s . The deck t o t h e main b r i d g e span
c o n s i s t s o f a f u l l y welded b a t t l e d e c k i n 60 f t p a n e l s , w i t h expansion
j o i n t s l o c a t e d j u s t beyond e v e r y second c r o s s t r u s s . The s i d e spans
have a c o m p o s i t e c o n c r e t e deck, a g a i n i n 60 f t p a n e l s .
F i g No 10 - F u l l Cross S e c t i o n o f B r i d g e
The r a t i o o f c a b l e sag t o l e n g t h o f span had t o be d e t e r m i n e d a t an

e a r l y stage i n t h e design. Again t h e research c a r r i e d out i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e Severn B r i d g e was h e l p f u l . The optimum sag r a t i o
f o r o v e r a l l economy was e s t i m a t e d f r o m a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e
17
Copyright CRC Press

whole s t r u c t u r e f o r sag r a t i o s v a r y i n g f r o m 1/8 t o 1/14 t a k i n g i n t o
account v a r i a t i o n s i n w e i g h t o f c a b l e , t o w e r h e i g h t , s t i f f e n i n g
girders, etc. The r e s u l t o f t h i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e maximum economy
l a y between 1 0 | and 1 1 . A r a t i o o f 1/11 was adopted. T h i s has been
used f o r t h e F o r t h B r i d g e d e s i g n . I t was d e c i d e d t h a t a c o n t i n u o u s
w i r e spun c a b l e w o u l d be adopted f o r t h e F o r t h B r i d g e r a t h e r t h a n t h e
p r e f o r m e d s t r a n d system adopted f o r s m a l l e r suspension b r i d g e s . The
c o s t o f t h e s p e c i a l i s e d s p i n n i n g p l a n t , i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e USA was
e v e n t u a l l y s h a r e d w i t h t h e Severn B r i d g e C o n t r a c t .
The t o w e r s were d e s i g n e d as a system o f welded box s e c t i o n s w i t h
diagonal s t i f f e n i n g bracing. The d e t a i l s were s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d i n
d i s c u s s i o n w i t h t h e C o n t r a c t o r and an arrangement o f 3 boxes w i t h 4
s t i f f e n e d c o n n e c t i n g p l a t e s was adopted. The s t e e l towers were
d e s i g n e d i n w e l d e d h i g h t e n s i l e s t e e l . The t o w e r s were founded on bed
rock i n t h e r i v e r . A t t h e n o r t h advantage was t a k e n o f t h e
M a c k i n t o s h r o c k , a w h i n s t o n e o u t c r o p t h a t was exposed a t low t i d e .
The s o u t h t o w e r was t o be c o n s t r u c t e d on two c a i s s o n s sunk under
compressed a i r t h r o u g h t h e mud o n t o t h e r o c k head. At the
C o n t r a c t o r ' s s u g g e s t i o n t h e s e were amended t o c i r c u l a r c a i s s o n s t h a t
were d e s i g n e d t o be sunk w i t h o u t t h e use o f compressed a i r .
The anchorages on t h e F o r t h B r i d g e t o o k advantage o f t h e n a t u r a l
r o c k c o n f i g u r a t i o n t o t h e n o r t h and s o u t h o f t h e r i v e r and t u n n e l s
(184 f t and 260 f t ) d r i v e n a t 30° a n g l e i n t o t h e r o c k . Pre-stressing
c a b l e s were g r o u t e d i n and t h e t u n n e l f i l l e d up w i t h c o n c r e t e t o
r e s i s t t h e 13,800 tonne t h r u s t .
(See F i g No 11)
C o n t r a c t u a l Arrangements
The F o r t h B r i d g e was t h e f i r s t major suspension b r i d g e t o be b u i l t i n
the U n i t e d Kingdom. The c o n t r a c t f o r t h e main b r i d g e was n e g o t i a t e d
w i t h a c o n s o r t i u m o f t h e 3 major b r i d g e b u i l d i n g f i r m s i n t h e c o u n t r y
- S i r Wm A r r o l & Co L t d , The C l e v e l a n d B r i d g e and E n g i n e e r i n g Co L t d
and Dorman Long ( B r i d g e and E n g i n e e r i n g ) Co L t d . T h i s was t o become
the ACD B r i d g e Company. They i n t u r n engaged John A R o e b l i n g s Sons
C o r p o r a t i o n o f America as a d v i s o r s on c a b l e s p i n n i n g .
The c o n t r a c t s were as f o l l o w s :
P r e l i m i n a r y c o n t r a c t t o c l e a r P o r t Edgar
- F a r r a n , Edinburgh £25,346
C o n t r a c t No 1 - S u b s t r u c t u r e and t u n n e l anchorages
- John Howard & Co L t d £2,201,726
C o n t r a c t No 2 - Main B r i d g e
- ACD B r i d g e Co L t d £8,694,410
C o n t r a c t No 3 - Approach r o a d s , D o l p h i n t o n t o B r i d g e
- A M Carmichael L t d £794,198
C o n t r a c t No 4 - Approach v i a d u c t s
- Reed & M a l l i k £918,000
C o n t r a c t No 5 - N o r t h approach roads
- Whatlings L t d £2,220,014
C o n t r a c t No 6 - Approach r o a d s , Cramond B r i d g e t o
Dolphinton
- A M Carmich a e l L t d £554,829
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F i g No 11 - Comparison o f Tender and F i n a l Tower Leg C e l l

Arrangement and General Arrangement o f a Main Tower
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C o n t r a c t No 7 - South approach r o a d s , s u r f a c i n g
- Limmer & T r i n i d a d Lake A s p h a l t
C o n t r a c t No 8 - N o r t h approach roads
£81,088
- Amalgamated A s p h a l t e Company £131,668

C o n t r a c t No 9 - T o l l r e g i s t r a t i o n equipment
- Communication Systems L t d £43,869
C o n t r a c t No 10 - Road Signs
- Franco T r a f f i c Signs L t d £25,660
C o n t r a c t No 11 - A d m i n i s t r a t i o n B u i l d i n g
H o l l a n d , Hannan & C u b i t t s £160,687
C o n t r a c t No 12 - Accommodation works - Rosyth
- Hugh C Gibson H e i r s £69,895
The main B r i d g e c o n t r a c t was n e g o t i a t e d on a " t a r g e t p r i c e " b a s i s .

I n a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h i s a " f i x e d f e e " f o r p r o f i t was n e g o t i a t e d .
L a r g e p l a n t was s u p p l i e d by t h e c o n t r a c t o r and p a i d f o r on a
d e p r e c i a t i o n r a t e r a t h e r than a p l a n t h i r e r a t e . S p e c i a l equipment
such as t h e c a b l e s p i n n i n g equipment remained t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e
Client. A l a r g e p a r t o f t h i s was s u b s e q u e n t l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e
Severn B r i d g e .
The works on t h e p r e l i m i n a r y c o n t r a c t commenced d u r i n g t h e summer
o f 1958. C o n t r a c t No 1 f o r t h e f o u n d a t i o n s t o t h e main b r i d g e
commenced i n November 1959. The p r o j e c t was o f f i c i a l l y opened by t h e
Queen on 4 September 1966.
Construction
Foundations and Anchorages

Each anchorage i s d e s i g n e d t o r e s i s t a p u l l o f 28,000 t o n s . The
anchorage t u n n e l s on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e r i v e r a r e d r i v e n i n t o t h e r o c k
a t an i n c l i n a t i o n o f 30°. Each t u n n e l was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25 f t i n
d i a m e t e r and 252 f t l o n g . 115 t e n s i o n e d anchorage s t r a n d s were
g r o u t e d i n t o d u c t s and t h e e n t i r e t u n n e l s b a c k f i l l e d w i t h c o n c r e t e .
19 c r o s s h e a d s were p r o v i d e d w i t h i n t h e anchorage chamber t o r e c e i v e
t h e main c a b l e s .
The o r i g i n a l d e s i g n o f t h e south p i e r was f o r 2 r e c t a n g u l a r
c o n c r e t e c a i s s o n s t o be f l o a t e d o u t i n t o p o s i t i o n and sunk. The
c o n t r a c t o r was c o n f i d e n t t h a t a c o f f e r d a m c o u l d be s e a l e d i n t h e
b o u l d e r c l a y and t h e c a i s s o n s c o u l d t h e n be b u i l t i n t h e d r y and sunk
in free a i r . T h i s scheme was a c c e p t e d and work s t a r t e d i n May 1959.
The c o f f e r d a m c o n s i s t e d o f a f i g u r e o f e i g h t w a l l i n g u n i t which was
f l o a t e d o u t and f i x e d i n t o p o s i t i o n . Seven 12 i n x 12 i n u/c p i l e s
were d r i v e n i n s i d e t h e u n i t t o secure t h e frame and f o l l o w i n g t h i s t h e
c o f f e r d a m f o r m e d u s i n g 80 f t L a r s s e n 4B p i l e s and A p p l y Froddingham JA
p i l e s . W i t h i n t h i s c o f f e r d a m a c o n c r e t e r i n g beam s e a l was formed a t
t h e t o e and a f t e r i t had been de-watered t h e c a i s s o n s were
constructed. Each c a i s s o n was formed o f a heavy s t e e l c u t t i n g edge
surmounted b y s t e e l frame s e c t i o n s c o v e r e d w i t h a s k i n p l a t i n g . The
c a i s s o n w a l l s were f i t t e d w i t h r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e t o a h e i g h t o f 28
ft.
The c a i s s o n s sunk under t h e i r own w e i g h t . The b o u l d e r c l a y was
excavated from w i t h i n t h e caisson by a mechanical d i g g e r . The c l a y
20
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p r o v e d t o be v e r y s t i f f and t h e r a t e o f s i n k i n g was on average 1 f t
p e r day. Each c a i s s o n was p r o v i d e d w i t h an a i r deck, and a i r l o c k s ,
b u t i t p r o v e d n o t t o be necessary t o use t h e s e and b o t h c a i s s o n s were
sunk i n f r e e a i r . Rock head was l o c a t e d a t 95 f t and e x c a v a t i o n
c o n t i n u e d t o 99 f t t o ensure sound r o c k . ( T e s t b o r e s were sunk f o r
a n o t h e r 10 f t t o c o n f i r m t h e soundness o f t h e r o c k . )
On c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e c a i s s o n s t h e y were b a c k f i l l e d w i t h c o n c r e t e
and a c a p p i n g s l a b formed i n Class B r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e between -30
OD and -10 OD. The upper p a r t o f t h e p i e r (-10 t o + 30 f t ) c o n s i s t s
o f a 40 f t x 157 f t 6 i n s c o n c r e t e b l o c k w i t h c u t w a t e r ends. This
forms t h e main base t o t h e t o w e r . Each tower base i s h e l d down by 56
b o l t s , 15 f t l o n g by 2 3 / 4 i n s d i a m e t e r . The c o n c r e t e s u r r o u n d i n g t h e
h o l d i n g down b o l t s i s p r e - s t r e s s e d t o t h e capping s l a b .
The north p i e r was founded on t h e M a c k i n t o s h Rock. T h i s was a t a
maximum d e p t h o f 40 f t below h i g h w a t e r . The scheme c a l l e d f o r a
sheet p i l e d c o f f e r d a m w i t h i n w h i c h t o c o n s t r u c t t h e p i e r . The
s e a l i n g o f such a c o f f e r d a m was t o p r e s e n t a problem. The C o n t r a c t o r
p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e sheet p i l e s t o t h e c u t w a t e r ends s h o u l d be
i n t r u s i o n g r o u t e d and s i d e w a l l s o f t r e m i c c o n c r e t e , p r e - s t r e s s e d t o
the rock f o r m a t i o n would s e a l the cofferdam. T h i s scheme was
a d o p t e d , work s t a r t e d on t h e n o r t h p i e r f o u n d a t i o n s i n December 1959.
A g a i n , t h e c a p p i n g s l a b and h o l d i n g down b o l t arrangements were
s i m i l a r t o the south p i e r . The e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e s o f b o t h p i e r s were
covered w i t h Corennie g r a n i t e exposed a g g r e g a t e s l a b s .
Main Towers
The main t o w e r s c o n s i s t o f 3 box s e c t i o n s t h a t are p l a t e d t o g e t h e r t o
form a 5 c e l l s t r u c t u r e . A l l t h e t o w e r s were f a b r i c a t e d a t A r r o l s
works i n Glasgow, where s e c t i o n s o f t h e complete towers and b r a c i n g
c o u l d be l a i d o u t . The boxes were welded up i n t h e shops, b e a r i n g
s u r f a c e s g r o u n d smooth, c o n n e c t i n g p l a t e s d r i l l e d and c l o s e t o l e r a n c e
bolts f i t t e d . Three s e c t i o n s were b u i l t up on t h e shop f l o o r . Two
o f t h e s e s e c t i o n s were t h e n d i s m a n t l e d and t h e next s e c t i o n s b u i l t
o n t o t h e one l e f t . The d i s m a n t l e d s e c t i o n was t a k e n t o t h e s t o r a g e
y a r d a t Drem f o r m e t a l l i s a t i o n .
The t o w e r s were e r e c t e d o f f a c l i m b i n g s t r u c t u r e . T h i s was i n t h e
f o r m o f a s t e e l box c o l l a r made up o f welded box s e c t i o n s 9 f t deep.
T h i s c o l l a r was j a c k up t h e l e g s on h y d r a u l i c j a c k s I t embraced
b o t h l e g s and p r o v i d e d accommodation f o r men and s t o r e s . There was
a l s o a d e r r i c k c r a n e on t h e frame t o l i f t t h e box s e c t i o n s and o t h e r
materials.
As t h e t o w e r s grew towards t h e i r f u l l h e i g h t they were s u b j e c t t o
q u i t e e x t e n s i v e swaying i n h i g h w i n d s . T h i s caused e x t e n s i v e d e l a y s
t o t h e work as n o t o n l y t h e d e r r i c k cranes had t o be guyed b u t t h e
s t e e l e r e c t o r s s u f f e r e d from sickness. They were s t a b i l i s e d by
h a v i n g t h e t o w e r s guyed t o c o u n t e r w e i g h t s , w h i c h were on s l o p i n g
planes. T h i s p r o v e d t o be v e r y e f f e c t i v e and these 'dampers were 1
k e p t i n p l a c e u n t i l t h e main c a b l e s were spun and t h e t o w e r s ,

t h e r e f o r e , s t a b i l i s e d by t h e f i n i s h e d s t r u c t u r e .
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Cable Spinning
(See F i g s Nos 12 - 18)
On a l l t h e major suspension b r i d g e s b u i l t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a
system o f c o n t i n u o u s c a b l e s p i n n i n g had been adopted. T h i s had been
i n v e n t e d by John A R o e b l i n g and f i r s t used i n 1855 on t h e Grand Trunk
Bridge. Over t h e y e a r s t h e systems had been improved and much o f t h e
s p i n n i n g p r o c e s s mechanised. I t was t h e r e f o r e d e c i d e d t o c o n s u l t t h e
R o e b l i n g B r i d g e D i v i s i o n f o r a d v i c e . They were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e
d e s i g n o f t h e s p i n n i n g p l a n t and o r g a n i s i n g and c a r r y i n g o u t o f t h e
work on s i t e .
The c a b l e s p i n n i n g i s done by c a r r y i n g l o o p s o f w i r e o v e r t h e
b r i d g e on a grooved s p i n n i n g w h e e l , w h i c h runs on an overhead tramway.
When t h e l o o p s r e a c h t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e r i v e r t h e y a r e t a k e n o f f
the wheel and p l a c e d round a s t r a n d shoe t h a t i s f i x e d t o t h e
anchorage. The wheel t h e n r e t u r n s a c r o s s t h e r i v e r empty t o c o l l e c t
the n e x t s t r a n d . Two wheels o p e r a t e i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s w o r k i n g
back and f o r w a r d a c r o s s t h e r i v e r . Each w i r e i s a d j u s t e d f o r l e v e l
a t t h e c e n t r e and a t major r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s on t h e c e n t r e and s i d e
spans.
The c a b l e s a r e made up o f g a l v a n i s e d h a r d drawn w i r e s 0.196 i n i n
diameter. There a r e 37 s t r a n d s , w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 314 w i r e s i n each
s t r a n d g i v i n g a t o t a l o f 11,618 s t r a n d s i n t o t a l .
On c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e c a b l e s p i n n i n g , t h e c a b l e band suspension
s u p p o r t s were b o l t e d i n t o p l a c e a l o n g t h e c a b l e s . These c o n s i s t e d o f
two s e m i - c i r c u l a r drums which were b o l t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h h i g h t e n s i l e
steel bolts. The suspenders were made up o f two l e n g t h s o f s t e e l
w i r e ropes w h i c h were l o o p e d over grooves i n t h e c a b l e bands. They
t e r m i n a t e d i n t w i n s o c k e t s a t t h e l o w e r end where t h e y were b o l t e d t o
the s t e e l decks. No means o f a d j u s t m e n t i s p r o v i d e d i n t h e s e
suspenders, t h e y h a d , t h e r e f o r e , t o be made e x a c t l y t o t h e r i g h t
length.
For p r o t e c t i o n t h e main c a b l e s were wrapped w i t h g a l v a n i s e d s t e e l
w i r e s between t h e c a b l e bands. T h i s was done u s i n g 0.147 i n d i a m e t e r
g a l v a n i s e d w i r e s under t e n s i o n . T h i s was t h e l a s t o p e r a t i o n on t h e
c a b l e s and as soon as i t was f i n i s h e d t h e two t o p s t r a n d s a t t h e t o p s
of t h e p a r a p e t s on t h e c a t w a l k s were t r a n s f e r r e d t o p o s t s e r e c t e d on
the c a b l e bands, so as t o make permanent i n s p e c t i o n walkways a l o n g t h e
tops o f t h e c a b l e s .
S t e e l Superstructure
The s t e e l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e was p r e f a b r i c a t e d a t t h e workshops o f t h e
companies i n ACD L t d . I t was d e l i v e r e d t o a s i t e on t h e d i s u s e d
a i r f i e l d a t Drem i n E a s t L o t h i a n . Here s e c t i o n s c o u l d be p r e -
assembled and checked f o r any f a b r i c a t i o n d i s c r e p a n c i e s . Steelwork
c o u l d be s t o r e d i n t h e o l d hangers. A g r i t b l a s t and p a i n t t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t was s e t up i n one o f t h e s e hangers.
S t e e l w o r k was t a k e n by r o a d t o t h e s i t e where s e c t i o n s were t a k e n
o u t t o t h e two t o w e r s a l o n g t h e j e t t i e s . The s e c t i o n s were t h e n
l i f t e d i n t o p l a c e a t deck l e v e l . The i n i t i a l s e c t i o n s were b u i l t o u t
f r o m t h e t o w e r s , c a r e f u l l y b a l a n c i n g t h e l o a d s between t h e main spans
and s i d e spans. Once 18 p a n e l s had been e r e c t e d work stopped on t h e
main span and t h e two s i d e spans were completed. Suspension b r i d g e s
22
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o f t h i s n a t u r e a t t h i s s t a g e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n have t h e two s e c t i o n s
o f t r u s s e s i n t h e main span c u r v i n g upwards. The l o w e r chords o f t h e
s t i f f e n i n g t r u s s e s remain open and c a n n o t be c l o s e d u n t i l a l a t e r
stage. The reason f o r t h i s on t h e F o r t h B r i d g e i s t h a t t h e main
c a b l e s had t o s t r e t c h about 18 f t i n t h e i r l e n g t h o f 7,000 f t between
anchorages as t h e deck was e r e c t e d and t h e f u l l dead l o a d came on
them.
There were a p p r o x i m a t e l y 80 s t e e l e r e c t o r s w o r k i n g on t h e b r i d g e
w i t h 4 f r o n t s b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d a t t h e same t i m e . Work commenced
f r o m f i r s t l i g h t and proceeded t o m i d n i g h t d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d o f t h e
works. The f i x e d f i n a l c o n n e c t i o n was made a t a ceremony a t t e n d e d by
t h e Chairman o f t h e J o i n t Board on 20 December 1963. The f i n a l
c o n n e c t i o n gaps o f 8.125 i n and 6.625 i n were w i t h i n .25 i n o f t h e
calculated figures.
On c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e s t e e l t r u s s s e c t i o n s t h e decks were e r e c t e d ,
w i t h a s t e e l b a t t l e d e c k on t h e main span and r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
d e c k i n g t o t h e s i d e span. The h o t r o l l e d a s p h a l t s u r f a c i n g was
a p p l i e d d i r e c t t o these. On t h e main span t h e 1^ i n w e a r i n g course
was l a i d by hand t o t h e t o p s u r f a c e o f t h e b a t t l e d e c k d e c k i n g , which
had been g r i t b l a s t e d . On t h e s i d e span t h e a s p h a l t was l a i d by
machine.
Approach Roads
A t t h e same t i m e as t h e main b r i d g e was under c o n s t r u c t i o n work was
p r o g r e s s i n g on t h e approach roads. I n a l l t h e r e were 8 m i l e s o f
approach r o a d c o n s t r u c t e d . T h i s i n c l u d e d 7 p r i n c i p a l j u n c t i o n s and 5
m i l e s o f c o n n e c t i n g and s l i p r o a d s . There a r e 24 b r i d g e s , 2 subways,
5 No 12 f t c u l v e r t s , an a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b u i l d i n g , t o l l b o o t h s and a c a r
park. The e a r t h w o r k s i n c l u d e d t h e r e m o v a l o f 1 m i l l i o n o f c u b i c
y a r d s o f o i l s h a l e a t Dalmeny, t h e e x c a v a t i o n o f a 90 f t deep r o c k
c u t t i n g a t St M a r g a r e t ' s Head, embankments, c u t t i n g s , e t c .
A l l work was c o m p l e t e by t h e autumn o f 1964 and t h e o f f i c i a l
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o p e n i n g o f t h e b r i d g e was p e r f o r m e d by t h e Queen on 4 September t h a t
year.
Maintenance
Since t h e n t h e b r i d g e has c o n t i n u e d t o g i v e good s e r v i c e and t h e
t r a f f i c v a l u e s have i n c r e a s e d . There a r e now some 14 m i l l i o n
v e h i c l e s c r o s s i n g i t each y e a r . L i k e the R a i l Bridge, t h e r e i s a
c o n t i n u o u s maintenance programme and c h e c k i n g c a r r i e d o u t on t h e
bridge. T h i s has been shown t o be v e r y c o s t e f f e c t i v e and t h e o n l y
major works/strengthening i s p r o g r e s s i n g a t present. The b r a c i n g
members o f t h e main t o w e r s a r e b e i n g s t r e n g t h e n e d t o meet t h e l a t e s t
l o a d i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e Department o f T r a n s p o r t .
Conclusion
B o t h b r i d g e s a r e m a j o r m i l e s t o n e s i n t h e development o f B r i d g e
Engineering. On t h e F o r t h we have them p o s i t i o n e d i n a d r a m a t i c and
p h o t o g e n i c l o c a t i o n such t h a t each has become a symbol o f e n g i n e e r i n g
achievement i n S c o t l a n d . Both b r i d g e s have r e c e n t l y had major
a n n i v e r s a r i e s w i t h t h e Road B r i d g e 25 y e a r s o l d i n September 1989 and
the R a i l B r i d g e 100 y e a r s o l d i n March 1990. I t i s r i g h t t h a t we
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s h o u l d be c e l e b r a t i n g t h e s e , acknowledging t h e achievements o f t h e
E n g i n e e r s and C o n t r a c t o r s who b u i l t them and l o o k i n g f o r w a r d t o t h e
developments i n s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g i n t o t h e n e x t Century. I
t r u s t t h a t we t o o a r e as i n s p i r e d i n t h e development o f our designs as
our f o r e f a t h e r s .
24
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F i g No 12 - Cable S p i n n i n g
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F i g No 19 - Suspension Supports
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F i g No 22 - B r i d g e under C o n s t r u c t i o n
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F O R T H CROSSING C H A L L E N G E S AT
Q U E E N S F E R R Y B E F O R E THE RAIL
BRIDGE
R.A. P A X T O N
Vice Chairman I n s t i t u t i o n of C i v i l Engineers' Panel for Historical
Engineering Works
Senior P r i n c i p a l Engineer L o t h i a n Regional Council, Highways Dept
Senior Research F e l l o w H e r i o t - W a t t University
Abstract
In t h i s paper e n g i n e e r i n g c h a l l e n g e s and improvements t o c r o s s i n g
t h e F o r t h a t or near Q u e e n s f e r r y from c.203 t o 1873 are i d e n t i f i e d
and assessed. A t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o t h e p r a c t i c e o f v a r i o u s c i v i l
e n g i n e e r s i n t h e work c o n t e x t s o f harbours and f e r r i e s , t u n n e l s , and
road and r a i l w a y schemes. More p a r t i c u l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n ranges from
t h e improvement o f f e r r y l a n d i n g s by Smeaton, Rennie, Stevenson and
T e l f o r d , t o i m p r a c t i c a b l e p r o p o s a l s f o r t u n n e l s and b r i d g e s , and
c o n c l u d e s w i t h t h e r a i l w a y t r i p l e c h a l l e n g e o f S i r Thomas Bouch.
The s u b j e c t i s n e c e s s a r i l y s e t i n a c o n t e x t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f
s t r u c t u r a l p r a c t i c e and t h e whole c o n s t i t u t e s a h i s t o r y o f t h e
Queensferry c r o s s i n g from a c i v i l engineering s t a n d p o i n t .
1 Harbour and F e r r y Improvements
1.1 Introduction
I n 1760, a l t h o u g h t h e Q u e e n s f e r r y 'Passage F e r r y ' was t h e most
f r e q u e n t e d i n S c o t l a n d , t h e bad c o n d i t i o n o f t h e l o a d i n g and l a n d i n g
p l a c e s , e s p e c i a l l y a t low w a t e r , was " n o t o n l y h i g h l y d i s a g r e e a b l e
and i n e x p e d i t i o u s , b u t even d a n g e r o u s " . ( 1 ) As t h e communications
improvements a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n began t o
g a t h e r pace n a t i o n a l l y i t became e s s e n t i a l t o improve t h e f e r r y . In
1772 a p e t i t i o n was s e n t t o t h e F o r f e i t e d E s t a t e s Commissioners from
F i f e J.P.s and t h e f e r r y owners r e q u e s t i n g f i n a n c i a l a i d towards a
£980 package o f improvements.(2) The name o f t h e e n g i n e e r , i f any,
who p r e p a r e d t h e p l a n s has not*been f o u n d . The Commissioners
c o n s u l t e d John Smeaton (1724-92), t h e ' f a t h e r o f c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g ' ,
who was a l r e a d y making an i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e S c o t t i s h
infrastructure. I n a d d i t i o n t o e n g i n e e r i n g t h e F o r t h & Clyde Canal,
he had a l r e a d y i n t r o d u c e d major improvements t o t h e machinery a t
Carron I r o n w o r k s and b u i l t l a r g e b r i d g e s a t P e r t h and Coldstream.(3)
He had a l s o r e p o r t e d on numerous h a r b o u r s .
1.2 Smeaton s Report on the Queensferry Landings 1772.(4)

1
Smeaton c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r i n c i p a l d e f e c t o f t h e f e r r y t o be i n i t s
l a n d i n g p l a c e s , which b e i n g " i n a g r e a t measure f u r n i s h e d by n a t u r e
... r e q u i r e a l i t t l e a s s i s t a n c e from a r t " . He drew p a r t i c u l a r
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e l a c k o f low w a t e r l a n d i n g s by which " t r a v e l l e r s are
o f t e n d e t a i n e d when t h e wind i s f a i r and a f t e r w a r d s f u r t h e r
d e t a i n e d by t h e winds coming f o u l " . Then as now t h e p r e v a i l i n g wind
was from t h e west and t h e r e were s t r o n g c r o s s c u r r e n t s .
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Smeaton recommended h a v i n g a spread o f l a n d i n g s on each shore t o
e n a b l e b o a t s t o c r o s s more f r e q u e n t l y w i t h o u t t a c k i n g , t h u s s a v i n g
time. More p a r t i c u l a r l y h i s recommendations i n c l u d e d i m p r o v i n g a
96yd l e n g t h o f t h e Grey Landing ( c o n t i g u o u s t o Queensferry Harbour)
down t o low w a t e r , t o f a c e b o t h e a s t and west. At t h e West H a l l
(Hawes) P i e r he proposed p a r t f a c i n g , p a r t b u i l d i n g on and p a r t
l e v e l l i n g t h e rock f o r 142yd down t o a p o i n t f r o m 5 - 6 f t above the
sand. On t h e n o r t h shore he advocated t h e e x t e n s i o n o f C r a i g End
P i e r ( t h e town p i e r ) by 53yd and t h a t the East Ness Landing access
s h o u l d be improved by p r o v i d i n g a smooth road a c r o s s t h e rough
rocks. T h i s work was t o be done by b l a s t i n g or by b o l t i n g t i m b e r t o
t h e r o c k , t o t a k e t h e wheels o f c a r r i a g e s i n t h e manner o f a
rai1-road.(4) I t would appear t h a t Smeaton's a d v i c e , or much o f i t ,
was heeded by t h e a p p l i c a n t s and g r a n t - a i d i n g a u t h o r i t i e s as by J u l y
1777, t h e Royal 3urghs o f S c o t l a n d had c o n t r i b u t e d £300(1) and t h e
F o r f e i t e d E s t a t e s Commissioners £600; t h e l a t t e r on t h e b a s i s o f the
f e r r y f o r m i n g p a r t o f a m i l i t a r y road and b e i n g t h e most f r e q u e n t e d
sea passage i n S c o t l a n d . ( 2 ) I n 1775, t h e T r u s t e e s f o r t h e
Improvement o f F i s h e r i e s and M a n u f a c t u r e r s a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e
r e p a i r o f Newhalls P i e r and a l a n d i n g e a s t o f North F e r r y . ( 6 )
1.3 B a i r d ' s Report on the Improvement of Queensferry Harbour 1817

I n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e 18th c e n t u r y Queensferry Harbour c o n s i s t e d
1 Q u e e n s f e r r y l a n d i n g improvements - Rennie 1809-17

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o f a p a i r o f n o t q u i t e p a r a l l e l p i e r s c u r v i n g inwards a t t h e i r
sea-ward ends t o f o r m an e n t r a n c e f r o m t h e n o r t h , w i t h a f e r r y
l a n d i n g p l a c e on t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e e a s t p i e r . ( f i g 1) The harbour
was improved t o a d e s i g n o f 1317 by Hugh B a i r d (1770-1827), e n g i n e e r
t o t h e Union Canal. He a d v i s e d t u r n i n g t h e west p i e r a t a r i g h t
a n g l e and r u n n i n g i t eastwards t o a new e n t r a n c e i n t h e n o r t h - e a s t
c o r n e r o f t h e h a r b o u r . ( f i g 10) T h i s work, which i n v o l v e d r e b u i l d i n g
the head o f t h e e a s t p i e r a d j o i n i n g t h e f e r r y l a n d i n g , was c a r r i e d
out and t h u s t h e h a r b o u r was b r o u g h t more or l e s s t o i t s p r e s e n t
form.(7)
1.4 Major Improvements to the F e r r y 1808-17

The f e r r y improvements completed c.1777, which presumably r e s u l t e d
i n two good l a n d i n g s on each s h o r e , s u f f i c e d f o r over two decades,
but w i t h i n c r e a s e d t r a d e , commerce and t r a v e l , a b e t t e r c r o s s i n g
f a c i l i t y became necessary. I n May 1809 an A c t ( 3 ) was passed v e s t i n g
the f e r r y i n new T r u s t e e s as p a r t o f t h e improvement o f t h e Great
N o r t h Road f r o m Edinburgh t o P e r t h and beyond, and major development
ensued. With a c a p i t a l o f £18,500, a f t e r p a y i n g o f f t h e former
owners, t h e T r u s t e e s s e t t o work i m p r o v i n g t h e whole e s t a b l i s h m e n t
t o t h e p l a n s o f t h e eminent e n g i n e e r John Rennie (1761-1821). His
r e c e n t work i n t h e l o c a l i t y had a l r e a d y i n c l u d e d Musselburgh B r i d g e ,
B e l l Rock L i g h t h o u s e , L e i t h , Berwick and St Andrews h a r b o u r s ,
recommending improvements a t Newhaven, C h a r l e s t o w n , B u r n t i s l a n d and
P e r t h h a r b o u r s , and p r o p o s i n g t h e Berwick t o Kelso r a i l w a y and a
m u l t i - s p a n c a s t i r o n a r c h b r i d g e over t h e F o r t h a t A l l o a . ( 9 )
Rennie developed Smeaton's p r i n c i p l e o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a spread o f
l a n d i n g s on each shore t o f a c i l i t a t e boats c r o s s i n g t h e r i v e r
d i a g o n a l l y w i t h a s s i s t a n c e f r o m wind and t i d e w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o
tack. 3y 1812 Newhalls P i e r had been e n l a r g e d t o a l e n g t h o f about
240 y a r d s and r e b u i l t w i t h a c e n t r a l breakwater f l a n k e d by paved
roads a t a t o t a l c o s t o f £3,696. A new p i e r about 200yds l o n g had
been b u i l t a t P o r t Edgar f o r £4,763.(6) A small p i e r had been b u i l t
a t P o r t n u i c k f o r use by c a t t l e , i n v o l v i n g b l a s t i n g o u t rock t o
p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t water d e p t h . On t h e n o r t h shore a l a n d i n g p l a c e
and approach road had been c o n s t r u c t e d a t t h e west s i d e o f t h e
B a t t e r y , a l s o a new house f o r t h e f e r r y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and a s i g n a l
house w i t h accommodation f o r a boat's crew below. Other new
b u i l d i n g s i n c l u d e d a boatman's house a t P o r t Edgar, s i x boatmen's
houses a t Newhalls and l e a d i n g l i g h t s a t t h e p i e r s . ( f i g 1) The
improvements on t h e s o u t h s i d e f u l f i l l e d t h e i n t e n d e d purpose o f
e n c o u r a g i n g t h e k e e p i n g o f some boats t h e r e o v e r n i g h t . Previously
the g e n e r a l custom had been t o b e r t h boats a t n i g h t o n l y on t h e
n o r t h s h o r e . These works were executed w i t h t h e s o l i d i t y and
e x c e l l e n c e t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s e d Rennie's p r a c t i c e and most o f them
s t i l l e x i s t , ( f i g 2) U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e i r c o s t c o n s i d e r a b l y exceeded
the i n i t i a l c a p i t a l , n e a r l y £34,000 h a v i n g been s p e n t , w i t h two
p i e r s s t i l l n o t c o n s t r u c t e d . To g i v e an i d e a o f t h e s c a l e o f use o f
the improvements e n g i n e e r e d by Rennie, i n t h e y e a r e n d i n g 15 May
1811, 83,220 p e r s o n s , 5,769 c a r r i a g e s and c a r t s , 44,365 h o r s e s ,
c a t t l e and sheep, and 5,520 b a r r e l s , crossed by t h e f e r r y . ( 1 0 ) ( I n
1989 about 30m persons crossed by road and 3m by r a i l ) 1
A new A c t ( l l ) was o b t a i n e d i n J u l y 1314 a u t h o r i s i n g e x p e n d i t u r e

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2 L o n g c r a i g P i e r 1990 - Rennie, c o n s t r u c t e d 1816-17
o f a f u r t h e r £20,000 t o c o n s t r u c t L o n g c r a i g P i e r on t h e south shore

and L o n g c r a i g I s l a n d P i e r on t h e n o r t h shore. The s i t e o f L o n g c r a i g
P i e r was a d v e r t i s e d t o be determined on 13 May 1816(12) and by
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October 1817 t h e work t o Rennie's p l a n was a l m o s t completed.(13)
The c o m p l e t i o n d a t e o f 1812 g i v e n by Graham(7) i s ,
uncharacteristically, incorrect. L o n g c r a i g I s l a n d P i e r was never
built.
Another e n g i n e e r , Robert Stevenson (1772-1350), c o n s t r u c t o r o f
t h e B e l l Rock L i g h t h o u s e was c a l l e d i n by t h e f e r r y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
i n 1817 t o a d v i s e on l i g h t i n g arrangements. He recommended
r e p o s i t i o n i n g t h e s i g n a l house r e f l e c t o r a t t h e p i e r head a t 1 2 - 1 5 f t
above h i g h water l e v e l . The r e f l e c t o r would p r o b a b l y have been o f
t h e p a r a b o l i c t y p e o f 21-24in d i a . and t h e l i g h t source an Argand
o i l lamp p r o d u c i n g s e v e r a l thousand candle-power.
J u s t when c o s t l y n e a r - p e r f e c t i o n had been achieved a t t h i s ne
p l u s u l t r a o f s a i l i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , t h e e n t e r p r i s e encountered
major c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m steam-boats w h i c h , n o t b e i n g so dependent on
wind and t i d e , were q u i c k e r i n o p e r a t i o n . They f i r s t s t a r t e d
o p e r a t i o n on t h e F i f e & M i d l o t h i a n or 'Broad F e r r y ' between Newhaven
and D y s a r t i n September 1819. By t h e autumn o f 1820, t h e F i f e and
M i d l o t h i a n F e r r y was o p e r a t i n g t h r e e steam-boats from Newhaven and
t h e e f f e c t o f t h i s r e s u l t e d i n t h e Queensferry Passage l o s i n g about
t w o - t h i r d s o f i t s coach passenger t r a f f i c ( 1 4 ) . Difficult tidal
c o n d i t i o n s and t h e d e s i g n o f and spread o f t h e p i e r s were not
c o n d u c i v e t o t h e g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f steam-boats on t h e
Q u e e n s f e r r y Passage. I t s T r u s t e e s , a f t e r c o n s i d e r i n g v a r i o u s t y p e s
o f paddle steamer, p r o b a b l y i n c l u d i n g Stevenson's novel ' D a l s w i n t o n '
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i n t e r n a l - p a d d l e steam-boat which he advocated f o r use on t h i s
f e r r y , ( 1 5 ) commissioned a paddle steam-boat t o t h e design o f t h e i r
superintendent. The v e s s e l , named t h e 'Queen Margaret' e n t e r e d
s e r v i c e i n October 1821, t o w i n g l a r g e and small s a i l i n g boats i n i t s
wake. On t h e south s i d e a t l o w - w a t e r , o n l y L o n g c r a i g P i e r had
s u f f i c i e n t water depth t o accommodate t h e b o a t and because o f t h e
i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f i t s e x t e r n a l s i d e paddles w i t h t h e p i e r p r o f i l e ,
wheeled t r a f f i c c o u l d n o t be handled. I n 1821 a f l e e t o f new
s a i l i n g boats was i n t r o d u c e d b u t t h e whole o p e r a t i o n f a i l e d t o meet
t h e i n c r e a s i n g steam-boat c h a l l e n g e f r o m t h e 'Broad F e r r y ' and i n
1828 t h e T r u s t e e s c o n s u l t e d B r i t a i n ' s l e a d i n g c i v i l e n g i n e e r Thomas
T e l f o r d (1757-1834) t o see what c o u l d be done t o improve m a t t e r s .
1.5 T e l f o r d ' s Reports on the F o r t h F e r r i e s 1828

T e l f o r d r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e p r o b a b l e f u t u r e revenue o f t h e f e r r y was
i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h changing t h e whole mode o f o p e r a t i o n from a
s a i l i n g t o a steam-boat system. He a d v i s e d a d o p t i n g o n l y
improvements which c o u l d be accomplished a t a j u s t i f i a b l e expense,
a d d i n g , " t h a t such are become i n d i s p e n s i b i l y necessary t h e r a p i d
improvement o f conveyance on a l l s i d e s i s s u f f i c i e n t e v i d e n c e . " ( 1 6 )
T e l f o r d ' s recommendations i n c l u d e d an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e S i g n a l House
( C r a i g End) P i e r i n t o deeper w a t e r . T h i s measure was i n t e n d e d t o
p r o v i d e a s a f e r wharfage on i t s e a s t e r n s i d e , t o p r o t e c t t h e
e x t r e m i t y o f t h e B a t t e r y P i e r , and t o supply a d d i t i o n a l
accommodation. He commented, t h a t t o have extended t h i s p i e r b e f o r e
t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f steam-boats would have o b s t r u c t e d t h e necessary
t a c k s f o r s a i l i n g b o a t s making passage t o t h e s o u t h . On t h e south
side T e l f o r d considered i t i m p r a c t i c a b l e to o b t a i n a greater
l o w - w a t e r depth a t Newhall P i e r w i t h o u t u n w a r r a n t a b l e expense. For
l o w - w a t e r use he recommended L o n g c r a i g P i e r where t h e water depth
was a l r e a d y s u f f i c i e n t , b u t because t h i s p i e r was exposed t o the
p r e v a l e n t w e s t e r l y winds and t h e f o r c e o f t h e e b b i n g t i d e c u r r e n t ,
he a d v i s e d p r o v i s i o n o f a r u b b l e stone breakwater a l o n g s i d e i t a t a
s h o r t d i s t a n c e t o t h e west. T e l f o r d l e f t t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e d e t a i l
and e s t i m a t e s f o r these improvements t o h i s Edinburgh c i v i l
e n g i n e e r i n g a s s o c i a t e James J a r d i n e (1776-1358).
From a comparison o f Rennie's p l a n and t h e 1856 O.S. map S i g n a l
House p i e r appears t o have been extended. L o n g c r a i g breakwater was
not b u i l t . I n 1828 T e l f o r d was a l s o c o n s u l t e d about t h e F i f e &
M i d l o t h i a n Lower F e r r y . He c o n s i d e r e d i t s revenue p r o s p e c t s very
good and s u p p o r t i v e o f n e a r l y £61,000 o f improvements i n c l u d i n g a
new p i e r a t B u r n t i s l a n d and a new l a n d i n g a t Newhaven 400 y a r d s o u t
f r o m t h e e x i s t i n g p i e r head so as t o a c h i e v e a 1 0 f t low water depth
f o r s t e a m - b o a t s . ( 1 7 ) T h i s work was n o t c a r r i e d o u t b u t s u b s e q u e n t l y
major development o c c u r r e d a t Granton and B u r n t i s l a n d harbours.
1.6 Development of Engineering P r a c t i c e 1770-1830

In s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g terms t h e works r e f e r r e d t o so f a r would
have r e q u i r e d l i t t l e i n t h e way o f s t r e n g t h c a l c u l a t i o n s , m a i n l y
c o n s i s t i n g o f f o u n d a t i o n s , g r a v i t y masonry w a l l s and t i m b e r p i l e s
and beams i n f o u n d a t i o n s , and t i m b e r and c a s t i r o n as s t r u t s and
t e n s i o n members. P r a c t i c e s adopted were based on e x p e r i e n c e or
e x p e r i m e n t . P i e r s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t e d o f a p a i r o f masonry w a l l s
40
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Copyright CRC Press

w i t h uncoursed stone h e a r t i n g between t h e m . ( f i g s 2 5 3 ) )
From c.1800, c a s t i r o n beams, columns, p l a t e s and o t h e r c a s t i n g s
3 T y p i c a l harbour c o n s t r u c t i o n - Smeaton 1770-72
were a v a i l a b l e . Wrought i r o n was o b t a i n a b l e up t o about 3 i n d i a .

c r o s s - s e c t i o n i n l o n g l e n g t h s and as narrow p l a t e s . From c.1800
p o r t a b l e steam-engines were used i n c r e a s i n g l y f o r powering pumps,
d r e d g e r s and o t h e r equipment. By 1830, t h e use o f a r t i f i c i a l
cement, mass c o n c r e t e i n f o u n d a t i o n s and more e f f e c t i v e l y p r e s e r v e d
t i m b e r was d e v e l o p i n g . The use o f s t e e l and r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e i n
s t r u c t u r e s d i d n o t begin u n t i l t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e c e n t u r y .
' S t r e n g t h o f m a t e r i a l s ' e d u c a t i o n f o r e n g i n e e r s from t e x t b o o k s , as
d i s t i n c t f r o m 'word o f mouth' and experimence, was i n i t s i n f a n c y
and g a t h e r e d momentum f r o m c.1817, d e v e l o p i n g r a p i d l y i n t h e 1320's
m a i n l y on a p r a c t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l b a s i s . From 1822, T r e d g o l d ' s
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t e x t b o o k on c a s t i r o n ( 1 8 ) w i t h i t s e m p i r i c a l l y d e r i v e d s a f e - l o a d
t a b l e s was u s e f u l t o e n g i n e e r s i n d e s i g n i n g beams o f up t o 3 0 f t span
and columns up t o 2 4 f t h i g h . The f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e I n s t i t u t i o n
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o f C i v i l Engineers as a forum f o r t h e exchange o f knowledge i n 1818
r e p r e s e n t e d a landmark i n t h e development o f e n g i n e e r i n g e d u c a t i o n .
The r e l i a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l approach t o e n g i n e e r i n g d e s i g n now
p r a c t i s e d u n i v e r s a l l y had n o t e v o l v e d t o any e x t e n t by 1830.
2 Tunnel P r o j e c t s
2.1 Under-sea Tunnels c.1580-1805

Tunnels under t h e F o r t h e x i s t e d a t l e a s t f o u r c e n t u r i e s ago. In
1618, John T a y l o r 'The Water Poet' w r o t e o f S i r George Bruce o f
Carnock's 'Moat' c o a l - p i t a t C u l r o s s w i t h i t s sea c o f f e r d a m
entrance:
" I . . . w e n t i n by sea, and o u t by l a n d " , t h i s b e i n g p o s s i b l e
because " a t low w a t e r , t h e sea b e i n g ebd away, and a g r e a t p a r t
o f t h e sand bare; upon t h i s same sand ( b e i n g mixed w i t h rockes
and c r a g g e s ) d i d t h e master o f t h i s g r e a t worke b u i l d a round
c i r c u l a r frame o f s t o n e , v e r y t h i c k e , s t r o n g , and j o i n e d t o g e t h e r
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4 Horse-whim and machinery t o mine s h a f t c h a i n - A g r i c o l a 1555
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w i t h g l u t i n o u s or b i t u m i n o u s m a t t e r so h i g h w i t h a l l t h a t t h e sea
at the greates flood...can n e i t h e r d i s s o l v e the stones...or y e t
o v e r f l o w t h e h e i g h t o f i t . W i t h i n t h i s round frame...hee d i d s e t
workmen t o d i g g e w i t h m a t t o c k e s , pickaxes...They d i d d i g f o r t y
f e e t downe r i g h t i n t o . . . t h a t which t h e y expected, which was
s e a - c o l e . . . t h e y f o l l o w i n g t h e v e i n e o f t h e mine d i d d i g f o r w a r d
still: So t h a t i n t h e space o f e i g h t and t w e n t y or n i n e and
t w e n t y y e e r e s , t h e y have d i g g e d more then an E n g l i s h m i l e under
the sea...the mine i s most a r t i f i c i a l l y c u t l i k e an arch or
v a u l t . . . t h a t a man may walk u p r i g h t i n most places...The sea a t
c e r t a i n e s p l a c e s d o t h l e a k e . . . i n t o t h e m i n e . . . i s a l l conveyed t o
one w e l l neere t h e l a n d ; where...a d e v i c e l i k e a h o r s e - m i l l , t h a t
w i t h t h r e e horses and a g r e a t c h a i n o f i r o n going downeward many
fathoms, w i t h t h i r t y - s i x e buckets f a s t e n e d t o t h e c h a i n e , o f
which e i g h t e e n e goe down s t i l l t o be f i l l e d , and e i g h t e e n e ascend
up...which doe emptie themselves ( w i t h o u t any mans l a b o u r ) i n t o a
t r o u g h t h a t conveyes t h e water i n t o t h e sea a g a i n e . . . " ( 1 9 ) ( f i g
4)
The works d e s c r i b e d a r e o f o u t s t a n d i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e i n S c o t l a n d ' s

i n d u s t r i a l h i s t o r y and p r o v i d e an i n s i g h t i n t o t h e e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l
e n t e r p r i s e o f S i r George Bruce, gentleman coal-owner who can be
c o n s i d e r e d a c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n a l l b u t name. (Smeaton i s b e l i e v e d
t o have been t h e f i r s t t o c a l l h i m s e l f ' c i v i l e n g i n e e r ' n e a r l y two
centuries l a t e r . ) When l e a s i n g t h e mine a t C u l r o s s i n 1575 Bruce's
" g r e a t knowledge and s k i l l i n machinery" was acknowledged and he was
c o n s i d e r e d t h e b e s t person t o re-open t h e then abandoned mine.(20)
He adopted t h e b e s t c o n t i n e n t a l ' s t a t e o f t h e a r t ' p r a c t i c e o f Georg
A g r i c o l a and o t h e r s . ( 2 1 ) By 1595 Bruce had c o n s t r u c t e d a s t o r a g e
r e s e r v o i r on C u l r o s s Muir t o guarantee water supply t o a c o l l i e r y
w a t e r - m i l l a t or near t h e h o r s e - g i n s i t e . He a l s o e r e c t e d a
w i n d m i l l and a t i d e - m i l l as a l t e r n a t i v e power s o u r c e s . ( 2 2 ) The
w o r k i n g s a r e b e l i e v e d t o have extended some two m i l e s under t h e sea
b e f o r e t h e mine was f l o o d e d over t h e c o f f e r d a m i n a storm i n
1625.(23)
I t has been w r i t t e n t h a t a proposal f o r a t u n n e l under t h e F o r t h
a t I n c h g a r v i e was mooted about 1790,(24) b u t i t was n o t t a k e n
s e r i o u s l y , p o s s i b l y because o f t h e i m p r a c t i c a b i l i t y o f m i n i n g
through whinstone. F i f t e e n y e a r s l a t e r a p r o p o s a l f o r a t u n n e l 14
m i l e s t o t h e west d i d r e c e i v e wide c o n s i d e r a t i o n . ( 2 5 ) The
e n g i n e e r i n g case f o r i t was s u p p o r t e d by s u c c e s s f u l under-sea
t u n n e l l i n g p r e c e d e n t s a t t h e C u l r o s s , Bo'ness and Whitehaven mines,
and o p e r a t i o n a l canal t u n n e l s a t H a r e c a s t l e and Sapperton. By 1805,
the Bo'ness w o r k i n g s had extended about a m i l e under t h e F o r t h a t
depths f r o m 20-80 fathoms. The V a l l e y f i e l d under-sea workings o f
S i r Robert P r e s t o n a t C u l r o s s were so d r y t h a t they c o u l d be d r a i n e d
"by a boy w i t h a b u c k e t " . ( 2 7 ) A t Whitehaven t h e workings were a t a
depth o f from 80 t o 150 fathoms under t h e sea w i t h access v i a
w h i t e - w a l l e d t u n n e l s on a 1 i n 6 g r a d i e n t .
2.2 F o r t h Tunnel Proposals 1805-7

In November 1805 a W i l l i a m V a z i e , p o s s i b l y a m i n i n g e n g i n e e r , sought
the o p i n i o n o f a l e a d i n g Edinburgh m i n i n g e n g i n e e r John G r i e v e as t o
43
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whether a t u n n e l under t h e F o r t h f r o m Rosyth C a s t l e t o t h e o p p o s i t e
shore was p r a c t i c a b l e . G r i e v e t h o u g h t t h a t i t was, as t h e r o c k was
5 F o r t h Tunnel p l a n 1306. I n s e t : Moated s h a f t - l o o k i n g west
l i k e l y t o be passable f r e e s t o n e , b u t c a l l e d f o r t h i s t o be c o n f i r m e d
by b o r i n g s a l l a l o n g t h e t u n n e l l i n e . On t h e b a s i s o f a maximum
w a t e r depth o f 11 fathoms ( 6 6 f t ) f r o m a c h a r t , G r i e v e suggested a
maximum depth f o r t h e t u n n e l s o l e o f 30 fathoms ( 1 8 0 f t ) . He
proposed t w i n 1 5 f t wide arched t u n n e l s w i t h a c e n t r a l d r a i n l e v e l
beneath. The t u n n e l s were t o have had 500yd e n t r y s e c t i o n s p a r a l l e l
t o each shore w i t h g r a d i e n t s o f 1 i n 25 so as t o a c h i e v e 5 0 f t o f
cover b e f o r e t u r n i n g under t h e sea. From t h e s e t u r n i n g s t h e main
t u n n e l s would have descended f o r 1800 y a r d s f r o m each s i d e a t a
g r a d i e n t o f 1 i n 45 meeting mid-way a t t h e maximum d e p t h . For
d r a i n a g e G r i e v e proposed c o n s t r u c t i n g two moated engine p i t s over
2 0 0 f t deep a t each low w a t e r mark. A t t h e bottom o f t h e p i t s
steam-engines and pumps were t o have been i n s t a l l e d . He e s t i m a t e d
t h e c o s t o f t h e t u n n e l a t £160,000-£170,000 w i t h a f o u r y e a r
construction period.
I n summer 1806 Vazie and h i s a s s o c i a t e T a y l o r r e p o r t e d i n s i m i l a r
v e i n a f t e r a s i t e v i s i t w i t h G r i e v e . Some a l t e r a t i o n s were
44
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suggested t o meet o b j e c t i o n s f r o m t h e E a r l o f Hopetoun. The
proposed t u n n e l e n t r a n c e on t h e south was moved westwards t o w i t h i n
a few hundred y a r d s o f Q u e e n s f e r r y . ( f i g 5) To o b v i a t e p o s s i b l e
smoke n u i s a n c e f r o m t h e steam-engine and t o reduce a c t i v i t y near
Hopetoun House i t was proposed t h a t any b u i l d i n g s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
the p r o j e c t , i n c l u d i n g t h e permanent steam pumping i n s t a l l a t i o n ,
were t o be l o c a t e d on t h e n o r t h shore. A busy l i t t l e town was
e n v i s a g e d a t Rosyth " w i t h t h e C a s t l e i n i t s bosom". A l t e r n a t i v e
c r o s s - s e c t i o n s were g i v e n b o t h w i t h s e p a r a t e c a r r i a g e w a y s f o r
'comers' and 'goers'. More t h o u g h t had been g i v e n t o p a s s i n g under
the deep p a r t o f t h e r i v e r .
" I f t h e b o r i n g s h o u l d i n any manner o f way l e a v e t h e

i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n c o m p l e t e . . . i t may become necessary t o
a d v a n c e . . . w i t h c a u t i o n . . . b y p u t t i n g down p i t s a t low w a t e r
mark...to t h e necessary depth and c u t t i n g a communication by a
l e v e l between them...Such a l e v e l w i l l a t a l l e v e n t s be necessary
as a d r a i n . . . f o r d r a w i n g t h e water f r o m t h e t u n n e l . . . W i l l r e q u i r e
t o have p l a c e d . . . t h e engines necessary f o r t h e g r e a t work...no
new o r a d d i t i o n a l expense...an e x p e n d i t u r e would be i n c u r r e d ,
i n c l u d i n g e n g i n e s , f r o m 12 t o 15000 £..."(25)
The p r o p o s a l was a l s o s u p p o r t e d by t h e c i v i l e n g i n e e r Robert Bald

(c.1778-1861), who c o n s i d e r e d i t h i g h l y p r u d e n t t o make soundings
and b o r i n g s as a p r e p a r a t o r y s t e p . The Scots Magazine was "happy t o
see t h a t t h i s u n d e r t a k i n g i s i n a g r e a t s t a t e o f forwardness and
t h a t a number o f noblemen and gentlemen o f t h e f i r s t r e s p e c t a b i l i t y
have o r g a n i s e d themselves i n t o a r e g u l a r body f o r t h e purpose o f
carrying i t into effect".(26) I n March 1807 a Dr M i l l a r and Vazie
r e p u b l i s h e d an e n l a r g e d i l l u s t r a t e d e d i t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s r e p o r t s
w i t h an economic c a s e . ( 2 7 ) The t u n n e l was n o t s t a r t e d , p r o b a b l y
more f o r economic reasons t h a n doubts about i t s e n g i n e e r i n g
practicability.
2.3 Assessment
I t i s f o r t u n a t e f o r t h e promoters t h a t t h e p r o j e c t d i d n o t proceed,
as t h e ground under t h e deep p a r t o f t h e r i v e r would have proved
v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t which t h e y imagined. The m i n i n g e x p e r t s o f
the day expected t h e f r e e s t o n e t o e x t e n d f r o m shore t o shore, a
c o n c e p t which was proved as l a t e as 1964 s e v e r a l m i l e s west when t h e
K i n n e i l and V a l l e y f i e l d mines were j o i n e d , b u t a t a depth o f about
1 8 0 0 f t . ( 2 8 ) A t t h e depth o f 1 8 0 f t proposed f o r t h e Queensferry
T u n n e l , t h e miners would have encountered a deep channel i n t h e bed
o f t h e r i v e r f i l l e d w i t h sand and s i l t . H.M.Cadell o f Grange, t h e
S c o t t i s h g e o l o g i s t drew a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s s u b j e c t i n 1913(23) and
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
provided a dramatic sketch of h i s impression o f the p r e - g l a c i a l
F o r t h v a l l e y , complete w i t h mammoth and F o r t h B r i d g e . ( f i g 6)
A l t h o u g h C a d e l l ' s concept o f d e e p l y b u r i e d p r e - g l a c i a l r i v e r
c h a n n e l s i s no l o n g e r c o n s i d e r e d t e n a b l e , ( 2 9 ) t h e r e i s no doubt t h a t
a channel c o n t a i n i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e depth o f sand and s i l t does
e x i s t , whatever i t s o r i g i n , and h i s s k e t c h serves t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e
d i f f i c u l t y t h e t u n n e l l e r s would have had t o contend w i t h . The
q u e s t i o n now i s whether t h e t u n n e l c o u l d have been c o n s t r u c t e d i n
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such m a t e r i a l i n 1807. A r e v i e w o f contemporary e x p e r i e n c e
i n d i c a t e s t h e answer.
6 View o f p r e - g l a c i a l i - o r t h V a l l e y a t Q u e e n s f e r r y - Cadell 1913

NOTE: The a p p r o x i m a t e t u n n e l l i n e has been added by t h e a u t h o r
From 1796-98 an e n g i n e e r Ralph Dodd proposed a t u n n e l under t h e

Tyne between N o r t h and South S h i e l d s . ( 3 0 ) Although t h i s tunnel d i d
n o t proceed, i t was t h e p r e c u r s o r o f h i s a m b i t i o u s scheme f o r a 1 5 f t
d i a . road t u n n e l under t h e Thames f r o m Gravesend t o T i l b u r y which
did start.(31) D i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h groundwater i n t h e p r e p a r a t o r y
o p e r a t i o n o f s i n k i n g a s h a f t f o r t h i s t u n n e l i n sandy m a t e r i a l
proved so g r e a t t h a t t h e e n t i r e c a p i t a l f o r t h e p r o j e c t was consumed
w i t h o u t even a c h i e v i n g t h e s h a f t and i n 1803 t h e p r o j e c t was
abandoned. Undaunted by t h i s s e t - b a c k , a C o r n i s h m i n i n g e n g i n e e r ,
R o b e r t Vazie ( i t i s n o t known whether he was r e l a t e d t o t h e W i l l i a m
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Vazie p r e v i o u s l y r e f e r r e d t o ) commenced work on a t u n n e l under t h e
Thames a t Limehouse i n 1805. D i f f i c u l t i e s experienced i n s i n k i n g a
1 3 f t d i a m e t e r s h a f t t h r o u g h g r a v e l and q u i c k s a n d again proved so
g r e a t t h a t o p e r a t i o n s were suspended. Rennie and a n o t h e r l e a d i n g
e n g i n e e r W i l l i a m Chapman were c o n s u l t e d b u t c o u l d n o t agree on a
c o u r s e o f a c t i o n . Work e v e n t u a l l y recommenced under t h e d i r e c t i o n
o f R i c h a r d T r e v i t h i c k , n o t a b l e C o r n i s h m i n i n g e n g i n e e r (and ' f a t h e r
o f t h e l o c o m o t i v e ' ) , on a 5 f t p i l o t d r i f t w a y u l t i m a t e l y i n t e n d e d t o
f o r m a d r a i n under t h e t u n n e l . A 30hp steam engine was used t o pump
o u t w a t e r . For a t i m e good p r o g r e s s was made u n t i l , when n e a r i n g
t h e f a r s i d e o f t h e r i v e r , sand and w a t e r f r e q u e n t l y b u r s t i n t o t h e
d r i f t w a y and i n 1803 work s t o p p e d . I n March 1809 a premium was
o f f e r e d t o any person f u r n i s h i n g a p l a n e n a b l i n g t h e t u n n e l t o be
c o m p l e t e d . A t l e a s t 53 p l a n s were r e c e i v e d and examined by t h e
eminent e n g i n e e r s Dr C h a r l e s Mutton and W i l l i a m Jessop who, a f t e r
due c o n s i d e r a t i o n , concluded t h a t "an underground t u n n e l which would
be u s e f u l t o t h e p u b l i c and b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e a d v e n t u r e r s i s
i m p r a c t i c a b l e " . The problem had confounded t h e e x p e r t s . Many
thousands o f pounds had been i r r e t r i e v a b l y l o s t and not a s i n g l e
b r i c k o f t h e t u n n e l had been l a i d . ( 3 2 - 3 4 )
There can be no doubt t h a t t h e proposed F o r t h Tunnel i n v o l v i n g a
s u b s t a n t i a l l e n g t h o f c o n s t r u c t i o n i n r i v e r - b e d s i l t and sand was
beyond t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f i t s t i m e . A c o n s i d e r a b l y deeper t u n n e l
w i t h t h e same g r a d i e n t s and p a s s i n g under t h e s o f t m a t e r i a l would
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have been r u l e d o u t on c o s t grounds. I t would however be an o p t i o n
t o c o n s i d e r f o r a new c r o s s i n g o f t h e F o r t h t o d a y .
3 Road Bridge Schemes
3.1 P o s s i b l e Roman Campaign Boat Bridge
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7 P o s s i b l e Roman campaign b o a t b r i d g e , Queensferry c.208. Drawn by
D Cameron w i t h a d v i c e on d e t a i l s f r o m Dr G. Maxwell & a u t h o r
A b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e F o r t h a t Queensferry was p r o b a b l y c o n s i d e r e d by
the Romans, p o s s i b l y c.208 d u r i n g t h e campaigns o f Emperor Severus
and h i s son Caracal l a . One r o m a n i s t has r e c e n t l y suggested t h a t a
l i m i l e l o n g b o a t b r i d g e , d i v i d e d near i t s m i d d l e by I n c h g a r v i e , was
c o n s t r u c t e d under t h e guidance o f C a r a c a l l a about where t h e F o r t h
Railway B r i d g e now s t a n d s . ( 3 5 ) ( f i g 7) I n t h e absence o f f i r m
e v i d e n c e t h e case f o r such a b r i d g e i s c o n j e c t u r a l , b u t t h e Romans
d i d have t h e t e c h n o l o g y , men and access t o m a t e r i a l s t o have b u i l t
one. There a r e v a r i o u s p r e c e d e n t s o f boat b r i d g e s elsewhere, some
b e i n g d e p i c t e d on T r a j a n ' s column. Several t e n s o f thousands o f
Roman s o l d i e r s are b e l i e v e d t o have campaigned n o r t h o f t h e F o r t h
and a b r i d g e would have formed a u s e f u l l i n k northwards from t h e
Severan base a t Cramond t h r e e m i l e s t o t h e e a s t . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o
imagine a boat b r i d g e s u r v i v i n g w i n t e r s t o r m s ; p o s s i b l y assembling
i t was a seasonal o p e r a t i o n . The p r o v i s i o n , p o s i t i o n i n g and
s e c u r i n g o f some 500 boats would have been a major t a s k . Would t h e
Romans have g i v e n such a p r o j e c t t h e necessary p r i o r i t y over a
f e r r y i n g operation?
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3.2 Developments 1740-1817
A o r i d g e may have been suggested as e a r l y as 1740(24) o r 1758(36)
b u t no d e t a i l s have come t o hand. As t h e m a t e r i a l s then a v a i l a b l e
f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n were e s s e n t i a l l y t i m b e r and stone w i t h l i m i t a t i o n s
i n use on b r i d g e spans o f about 1 0 0 f t and a maximum f o u n d a t i o n depth
o f about 1 0 - 1 5 f t under s h a l l o w w a t e r , a b r i d g e i n deep water would
have been i m p r a c t i c a b l e . I n 1772 Smeaton t h o u g h t t h a t i t would be
w o r t h spending up t o £100,000 (perhaps e q u i v a l e n t t o £50m t o d a y ) t o
bridge t h e Forth a t Queensferry, b u t considered a bridge
u n a c h i e v a b l e . ( 4 ) The c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n o f good
q u a l i t y wrought i r o n t h a t f o l l o w e d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f Henry C o r t ' s
(1740-1300) i n v e n t i o n s i n i r o n manufacture a f t e r 1733 gave e n g i n e e r s
scope f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g b r i d g e s w i t h t e n s i o n members. Before C o r t ' s
improvements a t i l t hammer w o r k i n g by water-power produced one t o n
of bars o f d o u b t f u l q u a l i t y i n 12 hours. His r o l l i n g m i l l ,
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a b s o r b i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same power, produced 15 tons o f

u n i f o r m l y h i g h q u a l i t y i r o n i n t h e same t i m e . A t a f i n a l s t a g e , t h e
i r o n was passed t h r o u g h grooved r o l l e r s p r o d u c i n g u n i f o r m s e c t i o n s
o f v a r i o u s d i m e n s i o n s . ( 3 7 ) ( f i g 8) ( 3 8 ) The wrought i r o n l i n k - b a r
8 I r o n making c.1850 - R o l l i n g m i l l , b l a s t and p u d d l i n g f u r n a c e s
suspension b r i d g e was adopted i n North America from 1800.(39)

T e l f d r d designed a b r i d g e c e n t e r i n g supported by i n c l i n e d i r o n s t a y s
f o r c r o s s i n g Menai S t r a i t i n 1811. By t h e summer o f 1817 S c o t l a n d
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led Europe i n h a v i n g f o u r i r o n t e n s i o n f o o t b r i d g e s e r e c t e d . T h e i r
spans ranged f r o m 1 1 0 f t - 2 6 1 f t . ( 4 0 ) From 1814-17 T e l f o r d and Capt
Samuel 3rown (1774-1352) were t a k i n g the f i r s t steps i n d e v e l o p i n g
t h e long-span suspension b r i d g e f o r c a r r i a g e t r a f f i c based on
e x p e r i m e n t s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e Runcorn B r i d g e p r o j e c t . ( 4 1 ) At
t h e end o f 1317 t h e f i r s t p r a c t i c a l ' s t r e n g t h o f m a t e r i a l s ' t e x t b o o k
h a v i n g any b e a r i n g a t t h e s u b j e c t was p u b l i s h e d and t h a t was m a i n l y
about t i m b e r . ( 4 2 )
3.3 Anderson's 'Chain Bridge' Designs, January 1813.(43)

I t was a g a i n s t t h i s p r i m i t i v e t e c h n o l o g i c a l background t h a t an
Edinburgh l a n d s u r v e y o r and c i v i l e n g i n e e r and former p u p i l o f
J a r d i n e , James Anderson (c.1790-1856) proposed a wrought i r o n b r i d g e
on e i t h e r t h e r o d - s t a y or c a t e n a r i a n b a r - c a b l e p r i n c i p l e . ( f i g 9) He
e n v i s a g e d spans o f 2 0 0 0 f t , w i t h e s t i m a t e d c o s t s f o r a l t e r n a t i v e
n i s n c T i T x vxxw or T M VKXVCX.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9 Proposed ' c h a i n ' b r i d g e a t Queensferry - Anderson 1318 - Mote
s t a y d e s i g n and i r o n w o r k s t r e t c h i n g machine. I n s e t and
c r o s s - s e c t i o n - Catenary c a b l e design
h e i g h t s o f 9 0 f t and 1 1 0 f t above t h e r i v e r o f f r o m £144,000-£205,000.

The s i t e was t o have been w i t h i n about 300yds o f t h e p r e s e n t r a i l
b r i d g e . ( f i g 10) The headroom f o r s h i p p i n g was t o have been 9 0 f t or
110ft and t h e deck 3 3 f t wide w i t h a 2 5 f t c a r r i a g e w a y . In the
r o d - s t a y design t h e p a i r s o f rods t e r m i n a t e d a t t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e
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deck a t 1 0 0 f t ( o r 5 0 f t ) i n t e r v a l s and a t t h e o t h e r end fanned o u t
l a t e r a l l y across t h e tower t o p t o c o u n t e r a c t " t h e e f f e c t s o f wind
and any u n d u l a t i n g or v i b r a t o r y m o t i o n " . The s t a y s were t o have had
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l areas p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s t r a i n induced. The p a i r
o f s t a y s f r o m t h e tower t o p s t o mid-span would have a d e c l i n a t i o n o f
10 Proposed ' c h a i n ' b r i d g e a t Queensferry - Anderson 1313 - Plan a t

south s i d e . I n s e t c h a i n and c a b l e d e t a i l s
1 0 0 f t i n 1 0 0 0 f t or j u s t l e s s than 6°.
For t h e c a t e n a r i a n c a b l e or a l t e r n a t i v e d e s i g n a c u r v a t u r e depth
o f o n e - t h i r t i e t h o f t h e chord l i n e ( 6 6 f t 4 i n ) was proposed. Twelve
3 i n nominal d i a m e t e r c a b l e s were envisaged, each c o n s i s t i n g o f n i n e
5/3in square bars and 4 f a c i n g segments, t h e whole bound round w i t h
w i r e . ( f i g 10) For t h i s proposal t h e i r o n s t a y s o f t h e f i r s t d e s i g n
were r e t a i n e d t o i n h i b i t deck u n d u l a t i o n . I n both designs masonry
p i e r s were proposed w i t h c a s t i r o n tower frames above t h e roadway.
The t i m b e r deck was t o have r e s t e d on 20 ( o r f o r t h e s t a y design 40)
p r i n c i p a l bar members or 'basis c h a i n s ' 1 x l i i n deep e x t e n d i n g
n e a r l y 6 0 0 0 f t between abutments and t e n s i o n e d t o a sag o f 2 0 f t i n
2 0 0 0 f t . The abutments and towers were t o have been c o n s t r u c t e d
50
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f i r s t , over which were t o have been s t r e t c h e d a temporary c a t e n a r i a n
footway a l o n g which t h e s t a y s which were t o meet a t mid-span would
have been conducted. The m i d d l e b e a r e r w i t h two 'basis c h a i n s ' was
t h e n t o have been h o i s t e d up from boats and t h e s t a y ends connected.
The c a b l e s and bars were t o have been s t r e t c h e d i n t o p o s i t i o n
u s i n g a machine capable o f e x e r t i n g 65tons f r o m l c w t a p p l i e d t o t h e
h a n d l e , and t e r m i n a t e a t a c a s t i r o n anchor beam on each s i d e o f t h e
b r i d g e . These anchors were t o have been p o s i t i o n e d 1 5 0 f t behind
each abutment f a c e and 1 0 0 f t below t h e roadway, s t a b i l i t y being
p r o v i d e d by a superincumbent mass o f masonry o f these dimensions
4 0 f t wide and w e i g h i n g n e a r l y 23,000tons. Anderson based h i s
proposed i r o n w o r k on s i m p l e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s , ( f i g 11) both h i s
R
LvUv, J*tiN..Ji,;iifr-.iy .-'.En ?*>r Uifli Both™
11 I r o n s t r e n g t h t e s t i n g arrangement by Anderson ( a f t e r Tel f o r d ) ( 4 2 )
own and T e l f o r d ' s , and assumed a d e s i g n p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y f a c t o r o f

15-20tons i n o r h a l f o f i t s b r e a k i n g s t r a i n .
2
He proposed u s i n g
l o c a l s t o n e and ' e x c e l l e n t q u a l i t y ' l i m e f r o m t h e E l g i n Lime Works.
Anderson p a r t i c u l a r l y emphasised t h e need f o r f u r t h e r experiments on
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a larger scale before deciding a preference f o r e i t h e r o f the

d e s i g n s , and r e s e r v e d t h e r i g h t t o m o d i f y and improve them.(43) He
s e n t a copy o f h i s d e s i g n s t o T e l f o r d ( 4 4 ) who almost c e r t a i n l y
r e g a r d e d them as o v e r - a m b i t i o u s .
3.4 Assessment
A t t h e t i m e o f p u b l i c a t i o n o f h i s d e s i g n s , Anderson was p r o b a b l y
a p p r o a c h i n g 30 y e a r s o f age w i t h more e x p e r i e n c e o f l a n d s u r v e y i n g
t h a n c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g . H i s designs as i l l u s t r a t e d were undoubtedly
o v e r - a m b i t i o u s f o r t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f h i s t i m e and j u s t i f y
Westhofen's comment t h a t t h e proposed s t r u c t u r e was "so l i g h t indeed
t h a t on a d u l l day i t would h a r d l y have been v i s i b l e and a f t e r a
heavy g a l e p r o b a b l y no l o n g e r t o be seen on a c l e a r day e i t h e r " . ( 4 5 )
B a s i c a l l y t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l areas o f t h e i r o n c a b l e s and bars were
much t o o small f o r t h e e l e v a t i o n s adopted w h i c h , w i t h tower h e i g h t s
of 6 7 f t and 1 0 0 f t above t h e roadway, were t o o f l a t . Unacceptably
h i g h l e v e l s o f s t r e s s would have been induced i n t h e i r o n w o r k .
Anderson seems t o have been unaware t h a t as wrought i r o n was
s t r e t c h e d , i t deformed permanently beyond a s t r e s s o f between 9.5
and 11.5tons i n . ( 4 6 ) 2
The s t r e s s i n t h e c a b l e s o f h i s c a t e n a r i a n
d e s i g n would have exceeded t h e s e f i g u r e s under t h e i r s e l f w e i g h t
a l o n e . H i s d e s i g n s t r e s s was t h r e e t o f o u r t i m e s g r e a t e r than t h e 5
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t o n s i n ^ s a f e d e s i g n s t r e s s which gained general acceptance l a t e r .
The p r o v i s i o n a g a i n s t deck o s c i l l a t i o n was a l s o a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y
i n a d e q u a t e b u t a t l e a s t he had made some a l l o w a n c e . Even a t t h a t
t i m e T e l f o r d r e g a r d e d 1 0 0 0 f t as a maximum span f o r suspension
b r i d g e s , m o d i f y i n g t h i s t o 8 0 0 f t a f t e r 1825 when he had experienced
t h e deck o s c i l l a t i o n phenomenon a t Menai and 6 0 0 f t i n t h e case o f
C l i f t o n Gorge. I t was n o t u n t i l 1931, w i t h t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f George
Washington B r i d g e , t h a t a 2 0 0 0 f t span was reached and surpassed.
The n e a r e s t Anderson seems t o have come t o suspension b r i d g e
c o n s t r u c t i o n was t h e s u c c e s s f u l renewal i n 1830 o f t h e t i m b e r
sea-ward abutment o f T r i n i t y Chain P i e r e r e c t e d by Capt Samuel Brown
f o r steam-boat use i n 1 8 2 1 . ( 4 7 , 4 8 ) ( f i g 12) T h i s was a d i f f i c u l t and
12 T r i n i t y P i e r , Newhaven - Sea-ward abutment 1821 (48)
hazardous o p e r a t i o n i n v o l v i n g t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f many sea-worm

ravaged p i l e s w h i l s t a t t h e same t i m e p r e s e r v i n g t h e t e n s i o n
supporting the s t r u c t u r e .
I t i s d o u b t f u l whether Anderson would have promoted h i s designs
a t a l l i f he had n o t been encouraged by T e l f o r d ' s Runcorn B r i d g e
p r o j e c t w i t h i t s 1 0 0 0 f t c e n t r a l span.(49,50) U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r him,
T e l f o r d ' s development o f t h e long-span suspension b r i d g e had n o t y e t
matured and been t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e e l e g a n t and l o n g - l a s t i n g Menai
B r i d g e , a process which took a f u r t h e r f i v e y e a r s t o e v o l v e a t t h e
f r o n t i e r s of technology. I n consequence, Anderson adopted and even
compounded u n d e s i r a b l e f e a t u r e s from t h e 1814 Runcorn B r i d g e design
which T e l f o r d l a t e r abandoned e.g. t h e c a b l e form, c a t e n a r i a n c a b l e s
of t o o f l a t c u r v a t u r e under as w e l l as over t h e road-way and a
d e s i g n s t r e s s t h a t was t o o h i g h . ( 5 1 )
I n c o n c l u s i o n , Anderson deserves some c r e d i t f o r c o r r e c t l y
f o r e s e e i n g r o c k - f o u n d e d c a b l e - s t a y e d or suspension b r i d g e s as t h e
means o f a c h i e v i n g l a r g e spans. The p r o p o s a l seems t o have helped
his p r a c t i c e t o f l o u r i s h . From 1836-46 Anderson was an F.R.S.E.
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4 Railway Bridges
13 Dee B r i d g e , Chester 1347 - Combined i r o n g i r d e r 1 0 0 f t span (52)
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14 B r i t a n n i a B r i d g e , Menai S t r a i t - C o n s t r u c t i o n o f tube 1343 (53)
53
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4.1 Introduction
From 1830-50 most i r o n b r i d g e s on r a i l w a y s were o f t h e c a s t i r o n
a r c h o r beam t y p e s o r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f c a s t and wrought i r o n , t h e
l a t t e r c o n t r i b u t i n g a d d i t i o n a l t e n s i l e s u p p o r t , w i t h spans r a r e l y
e x c e e d i n g 1 0 0 f t . ( f i g 13) A number o f f a i l u r e s i n v o l v i n g c a s t i r o n
beams had o c c u r r e d and f r o m t h e m i d - c e n t u r y wrought i r o n r e p l a c e d
c a s t i r o n i n g e n e r a l use f o r beams . The wrought i r o n p l a t e g i r d e r ,
p r e c u r s o r o f t h e s t e e l ' I ' beam, developed c.1846. A r a i l w a y
s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e had been e r e c t e d a t S t o c k t o n i n 1830. I t was
u n d e r - d e s i g n e d and proved h o p e l e s s l y i n a d e q u a t e , two waggons c a u s i n g
a d e f l e c t i o n o f 1 3 i n , and a f t e r b e i n g propped f o r a t i m e i t was
r e p l a c e d by a c a s t i r o n b r i d g e i n 1842.(41) T h i s e x p e r i e n c e
d i s c o u r a g e d e n g i n e e r s from a d o p t i n g suspension b r i d g e s f o r r a i l w a y s .
The B r i t a n n i a T u b u l a r B r i d g e w i t h i t s 4 6 0 f t spans over t h e Menai
S t r a i t c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m 1846-50 under t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e o f
Stephenson and F a i r b a i r n r e p r e s e n t e d a major step f o r w a r d i n t h e
e v o l u t i o n o f t h e w r o u g h t i r o n g i r d e r b r i d g e . ( 5 3 ) ( f i g 14) C r o s s i n g
the F o r t h and Tay was a b i g g e r c h a l l e n g e and an i n t e r i m s o l u t i o n was
adopted by S i r Thomas Bouch (1822-80). By 1850 he had designed and
s u c c e s s f u l l y i n s t a l l e d t h e w o r l d ' s f i r s t f l o a t i n g r a i l w a y between
Granton and B u r n t i s l a n d .
4.2 The G r a n t o n - S u r n t i s l a n d ' F l o a t i n g Railway' 1850

The f e r r y v e s s e l was a s p e c i a l l y designed e n d - l o a d i n g paddle-steamer
c a l l e d ' L e v i a t h a n ' b u i l t by Robert Napier & Co. The 389-ton vessel
had a speed o f 5 k n o t s and commenced o p e r a t i o n i n February 1350. I t
c o u l d c a r r y up t o 34 goods waggons and t h e average t i m e f o r a s i n g l e
ELEVATIO
N
15 F o r t h F l o a t i n g Railway - Bouch 1850 - Granton s l i p - w a y
54
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t r i p , i n c l u d i n g l o a d i n g and u n l o a d i n g an average o f 21 waggons, was
56 m i n u t e s . ( 5 4 ) The waggon t r a n s f e r e n c e arrangement on each shore
consisted of a slip-way t r a v e l l i n g platform with horizontal top, at
the end o f which were f o u r movable wrought i r o n g i r d e r s t h a t were
l o w e r e d onto t h e end o f t h e f e r r y b o a t when t h e p l a t f o r m was i n
position. The p l a t f o r m was moved up and down t h e s l i p - w a y by means
o f a 30hp. s t a t i o n a r y steam e n g i n e which was a l s o used f o r h a u l i n g
the t r a i n s . The movable g i r d e r s were o p e r a t e d manually from two
p o w e r f u l crab-winches above t h e p l a t f o r m . ( f i g 1 5 ) ( 5 5 ) In the early
1860s Bouch proposed a s i m i l a r system a t Queensferry t o accommodate
passenger t r a i n s , b u t he a l l o w e d h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r a b r i d g e t o
o v e r r i d e t h i s concept w h i c h , by comparison, he c o n s i d e r e d
inefficient. The Granton t o B u r n t i s l a n d f e r r y c o n t i n u e d t o o p e r a t e
u n t i l t h e F o r t h B r i d g e was opened i n 1890.
Bouch c r e d i t e d Thomas G r a i n g e r (1794-1852), h i s predecessor as
Engineer t o t h e E d i n b u r g h , P e r t h and Dundee Railway, w i t h t h e
o r i g i n a l idea o f f l o a t i n g t r a i n s across the F o r t h . Grainger
proposed t o use h y d r a u l i c cranes t o t r a n s f e r t r a i n s between shore
and t h e f e r r y v e s s e l . Bouch t h o u g h t t h a t t h i s o p e r a t i o n would be
too slow. Another e n g i n e e r J. F. Bateman (1810-89) c l a i m e d t h a t he
had o r i g i n a t e d t h e f l o a t i n g t r a i n concept w i t h a proposal f o r
Q u e e n s f e r r y i n 1845 when he was Engineer t o t h e Edinburgh & P e r t h
R a i l w a y . He had proposed i n s t a l l i n g s t a t i o n a r y steam engines a t t h e
top o f 1 i n 12 ramps on each s h o r e , t r a i n s b e i n g hauled over
t a i l - p i e c e s between t h e v e s s e l and ramp.(55)
4.3 The Proposed F o r t h Bridge a t Charlestown 1862-66

Bouch, now Engineer o f t h e N o r t h B r i t i s h and Edinburgh & Glasgow
R a i l w a y , f i r s t c o n s i d e r e d t h e Queensferry s i t e f o r a b r i d g e across
the F o r t h . He r u l e d o u t a suspension b r i d g e t h e r e as b e i n g
i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r r a i l w a y t r a f f i c and r e j e c t e d a g i r d e r b r i d g e on
a c c o u n t o f t h e i m p r a c t i c a b i l i t y o f f o u n d i n g p i e r s i n a depth o f up
t o 2 4 0 f t o f water and because o f t h e impediment t o n a v i g a t i o n . ( 5 5 )
The p r e d i s p o s i t i o n a g a i n s t u s i n g suspension b r i d g e s f o r r a i l w a y
t r a f f i c was n o t accepted by a l l e n g i n e e r s . I n 1864 a 'Mr Thorntan
o f E d i n b u r g h ' , p r o b a b l y Robert T h o r n t o n , prepared plans f o r a
suspension b r i d g e w i t h t h r e e 2 0 0 0 f t spans a t o r near t h e s i t e o f t h e
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present railway bridge.(57) I n 1862, a C h a r l e s Dowling p u b l i s h e d a

p r o p o s a l f o r a b r i d g e w i t h two c o n t i n u o u s wrought i r o n tubes 5 8 1 0 f t
l o n g i n seven 8 0 0 f t spans a t about t h e same s i t e . A l t h o u g h he
c o n s i d e r e d t h e tubes j u s t s e l f s u p p o r t i n g a t t h i s span, he proposed
a d d i n g suspension c h a i n s or c a b l e s , i n c l u d i n g some d i a g o n a l s , t o
i n h i b i t l a t e r a l movement.(58) N e i t h e r o f these p r o p o s a l s was
adopted.
I n 1862 t h e Westminster c o n s u l t a n t e n g i n e e r s G.R. Stephenson
(1319-1905) and J.F. Tone(59) produced an o u t l i n e r e p o r t f o r
c o n s i d e r a t i o n by t h e N o r t h B r i t i s h Railway d i r e c t o r s on t h e means by
which i t m i g h t be p o s s i b l e t o 'pass' t h e R i v e r F o r t h . Stephenson,
nephew o f t h e famous Robert Stephenson, had a l r e a d y had t h e
e x p e r i e n c e o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a major i r o n b r i d g e over t h e N i l e and had
a s s i s t e d h i s u n c l e w i t h t h e m u l t i - s p a n box g i r d e r b r i d g e over t h e St
Lawrence a t M o n t r e a l . Stephenson and Tone s t r o n g l y a d v i s e d a g a i n s t
the r a i l w a y f e r r y concept which t h e y c o n s i d e r e d i n e f f i c i e n t . They
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a l s o a d v i s e d a g a i n s t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a b r i d g e across t h e F o r t h
a t Q u e e n s f e r r y , c o n s i d e r i n g a suspension b r i d g e w i t h minimum spans
o f 1 3 0 0 f t t o be i m p r a c t i c a b l e f o r r a i l w a y t r a f f i c , and c i t e d t h e
speed l i m i t o f 3mph on t h e American e n g i n e e r J.A. R o e b l i n g ' s 8 0 0 f t
span Niagara B r i d g e ( 1 3 5 5 - 9 2 ) . Stephenson and Tone recommended
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an i r o n g i r d e r b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e F o r t h between
Slackness C a s t l e and C h a r l e s t o w n a t an e s t i m a t e d c o s t o f £500,000
and e n v i s a g e d a c o m p l e t i o n t i m e o f t h r e e y e a r s . ( 5 9 )
Bouch seems t o have accepted o r t o have come t o t h e same
c o n c l u s i o n s as Stephenson and Tone and i n 1863-64 was w o r k i n g on
d e s i g n s f o r a s i n g l e - t r a c k g i r d e r b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e F o r t h near
C h a r l e s t o w n . One d e s i g n i n 1364 was f o r a 3979yd v i a d u c t r i s i n g t o
1 0 0 f t i n h e i g h t f o r two 2 9 0 f t n a v i g a t i o n spans. From t h e south t h e
spans were: 19 x 4 0 f t ; 42 x 4 0 f t ; 24 x 2 0 7 f t ; 2 x 2 9 0 f t ; 4 x 2 0 7 f t ;
44 x 4 0 f t ; and 4 x 4 0 f t . ( 6 0 ) Another d e s i g n had spans r a n g i n g f r o m
1 0 0 f t t o two 6 0 0 f t spans over t h e n a v i g a t i o n c h a n n e l . ( 5 6 ) The
proposed main spans were l a r g e r t h a n those o f B r i t a n n i a B r i d g e and
B r u n e i ' s S a l t a s h B r i d g e (1359) w i t h i t s 4 5 5 f t spans. The Company
p r e v a i l e d on Bouch t o reduce t h e l a r g e spans and t h e design f o r t h e
'Bridge o f F o r t h ' i n t h e 1865 B i l l was a 3837yd v i a d u c t w i t h 62
wrought i r o n c l o s e - l a t t i c e g i r d e r spans, r i s i n g t o 1 2 5 f t c l e a r a n c e
f o r f o u r 5 0 0 f t n a v i g a t i o n spans. From t h e south end t h e spans were:
14 x 1 0 0 f t ; 6 x 1 5 0 f t ; 6 x 1 7 5 f t ; 15 x 2 0 0 f t ; 4 x 5 0 0 f t ; 2 x 2 0 0 f t ;
4 x 1 7 3 f t ; 4 x 1 5 0 f t and 7 x 1 0 0 f t . ( 6 1 ) ( f i g 16) The 5 0 0 f t span
g i r d e r s , each 6 4 f t deep and w e i g h i n g 1170 t o n s , were t o have been
f a b r i c a t e d on l a n d , f l o a t e d t o s i t e on pontoons and e l e v a t e d i n t o
p o s i t i o n by means o f h y d r a u l i c j a c k s . The b r i d g e was e s t i m a t e d t o
c o s t £476,000 e x c l u d i n g t h e r a i l w a y and c o n t i n g e n c i e s . I f i t had
16 Proposed F o r t h B r i d g e , Charlestown - Bouch 1365 ( 6 1 )
56
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SKETCH OF PROPOSED
FORTH BRIDGE PIER
AT CHARLESTOWN IN
1865
Details of Scantlings,
Connections and Bracing
not known
^ HjW. X/90
We are indebted to i Barlow, Eton, St Baker, Engineers of th* undertaking, for
th* sketch reproduced abov* of th* Croa* Section of th* new Viaduct, showing th* relative
position* of tbt new work and th* old Bndjr*. The massive character of th* new structure
m compared with th* old ia obrioo* at • fiance, especially (1) th* greater lateral stabJ.ty
from th* iubetitotion of twin piars for th* single pier below, and the increased width for
th* doabl* line of n i l * above ; and (2) th* greater vertical stability from the diminished
height of th* superstructure an J th* arched formation at the upper junction of th* piers.
17 Proposed F o r t h B r i d g e , Charlestown - 3ouch 1365. Drawn on 1881

s e c t i o n showing o l d and p r e s e n t Tay Bridges f o r comparison(68)
been b u i l t i t would have been t h e l o n g e s t and l a r g e s t r a i l w a y b r i d g e

in the world.
The promoters were concerned about t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f a c h i e v i n g
adequate f o u n d a t i o n s f o r t h e g r e a t g i r d e r p i e r s i n s o f t ground. Of
t h e many b o r i n g s made on Bouch's b e h a l f by J e s s i e Wylie (whose
subsequent b o r i n g s f o r t h e Tay B r i d g e i n d i c a t e d a n o n - e x i s t e n t rock
s h e l f a l m o s t r i g h t across r i v e r and i n v o l v e d Bouch i n c o n s i d e r a b l e
d e s i g n changes and d e l a y ) ( 6 2 ) many e a s i l y p e n e t r a t e d t h r o u g h s o f t
s i l t f o r more than 1 2 0 f t . One bore even went t o 2 3 1 f t w i t h o u t
reaching the bottom.(23) From s e v e r a l hundred b o r i n g s t h e r e was n o t
57
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a s i n g l e b i t of stone.(56) I n 1864 Bouch conducted e x p e r i m e n t s on
s i t e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e ground i n t h e r i v e r
bed u s i n g two 6 f t d i a . c y l i n d e r s 4 8 f t h i g h , one w i t h an open end and
the o t h e r w i t h a c l o s e d end. A f t e r l o a d i n g w i t h 60tons o f p i g i r o n
one c y l i n d e r became t o p heavy and t o p p l e d over. On 7 November 1364
a n o t h e r c y l i n d e r was s u c c e s s f u l l y loaded w i t h 80tons and was
e x p e c t e d t o t a k e 120tons or " i f p o s s i b l e 5tons f t " l a t e r t h a t
2
day.(64) T h i s outcome encouraged 3ouch t o proceed.

In 1365 p r i o r t o t h e A c t b e i n g o b t a i n e d t h e p r o j e c t was
t h o r o u g h l y examined by p a r l i a m e n t a r y r e f e r e e s . Bouch e x p l a i n e d i n
e v i d e n c e t h a t he proposed t o d e t e r m i n e whether s a t i s f a c t o r y
f o u n d a t i o n s c o u l d be o b t a i n e d f o r t h e p i e r s o f t h e l a r g e g i r d e r s by
b u i l d i n g and l o a d - t e s t i n g an e x p e r i m e n t a l p i e r i n s i t u . He proposed
r e d u c i n g t h e p r e s s u r e on t h e mud t o l e s s than I t o n f t by use o f a
2
p l a t f o r m o f green beech 1 1 4 f t x 3 0 f t x 9 f t t h i c k , which being

s l i g h t l y denser t h a n sea-water would s i n k w i t h o u t l o a d . I t was t o
be towed t o s i t e s u p p o r t e d by f l o a t s and sunk i n t o p o s i t i o n . On t o p
of t h e p l a t f o r m t h e masonry and b r i c k w o r k were t o be b u i l t up w i t h i n
a w r o u g h t i r o n c y l i n d e r t o 1 2 f t above h i g h water l e v e l as t h e
p l a t f o r m sank i n t o p o s i t i o n i n t h e mud i n 4 0 f t o f w a t e r . Twelve 3 f t
dia. tubes on t h e p l a t f o r m around t h e edge o f t h e masonry and a l s o
the i n t e r i o r c a v i t y o f t h e p i e r s were t o be loaded w i t h 10,000 tons
of p i g i r o n , e q u i v a l e n t t o 2 i t i m e s t h e w e i g h t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e p l u s
a standing t r a i n . The p i e r s above t h e b r i c k w o r k were t o c o n s i s t o f
a p a i r o f 1 0 f t d i a . columns l i n t h i c k . ( 5 6 , 6 3 ) ( f i g 1 7 ) . Bouch
e n v i s a g e d t h e g i r d e r spans as c o n t i n u o u s b u t had n o t designed them
on t h i s b a s i s , c o n s i d e r i n g t h i s an a d d i t i o n a l s a f e t y f a c t o r .
On 14 June 1866, Bouch's t r i a l p l a t f o r m was launched from
B u r n t i s l a n d and towed i n t o p o s i t i o n o f f Charlestown. I t was s m a l l e r
t h a n p r e v i o u s l y e n v i s a g e d , now b e i n g 8 0 f t x 6 0 f t x 7 f t t h i c k and
c o n s t r u c t e d o f memel ( p i n e ) . ( 6 3 ) S i x weeks l a t e r , when t h e
p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r submersion o f t h e p l a t f o r m were r a p i d l y approaching
c o m p l e t i o n , t h e Company abandoned t h e p r o j e c t f o r f i n a n c i a l reasons.
I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t they expected t o l o s e northern 'through
t r a f f i c ' revenue f o l l o w i n g an amalgamation between t h e i r Caledonian
Railway r i v a l and t h e S c o t t i s h North E a s t e r n Railway, which took
p l a c e on 10 August 1866.(65-66) The workmen were p a i d o f f and t h e
r a f t was towed back t o B u r n t i s l a n d . The e x p e r i m e n t had c o s t t h e
N o r t h B r i t i s h R a i l w a y Company £34,390.(57)
4.4 Assessment of the Charlestown Bridge Proposal of 1865-6

The abandonment o f t h e b r i d g e was almost c e r t a i n l y f o r t u n a t e , n o t
o n l y on a c c o u n t o f t h e q u e s t i o n a b l e n a t u r e o f i t s s t r u c t u r a l
c o n t i n u i t y and f o u n d a t i o n s i n 'mud' (60) b u t a l s o because o f i t s
p r o b a b l e i n s t a b i l i t y i n s t r o n g wind. In c r o s s - s e c t i o n , the bridge
w i t h i t s 6 4 f t t a l l g i r d e r s 1 2 5 f t above t h e r i v e r would have been t o o
narrow f o r i t s h e i g h t . ( f i g 1 7 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e p r o p o s a l d i d s u r v i v e
s e a r c h i n g p a r l i a m e n t a r y s c r u t i n y , t h e wind problem was not p r o p e r l y
a p p r e c i a t e d a t t h a t t i m e . Bouch envisaged a wind l o a d o f 180tons on
a 5 0 0 f t span, w e i g h i n g 1170tons, based on a p r e s s u r e o f 301bs f t , 2
f r o m which i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o assume a l a t t i c e g i r d e r e l e v a t i o n

c o n s i s t i n g o f 58% h o l e s and 42% i r o n on t h e b a s i s t h a t t h e wind
p r e s s u r e was a p p l i e d t o t h e n e t t area o f i r o n . 3ouch would p r o b a b l y
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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a l s o have adopted a f a c t o r o f s a f e t y a g a i n s t o v e r t u r n i n g .
I f t h e r u l e s drawn up by t h e Board o f Trade Committee a f t e r t h e Tay

B r i d g e d i s a s t e r (69) had a p p l i e d t o t h i s p r o p o s a l , i e 561bs f t on 2
t h e windward and 231bs f t on t h e leeward s i d e o f t h e g i r d e r , t h e

2
wind l o a d would have been 1200tons, based on t h e gross area o f t h e

g i r d e r , discounting the holes. The Committee s p e c i f i e d a f a c t o r o f
s a f e t y o f 2 a g a i n s t o v e r t u r n i n g where g r a v i t y p r o v i d e d t h e r e s t o r i n g
f o r c e and a f a c t o r o f s a f e t y o f 4 was was t o be a p p l i e d t o h o l d i n g
down c o n n e c t i o n s r e s i s t i n g o v e r t u r n i n g . Modern p r a c t i c e would g i v e
g i v e a wind l o a d o f 580tonnes, more than t h r e e times t h e f i g u r e t h a t
Bouch e s t i m a t e d , and a minimum f a c t o r o f s a f e t y t o be a p p l i e d t o
t h i s a g a i n s t o v e r t u r n i n g o f 1.4. This f i g u r e i s i n d i c a t i v e of the
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
c o n s i d e r a b l e o v e r - r e a c t i o n by t h e Committee t o t h e wind q u e s t i o n
f o l l o w i n g t h e Tay B r i d g e d i s a s t e r . Both f i g u r e s are however,
c o n s i d e r a b l y i n excess o f t h e ISOtons assumed by Bouch. With
h i n d s i g h t , t h e d e s i g n i s a l s o q u e s t i o n a b l e from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f
post c o n s t r u c t i o n settlement. The g i r d e r d e s i g n was p r o b a b l y
i n f l u e n c e d by Runcorn B r i d g e ( 1 8 6 3 ) ( 6 3 ) ( f i g 1 3 ) .
18 Runcorn 3 r i d g e today - c o n s t r u c t e d 1863-63
Bouch's d e s i g n cannot n e c e s s a r i l y be assumed t o have s u f f e r e d a

s i m i l a r f a t e t o t h a t which b e f e l l t h e Tay B r i d g e t h i r t e e n y e a r s
later. I t s p i e r s were more r o b u s t than t h e l a t t e r . The d e s i g n
m i g h t have been abandoned or m o d i f i e d as a r e s u l t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t .
W i t h o u t d e t a i l s o f t h e s c a n t l i n g s , c o n n e c t i o n arrangements and
b r a c i n g s i t i s not p o s s i b l e t o comment w i t h c e r t a i n t y as t o how t h e
d i f f e r e n t elements o f t h e d e s i g n would have f a r e d w i t h t i m e . By
comparison w i t h t h e p r e s e n t Tay B r i d g e , w i t h i t s i r o n c a i s s o n s sunk
a t l e a s t 2 0 f t i n t o t h e sandy s i l t , w i d e l y s t r a d d l e d p i e r s , and
d e s i g n e d t o the p o s t - d i s a s t e r wind p r e s s u r e code, t h e r e i s no doubt
which d e s i g n i s t o be p r e f e r r e d .
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4.5 The Forth Railway Suspension Bridge P r o j e c t 1871-80
The p r e s s u r e f o r b r i d g i n g t h e F o r t h and Tay d i d n o t subside f o r
19 F o r t h Suspension B r i d g e p r o p o s a l - Bouch 1873
l o n g . Under new management, t h e N o r t h B r i t i s h Railway Company took

over t h e f e r r y a t Q u e e n s f e r r y i n 1867. I n 1868 t h e r a i l w a y from
Ratho J u n c t i o n t o Queensferry was completed t h u s e s t a b l i s h i n g a
r a i l - f e r r y link with Fife. T h i s l i n k was f u r t h e r developed i n
1377-78 w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a t Queensferry o f a 9 0 0 f t t i m b e r j e t t y
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and a 1 , 3 0 0 f t w h i n s t o n e b r e a k w a t e r .
I n 1371 Bouch, i t i s s a i d perhaps i n f l u e n c e d by Anderson's
e a r l i e r scheme(57), prepared s e v e r a l designs (45) and proposed a
double-span s t e e l suspension b r i d g e w i t h h e a v i l y s t i f f e n e d deck and
1 , 6 0 0 f t spans more o r l e s s on t h e l i n e o f t h e p r e s e n t b r i d g e . ( f i g
19) A f t e r h a v i n g been c a r e f u l l y examined and f a v o u r a b l y r e p o r t e d on
by t h e eminent e n g i n e e r s W.H. Barlow (1312-1902) and W. Pole
( 1 3 1 4 - 1 9 0 0 ) , ( 7 0 ) t h e b r i d g e r e c e i v e d i t s a u t h o r i s i n g Act i n August
1873. Work was slow t o s t a r t and i t was n o t u n t i l 30 September 1878
t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n s t o n e o f a b r i c k p i e r was l a i d a t I n c h g a r v i e .
Towards t h e c l o s e o f 1379 W i l l i a m A r r o l (1839-1913) was hard a t work
on p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t h e s t e e l w o r k when t h e Tay B r i d g e f e l l . By t h e
f o l l o w i n g summer Bouch's d e s i g n had been abandoned, and a l l t h a t
s u r v i v e s on s i t e i s t h e base and a score or so courses o f b r i c k w o r k
o f I n c h g a r v i e p i e r , now s u p p o r t i n g a beacon.
Bouch was p r o b a b l y i n f l u e n c e d t o change h i s mind and adopt a
suspension b r i d g e by t h e success o f R o e b l i n g ' s C i n c i n a t t i - C o v i n g t o n
road suspension b r i d g e . T h i s b r i d g e o f 1 0 7 5 f t span was completed i n
1366 and i s s t i l l i n use.(71) Bouch's b r i d g e m i g h t have l a s t e d t o o ,
b u t few e n g i n e e r s would doubt t h e s u p e r i o r i t y o f i t s successor.
60
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60. Ms. F o r t h B r i d g e Railway Plan Shewing Bores on S i t e o f Proposed
V i a d u c t 1864. Elgin Estates Archives.
61. Ms.idem. Cartoon F o r t h and Tay B r i d g e s . 1865. E l g i n E s t a t e s
Archives.
62. P r e b b l e , J. The High G i r d e r s , London, 1956.
63. Scotsman 14 June 1366.
64. Thomas, J. A Regional H i s t o r y o f t h e Railways o f Great B r i t a i n ,
Volume V I , S c o t l a n d The Lowlands and B o r d e r s , Newton Abbot,
1971.
65. Scotsman 6 August 1366.
66. Bradshaw's Railway Manual, London, 1374.
67. Douglas, H. C r o s s i n g t h e F o r t h , London, 1964.
68. Dundee A d v e r t i s e r 13 October 1881.
69. Barlow, C. The New Tay B r i d g e , London, 1389.
70. Barlow, W.H. & P o l e , W. Report on t h e F o r t h B r i d g e , designed by
Thomas Bouch. E d i n b u r g h , 1380.
71. R o e b l i n g , J.A. Report o f . . . , i n Annual Report o f t h e . . .
C o v i n g t o n & C i n c i n n a t i B r i d g e Company, T r e n t o n , 1367. Bridge
i l l u s t r a t e d on f r o n t cover o f A.S.C.E. c a l e n d a r f o r 1990.
Additional Sources
Skempton, A.W. B r i t i s h C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g 1540-1340 : A B i b l i o -

graphy, London, 1987.
M a r s h a l l , J. A B i o g r a p h i c a l D i c t i o n a r y o f Railway E n g i n e e r s ,
Newton Abbot, 1978.
D i c t i o n a r y o f N a t i o n a l Biography.
Acknowledgements
The a u t h o r acknowledges w i t h thanks a s s i s t a n c e r e c e i v e d from:
Members o f s t a f f o f t h e I.C.E. L i b r a r y , t h e N a t i o n a l L i b r a r y o f
S c o t l a n d , t h e Royal S o c i e t y , t h e S c o t t i s h Record O f f i c e ; t h e E a r l o f
E l g i n and K i n c a r d i n e ; Hopetoun House P r e s e r v a t i o n T r u s t ; Mr P.
C a d e l l ; Mr D. Cameron; Mr C. J o h n s t o n ; Mr W.T. Johnston; Mr A.
L o u g h l i n ; Dr G. Maxwell; Mr J.S. Shipway; P r o f . A.W. Skempton; Mr
C.J. S m i t h ; Mrs M. Young; and E l t o n E n g i n e e r i n g Books.
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A M E R I C A N LONG SPAN M E T A L TRUSS
E X P E R I E N C E PRIOR TO THE FIRTH OF
FORTH
F.E. GRIGGS, Jr
Dept C i v i l Engineering, M e r r i m a c k College, N o r t h Andover,
Massachusetts, USA
Abstract
This article traces the development of long span metal truss building in the United States
in the time period 1840 to 1890. Squire Whipple, the Father of Iron Bridges, designed
and built 146' span double intersection (cancelled) railroad bridges as early as 1852 and
projected that it would be possible to span distances of 400' to 500' with trusses. His
book entitled " A Work on Bridge Building," published in 1847, described, for the first
time, methods for designing truss bridges. The Whipple, Pratt, Warren, Bollman, Fink
and Howe trusses will be covered as they made 500' simple span truss bridges possible
across the Mississippi, Missouri and Ohio rivers by engineers such as J.H. Linville and
George S. Morison. The High Bridge across the Kentucky River, designed by C.
Shaler Smith, the first major cantilever bridge built in the United States (1877) is
described in depth. The paper also describes the Niagara River cantilever (1883) by
Charles Schneider and the Hudson River cantilever at Poughkeepsie, N.Y. (1889) by the
Union Bridge Company.
Keywords: Bridges, Truss, Simple Span, Cantilever, 19th Century, Iron, Steel.
1 INTRODUCTION
The opening of the Firth of Forth Bridge was the culmination of a century which saw
bridge building move from an art using primarily stone and wood to a science using iron
and later steel. This paper will describe the evolution of long span metal truss building
in the United States prior to the Forth Bridge.
2 Simple Span Trusses

American bridge builders at the beginning of the century used wood as the primary
structural material as it was available, cheap, and easily worked with by the craftsmen
and tools available. Iron was used in some wooden bridges as tension members such as
in the Howe and Pratt trusses and as bolts, plates, washers etc. These early millwright-
engineer-architects, using intuition and feel for the material, were able to span distances
of up to 370'. The 340' span at Philadelphia by Louis Wernwag, appropriately called
the "Colossus", survived for over 30 years before it was destroyed by fire. The first
bridge to use iron in any significant amount was the cast iron arch bridge built on the
National Road at Brownsville, Pennsylvania in 1839. This bridge, with a span of 100',
was patterned after the early iron arch bridges built in England.
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Men such as Palmer, Burr, Wernwag, Long, Howe, Pratt and Town made great
progress in bridging the rivers and streams of the United States with wooden bridges.
It, however, remained for Squire Whipple, Fig. 1, to develop the method of
scientifically analyzing and designing a truss bridge and to instruct his fellow engineers
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on the proper use of cast and wrought iron. After graduating from Union College in
1830 Whipple went to work as a rodman on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. This
project, one of the earliest efforts undertaken to build a railroad over the Appalachian
Mountains, tested the ingenuity and engineering skills of America's early engineers.
Whipple in his capacity as one of the technical staff would have come in contact with
Col. S. H . Long who had been assigned to the railroad by the United States
Government. Long had designed and built a wooden truss in a pattern which he was
later to patent. This bridge, the Jackson Bridge, was probably the first truss bridge built
in the United States using some mathematical analysis. Later while working on the
enlargement of the Erie Canal, Whipple along with everyone else connected with the
enterprise, saw that the wooden bridges which were built in the early 1820's were
falling into the canal and that they would have to be replaced with stronger bridges made
Fig. 2. The Whipple Trusses
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out of materials which would last longer. In 1841 he designed and built his first
bowstring truss, Fig. 2. Whipple said:
The design and intent were to construct an iron truss to be used in connection with a wooden floor
system, the truss to have sufficient stability to stand of itself, without any dependence upon the
wood, so that the latter could be renewed from time to time as might be required, without
disturbance or danger to the iron work.
This patent was issued number 2064 and was the first successful iron truss bridge
built in the United States. The parts were sized to carry the loads placed upon them and
the materials used were the best available at the time, e.g. cast iron in compression,
wrought iron in tension and replaceable wood as decking. Many such bridges were built
across the Erie Canal in the 1840's-50's.
Whipple's greatest contribution to the development of truss bridge building came in
1847 when he published his " A Work on Bridge Building." This book, which for
the first time anywhere described his method of analyzing a truss, also gave future
bridge engineers a guide on methods of selecting materials and construction techniques.
He also developed his plan for the trapezoidal, double cancelled truss, Fig. 2, at this
time. He said:
Prior to 1846, or thereabouts, I had regarded the arch-formed truss as probably, if not self-evidently,
the most economical that could be adopted; and at about that time I undertook some investigations
and computations with the expectation of being able to demonstrate such to be the fact, but on the
contrary the result convinced me that the trapezoidal form, with parallel chords and diagonal
members, either with or without verticals, was theoretically more economical than the arch , and
that the trapezoid was more economical without than with vertical members-there being shown a
less amount of action (sum of maximum strains into lengths of respective long members) under a
given load.
Up until this time with spans being short the height of the truss was approximately
equal to the panel length and the diagonals were of equal length and made 45 degree
angles with the horizontal. As spans of necessity increased the height of the truss also
had to increase. This increase in height resulted in very long panels if the diagonals
were to remain at the most efficient inclination, 45 degrees plus or minus. To maintain
the diagonal inclination he simply had the diagonals reach over two or more panels. He
once again used cast iron for his top chord and verticals and wrought iron for his lower
chord and diagonals and wood for his decking. He designed and built two of these
bridges in Utica and West Troy, New York in 1852-54 for railroad use. Both of these
bridges lasted well over 40 years and became a standard truss pattern up until the late
1880's. These bridges had spans of 146' which made them the longest iron railroad
trusses in the world at that time. Subsequent to Whipple, Wendell Bollman and Albert
Fink designed and built iron railroad bridges on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the
1850's and 60's but these patterns were short-lived and not adopted by others.
In 1878 the American Society of Civil Engineers prepared an exhibit on American
Civil Engineering for the Paris Exposition. Included as plate XI, Fig. 3, was a
summary of the history of truss building in the United States. By this time period the
only truss on the list still being used to any degree was the Whipple truss. Whipple's
trusses were later to be modified by Murphy and Linville who changed the lower chord
from forged wrought iron links to eye bars and later made all the metal parts out of
wrought iron and in the 1880's out of steel. In the 1880's The pattern was used
exclusively by George Morison when he built seven (7) railroad bridges, using first
wrought iron and later steel, with spans of up to 518' across the Missouri River.
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PliATEXL
TRAN&AMSOC CIV. KNGtt
YW..W. N? CLXHV
PARTS C O M M l T T K l !
TOWN LATTICE
XXXXXXXX
HC)WE TRl ss PBATT TRUSS
FtNK TRUSS
POST TRUSS
WHIPPLE TRUSS
Fig. 3. American Trusses
The record for span length reached out from Whipple's 146 feet as follows:
Table 1. Record Span Length
LOCATION SPAN DATE TYPE

320' 1864 Linville Truss
Steubenville, Ohio
390' 1870 Truss by Al Fink
Louisville, Ky.
420' 1872 Linville Truss
Louisville, Ky. 1876 Linville Truss Fig. 4
Cincinnati Southern RR 515'
1888 Bowstring Truss Fig. 5
Chesapeake & Ohio RR 545'
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Fig. 4. Cincinnati Southern Railway Bridge Over The Ohio.
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Fig. 5. Cincinnati Bridge over The Ohio.
Whipple was to compare his bridges to other, what he considered to be inferior, trusses
in both later editions of his book and in articles submitted to the American Railroad
Journal, Appleton's and even to The Engineer and Architects Journal. Thus even
though the names of Pratt, Warren, Howe and others may be better known to 20th
century engineers, it was Whipple who showed the profession in his writings and
practice how to design and build bridges and how to do it with precision and efficiency.
He has been, and rightfully so, called "the father of iron truss bridges".
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The simple span truss, even when made of steel, reaches a maximum span length
as the height of the truss required becomes unwieldy, even if double or triple
intersections are made. The maximum span length prior to the Forth Bridge was, as
shown in the table above, the 545' modified bowstring bridge built over the Ohio River
at Cincinnati by L . F. G. Bouscaren in 1888, Fig 5. It had a height of over 85' at the
center and and 60' at the end posts. All of these trusses were pin connected and were
constructed in remarkably short periods of time.
3 CANTILEVER BRIDGES
Cantilever bridges had been used throughout time in the Far East using wood in a corbel
fashion. Many engineers, including Baker and Fowler in England and Prof. W. P.
Trowbridge in the United States had known about the points of contraflexure in
continuous beams and had prepared designs to build cantilevered bridges. The first
cantilever, however, was by Heinrich Gerber who built, on falsework, a 124' span over
the Main River at Hassfurt, Germany in 1867. The first railroad bridge built to this
design was at Posen, Prussia in 1876 (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Posen Railway Bridge.
In 1876, C. Shaler Smith, Chief Engineer of the Baltimore Bridge Co.,was asked to bid
on a proposed bridge across the Kentucky River. The river gorge was over 1125'
across and up to 276' deep. The river also was prone to flash flooding with a record of a
40' rise in water level in a 24 hour period These two facts made the inexpensive
construction of a conventional truss built on falsework impracticable. John A. Roebling
had been faced with these same conditions 22 years earlier and had begun the
construction of a railroad suspension bridge with a suspended span length of 1236' at
this site. He had built his masonry towers and anchorages and had his wire delivered
when the Railroad Company ran out of funds to complete the project in 1858. After
visiting the site Smith decided to use the cantilever method, with no falsework to
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construct his bridge. He started each span by suspending it from Roebling's towers
until about half way out (196'-10") to the first permanent pier where he erected a
temporary wooden support. He did not suspend the ironwork from the top of
Roebling's tower with cables as had been done by others such as James Eads at St.
Louis and Eiffel at Garabit. Instead he tied, using eye bars, the end of the top chord
back horizontally and through the space between the bases of Roebling's towers. He
also inserted powerful screw jacks which pushed against the rock formation and the end
of the lower chord to adjust the elevation of the ends of the cantilevered truss. When he
reached the temporary tower, which was built off the cantilever, he inserted screw jacks
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Fig. 7. High Bridge.
at each of the four posts and jacked the truss up, thus relieving some of the tension in the
top chord and compression in the bottom chord. From that point he cantilevered the
truss out to the location of the permanent pier which had been built from the ground up
to save time (Fig. 7). The next phase had him build the truss as a cantilever out from the
pier to the center of the bridge. This procedure was completed first on one side of the
bridge and then on the other side until they met in the middle. The mismatch in the
middle of the bridge ranged between 2" and 5". These gaps were closed by moving the
permanent iron towers which were on rollers at the foundation level and jacking while
waiting for the right temperature.
The top chord was a continuous riveted member made up of plates and angles
except for pins at the planned points of suspension of the shore spans. The bottom
chord and verticals were also built up members, the diagonals being eye bars (Fig. 8).
After completing the structure he cut the temporary rivets which held together a tendon
joint which had been placed in the lower chords at the point of contraflexure about 75'
landward from each permanent pier. This was done to convert the continuous truss,
which would see stresses resulting from the changes in pier height due to temperature
changes, to a three span bridge with the middle span being 525' long and the two side
spans being 300' long. The spans of this bridge as originally built were 375', 375' and
375' or well within simple truss capability i f falsework could have been placed.
Perhaps the most noteworthy achievement of this bridge was that the superstructure was
started on October 16,1876 and was completed on February 20,1877 an elapsed time of
four (4) months and four (4) days. The parts which were fabricated by The Edgemoor
Iron Works went together,as was reported by the Railroad Gazette, "like a Springfield
Rifle."
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Fig. 8. High Bridge.
The cantilever method in the United States from that time forward was based in part
upon the experience gained on this bridge. It is interesting to note that Smith used a
Whipple Double Intersection Truss pattern for his bridge. He went on to design and
build many cantilevered bridges such as the Lachine Bridge shown in Fig. 9, over the
St. Lawrence River below Montreal in 1886. This time, however, he built the truss as a
cantilever, again without falsework, and then riveted the parts together thus making it a
continuous truss, or just the opposite sequence to his High Bridge. Span lengths on this
bridge were 408' and the trusses were again double intersection. The curved upper and
lower chords were designed to smoothtinetransition from a deck to a through truss
which many observers thought was unsightly. The Railroad Gazette of May 28,1886
stated, "Whether giving to the through spans the form of a bastard arch which is not an
arch is any real remedy may plausibly be disputed, but we are inclined to think that the
design shown will be generally considered a more pleasing, or rather less ugly, solution
of the problem than the ordinary form, and so, on this ground alone, worthy of use in
such locations."
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Fig. 9. Lachine Rapids Bridge.
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Charles C. Schneider was the next American to build a major cantilevered bridge,
this one at Niagara Falls, New York. Schneider was educated at the Royal School of
Technology in Chemnitz, Saxony. He came to the United States in 1876, the same year
that Smith started his "High Bridge", and worked under Octave Chanute and with
George Morison on his Missouri River bridges. This bridge was erected by building the
anchor spans on falsework and the two piers from the falsework platform (Fig. 10). He
then built each span outward from the piers to the middle of the Niagara River over 210'
above the rapids. The bridge as completed had anchor spans of 195.2', cantilever spans
of 175' and a suspended span of 120'. Schneider stated that he did not like to use the
double intersection pattern but he did so in this case to give his long verticals some
lateral support. This bridge was built just up the river from Roebling's suspension
bridge which he had completed in 1855 with a span of 820' for railroad and carriage
traffic (Fig. 11).
Fig. 10. Falsework and Cantilever Niagara Bridge.
The time of construction for the superstructure of Schneider's bridge was from April
15,1883 to December 20, 1883 or 8 months 5 days.
Fig. 11. Niagara Bridge - Roebling's 1855 Suspension Bridge in Background.
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Some would say that it was Schneider that introduced the modern cantilever bridge
to the United States as he used the concept of anchor spans, cantilever spans and a
suspended span. Smith's High Bridge, as noted, was originally built as a continuous
truss and then later modified to act like a cantilever.
The next bridge which took cantilever bridge construction to a new level in the
United States was the Poughkeepsie Bridge across the Hudson River in New York
State. The Poughkeepsie Eagle in its October 1889 souvenir edition commemorating the
opening of the bridge reported " Among the great bridges of the world the one just
erected at Poughkeepsie, and now thrown open for use, is not surpassed by any other
completed bridge in magnitude, boldness of design or beauty of shape and situation.
The great bridge over the Firth of Forth, in Scotland, will when finished, be larger, but
with this exception the Poughkeepsie bridge is without equal in the world". Maybe they
overstated their case a little but there is no doubt that the bridge was a major railroad
structure and was one which utilized the cantilever in new, i f not necessary, ways. The
river crossing portion of the bridge consisted of two spans of 548', one of 546' and two
of 525' for a total length of 2692'. In addition there were two shore anchor spans of
201' (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12. Poughkeepsie Railroad Bridge.
The Hudson River was and still is a main transportation artery and the original
charter issued to the bridge company stated that there could be no piers in the river which
would impede shipping. That restriction was impossible to meet, even with a
suspension bridge, as the longest railroad suspension bridge was Roebling's with a span
of 820' at Niagara. In spite of this charter restriction Horatio Allen as Chief Engineer in
1871 proposed a suspension bridge with a 1200' main span and two side spans of about
700'. Allen was a prominent civil engineer of the time and was the man that John Jervis
sent to England in the 1820's to study Stephenson's Stockton and Darlington Railway
and to buy two locomotives for use on the Delaware and Hudson Canal system. He was
also the first man to operate a steam locomotive, one of Stephenson's, on rails in the
United States. The company, however, knew that this bridge would not be possible
under the existing charter and maybe not even possible from a technical standpoint.
Captain James Eads who was in the process of building his famous steel arch railroad
bridge with three 500'+ spans over the Mississippi at St. Louis, Missouri suggested that
an attempt be made to revise the charter permitting four piers in the river so that a truss
bridge with spans of approximately 500' could be built.
After a long legislative battle the charter was amended in May of 1872 permitting
the four river piers with a minimum navigable width of 500' between them. The new
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Chief Engineer was to be J. H. Linville who, as noted previously, was one of the
preeminent iron truss builders in the world. After a slow start the company, in the
financial panic of 1873, lost funding and work stopped. After another false start with
the American Bridge Company the Union Bridge Company, which had been formed as a
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sort of "union" by some of the leading engineers of the day, took over the design and
construction of the bridge. Men such as Thomas C. Clark, Charles Kellog, Charles
MacDonald, George S. Field, and Charles Maurice were members of this "Union" of
engineers. MacDonald was effectively partner in charge of the design of the bridge and
determined that the structure would not be a series of simple trusses all built on
falsework in the river. He built instead two simple spans on falsework in the river, two
shore arms on falsework, and three river spans built on the cantilever method as shown
in Fig. 13. Serious foundation work was begun in December of 1886 and
Fig. 13. Poughkeepsie Bridge Falsework and Cantilevers.
completed in May of 1887. The falseworks in themselves were major structures resting
on 130' long wood piles and rising 130' above the water level to support the steel
trusses. Pomeroy P. Dickinson became Chief Engineer during the construction of the
superstructure. One of these trusses, with a 525' span, was the longest truss built of
steel in the world at the time. It was started on June 19,1888 and finished on July 13,
1888 or in a total of 24 calendar days. The cantilever arms, both from the shore spans
and off the connecting spans were 160' and were built in an identical fashion to those at
Niagara described above. That should come as no surprise as MacDonald was one of
the consultants on that project. The suspended spans were 212' and were cantilevered
out from the cantilever spans.
It may be of interest to many of the readers of this paper from England to know that
all of the steel used in the construction of this bridge was made in their country. It turns
out that all the American steel mills were operating at capacity and couldn't provide the
amounts required. A l l of the English mills were also at capacity. Thanks, however, to
the efforts of Lord Randolph Churchill who had attacked the construction bureau of the
British Navy resulting in a slow down of steel ship construction, the English mills had
steel to sell to the United States. The steel was sold to George S. Field, brother of
Cyrus Field who was well known in England due to his work on the Atlantic Cable.
The steel was fabricated in the yards of the Union Bridge Company in Athens,
Pennsylvania and Buffalo, New York. The top and bottom chords and verticals were all
built up of riveted plate stock. The tension members were eyebars and in accordance
with American practice at the time, all connections were pinned.
The approach spans would be considered major structures in their own right i f they
didn't have to compete with the main span. On the East shore of the Hudson there were
24 spans with lengths of up to 175' and on steel piers up to 200' in height. On the
western shore there were two trusses of 145', seven of 60' and one of 53'. The total
length of bridge was therefore 6767'. This is in comparison to the 8295' total length of
the mighty Forth bridge.
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4 Conclusion
In conclusion, American bridge building in the first 90 years of the 19th century
relied on the truss, first in wood and later in cast and wrought iron and by the 1880's on
steel. The preferred erection method was to use a system which pinned the members
together and massed the material in a few members. These assumptions and techniques
made it possible for American engineers using the methods developed by Squire
Whipple to accurately determine loads in members and to design them accordingly. In
England the scarcity of wood had precluded them from building wood trusses such as
developed in the United States. The iron arch, the inverted arch and wrought iron tubular
structures were the primary bridge types. Trusses when built were of the lattice type
with a disperse pattern of diagonals and after some debate Warren trusses were also
built. There was an almost complete reliance on riveting with few pinned structures
being designed or built. The difference in English and American bridge building was
summed up quite well by Benjamin Baker, M. Inst. C. E., in his discussion of the
Niagara Cantilever when he said:
The execution of the works of the Niagara Bridge in so short a time was a feat of
which the engineers and contractors of any country in the world might well be
proud. Probably in this as in almost every other case, the experience gained would
suggest certain modifications in the details of construction. As it stands, however,
the bridge is a very interesting example of the adaptability of essentially American
details of construction to a novel type of bridge. At the Forth Bridge, owing to the
magnitude of the parts, the details in many respects present a greater analogy to the
building of an Atlantic steamship than to that of an American Bridge.
It has been said that the the English and Americans are one people separated only by
a common language. Using this analogy 19th century bridge engineers in America and
England were one people separated only by their pins and rivets.
5 References
Cooper, Theodore (July 1889) American Railroad Bridges, in Transactions ASCE,
Vol. X X I , pp. 574 - .
Morison, G.S., North , Edward P., Bogart, John (Nov. 1878) American Engineering,
in Transactions ASCE, Vol. VII, pp. 321 - .
O'Rourke, John F. (June 1888) The Construction of the Poughkeepsee Bridge, in
Transactions ASCE, Vol. XVIH, pp. 199 - 215, plus plates.
Schneider, Charles C. (Nov. 1885) The Cantilever Bridge at Niagara Falls, in
Transactions ASCE, Vol XIV, pp. 499 - 539, plus plates.
Whipple, Squire (1847) A work on Bridge Building. H. H. Curtis, Utica,
New York.
, The Kentucky River Bridge (Sept. 21,1877) Railroad
Gazette, 428-429.
, (Aug. 8,1890) The Queen City of the West,
Engineering, 149-150.
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PART TWO
RECENT
STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
PROJECTS IN
SCOTLAND
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R A I L W A Y ENGINEERING IN SCOTLAND
TODAY
W.D.F. GRANT
Area C i v i l Engineer (Edinburgh) ScotRail, Edinburgh, Scotland, U K
Abstract
T h i s paper d e s c r i b e s some of the Mechanisation of Track Maintenance
and R e l a y i n g methods being used i n S c o t l a n d (and indeed throughout
much of B r i t i s h R a i l ) to enable s t r i n g e n t B u s i n e s s Goals to be met.
I t a l s o d e s c r i b e s Paved Track f o r Tunnels, and the work done on
B r i d g e s p r i o r to E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n .
Keywords: Mechanisation, Track, B u s i n e s s Goals, Paved Track,
Electrification.
1 Introduction
The C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g Department as one of the " F u n c t i o n a l "

departments i s by the nature of our work the b i g g e s t spender i n
normal maintenance and renewal.
We a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the maintenance, r e p a i r and renewal of
t r a c k , (commonly known to us as the "Permanent Way") and s t r u c t u r e s ,
to the standards r e q u i r e d to support the B u s i n e s s g o a l s , and i n a
s a f e and c o s t e f f e c t i v e manner. The l a s t p a r t of t h i s statement
i . e . the " c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s " i s the t a s k to which we have had to
t u r n p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to over the y e a r s and e s p e c i a l l y over the
l a s t 2 to 3 y e a r s .
I , as Area C i v i l Engineer, Edinburgh, look a f t e r approximately
one t h i r d of S c o t R a i l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , but the o v e r a l l s i z e of the
t a s k i n S c o t l a n d i s r e p r e s e n t e d roughly by the f o l l o w i n g
2660 Track m i l e s of Permanent Way

9400 B r i d g e s i n c l u d i n g F o r t h and Tay Railway Bridges
540 S t a t i o n s
27 M i l e s of Tunnel
The o v e r a l l budget f o r our Department f o r 1990/91 i s about

£70,000,000. A g r e a t d e a l of t h i s sum, something over one t h i r d ,
i s spent on labour c o s t s . There a r e c u r r e n t l y some 3,100 s t a f f
employed by the CE Dept i n S c o t l a n d . I n the s i x t i e s t h i s s t a f f
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numbered about 10,000. Mechanisation i s the obvious key to
r e d u c t i o n i n manpower and g r e a t s t r i d e s have taken p l a c e ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y on the Permanent Way f r o n t , to t h i s end.
Although I w i l l g i v e mention to some of the i n t e r e s t i n g Works
p r o j e c t s going on, I w i l l be c o n c e n t r a t i n g mostly on the Permanent
Way developments of r e c e n t y e a r s , and what might be f o r e s e e n f o r the
future.
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2 Permanent Way
2.1 Tamping and L i n i n g

Permanent Way, d e s p i t e i t s name, i s f a r from permanent - a l l of
i t s components:- t r a c k b a l l a s t , s l e e p e r s , f a s t e n i n g s and r a i l
a r e s u b j e c t to a x l e loads up to 25T and t r a i n s t r a v e l l i n g a t
speeds up to 125mph. Apart from wearing out, which of course
a l l of these components w i l l do i n time, f a i r l y constant
a t t e n t i o n i s needed to pack and l i n e the t r a c k so t h a t t r a i n s
and t h e i r passengers can r i d e s a f e l y and comfortably. The
packing of b a l l a s t i s termed tamping, and the packing or tamping
p r o c e s s has come through many phases i n 150 y e a r s or so of
railways. "Beater" packing was the f i r s t , u s i n g f l a t t e n e d out
pickheads to f o r c e the stone under the s l e e p e r s . Shovel
packing was the main method i n many p l a c e s where the t r a c k was
j a c k e d up to the r e q u i r e d height and then shovels used to ram
the b a l l a s t under the s l e e p e r s .
Measured shovel packing was commonly i n use when I was a
youngster i n the r a i l w a y s i n the 50's. Here, a more s c i e n t i f i c
approach was used.
The t r a c k was l e v e l l e d u s i n g s i g h t i n g boards and again j a c k e d
up to the r e q u i r e d l e v e l . The r e q u i s i t e number of cans of
g r a n i t e c h i p s were then i n s e r t e d under the s l e e p e r s by s h o v e l .
T h i s gave a longer l a s t i n g and q u i t e a c c u r a t e method of packing.
When mechanisation came i n on BR i n the e a r l y 60's the f i r s t
"Matisa" tampers used a small gang of men to l i f t the t r a c k
ahead on j a c k s , and v i b r a t i n g t i n e s pushed the b a l l a s t back
under the s l e e p e r s . T h i s was r e q u i r e d as c o n c r e t e s l e e p e r s
were then coming i n to r e g u l a r use, and they were r e a l l y too
heavy f o r e f f e c t i v e packing by t r a d i t i o n a l manpower methods.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Kango g e n e r a t o r s and guns ( e l e c t r i c a l l y powered b e a t e r p i c k s i n

e s s e n c e ) were used as w e l l , p a r t i c u l a r l y on s w i t c h and c r o s s i n g
work, and a r e s t i l l used today.
As mechanised tampers progressed they became more
s o p h i s t i c a t e d . F i r s t u s i n g a t r o l l e y which ran ahead of the
machine connected w i t h t a u t w i r e s to the sensors of the machine
which j a c k e d the t r a c k up to the c o r r e c t height before tamping
the s l e e p e r s . L a t e r , e l e c t r o n i c and l a s e r methods were used and
the most s o p h i s t i c a t e d machine c u r r e n t l y i n use i s the P l a s s e r
09-32. T h i s machine can pack a t the r a t e of 1100m/hr and i s
computer c o n t r o l l e d . A f e a t u r e of i t i s t h a t the tamper i t s e l f
does not stop a t each s l e e p e r or p a i r o& s l e e p e r s to tamp. The
machine moves continuously and the tamping bank moves s e p a r a t e l y
on a frame.
A l l of the tamping machines used over the l a s t twenty y e a r s
or so have a l s o had the a b i l i t y of l i n i n g the t r a c k . This i s
u s u a l l y done on a separate operation from tamping. Again
computer c o n t r o l l e d methods a r e a v a i l a b l e to g i v e the very
a c c u r a t e alignment r e q u i r e d f o r high speed running.
ATA - Automatic Track Alignment

P r i n c i p a l l y f o r I n t e r c i t y routes a number of Plassermatic
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tampers have been f i t t e d w i t h equipment which can a l i g n t h e
track automatically. The method used i s a s f o l l o w s
a) Pre-measurement Survey
A pre-measurement survey of t h e r e q u i r e d s i t e i s c a r r i e d out by
the machine ( a t up t o 10mph). The v e r s i n e s of t h e curved t r a c k
a r e taken and t h e tops and bottoms of t r a n s i t i o n s noted ( a s
marked up on t h e t r a c k ) . Any r e s t r i c t e d c l e a r a n c e s t o
s t r u c t u r e s c a n a l s o be noted.
b) Design of new alignment
The d e s i g n of t h e new alignment i s then c a r r i e d out by t h e ATA
computer. There a r e two modes f o r t h i s :
i ) Under t h e c o n t r o l of t h e machine s u p e r v i s o r
I n t h i s mode t h e s l u e s a r e l i m i t e d t o 30mm and t h e p o s i t i o n s of
the t r a n s i t i o n s cannot be moved ( i e t h e requirements of BR
Handbook 11 a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y met).
i i ) Under t h e c o n t r o l of a u t h o r i s e d t e c h n i c a l s t a f f
I n t h i s mode t h e alignment scheme i s produced under t h e c o n t r o l
of t e c h n i c a l s t a f f . There i s no s l u e l i m i t and t h e t r a n s i t i o n
d e t a i l s c a n be amended. The t e c h n i c a l s t a f f a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e c u r v i n g r u l e s a r e obeyed.
c ) E x e c u t i o n of new alignment
The new alignment i s then executed by t h e tamper running back
through t h e s i t e . The ATA computer p a s s e s i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e
s l u e i n g equipment t o enable t h e tamper t o a c h i e v e t h e s l u e s
r e q u i r e d . Any adjustments r e q u i r e d t o make allowance f o r t h e
c o r r e c t i o n s n e c e s s a r y on t r a n s i t i o n s a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y a p p l i e d .
d) Post Measurement Survey
I n order t o a s s i s t t h e s u p e r v i s o r / t e c h n i c a l s t a f f i n checking
t h a t t h e d e s i g n alignment has been achieved, a post measurement
run c a n be c a r r i e d out t o r e s u r v e y t h e s i t e . The new v e r s i n e s
a r e compared w i t h t h e d e s i g n v a l u e s and any l o c a t i o n s where t h e
requirements of Handbook 11 a r e not met a r e flagged up, but t h e
d e c i s i o n a s t o what a c t i o n i s r e q u i r e d i s l e f t w i t h t h e person
i n charge.
R e g r e t f u l l y , d e s p i t e t h e e x c e l l e n t j o b t h e s e tampers make of
p r o v i d i n g a good top and l i n e , they have f a u l t s . These a r e
twofold -
a) Each time t h e t i n e s pack stone under t h e s l e e p e r they c r u s h

p a r t of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t o n e s . I t i s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t some 9T
of stone p e r m i l e i s converted t o m a t e r i a l too s m a l l t o be of
use f o r tamping.
b) The packing produces a "pyramid" of t i g h t l y packed stone
under each s e a t i n g . A f t e r some 3 weeks t o 12 weeks have passed
i t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e s l e e p e r has gone back t o i t s o r i g i n a l
level.
Thus because of a ) above and n a t u r a l degradation of t h e stone

by t h e heavy l o a d i n g of t r a i n s , t h e b a l l a s t becomes contaminated
by d i r t , stone and cementacious d u s t . T h i s r e s u l t s i n water
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r e t e n t i o n and a v i c i o u s c i r c l e of f u r t h e r b a l l a s t degradation,
i t i s n e c e s s a r y to b a l l a s t c l e a n the t r a c k every 7/12 y e a r s to
r e p l a c e d i r t y b a l l a s t w i t h c l e a n stone.
Because of both a) and b) we have been experimenting w i t h a
mechanised form of the former measured shovel packing procedure.
Hand h e l d Stoneblowers have now been i n use f o r about 3 y e a r s
w i t h some e x c e l l e n t r e s u l t s . The t r a c k i s jacked up to the
r e q u i r e d height u s i n g " a i r - b a g " j a c k s which a r e o b s t r u c t i o n l e s s
to t r a i n s . A p o r t a b l e compressor s u p p l i e s a i r to i n j e c t the
r e q u i r e d amount of c h i p s under the r a i l s e a t i n g a r e a .
I c o n s i d e r t h a t t r a c k so t r e a t e d w i l l l a s t up to 3 times as
long as w i t h conventional tamping. However the length of t r a c k
to be packed cannot p o s s i b l y a l l be tamped i n t h i s manner and
the hand h e l d stoneblowers tend to be used i n t r o u b l e a r e a s
where conventional machine tamping does not l a s t long - u s u a l l y
i n a r e a s a w a i t i n g b a l l a s t c l e a n i n g , or i n pockets of poor
formation.
BR Research Department have been developing, along w i t h
Messrs P l a s s e r and Theurer of A u s t r i a , a Stoneblowing machine
which, i f s u c c e s s f u l , w i l l r e v o l u t i o n i s e tamping and g i v e longer
lasting results. My own view i s t h a t present conventional
tampers w i l l s t i l l have a p l a c e f o r many years to come, but the
p r o s p e c t of Stoneblowers i s e x c i t i n g .
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2.2 Relaying
One Permanent Way problem which has long been recognised i s
"Track Memory". D e s p i t e b a l l a s t - c l e a n i n g or even deep
e x c a v a t i o n of o l d b a l l a s t by t r a x c a v a t o r the l o c a t i o n s of
p r e v i o u s j o i n t s seem to be remembered when new b a l l a s t and new
track i s i n s t a l l e d . Once the t r a c k has been i n and run over
f o r some months a s l i g h t d e f l e c t i o n can be found where o l d
j o i n t s once e x i s t e d . There a r e many l o c a t i o n s where t h i s
phenomena e x i s t s and these l e a d to i n c r e a s e d maintenance c o s t s
and u l t i m a t e l y e a r l i e r b a l l a s t c l e a n i n g or r e l a y i n g than should
be n e c e s s a r y .
I n a d d i t i o n we tend to b u i l d i n a memory by u s i n g " p l a n t " or
" s e r v i c e " r a i l s when r e l a y i n g t r a c k by the panel method ( t h i s i s
when the o l d long welded r a i l i s r e p l a c e d by 60' s e r v i c e a b l e
r a i l s p r i o r to r e l a y i n g so t h a t the Track R e l a y i n g machines can
remove p a n e l s and r e p l a c e w i t h new ones of the same length - the
LWR i s then e i t h e r r e p l a c e d or renewed). T r a f f i c running over
these s e r v i c e r a i l s whose j o i n t s were o f t e n mismatched was
enough to induce a memory to even newly b a l l a s t cleaned t r a c k .
Our modern and more e f f e c t i v e method i s c a l l e d "Sleeper beam
r e l a y i n g " and i s c a r r i e d out i n the f o l l o w i n g s t a g e s .
1) The t r a c k i s b a l l a s t cleaned.
2) The long welded r a i l i s removed from i t s housing and s l u e d
to the c e s s and s i x foot s i d e to form a 10ft gauge t r a c k
a f t e r being a l i g n e d and packed to reasonable l i m i t s .
3) Twin g a n t r i e s run on the spread r a i l s having been offloaded
from wagons u s i n g t h e i r own t u r n t a b l e . These g a n t r i e s
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F i g . 1 . P l a c i n g of S l e e p e r s by Sleeper Beam
c a r r y a s p e c i a l l y designed beam c a r r y i n g c h a i n s and hooks.

They l i f t out the o l d s l e e p e r s which a r e hooked to the beam
and then p l a c e d i n empty wagons.
4) One of two machines s p e c i a l l y designed f o r the purpose i s
o f f - l o a d e d , a g a i n u s i n g the gantry and p l a c e d on the
b a l l a s t e d formation. The machine e i t h e r B r u f f or Z-cat
p r o f i l e s the b a l l a s t , and v i b r a t e s i t to l e a v e a prepared
s u r f a c e on which to l a y the new s l e e p e r s .
The machines can use e i t h e r "V" or "beacon" l a s e r to
c o n t r o l the p r o f i l e .
5) The beam then p i c k s up s u f f i c i e n t new s l e e p e r s , u s u a l l y 26 or
28, but sometimes 30, from the s l e e p e r c a r r y i n g wagons and
o f f l o a d s them i n two s t a g e s , f i r s t dropping o f f every second
s l e e p e r , which g i v e s e x a c t l y the c o r r e c t spacing, then the
remainder e q u i v a l e n t i n t o t a l to the number r e q u i r e d f o r a
6 0 f t t r a c k length. ( F i g . 1 )
6) Using a p a i r of r a i l t h r e a d e r s , the long r a i l s a r e then
manoeuvered i n t o p l a c e on the c o n c r e t e s l e e p e r s . The r a i l
i s then c l i p p e d up.
7) Packing by tamper then f i n a l i s e s the t r a c k height and the
t r a c k i s f i n e l i n e d , and can u s u a l l y be reopened to t r a f f i c
a t a minimum of 50mph, and o f t e n a t higher speeds.
The i n c r e a s i n g d e s i r e of passengers to t r a v e l a t weekends

means p r e s s u r e on us to g i v e r e l a y e d and r e b a l l a s t e d t r a c k back
a t much h i g h e r speeds than we used to only a year or so ago.
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Then i t was u s u a l l y a t 40mph f o r passenger t r a f f i c . Sleeper
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beam and good compaction gave us u s e f u l i n c r e a s e s , but f o r
I n t e r c i t y t r a i n s slowing down to even 50mph from 125mph c o s t s time
and money. ( I t i s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t a high speed t r a i n b r a k i n g to
20mph from 125mph and a c c e l e r a t i n g back up c o s t s £25 i n wear on
brake shoes and d i e s e l f u e l c o s t s . T h i s i n a d d i t i o n to l o s t time
c o s t s , c a l c u l a t e d a t about £15/minute).
The dynamic t r a c k s t a b i l i s e r has been developed to compact the
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b a l l a s t i n a few p a s s e s e q u i v a l e n t to the passage of 100,000 tonnes
of t r a f f i c . T h i s machine, (and I have one to cope w i t h r e l a y i n g
on E.Coast and W.Coast main l i n e s ) can produce a v i b r a t i o n on the
b a l l a s t r a n g i n g from 6 c y c l e s / s e c to 45 c y c l e s / s e c . One danger i s
to a r c h underbridges and we have s t r i c t r u l e s to avoid damaging
these.
We have now g i v e n back s e c t i o n s of renewed t r a c k on Sunday
a f t e r n o o n a t l i n e speed (up to 125mph) or a t l e a s t to 80mph on many
o c c a s i o n s , u s i n g t h i s modern technology coupled to the s l e e p e r beam
r e l a y i n g method.
PAL/PUM
T h i s equipment, produced by Geismar of France, i s now being used
f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e l y f o r c e r t a i n types of work. There i s a great
advantage when s w i t c h and c r o s s i n g work (S&C), or t r a c k i n a
p l a t f o r m , r e q u i r e s formation renewal, to be a b l e to l i f t out the
whole S&C u n i t or, say, 800 or more metres of c o n c r e t e s l e e p e r e d
t r a c k i n one go.
PAL and/or PUM allow t h i s to be done. Each s e l f contained u n i t
c o n s i s t s b a s i c a l l y of a p o r t a l frame, the ' l e g s ' of the p o r t a l
being v e r t i c a l h y d r a u l i c j a c k s . The h o r i z o n t a l member i s f i t t e d
w i t h a h y d r a u l i c a l l y operated screw thread which can s l u e two
clamps f i t t e d to g r i p the r a i l head.
PAL i s capable of l i f t i n g 7 tonnes/unit and the l a r g e r PUM 9
tonnes/unit.
To move t r a c k to the s i d e , the r e q u i r e d number of u n i t s a r e
i n s t a l l e d over the t r a c k to g i v e the clamps t h e i r maximum a v a i l a b l e
travel. The t r a c k i s then l i f t e d to the r e q u i r e d height (a l i f t
of 1.2m can be obtained) and s l u e d to the f u l l extent of t r a v e l .
The t r a c k i s then s e t down and the beams r e p o s i t i o n e d before
r e p e a t i n g the p r o c e s s . Thus the S&C u n i t or p l a i n l i n e can be
'walked' to the r e q u i r e d d i s t a n c e before excavation i s c a r r i e d
out. The p r o c e s s i s r e v e r s e d to put the t r a c k back i n p l a c e .
For l o n g i t u d i n a l movement, (say to remove a length of continuous
welded t r a c k from a platform) two other p i e c e s of equipment a r e
required. These a r e l i g h t w e i g h t , but heavy duty t r o l l i e s w i t h
s m a l l diameter wheels, and a p a i r of channel s e c t i o n r a i l s .
Without going i n t o g r e a t d e t a i l , the t r a c k to be recovered i s
r a i s e d by PAL, the channel r a i l s p u l l e d under i t and r e s t i n g on the
formation. The t r o l l i e s a r e pushed along the channel r a i l s under
the t r a c k and the t r a c k i s lowered on to the t r o l l i e s . The whole
s e c t i o n of t r a c k i s then towed out u s i n g s p e c i a l ramps to p l a c e i t
on top of the a d j o i n i n g t r a c k . The p r o c e s s i s r e v e r s e d to r e p l a c e
the t r a c k when d r o t t i n g has been completed.
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Each u n i t can be b u i l t up by experienced men i n 30 minutes,
and i s operated from a h y d r a u l i c power pack w i t h c e n t r a l
control.
The b e n e f i t s of t h i s type of equipment a r e t h a t t r a c k can be
moved without the need f o r overhead e l e c t r i f i e d l i n e s to be
isolated. Long lengths of t r a c k can be removed and r e p l a c e d
without c u t t i n g the r a i l i n t o s h o r t lengths and new S&C u n i t s
can be b u i l t up and the r a i l s welded before i n s t a l l a t i o n ,
a v o i d i n g the need to break up the u n i t s f o r handling w i t h
c o n v e n t i o n a l craneage. These advantages have been used t o
reduce the number of Sundays r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y out work, thus
r e d u c i n g c o s t s and improving q u a l i t y .
The equipment has s u c c e s s f u l y been used f o r i n s t a l l i n g new
S&C a t Dunbar, r e b a l l a s t i n g S&C on the West Coast Main L i n e , and
r e b a l l a s t i n g p l a i n l i n e throughout the Edinburgh Area. The PAL
and PUM have become so popular throughout BR t h a t Geismar a r e
doubling the number of u n i t s a v a i l a b l e i n the UK and reducing
h i r e c o s t s , r e f l e c t i n g the i n c r e a s e d useage.
One of the most v e r s a t i l e t o o l s we have t o a s s i s t i n maintenance
work i s the TRAMM. T h i s i s b a s i c a l l y a powered f l a t wagon
c a r r y i n g a 1 / T c a p a c i t y crane which can c a r r y and load o r
1
2
o f f l o a d 6 0 f t r a i l s , c o n c r e t e s l e e p e r s and many of the other

components and t o o l s we need. They can t r a v e l a t 40 mph and
t h e r e f o r e run i n between passenger t r a i n s . I n an emergency
such a s a broken weld o r i n s u l a t e d j o i n t the n e c e s s a r y m a t e r i a l
can be got q u i c k l y t o the s i t e .
The TRAMM i s f i t t e d w i t h b a l l a s t ploughs which means t h a t
a f t e r dropping b a l l a s t from a hopper t r a i n i t can be spread
ready f o r tamping. Various other options such a s a s m a l l grab
bucket and snowplough can be f i t t e d .
Numerous ingenious p i e c e s of s m a l l p l a n t too a r e a v a i l a b l e ,
mostly from p r i v a t e r a i l w a y s u p p l i e r s , which h e l p to make our
task easier. I n my young days, the f i r s t p e t r o l d r i v e n r a i l
saws took 10/15 minutes t o c u t a r a i l (The o l d hand saw which I
have seen used took an h o u r ) . We now get through a r a i l i n 7
minutes w i t h a much more a c c u r a t e c u t u s i n g d i s c c u t t e r s .
3 Works Matters
3.1 Paved Track

I n c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t may be economic to depart from
conventional b a l l a s t e d track i n tunnels. When an
e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n scheme i s proposed, the a d d i t i o n a l c l e a r a n c e
r e q u i r e d f o r the overhead equipment may w e l l r e q u i r e more tunnel
headroom. I n some t u n n e l s t h i s may s a f e l y be obtained by
lowering the t r a c k , but i n o t h e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y those without
i n v e r t s and w i t h s i d e w a l l s whose f o o t i n g i s shallow, some other
method must be found.
S e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t methods have been t r i e d e.g. Ladder t r a c k
named from the shape of the p r e c a s t u n i t s each 9.1m long which
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F i g , 2 . Paving Machine
have been l a i d on an a s p h a l t or c o n c r e t e base (Queen St tunnel

approaching Glasgow i s l a i d w i t h t h i s t y p e ) .
The most common however i s s l i p - f o r m paving. Haymarket
South t u n n e l i n Edinburgh has r e c e n t l y been l a i d w i t h t h i s type
of t r a c k , p r i o r to e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n between Edinburgh and
Carstairs. A potted d e s c r i p t i o n i s as f o l l o w s -
The e x i s t i n g t r a c k has to be removed, f i r s t the continuous
welded r a i l i s dragged out i n s e c t i o n s , then the c o n c r e t e
s l e e p e r s a r e p i c k e d up and removed by use of s e r v i c e r a i l s .
These can of course be re-used elsewhere. Any remedial work
and s t r e n g t h e n i n g to the f o o t i n g s or tunnel w a l l s i s c a r r i e d out
first. The earthmoving equipment then moves i n and the s p o i l
i s moved out by l o r r y . Any rock which i s too high f o r the
f u t u r e base i s then removed by Montabert or pneumatic d r i l l .
Once the c o r r e c t l e v e l i s obtained, a s t a r t i s made to the sub
base. T h i s i s composed e i t h e r of Type 1 or l e a n mix c o n c r e t e .
The base s l a b i s then l a i d to a +/- 10mm t o l e r a n c e .
The next s t e p i s to p u l l back the long welded r a i l s , which
are s e t to a gauge of 2.8m and c a r e f u l l y l i n e d and l e v e l l e d .
On t h e s e r a i l s the paving machine h i r e d from (MacGregors) i s s e t
up. T h i s machine l a y s the top or r a i l s l a b to a f i n e
t o l e r a n c e . ( F i g . 2 ) . The s l a b i s r e i n f o r c e d w i t h high y i e l d
weldable s t e e l .
Holes a r e then d r i l l e d f o r the Pandrol r a i l f a s t e n i n g s which
are s e t i n the s l a b w i t h an epoxy r e s i n . When s e t the r a i l s
are then l i f t e d back and p l a c e d on continuous rubber padding
before being f i x e d down w i t h Pandrol c l i p s .
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Water from the tunnel i s normally d e a l t w i t h by means of
channel d r a i n s i n the s i x foot and c e s s .
T r a n s i t i o n beams a r e normally i n s t a l l e d a t each end. These
a l l o w , on a s l o p i n g stone c h i p f i l l e d c o n c r e t e t r a y , f o r the
t r a n s i t i o n from hard ( c o n c r e t e s l a b ) to s o f t (normally)
ballasted track.
3.2 E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n Work
The b i g g e s t work load l i k e l y f o r the C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g Dept
before any l i n e can be s u c c e s s f u l l y e l e c t r i f i e d i s the
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of bridge s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s . The s t r u c t u r e gauge
used i n r a i l w a y bridge c o n s t r u c t i o n i n the mid to l a t e 1800's i s
g e n e r a l l y too low to a l l o w s a f e i n s t a l l a t i o n of the 25KVA system
which i s used on BR f o r a l l high speed l i n e e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n .
Although i n some c a s e s lowering the t r a c k may be the most
economic course, f o r the m a j o r i t y of masonry a r c h b r i d g e s
c r o s s i n g over the r a i l w a y the c l e a r a n c e has been i n c r e a s e d by
r e c o n s t r u c t i n g the b r i d g e . ( F i g . 3 ) . The technique f o r t h i s i s
w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d and i n v o l v e s c o n s t r u c t i o n of an a d j a c e n t
temporary c r o s s i n g , u s u a l l y during one overnight p o s s e s s i o n ;
d i v e r s i o n of u t i l i t i e s and subequent demolition of the masonry
a r c h d u r i n g a second overnight p e r i o d . Remaining abutments a r e
then c l e a n e d o f f , an i n s i t u s p r i n g e r beam i s c a s t and p r e c a s t
a r c h beams l i f t e d i n t o p l a c e . Waterproofing, b a c k f i l l i n g ,
s u r f a c i n g and the c o n s t r u c t i o n of r e i n f o r c e d s p a n d r e l s and
p a r a p e t s then f o l l o w w i t h the minimum of i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h r a i l
t r a f f i c below.
With s t e e l g i r d e r overbridges however i t i s normal, so long
as road l e v e l s and g r a d i e n t s can be accommodated, to r a i s e the
e x i s t i n g bridge by j a c k i n g and r a i s i n g the abutments by u s i n g
pre-cast concrete blocks.
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F i g . 4 . Bathgate S t a t i o n
When p r a c t i c a b l e t h e s i m p l e s t method of i n c r e a s i n g c l e a r a n c e s
i n t u n n e l s i n v o l v e s t h e s i n g l i n g and s l u e i n g of t h e r a i l w a y
t r a c k . T h i s technique has been used through the twin bore
C a l t o n Tunnels i n Edinburgh, where r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n of t r a c k
r e q u i r e s only one l i n e t o pass through each bore i n p l a c e of the
two f o r which each was o r i g i n a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d .
I n t h e l a s t 3 y e a r s we have r e c o n s t r u c t e d 35 overbridges
between Berwick and Edinburgh, and a f u r t h e r 16 w i l l have been
d e a l t w i t h on t h e E d i n b u r g h / C a r s t a i r s l i n e by the end of t h i s
f i n a n c i a l year.
C e r t a i n other work has t o be c a r r i e d out, even on bridges
which have s u f f i c i e n t headroom not t o r e q u i r e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
P a r a p e t s have t o be r a i s e d and s t e e p l e copes f i t t e d t o avoid any
chance of t h e p u b l i c coming i n c o n t a c t with t h e overhead
equipment.
3.3 New S t a t i o n s
I n c o - o p e r a t i o n w i t h Regional and D i s t r i c t C o u n c i l s , S c o t R a i l
has had c o n s i d e r a b l e s u c c e s s i n b u i l d i n g new s t a t i o n s i n a r e a s
where l a r g e housing e s t a t e s and schemes have changed peoples'
p a t t e r n of t r a v e l . Some of the designs have been done by the
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L o c a l A u t h o r i t i e s and others by BR.

Many of t h e s e s t a t i o n s have been h i g h l y s u c c e s s f u l e s p e c i a l l y
i n t h e E a s t of S c o t l a n d - South Gyle, Musselburgh and
L i v i n g s t o n , Uphall and Bathgate ( F i g . 4 ) on t h e re-opened
Bathgate L i n e .
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Most of t h e s t a t i o n s a r e of simple c o n s t r u c t i o n , c o n c r e t e
b l o c k p l a t f o r m w a l l s w i t h c o n c r e t e copes and a s p h a l t s u r f a c e ,
and simple w a i t i n g s h e l t e r s , many of which r e q u i r e vandal proof
g l a z i n g . Wherever p o s s i b l e the s t a t i o n s have been b u i l t beside
o v e r b r i d g e s thus doing away w i t h the need f o r footbridges and
s a v i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e expense. Ramped a c c e s s e s f o r the use of the
d i s a b l e d a r e provided.
3.4 Flood R i s k - Assessment of S t r u c t u r e s

F o l l o w i n g r e c e n t bridge f a i l u r e s a s a r e s u l t of f l o o d s , BRB
sought t h e a d v i c e of H y d r a u l i c Research L t d t o a s s e s s the
h y d r a u l i c a s p e c t s of b r i d g e s over water.
Regional and Area engineers were r e m i t t e d t o appoint s t a f f
dedicated to i d e n t i f y r i v e r bridges s u s c e p t i b l e to
flooding/scour. Assessments a r e being made of p o s s i b l e causes
of f a i l u r e based on bridge geometry and r i v e r and catchment
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u s i n g BR Handbook 47 'Assessment of the R i s k of
Scour'.
S i n c e the i n i t i a l C o n s u l t a n t s ' r e p o r t s i d e n t i f i e d bridges
l i a b l e t o r i s k , s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o n t r a c t s a r e proceeding t o
f i n d t h e foundation depths and c o n d i t i o n s of the bridges and
t h e i r ground b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y .
A system i s now i n o p e r a t i o n should a f l o o d warning be
r e c e i v e d from P o l i c e / R i v e r P u r i f c a t i o n Boards/Met O f f i c e , the
P u b l i c o r BR s t a f f t o monitor a l l bridges considered " a t
risk". These b r i d g e s a r e now a l l equipped w i t h water gauges
and w i l l be manned a t a l l appropriate times during f l o o d
c o n d i t i o n s w i t h s t a f f d i r e c t l y l i n k e d by radio-telephone t o the
a p p r o p r i a t e Area O f f i c e and t o the Railway Control O f f i c e .
E v a l u a t i o n i s a l s o underway on sonar, echo sounding,
u l t r a s o n i c s , r a d a r and telemetry equipment t o e s t a b l i s h r i v e r
bed depths, foundation depths and r i v e r behaviour to h e l p
minimise f a i l u r e through f l o o d i n g .
4 What f o r t h e F u t u r e ?
The s h o r t e r t h e p o s s e s s i o n time we r e q u i r e and the b e t t e r the

handback speed, the l e s s our passengers a r e inconvenienced.
T h i s l e a d s d i r e c t l y t o g r e a t e r revenue.
Our c u r r e n t r a t e of r e l a y i n g and b a l l a s t c l e a n i n g i s r e a l l y
v e r y slow - no more a t b e s t than 200m/hour f o r b a l l a s t c l e a n i n g
and l e s s than t h a t probably 100m/hour f o r r e l a y i n g even when
e v e r y t h i n g works p e r f e c t l y - and so a k i l o m e t r e of t r a c k takes a
minimum of 8 hours and more l i k e l y 12 hours n e c e s s i t a t i n g
weekend Saturday/Sunday p o s s e s s i o n s .
I f we can u s e s h o r t p o s s e s s i o n s on weeknights, say 5 hours, and
g i v e the t r a c k back near l i n e speed, we can be very much more
cost effective. Some C o n t i n e n t a l and many North American
r a i l w a y s have the equipment t o do t h i s and BR i s c u r r e n t l y
l o o k i n g a t investment i n such machinery -
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a) High Output B a l l a s t C l e a n e r s
These a r e machines capable of working a t r a t e s of up to
700m/hour, and B R s s p e c i f i c a t i o n would demand a minimum r a t e of
f
400m/hour. C u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e machines do not f i t i n to the

r e s t r i c t i v e BR l o a d i n g gauge and c o n s i d e r a b l e m o d i f i c a t i o n to
c u r r e n t d e s i g n i s r e q u i r e d . I t i s planned to have a prototype
i n o p e r a t i o n i n March 1991.
b) R e l a y i n g T r a i n s
The o r i g i n of t h i s technology i s now approximately 20 y e a r s o l d
and t h e r e a r e many R e l a y i n g T r a i n s i n use on d i f f e r e n t Railways
around the world. The equipment i s a c o l l e c t i o n of r e l a t i v e l y
simple t a s k s combined together i n t o a continuously moving
production l i n e . Again a r e d e s i g n to f i t our load gauge i s
necessary.
The sequence of operations f o r a R e l a y i n g T r a i n i s g e n e r a l l y
s i m i l a r - r e g a r d l e s s of the manufacturer or type -
move the r a i l s o u t s i d e the s l e e p e r ends

remove the o l d s l e e p e r s
grade the b a l l a s t bed
l a y the new s l e e p e r s
p l a c e the new r a i l s , or the o r i g i n a l r a i l s i f they a r e
to be re-used, w i t h i n the f a s t e n i n g s h o u l d e r s .
The o l d and new s l e e p e r s a r e t r a n s p o r t e d to and from the

r e l a y i n g machine i n l a y e r s by gantry cranes running on the
s l e e p e r wagons.
Peak work r a t e s of over 700 metres per hour and set-up times
of around 35 minutes have been observed and hence w i t h these
production r a t e s i t i s f e a s i b l e to work such equipment f o r only
a few hours a t a time because of the demand on m a t e r i a l s supply.
The machines a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y l a r g e and expensive and
can t h e r e f o r e be c o n s i d e r e d only where l a r g e and long term
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workloads e x i s t . S i m i l a r l y , the f a c i l i t y f o r d a i l y
p o s s e s s i o n s i s a l s o r e q u i r e d to a c h i e v e proper u t i l i s a t i o n .
The f u l l package envisaged on BR i n c l u d e s -
4 High Output B a l l a s t C l e a n e r s
S i n g l e l i n e S p o i l Handling System
2 Relaying Trains
1 Mobile F l a s h b u t t Welder
The investment o u t l a y i s between £23m and £27m but should

l e a d to annual c o s t r e d u c t i o n of £15m to £25m. T h i s equipment,
c a r e f u l l y programmed to move around the whole of BR I n t e r c i t y
l i n e s , should be capable of c a r r y i n g out the m a j o r i t y of the
annual programme of renewal work on these l i n e s .
There a r e e x c i t i n g times ahead f o r the C i v i l Engineering
Department i n B r i t i s h R a i l .
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THE ST ENOCH CENTRE, GLASGOW
D.S. B L A C K W O O D
Ove A r u p and Partners Scotland, South Queensferry, West Lothian,
Scotland, U K
Abstract
The paper d e s c r i b e s t h e s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e d e s i g n
and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e St Enoch C e n t r e , one o f t h e l a r g e s t and most
e x c i t i n g c i t y c e n t r e commercial p r o j e c t s ever u n d e r t a k e n i n S c o t l a n d .
A f e a t u r e o f t h e p r o j e c t i s t h e major s t e e l r o o f s t r u c t u r e w h i c h
s u p p o r t s a g l a z e d envelope o f some 30,000m , b e l i e v e d t o be t h e
2
l a r g e s t o f i t s k i n d i n Europe. The a r c h i t e c t u r a l concept w h i c h l e d

t o t h i s u n i q u e d e s i g n i s a l s o d e s c r i b e d as a r e t h e i n t e r n a l r e i n f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s , t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e and f o u n d a t i o n s .
Keywords: S t e e l w o r k , P i l i n g , F a s t Track.
1 Introduction
The St Enoch C e n t r e i n Glasgow i s a major c i t y c e n t r e commercial

development. I t i s one o f t h e l a r g e s t and most u n u s u a l e v e r under-
t a k e n i n S c o t l a n d b u t was completed on t i m e t o a v e r y s h o r t programme.
The development p r e s e n t e d many s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g c h a l l e n g e s .
These i n c l u d e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s i n v a r i a b l e ground
c o n d i t i o n s and t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e r o o f s t e e l w o r k , an
i m p o r t a n t v i s u a l element i n t h e completed b u i l d i n g .
L o c a t e d i n t h e h e a r t o f t h e c i t y , n e x t t o t h e main s h o p p i n g a r e a ,
t h e s i t e was t h a t o f a f o r m e r r a i l w a y t e r m i n u s and h o t e l c l o s e d down
i n t h e l a t e 1960s. T h e i r d e m o l i t i o n c r e a t e d a l a r g e gap s i t e o f some
6ha and a m a j o r u r b a n r e g e n e r a t i o n t a s k , w h i c h was n o t t a c k l e d u n t i l
t h e S c o t t i s h Development Agency t o o k t h e i n i t i a t i v e , i n t h e mid-1970s,
t o promote t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e developments f o r t h e s i t e .
Over t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r s many schemes were i n v e s t i g a t e d , b u t
f i n a l l y t h e c o n c e p t o f a 75,000m commercial development i n c o r p o r a t i n g
2
m u l t i - s t o r e y p a r k i n g f o r 750 c a r s emerged, and t h i s was t r a n s f e r r e d i n

1984 t o t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r i n t h e f o r m o f t h e Church Commissioners f o r
England and Sears H o l d i n g s p i c , who became d e v e l o p e r s f o r t h e scheme.
2 Concept
I n a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g economic commercial space, a key f a c t o r i n

t h e a r c h i t e c t ' s c o n c e p t p r e p a r e d f o r t h e SDA was t h a t t h e new d e v e l o p -
ment s h o u l d make a s t r o n g a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t a t e m e n t w h i c h would r e s u l t
91
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F i g . 1 . A e r i a l v i e w o f completed b u i l d i n g .
i n a c i v i c b u i l d i n g worthy of i t s important l o c a t i o n . Another p r i m e

f a c t o r was t h e d e s i r e t o ensure a l i g h t and a i r y i n t e r i o r . This l e d
t o t h e b a s i c c o n c e p t f o r t h e St Enoch C e n t r e as a l a r g e , s i m p l e ,
g l a z e d e n c l o s u r e v i r t u a l l y independent f r o m t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s i n
w h i c h t h e f i n a l l a y o u t o f shop u n i t s c o u l d r e m a i n t o be p l a n n e d i n
d e t a i l l a t e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d , and w i t h maximum f l e x i b i l i t y
t o a d a p t t o f u t u r e changes w i t h o u t a l t e r i n g t h e e x t e r n a l appearance.
The g l a s s e n v e l o p e i t s e l f was c o n c e i v e d as a s i m p l e w i n d and
w e a t h e r t i g h t b a r r i e r w h i c h would a l s o p r o v i d e an o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s o l a r
r e s p o n s i v e p a s s i v e energy systems t o ensure a p l e a s a n t i n t e r n a l
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h o u t t h e need f o r a i r - c o n d i t i o n i n g i n t h e m a l l s .
The f i n a l element i n t h e concept was t h e d e s i r e t o r e f l e c t
Glasgow's v i g o r o u s e n g i n e e r i n g t r a d i t i o n . To t h i s end, t h e s t e e l
r o o f s t r u c t u r e was t o be s t r o n g l y expressed t o make a major c o n t r i b u -
t i o n t o the v i s u a l excitement of the i n t e r i o r , while e x t e r n a l l y a
c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e would mark t h e h i g h l e v e l e n t r a n c e t o t h e c a r
park.
3 General d e s c r i p t i o n
The g l a z e d e n v e l o p e o f some 30,000m , b e l i e v e d t o be t h e l a r g e s t o f

2
i t s k i n d i n Europe, e n c l o s e s a volume o f 250,000m above t h e l o w e r ,

3
main m a l l l e v e l . Below t h i s t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e i n c o r p o r a t e s access f o r

t h e l a r g e s t a r t i c u l a t e d l o r r i e s t o u n l o a d i n g bays w i t h goods h o l d i n g
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a r e a s , p l a n t spaces and shop s e r v i c i n g c o r r i d o r s , a l l a t basement
level. The g r o u n d f l o o r , o r podium, forms a r o o f o v e r t h e basement
and a c t s as a base f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e s above.
The g l a z e d e n c l o s u r e i s s u p p o r t e d by s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k w h i c h
p r o v i d e s a headroom o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9m a t t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e
b u i l d i n g and r i s e s t o 25m a t t h e c o r e s t r u c t u r e s . These i n c l u d e t h e
s e v e n - s t o r e y c a r p a r k , a f i v e - s t o r e y , m u l t i - p u r p o s e b u i l d i n g and a
t h r e e - s t o r e y s t r u c t u r e w h i c h i s l i n k e d t o an e x i s t i n g a d j a c e n t d e p a r t -
ment s t o r e .
R i s i n g from the lower m a l l are the i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s . These
c o m p r i s e f o u r m a j o r s t o r e s , 75 u n i t shops, a 450-seat f o o d c o u r t , and
l e i s u r e a r e a s w h i c h o p e r a t e on t h e two main m a l l l e v e l s . The main
s t o r e has a t h i r d - l e v e l s a l e s f l o o r . Elsewhere, a t h i g h l e v e l , a r e
t h e c e n t r e management s u i t e and a r e s t a u r a n t . An u n u s u a l f e a t u r e i s
t h e p r o v i s i o n o f an open i c e r i n k a t f i r s t f l o o r l e v e l .
Cars e n t e r t h e c a r p a r k o v e r t h e heads o f t h e shoppers v i a an
e l e v a t e d ramp w h i c h r i s e s from ground l e v e l t o b r i d g e a main r o a d and
passes t h r o u g h t h e g l a z e d e n c l o s u r e i n t w i n t u b e s . These a r e c l a d i n
m i r r o r g l a s s w h i c h a c t s as a smoke s e p a r a t o r .
The p r o v i s i o n o f permanent access systems t o m a i n t a i n t h e g l a s s
e n v e l o p e and s e r v i c e t h e h i g h i n t e r i o r was an i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
E x t e r n a l access i s a c h i e v e d from l a d d e r - t y p e g a n t r i e s a t t h e 30° p i t c h
o f t h e r o o f , t r a v e r s i n g t h e l e n g t h o f t h e e n c l o s u r e on r a i l s s u p p o r t e d
from the s t e e l w o r k p u r l i n s . I n t e r n a l maintenance i s combined w i t h
t h e need t o s e r v i c e l i g h t i n g , c l e a n i n t e r n a l g l a z i n g and t o t e n d t h e
p l a n t s on t h e w a l l o f t h e c a r p a r k , w h i c h r i s e s 20m above t h e upper
m a l l f o r a l e n g t h o f 86m. The main system o f access i s from h o r i z o n -
t a l g a n t r i e s w h i c h span between main t r u s s e s . These t r a v e r s e t h e
s l o p e t o a l a t e r a l t r a n s f e r beam a t h i g h l e v e l .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
F i g . 2 . P l a n o f b u i l d i n g on site
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Fig.3. North-South Cross s e c t i o n t h r o u g h c a r p a r k
The c l e a r s o u t h - f a c i n g g l a z i n g ensures a l i g h t i n t e r i o r , b u t
c o m p u t e r - c o n t r o l l e d m o t o r i z e d s o l a r shades a r e i n s t a l l e d t o p r e v e n t
d i r e c t s u n l i g h t f a l l i n g on p o p u l a t e d areas o f t h e shopping m a l l s .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4 S i t e and substructure
E x t e n s i v e s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c o m p r i s i n g 27 b o r e h o l e s , 38 cone
p e n e t r o m e t e r t e s t s , 4 c o n t i n u o u s D e l f t ' s o i l samples and 8 t r i a l p i t s
x
revealed highly variable subsoil conditions. The upper l a y e r , w i t h i n

2-3m o f t h e ground l e v e l , g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t s o f f i l l , o v e r l y i n g upper
sands 0-9m t h i c k over l a m i n a t e d c l a y which o c c u r s i n t h i c k n e s s e s
r a n g i n g from z e r o t o 20m. Beneath t h e c l a y , l o w e r sands and g r a v e l s
o c c u r above rockhead w h i c h i s a t a d e p t h o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 35m.
S h a l l o w pad f o o t i n g s were c o n s i d e r e d b u t e v e n t u a l l y d i s c o u n t e d because
of the v a r i a b l e thickness of the c l a y s g i v i n g p o t e n t i a l f o r l a r g e
d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t s r e s u l t i n g from t h e wide v a r i e t y o f l o a d s
imposed by t h e s t r u c t u r e .
D i s c u s s i o n s t o o k p l a c e w i t h p i l i n g c o n t r a c t o r s t o e s t a b l i s h which
systems would be most s u i t a b l e and economical f o r t h e s i t e . Large
b o r e d p i l e s t o r o c k were e l i m i n a t e d on t h e grounds o f c o s t and t h e
u n c e r t a i n t y o f b e i n g a b l e t o a c h i e v e a good e n d - b e a r i n g c o n d i t i o n .
F o l l o w i n g f u r t h e r d e t a i l e d d e s i g n work, t h r e e p i l i n g f i r m s were asked
t o t e n d e r f o r p i l e s t o c a r r y t h e b u i l d i n g l o a d s t o t h e sands and
g r a v e l s e i t h e r i n f r i c t i o n or end-bearing. An i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r
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i n f l u e n c i n g the c h o i c e of p i l e s was the proximity of e x i s t i n g b u i l d -
i n g s , sewers and t u n n e l s to c e r t a i n p a r t s of the development. I t was
f i n a l l y decided to c o n s t r u c t two types of p i l e : d r i v e n c a s t - i n - p l a c e
( F r a n k i - t y p e ) up to a maximum length of 20m, with load being t r a n s -
f e r r e d to the sands and g r a v e l s i n end-bearing; and continuous f l i g h t
auger p i l e s up to 30m long with f r i c t i o n being the main load t r a n s f e r
medium. The c f a p i l e s had the advantage of v i r t u a l l y v i b r a t i o n l e s s
i n s t a l l a t i o n and so were used c l o s e to the e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s ,
t u n n e l s and sewers.
The i n s i t u r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e basement i s designed to r e s i s t
water to a head of approximately 2m, with the s e l f - w e i g h t of the
basement s l a b s and the suspended podium above p r o v i d i n g the n e c e s s a r y
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
balancing forces. The s t r u c t u r e i s designed as w a t e r t i g h t concrete
but, i n the event of seepage, and as a p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t p e n e t r a t i o n
of dampness through the c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e , d r a i n e d c a v i t y c o n s t r u c -
t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y employed. On top of the basement s l a b a *no f i n e s '
c o n c r e t e l a y e r beneath a damp-proof membrane and s c r e e d ensures t h a t
no moisture reaches the h a b i t a b l e ' environment.
x
One a r e a of base-
ment was p r o t e c t e d by conventional tanking.
The podium s l a b supports the main mall and the shop u n i t s . Cost
e x e r c i s e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n s i t u r e i n f o r c e d concrete was the most
economical s o l u t i o n and troughed c o n s t r u c t i o n with r i b s a t 1.8m
c e n t r e s was adopted. The heavy p a r t i t i o n and l i v e loads d i c t a t e d the
adoption of a 125mm t h i c k topping concrete and the subcontractor
e l e c t e d to use p o l y s t y r e n e formers, usable two or t h r e e times. Tree
p i t s , e s c a l a t o r and l i f t bases, f o u n t a i n s and water f e a t u r e s a t t h i s
l e v e l i n t r o d u c e a high degree of complexity i n t o the otherwise simple
structure.
5 Superstructure
The c a r park i s of the s p l i t l e v e l type on 13 h a l f - d e c k s and was

planned to c o i n c i d e w i t h the 7.2m g r i d of shops below r e s u l t i n g i n a
p a r k i n g bay of 2.4m. D i s c u s s i o n s with S t r a t h c l y d e Regional C o u n c i l ,
who operate the c a r park, l e d to outboard columns and a c l e a r span of
16m. The p e n a l t y f o r seeking the economy of inboard columns would
have been a bay s i z e of 2.5m, which would have d i s r u p t e d the v e r t i c a l
planning. I n s i t u r e i n f o r c e d concrete, troughed s l a b c o n s t r u c t i o n
spanning 7.2m onto p o r t a l frames over the 16m span, has r e s u l t e d i n a
good open s t r u c t u r e with slow up' and f a s t down' ramps a t each end.
x x
I n the d e s i g n of the s t r u c t u r e the roof steelwork was by f a r the

most demanding element. The combinations of load c a s e s , i n c l u d i n g
temperature changes, a r e e x t e n s i v e , and the c a l c u l a t i o n s were pro-
c e s s e d u s i n g plane frame a n a l y s i s and three-dimensional a n a l y s i s f o r
each combination. To confirm wind loading c r i t e r i a a 1:400 s o l i d
block model of the b u i l d i n g and i t s environs was c o n s t r u c t e d and
t e s t e d i n a wind tunnel (Ref ( i ) ) . A n a l y s i s of the readings from the
180 p r e s s u r e tappings confirmed t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the B r i t i s h
Standard f o r wind l o a d i n g was a p p r o p r i a t e f o r the St Enoch g l a z e d
enclosure.
The s t e e l w o r k r e l i e s f o r l a t e r a l s t a b i l i t y upon the c a r park and
the e a s t and west core s t r u c t u r e s a t the c e n t r e of the b u i l d i n g . 1m
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Copyright CRC Press

diameter r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e columns a t the periphery provide v e r t i c a l
support. The t r i a n g u l a t e d main t r u s s e s , 1.8m deep, span 36m onto
x
t r e e h e a d ' members which s p r i n g from the core s t r u c t u r e and from
i s o l a t e d columns a t 14.4m c e n t r e s . The t r e e h e a d ' c o n f i g u r a t i o n
x
r e s u l t s from the d e c i s i o n t o o f f s e t t h e support p o i n t s from the

trusses. The 18m high m a l l columns comprise 750mm d i a s t e e l tubes
(with w a l l t h i c k n e s s e s of 20 and 25mm). The r e q u i r e d 1 i hours f i r e
r a t i n g was obtained by wrapping the tubes with metal l a t h i n g and
coating with Pyrocrete'.
x
Otherwise the roof steelwork i s not f i r e
protected. T r i a n g u l a t e d p u r l i n s 900mm deep span 14.4m between main
t r u s s e s and r e s t r a i n t t o l a t e r a l and r o t a t i o n a l f o r c e s i s a f f o r d e d to
main t r u s s e s by l o n g i t u d i n a l l a t t i c e members.
P i n j o i n t s a r e developed wherever p o s s i b l e t o l i m i t the extent of
s i t e welding. At e x t e r n a l columns high s h e a r s and v e r t i c a l f o r c e s
a r e c a r r i e d through a s t e e l t o p hat' column cap which i s b o l t e d and
x
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
grouted i n p l a c e over the c o n c r e t e . Loads a r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o the

column cap through a node can' which d i s t r i b u t e s f o r c e s t o 75mm d i a
x
p i n s , a l l o w i n g r o t a t i o n s which a r i s e from roof d e f l e c t i o n s . P i n

j o i n t s a r e a l s o used a t connections between mall columns and t r e e head
members and a t the i n t e r s e c t i o n of t r e e heads with main t r u s s e s .
Movement j o i n t s through the roof to c o n t r o l thermal s t r e s s e s have
been provided i n t h r e e p o s i t i o n s to c o i n c i d e with a main t r u s s . The
250m long roof s t r u c t u r e thus comprises four s t r u c t u r a l l y independent
sections. By the use of twin t r u s s e s a t each of these p o s i t i o n s
Movement joint-
F i g . 4. D e t a i l p l a n of roof steelwork a t south

west corner showing main elements
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Triangulated purlin
Main Twin movement

truss joint trusses
Cross section along roof
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
200mm. square
hollow section
Node "can'
75mm. dia. steel pins
%
Top hat'column cap
<—VOmdia.concrete column
Front elevation Side elevation
Main truss to column connection
Fig.5. Steelwork details
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Copyright CRC Press

v i s u a l u n i f o r m i t y i s m a i n t a i n e d w h i l s t a l l o w i n g freedom o f movement a t
the j o i n t . Roof g l a z i n g i s s p l i t a c r o s s each j o i n t w i t h f l e x i b l e
f l a s h i n g s t o accommodate up t o 50mm l a t e r a l t e m p e r a t u r e movement.
A f e a t u r e o f t h e d e s i g n o f t h e e n c l o s u r e s t e e l w o r k has been t h e
close co-ordination required with the glazing. The s t e e l t r u s s e s
were d e t a i l e d on n o d a l geometry and accessory s t e e l w o r k formed t h e
l i n k w i t h t h e g l a z i n g geometry. The main b e n e f i t o f s e p a r a t i n g t h e s e
e l e m e n t s was t o a l l o w t h e main r o o f s t r u c t u r e t o be e r e c t e d and
depropped, t h u s e n a b l i n g t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s t o be b u i l t i n
p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e a c c e s s o r y s t e e l w o r k and g l a z i n g overhead.
The d e c i s i o n t o b u i l d t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e e r e c t e d envelope
was an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g t h e a d o p t i o n o f i n s i t u r e i n f o r c e d
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
F i g . 6 . South e l e v a t i o n showing c a r p a r k access ramp

and c a b l e s t a y e d b r i d g e
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c o n c r e t e , r i b b e d s l a b c o n s t r u c t i o n ( s i m i l a r t o t h e podium s l a b ) , s i n c e
t h i s m i n i m i z e d t h e access and h a n d l i n g problems.
A b u i l d i n g o f t h i s s c a l e and n o v e l t y has i n e v i t a b l y l e d t o t h e i n -
v o l v e m e n t o f many s p e c i a l i s t c o n s u l t a n t s and t h e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
s u b j e c t e d t o c l o s e s c r u t i n y by o t h e r s . The c l i e n t s ' d e c i s i o n t o
o b t a i n d e c e n n i a l i n s u r a n c e n e c e s s i t a t e d an e x t e r n a l c o n s u l t a n t check-
i n g t h e d e s i g n and d e t a i l o f t h e b u i l d i n g f a b r i c , w h i l e t h e l o c a l
a u t h o r i t i e s have shown a v e r y keen i n t e r e s t and Glasgow C i t y D e p a r t -
ment o f B u i l d i n g C o n t r o l examined e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e i n
detail.
6 E x t e r n a l works
The e x t e r n a l works i n c l u d e t h e l o n g ramp o f i n s i t u r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e

w h i c h g i v e s access t o t h e f i r s t l e v e l o f t h e m u l t i - s t o r e y c a r p a r k a t
some 14m above g r o u n d l e v e l . Where t h e ramp e n t e r s t h e g l a z e d
e n c l o s u r e t h e s l a b i s s u p p o r t e d by a c a b l e s t a y e d b r i d g e . The t o w e r s
a r e o f t u b u l a r s t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n and form a s t r i k i n g v i s u a l gateway
t o t h e development f o r t h o s e a r r i v i n g by c a r .
7 Enabling works
To e n s u r e an e f f e c t i v e s t a r t t o t h e main works an advance works

package was i n t r o d u c e d . These works i n c l u d e d new bus l i n k s , f o l l o w -
i n g c l o s u r e o f an e x i s t i n g r o a d w h i c h i n t e r s e c t e d t h e s i t e .
A l o n g t h e l i n e o f t h e r o a d , t w i n sewers had t o be d i v e r t e d and were
r e p l a c e d w i t h a s i n g l e 1.6m d i a m e t e r c o n c r e t e p i p e . I n the unusual
c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a m a j o r sewer b e i n g a l l o w e d beneath a new b u i l d i n g ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h v e r y l i m i t e d c o v e r a v a i l a b l e , i t was necessary t o
p r o v i d e l a r g e access chambers a t e i t h e r end o f t h e d i v e r s i o n so t h a t
o b s t r u c t i o n s e n t e r i n g t h e sewer c o u l d be r e a d i l y removed by t h e
statutory authority. No c o n t a c t c o u l d be p e r m i t t e d between t h e
b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e and t h e sewer and t h e basement s l a b was c a r r i e d
f r o m p i l e caps on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e new p i p e w i t h s o f t p a c k i n g t o
p r e v e n t l o a d t r a n s f e r t o t h e new sewer.
8 Construction
To a c h i e v e t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f a p r o j e c t o f t h i s s i z e and c o m p l e x i t y ,
w i t h i n a s h o r t t i m e s c a l e o f t h r e e y e a r s i t was necessary t o adopt f a s t
t r a c k c o n s t r u c t i o n methods. I t was t h e r e f o r e d e c i d e d t o implement
t h e p r o j e c t on a management c o n t r a c t b a s i s . To g a i n t h e g r e a t e s t
b e n e f i t from t h i s arrangement t h e management c o n t r a c t o r was appointed
e a r l y i n 1985 a t t h e d e s i g n s t a g e and became p a r t o f t h e d e s i g n team
a d v i s i n g on b u i l d a b i l i t y and programming.
An i m p o r t a n t t i m e - s a v i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n approach was
t o o v e r l a p t h e e r e c t i o n o f t h e g l a z e d envelope and t h e i n t e r n a l r e i n -
forced concrete s t r u c t u r e s . To t h i s end t h e e r e c t i o n o f t h e s t e e l
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e and g l a z i n g was programmed ahead o f t h e i n t e r n a l
s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h were c o n s t r u c t e d , t o a s l o w e r pace, under c o v e r .
99
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F i g . 7 . I n t e r i o r o f completed b u i l d i n g l o o k i n g west
along mall
100
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T h i s c a l l e d f o r c a r e f u l sequencing of the work and c r e a t e d some a c c e s s
problems but the advantages i n time and e a r l y weather p r o t e c t i o n were
considerable.
Approval to s t a r t on s i t e was given i n September 1985 and two
months l a t e r the advance works packages commenced. The s t a r t of the
main c o n t r a c t followed i n May 1986. I n i t i a l l y some d i f f i c u l t i e s were
experienced when two p r e l i m i n a r y c f a p i l e t e s t s f a i l e d , but a f t e r
i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e v i s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n methods were introduced and a
f u r t h e r seven t r i a l p i l e s were s u c c e s s f u l l y load t e s t e d . T h i s has
been f u l l y reported elsewhere (Ref i i ) . Subsequently the i n s t a l l a -
t i o n of the 1,500 p i l e s was completed i n f i v e months. P r i o r to and
during the p i l i n g operations i n s p e c t i o n s were made of the underground
tunnel i n St Enoch Square and the B r i t i s h R a i l Tunnel i n Argyle S t r e e t
and vibrograph monitoring of the l a t t e r was c a r r i e d out. Construc-
t i o n of the basement and podium s l a b s was s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d but, to meet
the demands of the programme, an average r a t e of 1,000m of concrete 3
per week had to be achieved.

F a b r i c a t i o n of the 2,500 tonnes of steelwork was c a r r i e d out i n
Manchester and Cambuslang, near Glasgow. Because of the complexity
of many of the connections a great d e a l of s k i l l and accuracy was
r e q u i r e d both i n f a b r i c a t i o n and e r e c t i o n . The temporary works
r e q u i r e d to support the steelwork during e r e c t i o n were major s t r u c -
t u r e s i n t h e i r own r i g h t . T a l l s t e e l towers e r e c t e d o f f the podium
s l a b s (propped as n e c e s s a r y to take the a d d i t i o n a l loads) supported
the roof t r u s s s e c t i o n s u n t i l they were welded together to form
complete t r u s s e s .
Steelwork e r e c t i o n commenced on programme i n March 1987 and was
completed i n December 1987. P a i n t i n g was f u r t h e r subcontracted and
shop-applied. Because of the amount of a d d i t i o n a l work, c o n s t r u c t e d
under s u b c o n t r a c t packages, which followed the e r e c t e d steelwork and
took support from i t , e x t e n s i v e c o r r o s i o n p r o t e c t i o n touch-up and
d e c o r a t i v e f i n i s h i n g paintwork were necessary on s i t e .
The s u b c o n t r a c t o r f o r the i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s , c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h i n
the e n c l o s u r e , e l e c t e d to use track-mounted cranage, g a i n i n g a c c e s s
for m a t e r i a l s through temporary openings i n the g l a z i n g . At t h i s
stage of the d e s i g n and, a g a i n s t the constantly-changing background of
c l i e n t needs, e a r l y d e c i s i o n s made as to the extent and c o n f i g u r a t i o n
of p i l i n g were put to the t e s t . By a combination of some minor
r e p l a n n i n g on o c c a s i o n and r e - r o u t i n g loads, the c l i e n t s ' r e v i s e d
needs were met. There i s f l e x i b i l i t y i n c e r t a i n a r e a s of the d e v e l -
opment f o r f u t u r e e x t e n s i o n and t h i s w i l l probably be e x p l o i t e d i n the
near f u t u r e .
The f a s t t r a c k method of c o n s t r u c t i o n put a l l d i s c i p l i n e s under
s e v e r e p r e s s u r e but by c l o s e co-operation the programme was achieved.
I n order to do so c o n s t r u c t i o n outputs of £3.5 m i l l i o n per month were
reached and the c e n t r e was opened to the p u b l i c i n May 1989.
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9 References
(i) E v e r e t t , T.W. and Lawson, T.V. (1984) A Wind Tunnel Study of the
Cladding Loads on the Proposed Development of St Enochs
Square, Glasgow. Dept of A e r o n a u t i c a l Engineering, Univer
s i t y of B r i s t o l .
(ii) Couldery, P.A.J, and Fleming, W.G.K. (1987) Continuous f l i g h t

auger p i l i n g a t St Enoch Square, Glasgow. Ground Engineer
ing. September 1987, 17-28.
10 C r e d i t s
C l i e n t s : Church Commissioners f o r England and S e a r s Property Glasgow

Ltd
Development conceived and i n i t i a t e d by the S c o t t i s h Development Agency
P r o j e c t manager: C h e s t e r t o n
A r c h i t e c t s : R e i a c h and H a l l + GMW P a r t n e r s h i p
S t r u c t u r a l and c i v i l e n g i n e e r s : Ove Arup & P a r t n e r s S c o t l a n d
S e r v i c e s engineer: B l y t h & B l y t h (M & E)
Quantity s u r v e y o r : Muirheads
Management c o n t r a c t o r : S i r Robert McAlpine Management C o n t r a c t o r s L t d
P r i n c i p a l s t r u c t u r a l subcontractors
Steelwork: Redpath E n g i n e e r i n g L t d
R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e work: B a l f o u r Beatty
Piling: Cementation P i l i n g & Foundations L t d
The Author wishes to r e c o r d h i s thanks to the c l i e n t s f o r t h e i r

p e r m i s s i o n to p u b l i s h t h i s paper and to h i s c o l l e a g u e s , Jack Carcas,
C l i f f Kidd and Malcolm S o m e r v i l l e f o r t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e i n the prepara-
t i o n of the paper.
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NEW VISITOR F A C I L I T I E S AT
EDINBURGH C A S T L E
T.H. DOUGLAS
James W i l l i a m s o n and Partners, Glasgow, Scotland, UK
Abstract
As p a r t o f a s e r i e s o f i m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e f a c i l i t i e s f o r v i s i t o r s
to E d i n b u r g h C a s t l e , Phase 1 of the p r o j e c t i n c l u d e s a s e r i e s of
u n u s u a l s t r u c t u r e s a l o n g t h e 200m l o n g r o u t e o f a s i n g l e l a n e
v e h i c l e and s e r v i c e s t u n n e l . I n a d d i t i o n , and w i t h i n t h e e n v i r o n s
o f t h e C a s t l e , a new T o i l e t B l o c k h a s b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d n e a r t h e
G u a r d h o u s e a t t h e d r a w b r i d g e and a new G i f t Shop h a s b e e n e r e c t e d
i n o l d b u i l d i n g s p a r t of which have been used d u r i n g the annual
Tattoo.
The p a p e r o u t l i n e s t h e v a r i o u s s t r u c t u r e s and c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h r e e
aspects. F i r s t t h e i n t e r e s t i n g b u t c h a l l e n g i n g n e e d t o work w i t h
very s e n s i t i v e h i s t o r i c buildings. Secondly, the s p e c i a l problems
w h i c h a r i s e i n t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e b a s e m e n t o f t h e
4 s t o r e y G i f t Shop. F i n a l l y , a l l t h e w o r k was c a r r i e d out i n c l o s e
c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e A r c h i t e c t and d e t a i l i n g o f a h i g h o r d e r was
required.
Keywords: Edinburgh C a s t l e ; v e h i c l e tunnel, unusual s t r u c t u r e s ,
new T o i l e t B l o c k and G i f t Shop, h i s t o r i c b u i l d i n g s , p r o x i m i t y o f
blasting.
1 Introduction
E d i n b u r g h C a s t l e o c c u p i e s a commanding p o s i t i o n i n t h e c e n t r e o f
t h e C i t y and h a s p r o v i d e d a p r i n c i p a l l y d e f e n s i v e r o l e t h r o u g h o u t
history. However, i n r e c e n t t i m e s i t s m i l i t a r y r o l e has been
o v e r t a k e n and i t i s now S c o t l a n d ' s p r e m i e r t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n
w e l c o m i n g o v e r one m i l l i o n v i s i t o r s i n 1989. The n a r r o w d e f e n s i v e
e n t r y ways, which a r e a l e g a c y of h i s t o r i c times, c o n f l i c t w i t h the
i n c r e a s i n g number o f v i s i t o r s who a r e on f o o t and t h e continued
n e e d t o s e r v i c e t h e C a s t l e f a c i l i t i e s by v e h i c l e . In addition
t h e r e i s a p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m , a s numbers i n c r e a s e , i n p r o v i d i n g
e v e r y d a y a c c e s s f o r f i r e e n g i n e s and a m b u l a n c e s . ( R e f . 2 and 3 ) .
During studies i n i t i a t e d by H i s t o r i c B u i l d i n g s and Monuments,
S c o t l a n d (HBM), t o improve v i s i t o r s f a c i l i t i e s the need to c a t e r
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f o r v e h i c l e a c c e s s was c o n s i d e r e d an e s s e n t i a l i n i t i a l s t a g e i n t h e
g e n e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t programme.
P h a s e 1 of the work i n c l u d e s the u p g r a d i n g o f v a r i o u s
s t r u c t u r e s and t h e d r i v i n g o f a s h o r t t u n n e l t h r o u g h t h e C a s t l e
r o c k t o p r o v i d e t h e v e h i c l e and s e r v i c e s r o u t e i n t o t h e i n n e r
facilities. The w o r k s c o m p r i s e , a l s o , new p u b l i c t o i l e t s and a new
G i f t Shop.
To e s t a b l i s h t h e r o u t e i t h a s b e e n n e c e s s a r y t o r e c o n s t r u c t and
w i d e n the l a t e - V i c t o r i a n 3 s p a n masonry a r c h e d b r i d g e over the Dry
D i t c h , b u i l d two c u t and c o v e r s t r u c t u r e s u n d e r t h e p e d e s t r i a n ways
and t o e x t e n d t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n a s a b a s e m e n t s t r u c t u r e u n d e r t h e
f o r m e r s h o p a t M i l l s Mount.
The o v e r a l l d e v e l o p m e n t programme i s e x p e c t e d t o be c a r r i e d out

i n 4 phases over a p e r i o d of about 8 y e a r s . The C o n s u l t a n t s f o r
P h a s e 1 w e r e a p p o i n t e d i n t h e l a t e S p r i n g o f 1988 and work on S i t e
was i n i t i a t e d l a t e r t h a t y e a r . The m a i n c o n t r a c t was o r i g i n a l l y
p l a n n e d t o be u n d e r t a k e n d u r i n g 1989 and work was l a r g e l y c o m p l e t e d
by t h e end o f t h e y e a r . The c o s t o f t h e w o r k s c o v e r e d by t h i s
p a p e r amount t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y £2.5M.
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2 Site Investigations
2.1 Geology
T h e r o c k o f t h e C a s t l e i s formed from a b a s a l t ' p l u g ' i n t r u d e d
s e d i m e n t a r y s a n d s t o n e s , s h a l e s and m a r l s o f C a r b o n i f e r o u s s e r i e s -
the b a s a l t i s p r e d o m i n a t e l y exposed w i t h o n l y i s o l a t e d pockets of
s u p e r f i c i a l d e p o s i t s b u t t h e s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s a r e o v e r l a i n by
g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s and made g r o u n d .
2.2 Investigations
P r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e s i t e w e r e u n d e r t a k e n i n 1987 and,
i n v i e w o f t h e g e n e r a l e x p o s u r e o f t h e b a s a l t and e x t e n s i v e r e c o r d s
h e l d by HBM on t h e o l d b u i l d i n g s and t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n , s i t e w o r k
was c o n f i n e d t o 3 t r i a l p i t s and 6 b o r e h o l e s . These were d i r e c t e d
g e n e r a l l y towards a r e a s l i k e l y to have s t e e p l y s l o p i n g u n d e r l y i n g
rock s u r f a c e s a l o n g s i d e the t u n n e l r o u t e . O n l y one b o r e h o l e was
s u n k b e l o w r o c k h e a d by r o t a r y c o r i n g m e t h o d s . D u r i n g t h e f i n a l
d e s i g n s t a g e and f o l l o w i n g a s h i f t i n t h e p r o p o s e d t u n n e l r o u t e , a
s u p p l e m e n t a r y b o r e h o l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t .
2.3 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the Results

D a t a p r e p a r e d and c o m p i l e d i n a d v a n c e o f t h e C o n t r a c t i n c l u d e d s i t e
m a p p i n g , h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d s , a s w e l l a s t h e t e s t p i t , b o r i n g and
material property r e s u l t s . I n a d d i t i o n , two s p e c i a l s e r i e s o f d a t a
w e r e made a v a i l a b l e . F i r s t , a s e r i e s of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d i g s were
o r g a n i s e d by HBM i n a r e a s l i k e l y t o be a f f e c t e d by t h e p r o p o s e d
development. G e o t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n was c o m p i l e d a l s o from t h e s e
zones. S e c o n d l y , due t o r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b l a s t i n g t o remove r o c k
i n o p e n c u t and, e s p e c i a l l y , d u r i n g t u n n e l l i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n c l o s e
p r o x i m i t y to e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s , the r e s u l t s of b l a s t i n g t r i a l s
were i n c l u d e d . T h e s e had been c a r r i e d out t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
l i m i t i n g f a c t o r s w h i c h i t w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o impose d u r i n g t h e
C o n t r a c t r e l a t i n g t o n o i s e and g r o u n d b o r n e v i b r a t i o n s .
3 Tunnel Route
St. Margaret's
Chapel Fore wall
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0 50 m
Figure 2 - Longitudinal Section along Tunnel Route
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3.1 Bridge over Dry D i t c h
The o l d b r i d g e h a d b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d a s a 3 - s p a n m a s o n r y a r c h 3.5m
w i d e a n d 13m s p a n and t h e s t r u c t u r e h a d s u f f e r e d some d e t e r i o r a t i o n
and c r a c k i n g , p r i n c i p a l l y due t o s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s
and made g r o u n d w h i c h r e s t on a s t e e p l y n o r t h s l o p i n g s e d i m e n t a r y
rockhead. At t h e f e a s i b i l i t y s t u d y s t a g e i t had been thought t h a t
t h e b r i d g e w i d t h w o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d and t h a t i t m i g h t be p o s s i b l e
t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e s t r u c t u r e w i t h some l i m i t e d f o u n d a t i o n w o r k s
c o u p l e d w i t h g r o u t i n g and s t i t c h i n g t h e m a s o n r y . During the design
d e v e l o p m e n t s t a g e i t was a s c e r t a i n e d t h a t somewhat l a r g e r f i r e
e n g i n e s t h a n a l l o c a t e d e a r l i e r w e r e coming i n t o s e r v i c e w i t h t h e
L o t h i a n F i r e B r i g a d e and t h a t t h e s e v e h i c l e s c o u l d n o t be e x p e c t e d
to u s e the narrow c r o s s i n g . Furthermore the foundations of the o l d
b r i d g e w e r e f o u n d t o be i n a d e q u a t e f o r t h e new and i n c r e a s e d
loadings. I t was d e c i d e d , t h e r e f o r e , t o r e c o n s t r u c t and w i d e n t h e
e n t i r e b r i d g e , u s i n g the e x i s t i n g stonework r e - b u i l t i n e l e v a t i o n
(see F i g . 3 ) .
Figure 3 - Old Dry Ditch Bridge
A f i r s t p r o p o s a l was p r e p a r e d f o r new f o u n d a t i o n s t o be formed

w i t h i n t h e D i t c h and t h e a b u t m e n t s t o be c a s t a g a i n s t t h e o l d
walls. T h i s s o l u t i o n was n o t o n l y v i s u a l l y i n t r u s i v e b u t t h e
f o u n d a t i o n s w o u l d h a v e b e e n e x p e n s i v e t o found on t h e s t e e p l y
s l o p i n g s i d e l o n g rockhead. I n s t e a d m i n i p i e s were d r i l l e d through
the masonry and o v e r l y i n g ground and g r o u t e d d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e
rockhead below. T h e m i n i p i l e s w e r e debanded from t h e m a s o n r y by
greased sleeves. T h i s e n a b l e d r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e bank s e a t s t o be
d e t a i l e d t o s u p p o r t a s t a n d a r d i n v e r t e d T-beam B r i d g e Deck w i t h t h e
w h o l e s t r u c t u r e d e s i g n e d t o c a r r y HA l o a d i n g t o B S 5 4 0 0 .
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3.2 C u t a n d C o v e r S e c t i o n s
At e a c h e n d o f t h e t u n n e l , r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e box s e c t i o n s
g e n e r a l l y 4.75m w i d e x 4.5m h i g h a n d 600mm t h i c k h a v e b e e n formed
t o c a r r y t h e t u n n e l r o u t e u n d e r t h e p e d e s t r i a n r o u t e w h i c h was t h e
o n l y o r i g i n a l r o u t e i n t o t h e C a s t l e ( s e e F i g s . 1 and 2 ) .
The s t r u c t u r e i s d e s i g n e d s i m i l a r l y t o emerge from t h e w e s t
p o r t a l o f t h e t u n n e l and t o c r o s s o v e r t o t h e new b a s e m e n t
c o n s t r u c t i o n a t M i l l s Mount. To s i m p l i f y s h u t t e r i n g t h e s e c t i o n s
w e r e d e s i g n e d a s s t r a i g h t a s p o s s i b l e w i t h h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l
c u r v a t u r e taken out i n the tunnel i t s e l f . 300 x 300mm f i l l e t s w e r e
formed t o p r o v i d e a d d i t i o n a l s t i f f e n i n g o f t h e r o o f s p a n a n d 25mm
deep v e r t i c a l r i b s w e r e i n s e r t e d a t 2.5m c e n t r e s t o c o v e r s h u t t e r
panel j o i n t s i n otherwise p l a i n concrete s u r f a c e s .
3.3 M i l l s Mount
I t h a d b e e n i n t e n d e d t o c o n t i n u e t h e c u t and c o v e r box s e c t i o n
t h r o u g h and under t h e e x i s t i n g shop, a s a basement c o n s t r u c t i o n .
The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g t h a t t h e r o o f s l a b c o u l d be r e d u c e d t o
250mm d e e p s i n c e i t s h o u l d o n l y h a v e t o s u p p o r t f l o o r l o a d i n g s .
The h i s t o r i c and a r c h e o l o g i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , r e f e r r e d t o i n
S e c t i o n 6, u n e a r t h e d a n i m p o r t a n t s t o r e k e e p e r s room w i t h i t s
f i r e p l a c e , w h i c h was c o n s i d e r e d v a l u a b l e t o p r e s e r v e . A redesign
o f t h e s e c t i o n was u n d e r t a k e n w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e d a t h i n n e r b a s e and
w a l l s - t o e n s u r e minimum e x c a v a t i o n s - and a l a r g e o p e n i n g h a s
been designed i n t h e n o r t h e a s t w a l l t o surround t h e o l d f i r e p l a c e .
(See F i g . 4 ) .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 4 - P e r s p e c t i v e V i e w of T u n n e l Route u n d e r M i l l s Mount
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4 Toilet Block
The a r e a o f t h e C a s t l e t o t h e l e f t o f t h e G u a r d h o u s e ( s e e F i g . 1 )
had been used a s an o l d NAFFI s t o v e . New p u b l i c t o i l e t s a r e a n
e s s e n t i a l f a c i l i t y f o r t h e i n c r e a s i n g number o f v i s i t o r s and a f u l l
r a n g e o f u s e s was p l a n n e d . Some u s e c o u l d be made o f t h e e x i s t i n g
s t r u c t u r e s b u t a new e x t e n s i o n , i n c o r p o r a t i n g o l d m a s o n r y g a t e
p i l l a r s , was d e s i g n e d i n t h e same s t y l e a s t h a t a d o p t e d f o r t h e
new G i f t Shop. T h i s comprised twin c i r c u l a r s t e e l hollow s e c t i o n
columns s u p p o r t i n g timber r o o f t r u s s e s p r o v i d i n g a c e n t r a l r i d g e o f
g l a z i n g s u r r o u n d e d by a f l a t r o o f ( s e e F i g . 5 ) .
, Timber roof supported
Figure 5 - T y p i c a l S e c t i o n t h r o u g h Toilet Block
The b a s i c d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t was f a i r l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d b u t
two s p e c i a l p r o b l e m s a r o s e t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f t h i s g e n e r a l
a r r a n g e m e n t . F i r s t was t h e n e e d t o p r o v i d e l o n g i t u d i n a l s t i f f n e s s
and t h i s was e f f e c t e d by t h e a d o p t i o n o f a p a t t e r n o f c r o s s t i e
rods b o l t e d to t h e heads o f t h e columns. The s e c o n d p r o b l e m a r o s e
due t o u s i n g t h e s h a l l o w s t r u c t u r a l d e p t h o f t h e r o o f t i m b e r s t o
house a l l the main s e r v i c e s . C o n s i d e r a b l e c a r e , i n g e n u i t y and
s p e c i a l c o - o r d i n a t i o n by t h e d e s i g n team, t h e C o n t r a c t o r and h i s
s e r v i c e s o p e r a t i v e s w e r e r e q u i r e d t o a c h i e v e t h e s e r v i c e r u n s and
c r o s s - o v e r s needed to s u p p l y t h e b u i l d i n g .
5 Gift Shop
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5.1 C o n c e p t u a l Design
L i m i t e d u s e h a s b e e n made i n r e c e n t y e a r s o f t h e a r e a now
c o m p r i s i n g t h e G i f t Shop, a l t h o u g h t h e e a s t e r n p o r t i o n h a d b e e n
d e s i g n a t e d f o r s t o r a g e o f equipment f o r t h e T a t t o o w h i l e t h e
w e s t e r n p a r t h a d b e e n u s e d p r e v i o u s l y a s C.O.'s s t a b l e s .
S i n c e i t was i n t e n d e d t o r e s t r i c t d e l i v e r y v e h i c l e a c c e s s t o
t h e C o a l Y a r d ( s e e F i g . 1 ) and two f l o o r s o f s h o p p i n g h a v e b e e n
p r o v i d e d , t h e d e s i g n development l e d to a four s t o r e y c o n f i g u r a t i o n
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- t h e l o w e r two s t o r e y s h o u s i n g p l a n t a n d s t o r a g e s p a c e a s w e l l a s
p r o v i d i n g a c c e s s t o t h e l i f t w e l l s i t u a t e d a g a i n s t the south w a l l .
( F i g u r e s 6 a n d 7 ) . T h i s was a l l b u i l t w i t h i n w h a t w a s o r i g i n a l l y a
single storey building.
Basement
Figure 6 - L o n g i t u d i n a l Section Through Shop
Figure 7 - Cross Section through Shop
109
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5.2 S t r u c t u r a l Form
An o v e r r i d i n g c o n s t r a i n t s e t by t h e C l i e n t was t o r e s t r i c t t h e
o v e r a l l h e i g h t o f t h e development t o a v o i d a l t e r i n g t h e view o f t h e
C a s t l e as seen from P r i n c e s S t r e e t . T h i s c o n s t r a i n t l e d t o t h e
a d o p t i o n o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e c o n t i n u o u s f l a t s l a b s f o r t h e two
shopping f l o o r s and t h e use o f s h o r t spans i n each d i r e c t i o n . To
r e s t r i c t t h e span o f t h e t i m b e r r o o f ( s i m i l a r t o t h e form adopted
i n t h e T o i l e t B l o c k - see S e c t i o n 4 above) p a i r s o f c i r c u l a r s t e e l
h o l l o w s e c t i o n columns have been e r e c t e d a t 3m c e n t r e s b o t h ways.
I n t h e main shopping areas these a r e t i m b e r c l a d .
The d e s i g n c a l l e d f o r i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n between t h e s t e e l and
c o n c r e t e and t h i s was a c h i e v e d by a d o p t i n g c i r c u l a r
c o n n e c t i n g / b a s e p l a t e s f l u s h w i t h t h e s o f f i t o f t h e upper f l o o r ( s e e
F i g s . 9 and 1 0 ) .
Figure 9 - Gift Shop under Construction - Looking East
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400 dia. steel baseplate
with A No. M16 C s k 75 Screed on 225 mm
Figure 10 - Typical Detail of Column Connection
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5.3 Basement C o n s t r u c t i o n
From t h e s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n d a t a i t had been expected t h a t basement
e x c a v a t i o n c o u l d be e f f e c t e d u s i n g l i m i t e d b l a s t i n g o f t h e bedrock
and r o c k s u p p o r t measures such as b o l t i n g , dowel l i n g and meshing o f
the exposed f a c e s . I n t h e event two problems exacerbated t h e
situation. F i r s t t h e w a l l s o f t h e C a s t l e were d i s c o v e r e d t o be
r e l a t i v e l y p o o r l y founded and a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f u n d e r p i n n i n g
was r e q u i r e d b e f o r e i t was safe and p r a c t i c a l t o achieve basement
formation level. Secondly, and more c o n c e r n i n g , t h e form o f t h e
r o c k i t s e l f w i t h markers o f t h i n c l a y f i l l e d j o i n t s , gave r i s e t o
q u e s t i o n s o f temporary s t a b i l t y o f t h e south ( i n n e r ) w a l l and t h e
main C a s t l e W a l l s d u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n .
A number o f o p t i o n s were i n v e s t i g a t e d and e v e n t u a l l y t h e
C o n t r a c t o r proposed t o form t h e o u t e r w a l l o f t h e Basement w i t h
mini piles. The Mezzanine f l o o r would t h e n form a s t r o n g brace
between t h e w a l l s and a l l o w t h e basement e x c a v a t i o n t o proceed
below w h i l e t h e remainder o f t h e s t r u c t u r e above c o u l d be b u i l t up
from t h e f l o o r . (See F i g u r e s 11 and 1 2 ) .
F i g u r e 11 - Section showing Temporary Support
Figure 12 - Plan
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Some c o n c e r n was f e l t a t t h e t i m e and c o s t o f t h e t e m p o r a r y
w o r k s o p e r a t i o n s o t h a t t h e f i n a l s o l u t i o n w h i c h was a d o p t e d
r e s t r i c t e d the p i l i n g to the deeper ( w e s t e r n h a l f ) of the basement.
The e a s t e r n h a l f was e x c a v a t e d u s i n g t h e p e r m a n e n t a c c e s s o p e n i n g
i n t h e e a s t w a l l and t h e b a s e m e n t w a l l s and f l o o r p r o c e e d e d
normally.
The w e s t e r n h a l f o f t h e M e z z a n i n e f l o o r was c a s t d i r e c t l y on
the ground w i t h the m i n i - p i l e s i n p l a c e . C o n s t r u c t i o n proceeded
i m m e d i a t e l y w i t h t h e w a l l s i n t h e M e z z a n i n e a r e a and t h e l o w e r
s a l e s r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e beam and s l a b f l o o r was c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h
temporary p r o p p i n g o f f t h e basement f l o o r . E r e c t i o n of the
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e two s h o p p i n g f l o o r s p r o c e e d e d c o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h
the c a r e f u l removal o f t h e basement e x c a v a t i o n s .
The c o m p l e t e e x e r c i s e was c a r r i e d o u t a s a c o - o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t
b e t w e e n t h e E n g i n e e r and t h e C o n t r a c t o r so a s t o i n c o r p o r a t e a s
much a s p r a c t i c a l o f t h e t e m p o r a r y w o r k s i n t h e p e r m a n e n t w a l l s .
I n t h e e v e n t , t h e r o o f o f t h e s h o p was v i r t u a l l y c o m p l e t e b e f o r e
t h e b a s e m e n t h a d b e e n f u l l y e x c a v a t e d s o t h a t t h e r e was a
c o n s i d e r a b l e s a v i n g s i n o v e r a l l programme t i m e from t h a t w h i c h
would have a r i s e n i f t h e basement had been c o n s t r u c t e d f i r s t .
5.4 S p e c i a l F e a t u r e s
I t was c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l by t h e C l i e n t t o a v o i d c u t t i n g i n t o ,
o r d a m a g i n g i n any way, h i s t o r i c e l e m e n t s o f t h e w a l l s . Features
w h i c h h a d t o be p r o t e c t e d i n c l u d e d a n o l d f i r e p l a c e , t h e m a s o n r y
c i l l s o f window o p e n i n g s , a n h i s t o r i c s t a i r and t h e a c c e s s t o t h e
east walk. I n order to a v o i d changes i n the f l a t s o f f i t of the
s l a b , i t was d e s i g n e d t o s p a n a c r o s s window o p e n i n g s , and s o
forth.
A n o t h e r s p e c i a l f e a t u r e was t h e p r e f e r r e d u s e o f c u r v e d f l o o r
o p e n i n g s and s t a i r w a y s . A s p i r a l s t a i r was u s e d a t t h e e a s t end
b e t w e e n t h e u p p e r and l o w e r s a l e s f l o o r s , w h i l e c u r v e d s t a i r s w e r e
u s e d n e a r t h e m a i n d o o r and i n o t h e r a r e a s r e a d i l y s e e n by t h e
public. Here a g a i n f l a t s l a b s were designed to avoid the
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f beams o r o t h e r c h a n g e s i n t h e s o f f i t o f t h e s l a b s .
6 H i s t o r y and A r c h a e o l o g y
As n o t e d i n S e c t i o n 2.3, a s e r i e s o f a r c h e o l o g i c a l ' d i g s ' w e r e

o r g a n i s e d by HBM d u r i n g t h e p r e - c o n t r a c t i n v e s t i g a t i o n and
p r e p a r a t o r y w o r k s t a g e and t h e s e w e r e d i r e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o
c l e a r t h e a r e a s i n t e n d e d t o be e x c a v a t e d u n d e r t h e C o n t r a c t .
Notwithstanding t h i s w e l l c o n c e i v e d and o r g a n i s e d a c t i v i t y , a
number o f u n e x p e c t e d and i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d s w e r e e n c o u n t e r e d during
the C o n t r a c t .
I n t h e a r e a o f t h e C o a l Y a r d ( s e e F i g u r e 1 ) , n o t o n l y was a
n o r t h - w e s t e r n e x t e n s i o n to the dry d i t c h unearthed but a l s o a
c i v i l - w a r c e m e t r y was d i s c o v e r e d i m m e d i a t e l y i n s i d e t h e d i t c h .
T h r o u g h commendable and t o t a l day t o day c o - o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n
t h e C o n t r a c t o r , t h e R e s i d e n t E n g i n e e r t h e C a s t l e A u t h o r i t i e s and
t h e A r c h a e o l o g i s t s , d e l a y s t o t h e c o n t r a c t w e r e m i n i m i s e d and t h e s e
f i n d s h a d v i r t u a l l y no e f f e c t on t h e C o n t r a c t programme.
112
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More e x t e n s i v e new d i s c o v e r i e s w e r e e n c o u n t e r e d u n d e r n e a t h and
j u s t o u t s i d e M i l l s Mount ( s e e F i g u r e 1 ) . I n the t u r n i n g a r e a a t
t h e end o f t h e t u n n e l r o u t e , w a l l s forming p a r t of the 17th
Century Western D e f e n c e s were exposed. Und e r M i l l s Mount, a
s t o r e k e e p e r s room f r o m C h a r l e s I I ' s t i m e was u n e a r t h e d w i t h a
f i r e p l a c e i n one w a l l . The w a l l and f i r e p l a c e a r e l e f t e x p o s e d
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
w i t h i n t h e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e box s t r u c t u r e n o t e d i n S e c t i o n 3
above.
A wealth of a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d s i n c l u d i n g s u b s t a n t i a l remains
and a r t e f a c t s from t h e Roman and I r o n p e r i o d 2000 y e a r s ago w e r e
u n c o v e r e d i n t h e f i l l m a t e r i a l u n d e r t h e f l o o r o f M i l l s Mount and
t h e work was c a r r i e d out i n c l o s e c o - o p e r a t i o n h e r e a g a i n .
I n s p i t e o f t h e c o - o p e r a t i o n b e t w e e n a l l p a r t i e s some
i n e v i t a b l e d e l a y s were e x p e r i e n c e d which has a f f e c t e d the C o n t r a c t
programme and c o s t . I t i s c o n s i d e r e d by HBM that this a small
p r i c e t o pay f o r t h e i n v a l u a b l e d i s c o v e r i e s and f o r t h e g r e a t e r
k n o w l e d g e o f o u r h i s t o r y and o u r h e r i t a g e .
7 Acknowledgements
The C l i e n t f o r t h e p r o j e c t i s t h e H i s t o r i c B u i l d i n g s and Monuments,

S c o t l a n d , and James W i l l i a m s o n & P a r t n e r s a r e t h e l e a d c o n s u l t a n t s
f o r P h a s e 1 o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t programme.
The Hurd R o l l a n d P a r t n e r s h i p a r e P r o j e c t A r c h i t e c t s f o r t h e
T o i l e t B l o c k and G i f t Shop.
H u l l e y & K i r k w o o d a r e t h e M e c h a n i c a l and E l e c t r i c a l engineering
c o n s u l t a n t s f o r t h i s phase of the work.
L i l l e y C o n s t r u c t i o n L i m i t e d a r e the main C o n t r a c t o r s f o r Phase
1 and t h e s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n work was u n d e r t a k e n by Wimpey
L a b o r a t o r i e s L t d and R i t c h i e s L t d .
The a u t h o r w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k H i s t o r i c B u i l d i n g s and
Monuments, S c o t l a n d , f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o p u b l i s h t h e p a p e r and w i s h e s
t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e a s s i s t a n c e and s u p p o r t r e c e i v e d from a l l h i s
c o l l e a g u e s and a s s o c i a t e s on t h e P r o j e c t .
8 References
D o u g l a s , T. H. and K e e b l e , S. ( 1 9 9 0 ) D e s i g n and C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a
New S e r v i c e T u n n e l a t E d i n b u r g h C a s t l e . Proceedings Tunnel
C o n s t r u c t i o n '90 C o n f e r e n c e , L o n d o n .
E d i n b u r g h C a s t l e : V i s i t o r s R e c e p t i o n F e a s i b i l i t y Study Report
(February, 1986)
E d i n b u r g h C a s t l e : P r o p o s e d S e r v i c e and U t i l i t i e s T u n n e l R e p o r t
(October 1987)
113
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PARTTHREE
BRIDGE ENGINEERING
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Copyright CRC Press

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Copyright CRC Press

PROGRESS IN BRIDGE ENGINEERING
D.J. LEE
G. Maunsell and Partners, L o n d o n , U K
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Abstract
P r o g r e s s i n b r i d g e e n g i n e e r i n g depends on t h e p r o v i s i o n o f a r a t i o n a l
and i n t e g r a t e d p r o c e d u r e f o r d e a l i n g w i t h e m p i r i c a l r u l e s , w o r k i n g
s t r e s s methods, p l a s t i c t h e o r y , and t e c h n i q u e s o f p r o b a b i l i t y ,
s t a t i s t i c s and even human p s y c h o l o g y .
P r o g r e s s i n b r i d g e d e s i g n has t o t a k e account o f s p e c i f i e d
l o a d i n g s , changes i n m a t e r i a l s t e c h n o l o g y , s t r u c t u r a l f o r m s ,
workmanship q u a l i t y and l i m i t s t a t e d e s i g n methods.
Keywords: B r i d g e s , Codes, L i m i t S t a t e s , L o a d i n g .
1 Introduction
L i m i t s t a t e d e s i g n o f b r i d g e s can be i n t e r p r e t e d i n a w i d e sense.
Design i s an a c t i v i t y r e l a t i n g t o f i n d i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e s o l u t i o n t o
a g i v e n set of circumstances. Thus t h e use o f r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l s and
how t h e y a r e h a n d l e d i n a c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o j e c t cannot be d i v o r c e d
from a p a r t i c u l a r c o d i f i c a t i o n procedure. Conversely, a design
f o r m u l a must be l o o k e d a t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e m a t e r i a l s t o w h i c h t h e
f o r m u l a i s a p p l i e d and t h e Q u a l i t y Assurance p r o c e d u r e s , i f any,
which are being used.
I n a d d i t i o n many b r i d g e d e s i g n e r s i n t h e UK a r e h a v i n g t o d e v o t e
t h e i r t i m e t o i n s p e c t i o n , r e p a i r and r e n o v a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g
s t r u c t u r e s as w e l l as a p p l y Codes o f P r a c t i c e t o new p r o j e c t s . The
assessment o f t h e s t r e n g t h and d u r a b i l i t y o f e x i s t i n g b r i d g e s i s an
i m p o r t a n t a c t i v i t y i n t h e UK. Some o f t h i s work r e l a t e s t o a n c i e n t
o r b r i d g e s more t h a n a hundred y e a r s o l d , b u t much o f t h e t r o u b l e
stems f r o m work w h i c h i s o n l y decades o l d .
2 B r i t i s h Highway Bridge Loading
The h i s t o r i c a l development o f d e s i g n l i v e l o a d i n B r i t a i n i s
interesting. B e f o r e 1931, t h e n o r m a l p r a c t i c e was t o d e s i g n f o r t h e
e f f e c t s of a standard loading t r a i n , although equivalent u n i f o r m l y
d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d s ( c o n s t a n t f o r any span) had been suggested p r i o r t o
t h i s date. The 1931 MoT E q u i v a l e n t L o a d i n g Curve was t h e f i r s t
a t t e m p t t o d e r i v e an e q u i v a l e n t u n i f o r m l y
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d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d i n g w h i c h t o o k account o f t h e reduced p r o b a b i l i t y o f
t h e maximum p o s s i b l e i n t e n s i t y o f l i v e l o a d o c c u r i n g on l o n g e r l o a d e d
lengths. However, no s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s was c a r r i e d o u t , t h e c u r v e
s i m p l y b e i n g judged between a d e t e r m i n e d v a l u e a t t h e l o w e r end and
an assumed v a l u e a t t h e upper e n d . An a l l o w a n c e f o r dynamic e f f e c t s
was i n c l u d e d , v a r y i n g f r o m 50% a t 23m t o 15% a t 122m and z e r o a t
762m. These were a r b i t r a r y a s s u m p t i o n s .
The 1954 l o a d i n g was m o t i v a t e d by a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e
numbers, w e i g h t s and n a t u r e o f heavy v e h i c l e s had changed
c o n s i d e r a b l y s i n c e 1931. A l s o t h e n o r m a l l a n e w i d t h p r o v i d e d on
b r i d g e s had i n c r e a s e d f r o m 10 f e e t t o 12 f e e t . The b a s i c i n t e n s i t y
o f l i v e l o a d d e t e r m i n e d f o r s h o r t spans (up t o 23m) was t h e r e f o r e
g r e a t e r t h a n t h e 1931 v a l u e , but t h i s was accompanied by a r e d u c t i o n
i n t h e dynamic a l l o w a n c e f r o m 50% t o 25%, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e same
d e s i g n l o a d . For l o n g e r l o a d e d l e n g t h s , t h e 1954 e q u i v a l e n t l o a d i n g
was d e r i v e d f r o m t h e a f f e c t s o f a t r a i n o f v e h i c l e s c o n s i s t i n g o f 5
No. 22t v e h i c l e s each o c c u p y i n g 40 f t , f o l l o w e d and preceded by 4 No.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
l O t v e h i c l e s each o c c u p y i n g 35 f t , w i t h f u r t h e r 5 t v e h i c l e s o c c u p y i n g
35 f t , f i l l i n g up t h e r e s t o f t h e l o a d e d l e n g t h . The v e h i c l e s p a c i n g
i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f f r e e l y moving t r a f f i c .
The 1954 e q u i v a l a n t l o a d i n g c u r v e , o r one s i m i l a r t o i t was
used f o r t h e d e s i g n o f highway b r i d g e s i n t h e UK u n t i l 1982. Since
t h i s l o a d i n g c o n s i d e r s t h e e f f e c t o f o n l y 5 v e h i c l e s over 10T and
none o v e r 22T i n any l a n e f o r l o a d e d l e n g t h s w h i c h nowadays may be i n
excess o f 2000 m e t r e s , t h e r e was c l e a r l y a p r e s s i n g need t o
r e c o n s i d e r t h e d e s i g n l o a d i n g under modern c o n d i t i o n s such as
i n c r e a s e d w e i g h t and number o f v e h i c l e s , motorway o p e r a t i o n ,
c o n t r a - f l o w and u r b a n c o n d i t i o n s . The i n f l u e n c e o f contemporary
b r i d g e f o r m s , w i d t h s and spans s h o u l d a l s o be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .
The I n t e r i m Revised L o a d i n g S p e c i f i c a t i o n was i n t r o d u c e d by t h e
Department o f T r a n s p o r t i n 1982 t o a p p l y t o t h e d e s i g n o f highway
b r i d g e s i n t h e UK w i t h spans g r e a t e r t h a n 40m. For t h e f i r s t t i m e i n
t h e UK, t h e d e s i g n l o a d i n g f o r l o n g spans was i n t e n d e d t o embody
o b s e r v a t i o n s o f a c t u a l v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c c o n d i t i o n s , b e i n g based on
t h e p r e l i m i n a r y f i n d i n g s f r o m such a s t u d y . One o f t h e s e f i n d i n g s
was t h a t f o r a l l l o a d e d l e n g t h s , t h e maximum t r a f f i c l o a d i n g occured
w i t h s t a t i o n a r y t r a f f i c . T h i s c r i t e r i o n has a l s o been observed i n
the U.S.A.
S t u d i e s o f v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c on l o n g span b r i d g e s r e s u l t e d i n
t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f a new d e s i g n l o a d i n g c u r v e f o r n o r m a l l i v e l o a d ,
based on a p r o b a b i l i s t i c a n a l y s i s o f t h e observed t r a f f i c b e h a v i o u r
u s i n g a m a t h m a t i c a l m o d e l . T h i s was combined w i t h a d e t e r m i n i s t i c
s t u d y o f l i v e l o a d on s h o r t span b r i d g e s t o produce a proposed
l o a d i n g f o r a l l loaded l e n g t h s .
The r e d u c t i o n o f average l i v e l o a d i n t e n s i t y w i t h c a r r i a g e w a y
w i d t h i s j u s t as s i g n i f i c a n t as span o r l o a d e d l e n g t h . The c u r v e s o f
maximum i n t e n s i t y o f l i v e l o a d a r e a p p l i e d i n any one t r a f f i c l a n e .
The 1954 d e s i g n l o a d i n g r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h i s was u n l i k e l y t o o c c u r
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y on a w i d e b r i d g e , and t h e r e f o r e s p e c i f i e d t h a t t h e
f u l l i n t e n s i t y s h o u l d be a p p l i e d t o any two l a n e s w i t h 1/3 o f t h a t
i n t e n s i t y a p p l i e d t o any r e m a i n i n g l a n e s . I n t h e 1984 p r o p o s a l s n o t
o n l y has t h e maximum i n t e n s i t y o f l o a d i n g i n c r e a s e d ,
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b u t t h e f a c t o r a p p l i e d t o t h e r e m a i n i n g l a n e s was i n c r e a s e d ,
generally to 0.6. However r e d u c t i o n i n i n t e n s i t y on t h e second l a n e
was p e r m i t t e d f o r l o n g e r l o a d e d l e n g t h s on l e s s t h a n s i x l a n e s .
I n h i s paper d e s c r i b i n g t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e 1954 l o a d i n g ,
Henderson r e c o g n i s e d t h a t t h e l o n g span l o a d i n g was r a t h e r
s p e c u l a t i v e , and s a i d i t " s h o u l d be l o o k e d on m a i n l y as a g u i d e " . He
then s t a t e d t h a t q u i t e l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n l i v e load are not of
g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e , q u o t i n g as an example t h a t f o r spans o f 300 f e e t
(91m) " t h e dead t o l i v e l o a d r a t i o w i l l be a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 t o 1 . "
T h i s f a c t o r has become eroded over t h e y e a r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r
steel bridges. As l i v e l o a d has i n c r e a s e d , s i m u l t a n e o u s developments
i n d e s i g n have l e a d t o l i g h t e r b r i d g e d e c k s .
3 Comparison of Highway Loadings
C o n t r a r y t o what i s f r e q u e n t l y assumed, B r i t i s h HA l o a d i n g i s
n e i t h e r u n d u l y heavy n o r l i g h t f o r b e n d i n g moments and s h e a r s . The
l i g h t e s t moments and shears f o r a s i n g l e l a n e l o a d i n g a r i s e f r o m such
s t a n d a r d s as AASHTO o r t h e A u s t r i a n . The h e a v i e s t o r i g i n a t e f r o m
I t a l y , West Germany and H o l l a n d . Most n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s have
s p e c i a l v e h i c l e l o a d i n g t o c a t e r f o r heavy o r abnormal l o a d i n g - some
o f w h i c h a r e u n d u l y complex.
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o compare one code w i t h a n o t h e r because t h e
v a r i a b l e a c t i o n v a l u e s have t o be r e l a t e d t o t h e r e s i s t a n c e
calculations. I n s i m p l e s t terms a heavy l o a d i n g s p e c i f i c a t i o n m i g h t
be combatted by s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t r e n g t h c a l c u l a t i o n s ( I t a l i a n and
German). A l t e r n a t i v e l y s i m p l e c o n s e r v a t i v e a n a l y s i s w i t h l i g h t e r
l o a d i n g leads to a s i m i l a r r e s u l t . The e s s e n t i a l f a c t o r t h e r e f o r e i s
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e checks f o r s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t s t a t e s .
I n g e n e r a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e t o o v a r i a b l e and u n n e c e s s a r i l y
complicated. The range o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s suggested i n t h e
F . I . P . Recommendations (Ref 1) e n v e l o p most n a t i o n a l l o a d i n g s .
4 CEB-FIP Recommendations
The CEB-FIP Model Code f o r Concrete S t r u c t u r e s (MC 78) 1978 w i t h a

new e d i t i o n due i n 1990, r e p r e s e n t s o v e r 30 y e a r s o f w o r k . The l i m i t
s t a t e d e s i g n p h i l o s o p h y , p a r t i a l l y a t l e a s t , has been adopted by
s e v e r a l n a t i o n a l Codes. MC 78 i s n e v e r t h e l e s s t o o d e t a i l e d f o r e v e r y
day use and t h e FIP Commission on P r a c t i c a l Design p r e p a r e d a
document w h i c h p l a c e d MC 78 i n a f o r m s u i t a b l e f o r g e n e r a l
i n t e r n a t i o n a l use p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r comparison between n a t i o n a l codes
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(Ref 1 ) .
So t h a t t h e r e was a b a s i s o f comparison a s i m p l e range o f
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s o f v a r i a b l e a c t i o n s was i n c l u d e d . The FIP
P r a c t i c a l D e s i g n Commission i s a l s o p r e p a r i n g f o r p u b l i c a t i o n s e v e r a l
b r i d g e examples i n accordance w i t h t h e d e s i g n recommendations as
a c t u a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d . I n t h i s way t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f v a r i o u s
n a t i o n a l codes and l o a d i n g s w i t h t h e FIP p r o p o s a l s w i l l be compared.
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5 Designers' Choice
The d i v i s i o n between Codes o f P r a c t i c e as g u i d e s t o good p r a c t i c e and

n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s w h i c h have t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f mandatory
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s has u n f o r t u n a t e l y tended t o become b l u r r e d i n p o s t war
years. I t can best perhaps be summarised as t h e d i f f e r e n c e between
what one s h o u l d d o , i n a code o f p r a c t i c e , and what one s h a l l d o , i n
a mandatory s p e c i f i c a t i o n . A l t h o u g h i n t h e UK compliance w i t h d e s i g n
codes i s n o t s t r i c t l y mandatory t o meet s t a t u t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s , i t i s
customary t o use them: t h e y a r e "deemed t o s a t i s f y " t h e
requirements. T h i s means t h a t i t i s u s u a l l y e a s i e r and q u i c k e r t o
o b t a i n the necessary r e g u l a t o r y approvals. I f t h e d e s i g n e r and h i s
c l i e n t has t i m e i t i s u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a p p r o v a l f o r d e s i g n
t o an u n u s u a l - o r no - code. For b u i l d i n g s t h i s f l e x i b i l i t y i s
l i k e l y t o d i s a p p e a r w i t h t h e advent o f European s t a n d a r d s . With
b r i d g e s i t has n o t e x i s t e d f o r many y e a r s .
6 Development of Concrete Codes
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o l o o k at the e v o l u t i o n of the B r i t i s h r e i n f o r c e d
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
c o n c r e t e codes. The f i r s t , produced by t h e Department o f S c i e n t i f i c

and I n d u s t r i a l Research, was p u b l i s h e d i n 1934. T h i s was succeeded
i n 1948 by CP114, s t i l l a s l i m document. Both o f t h e s e were t r u e
permissible stress*codes.
1957 saw t h e emergence o f a r e v i s e d CP114. For most d e s i g n e r s
o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e i n UK i t was t h e f i r s t s i g h t o f l o a d f a c t o r
design. I t i s i n s t r u c t i v e t o see what t h e Code s a i d about t h e method:
" ( I t ) does n o t i n v o l v e a knowledge o f o r use o f t h e modular
r a t i o and does n o t assume a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e
s t r e s s and s t r a i n i n t h e c o n c r e t e . I t assumes i n s t e a d t h a t , as
f a i l u r e i s approached, t h e compressive s t r e s s e s w i l l a d j u s t
themselves t o g i v e a t o t a l compression g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t deduced
from the e l a s t i c theory, the extent of t h i s
a d j u s t m e n t h a v i n g been d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t e s t t o
destruction
"The r e s i s t a n c e moments o f beam and s l a b s e c t i o n s may be

c a l c u l a t e d t o have a l o a d f a c t o r g e n e r a l l y o f 1.8; i n t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h , however, t h e cube
s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o n c r e t e s h o u l d be t a k e n as o n l y 2 - t h i r d s o f t h e
a c t u a l cube s t r e n g t h I t i s necessary a l s o t o ensure
t h a t t h e s t r e s s e s a t w o r k i n g l o a d s a r e n o t such as t o cause
excessive cracking "
T h i s goes some way towards i n t r o d u c i n g l i m i t s t a t e s . I n the

p r e f a c e t o t h e second e d i t i o n o f t h e 1957 Code w a r n i n g was g i v e n t h a t
a c o m p l e t e l y "new l o o k " v e r s i o n was t o appear as t h e r e s u l t o f work
b e i n g done f o l l o w i n g t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e recommendations o f t h e
European Concrete Committee (CEB). I t was t h i s work w h i c h gave r i s e
t o t h e s o - c a l l e d u n i f i e d Code, CP110:1970, b u t i t s t i l l r e t a i n e d t h e
o p t i o n o f t h e e l a s t i c method.
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T h i s Code was now i n t h r e e r i n g - b i n d e r volumes o f A4. Compared
w i t h t h e s l i m documents w h i c h had been i n use p r e v i o u s l y t h e new one
was f r i g h t e n i n g - b u t n o t i f we compare l i k e w i t h l i k e . Two o f t h e
volumes were c h a r t s t o make t h e d e s i g n e r ' s l i f e e a s i e r . Volume 1
c o n t a i n e d t h e meat o f t h e Code - and more t h a n t h i s , embraced two
o t h e r Codes, CP115 and CP116, r e s p e c t i v e l y d e a l i n g w i t h p r e s t r e s s e d
and p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e . From t h e f i r s t t h e r e were o b j e c t i o n s ( t h o u g h
n o t n o r m a l l y d i r e c t e d t o t h e p a r t s d e a l i n g w i t h p r e s t r e s s e d and
precast concrete). A l t h o u g h i t had been i n t e n d e d t h a t t h e b u i l d i n g
r e g u l a t i o n s would w i t h d r a w r e c o g n i t i o n t o CP114, b o t h Codes had
"deemed t o s a t i s f y " s t a t u s . Work was s t a r t e d i n 1979 i n t h e u p d a t i n g
o f CP110 and now a v a i l a b l e as BS8110.
Meanwhile work was p r o c e e d i n g i n CEB: e n g i n e e r s i n Europe, and
i n most o f t h e o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s o f t h e w o r l d , c o l l a b o r a t e d t o produce
i n v a l u a b l e b u l l e t i n s c o n t a i n i n g the r e s u l t s of wide-ranging research,
development and d e s i g n i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h i s work was t o become o f
c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e Eurocode S t r a t e g y .
7 S i g n i f i c a n c e of L i m i t S t a t e Approach
I n t h e p a s t 40 y e a r s t h e approach t o s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n has changed.

T h i s change has a f f e c t e d codes. Economic p r e s s u r e t o make t h e
g r e a t e s t use o f t h e i n h e r e n t s t r e n g t h s o f m a t e r i a l s and t h e
development o f p l a s t i c t h e o r y have l e d t o an improved u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of u l t i m a t e l o a d - c a r r y i n g capacity. New o r improved m a t e r i a l s and
b e t t e r s t a t i s t i c a l c o n t r o l o f q u a l i t y have a l l o w e d t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f
h i g h e r s t r e s s e s under w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s ; as a r e s u l t o f t h i s i t has
become more i m p o r t a n t t o check t h a t t h e s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t s t a t e s
( s u c h as e x c e s s i v e d e f o r m a t i o n , c r a c k i n g o r v i b r a t i o n ) have an
a c c e p t a b l e p r o b a b i l i t y o f n o t b e i n g reached i n s e r v i c e . To use an
e x p r e s s i o n f r o m s t a t i s t i c s , t h e " c o n f i d e n c e l e v e l " has r i s e n .
The changes i n method can i n c r e a s e t h e work o f t h e d e s i g n e r by
d i n t o f more complex f o r m u l i f o r r e s i s t e n c e , t h e need t o c o n s i d e r
modes o f f a i l u r e p r e v i o u s l y p r e c l u d e d by t h e use o f l o w e r s t r e s s e s
and r e s t r i c t i o n s on p r o p o r t i o n s , and by t h e need f o r e x p l i c i t
consideration of s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t s . I n o t h e r r e s p e c t s , such as
i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e d e s i g n l o a d e f f e c t s i n a c o n t i n u o u s beam,
p l a s t i c t h e o r y has s i m p l i f i e d a n a l y s i s .
There a r e numerous i n s t a n c e s i n w h i c h t h e e l a s t i c methods w i t h
a l l o w a b l e w o r k i n g s t r e s s e s p r o v i d e s a f e l o w e r bounds. W i t h i n codes
such as BS 8110 such methods a r e commonly i n c o r p o r a t e d f o r use w i t h i n
c e r t a i n d e f i n e d l i m i t a t i o n s . Some codes such as t h a t f o r t i m b e r
structures, apply to materials w i t h l i t t l e capacity f o r stress
r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n and f o r t h e s e t h e e l a s t i c approach i s r e t a i n e d -
a l t h o u g h i t must be s a i d t h a t t h e r e a r e t h o s e who b e l i e v e t h a t l i m i t
s t a t e s a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o a l l forms o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . The arguments
c o n t i n u e o v e r whether i t i s l o g i c a l t o use l i m i t s t a t e s i n f o u n d a t i o n
design.
The p a r t i a l s a f e t y f a c t o r f o r m a t enables t h e d e s i g n e r t o adopt
m a r g i n s w h i c h a l l o w r a t i o n a l l y f o r t h e degrees o f u n c e r t a i n t y i n
121
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t h e assumptions o f l o a d i n g s and p e r m i t r e a d i l y t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f
c o m b i n a t i o n s o f l o a d e f f e c t s , f o r whatever l i m i t s t a t e . The f o r m a t s
a d o p t e d , a l t h o u g h s i m p l e r t h a n t h o s e n e c e s s a r y t o produce u n i f o r m
l i a b i l i t y i n service, lead to a f a r b e t t e r consistency i n safety than
i s a c h i e v a b l e w i t h p e r m i s s i b l e s t r e s s methods. I n p a r t i c u l a r they
s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t f a i l u r e and o v e r l o a d o f s t r u c t u r e s where s t r e s s e s
a r e n o t l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d t o l o a d s such as t h e F e r r y b r i d g e c o o l i n g
towers. Those who f a v o u r p e r m i s s i b l e s t r e s s methods c l a i m t h a t t h e y
a r e i n t r i n s i c a l l y s i m p l e r t o use f o r t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s w h i c h m i g h t be
r e g a r d e d as c o n v e n t i o n a l and r e p e t i t i v e i n n a t u r e . They m i g h t w e l l
a p p l y t o most o f t h e s t r u c t u r e i n a n o r m a l r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
building.
The use o f t h e new d e s i g n methods has been shown t o o f f e r a
s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r a l l saving i n the cost of m a t e r i a l of c o n s t r u c t i o n .
The new codes i n c l u d e f o r m u l i w h i c h f a c i l i t a t e t h e use o f computers
and d e s i g n a i d s t o a l l e v i a t e t h e apparent c o m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e new
procedures. Much o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e codes has r e s u l t e d f r o m
t h e demand f o r t h e i r more comprehensive a p p l i c a t i o n t o d i v e r s e
s t r u c t u r a l t y p e s , methods o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and m a t e r i a l s . However,
p r e p a r a t i o n o f s i m p l e r r u l e s f o r everyday s t r u c t u r e s f r o m b u l k y codes
is perfectly possible.
The changes i n d e s i g n approach o u t l i n e d above a r e b e i n g adopted
world-wide. T h e i r c u r r e n t a d o p t i o n i n t h e d r a f t i n g o f Eurocodes
w h i c h a r e i n t e n d e d e v e n t u a l l y t o supersede t h e UK N a t i o n a l Codes i s
of p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e .
I t s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n t h a t t h e advent o f a new m a t e r i a l o r
method has been t h e s i g n a l f o r a number o f f a i l u r e s . I t i s the
awareness o f t h i s f a c t t h a t has t h a n k f u l l y i n s t i l l e d a c a u t i o u s
attitude.
A common, and o f t e n r e a s o n a b l e c r i t i c i s m o f l i m i t s t a t e
p r o c e d u r e s i s t h a t use i s made o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f s t a t i s t i c s w h i c h
a r e n o t j u s t i f i e d e i t h e r f r o m t h e knowledge c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e on
s t r e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o n , on l o a d i n g o r on and s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o u r .
P r o p o s a l s t o d e v e l o p codes u s i n g s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s on even
h i g h e r l e v e l s have met w i t h a d e c i d e d l y c o o l response i n t h e UK b u t
t h e r e a r e t y p e s o f s t r u c t u r e where t h e p r o b a b i l i s t i c approach i s
appropriate.
8 F i r e Resistance and D u r a b i l i t y
I t i s now u s u a l i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f d e s i g n o f n o r m a l r e i n f o r c e d
concrete b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s t o determine the f i r e r e s i s t e n c e
r e q u i r e d and t o choose a d e s i r e d d u r a b i l i t y . Here t h e f i r e
r e s i s t e n c e i s as e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e B u i l d i n g R e g u l a t i o n s f o r
b u i l d i n g s o f v a r i o u s t y p e s o f occupancy, and d u r a b i l i t y i s i n terms
o f r e s i s t e n c e t o g i v e n exposure c o n d i t i o n s . Only when t h e s e
parameters have been c o n s i d e r e d i t i s p o s s i b l e t o d e c i d e such m a t t e r s
as t h e member s i z e s and a p p r o p r i a t e cover t o t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
These a s p e c t s a r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d f o r b r i d g e d e s i g n d e s p i t e t h e
r e g u l a r occurence o f f i r e damage t o b r i d g e s .
122
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Copyright CRC Press

9 Cement and Concrete Technology
A f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s t h e changes i n t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f cement
t h a t have t a k e n p l a c e s i n c e e a r l i e r codes o f p r a c t i c e were d r a f t e d .
Nowadays a h i g h e r e a r l y s t r e n g t h i s a c h i e v e d almost t o t h e p o i n t o f a
f l a s h s e t i n some cases; hence a modern code o f p r a c t i c e may
recommend a h i g h e r c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h t h a n necessary s t r u c t u r a l l y , b u t
which i s p a r t of the concrete p r o p e r t i e s r e l a t i n g to d u r a b i l i t y .
The s e l e c t i o n o f a c o n c r e t e mix i s now something o f a j u g g l i n g
act. Some o f t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s were n o t as w e l l u n d e r s t o o d as t h e y
were t h o u g h t t o be, b u t t h e e n g i n e e r had t h e c o n f i d e n c e t h a t came
w i t h f a m i l i a r i t y - and perhaps i g n o r a n c e . He c o u l d assume t h a t t h e
s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e would c o n t i n u e t o r i s e i n d e f i n i t e l y : the
t w e n t y - e i g h t day s t r e n g t h was 50% above t h a t a t seven days and a
f u r t h e r 25% a t a y e a r - w i t h t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e r e was s t i l l
more t o come! T h i n g s a r e much more c o m p l i c a t e d now. I t i s no l o n g e r
r e a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t a t w e n t y e i g h t day s t r e n g t h w i l l g i v e a f a t
s a f e t y m a r g i n . On t h e c o n t r a r y , BS 8110 g i v e s no age a l l o w a n c e
unless t h e r e i s evidence t o j u s t i f y a h i g h e r s t r e n g t h f o r a
p a r t i c u l a r s t r u c t u r e . E s p e c i a l l y o f r e l e v a n c e t o w a t e r - r e t a i n i n g and
- e x c l u d i n g s t r u c t u r e s , i f t h e c o n c r e t e c r a c k s i t may no l o n g e r h e a l
i t s e l f , s i n c e a l l t h e h y d r a t i o n would have t a k e n p l a c e . Again,
c a l c i u m c h l o r i d e and h i g h aluminous cement have b i t t e n t h e d u s t - o r
c o n t r i b u t e d t o i t . A l k a l i - s i l i c a r e a c t i o n and c a r b o n a t i o n have
r e a r e d t h e i r u g l y heads ( a l t h o u g h t h e s u g g e s t i o n has been made by a t
l e a s t one eminent e n g i n e e r t h a t t h e one may c o u n t e r a c t t h e o t h e r ) .
The a v a i l a b i l i t y and use o f p u l v a r i s e d f u e l ash ( p f a ) , g r o u n d
g r a n u l a t e d b l a s t f u r n a c e s l a g ( g g b f s ) , s i l i c a fume and
s u p e r - p l a s t i c i s e r s present engineers w i t h a d d i t i o n a l , i f confusing
choices.
I n t h e f a c e o f a l l t h e s e c o m p l i c a t i o n s a welcome s i m p l i f y i n g
assumption i s t h a t f o r a g i v e n k i n d of mix, the stronger the
c o n c r e t e , t h e more d u r a b l e . I t i s t h i s assumption t h a t has made i t
p o s s i b l e , i n BS 8110, t o t a b u l a t e d u r a b i l i t y w i t h s t r e n g t h and
w a t e r / c e m e n t r a t i o . I t cannot be c l a i m e d t h a t i t has e r a d i c a t e d a l l
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
controversy: t h e r e a r e numerous, and v o c a l , o b j e c t i o n s , some b u t n o t

a l l o f them m u t u a l l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y . F r u i t f u l t o p i c s o f argument a r e
m y r i a d and i n c l u d e t h e need t o , l i m i t t h e cement c o n c r e t e t o reduce
c r a c k i n g , t h e means o f e n s u r i n g an adequate c o n c r e t e cover t o
r e i n f o r c e m e n t and t h e e q u i v a l e n t c e m e n t i t i o u s v a l u e o f a d d i t i v e s .
Champions o f p f a have been heard t o c l a i m t h a t i t i s t h e cement w h i c h
s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as t h e a d d i t i v e ! B e a r i n g i n mind what i s
h a p p e n i n g i n some c o u n t r i e s i n Europe, where cement may c o n t a i n 25%
o f a n y t h i n g , perhaps t h e c l a i m i s n o t r i d i c u l o u s .
10 Q u a l i t y Assurance
There have been s i g n i f i c a n t advances i n t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y and

r e l i a b i l i t y o f h i g h t e c h n o l o g y p r o c e s s e n g i n e e r i n g i n t h e l a s t 20
y e a r s o r so w h i c h have been a t t r i b u t e d i n no s m a l l measure t o t h e
a d o p t i o n o f a f o r m a l "systems" approach t o o p e r a t i o n a l and p r o d u c t i o n
management w h i c h has become known as Q u a l i t y Assurance ( Q A ) . I t
123
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s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s below, t a k e n f r o m t h e r e l e v a n t
B r i t i s h Standard (Ref 2) and t h e I . S . O . Standard on w h i c h i t i s
d i r e c t l y based, a p p l y : -
q u a l i t y management: That aspect o f t h e o v e r a l l management

f u n c t i o n t h a t d e t e r m i n e s and implements t h e q u a l i t y p o l i c y ,
q u a l i t y system: The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e , r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ,
p r o c e d u r e s , p r o c e s s e s and r e s o u r c e s f o r i m p l e m e n t a t i n g q u a l i t y
management.
q u a l i t y c o n t r o l : The o p e r a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s and a c t i v i t i e s t h a t
a r e used t o f u l f i l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r q u a l i t y ,
q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e : A l l t h o s e p l a n n e d and s y s t e m a t i c a c t i o n s
n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e adequate c o n f i d e n c e t h a t a p r o d u c t o r
s e r v i c e w i l l s a t i s f y given requirements f o r q u a l i t y .
The success o f QA i n t h e t o p e c h e l o n s o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e companies i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e defence procurement
programme, l e d t o a campaign by t h e UK C e n t r a l Government
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o promote w i d e r a d o p t i o n o f QA t h r o u g h o u t a l l s e c t o r s
o f i n d u s t r y . I t has a l s o been suggested t h a t a r e c o g n i s e d QA scheme
can be u s e f u l t o combat p r o t e c t i o n i s m i n e x p o r t i n g t o c e r t a i n
states. T h i s was c e r t a i n l y t h e case w i t h a t l e a s t one major s e c t o r
o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s i n d u s t r y . Some p r o f e s s i o n a l q u a l i t y
s p e c i a l i s t s see BS 5750 as r e l e v a n t t o c o n s t r u c t i o n even w i t h o u t
a d j u s t m e n t , b u t i t i s q u i t e o b v i o u s t h a t BS 5750 was p r i m a r i l y
d r a f t e d around t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y . For t h i s
r e a s o n e a r l y i n 1985 a g r o u p o f c o n s u l t a n t s c o n s i s t i n g o f G M a u n s e l l
& P a r t n e r s and t h r e e o t h e r f i r m s developed a c o o r d i n a t e d q u a l i t y
system w i t h BSI w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f l a u n c h i n g i t as a s e c t o r scheme
approved by t h e N a t i o n a l A c c r e d i t a t i o n C o u n c i l t o p r o v i d e t h e
framework f o r a w o r k i n g s y s t e m .
The g r o u p t h e r e f o r e p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h B S I , o f
an i n t e r p r e t a t i v e document c a l l e d "The Q u a l i t y Assessment Schedule"
(QAS) w h i c h s t a n d s a l o n g s i d e BS 5750 t o d e s c r i b e t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e system f o r c i v i l and s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g
design. T h i s has been adopted by BSI and i s s u e d as one o f t h e i r
o f f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n s (Ref 3 ) .
I n t h e y e a r s t o come t h e p l a c e o f q u a l i t y assurance i n t h e
d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b r i d g e s w i l l i n t u r n i n f l u e n c e codes o f
practice.
11 Bridge I n s p e c t i o n , Assessmemt and R e p a i r
The t r a d i t i o n a l b r i d g e f o r m i n B r i t a i n b e f o r e t h e i n d u s t r i a l
r e v o l u t i o n was been t h e b r i c k and masonry a r c h . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g
t h a t c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h i n B r i t a i n i s a d d r e s s i n g t h e a n a l y s i s o f such
s t r u c t u r e s as t h e r e a r e q u i t e a few t h i n g s t h a t a r e n o t f u l l y
understood. As an a r c h b r i d g e r e l i e s on i t s s p r i n g i n g s and
a b u t m e n t s , s p a n d r e l w a l l s and f i l l i n g m a t e r i a l s , a l l o f w h i c h may
v a r y , i t i s apparent t h a t t h e c o d i f i c a t i o n o f d e s i g n o f new b r i d g e s
o r o l d ones o f t h i s f o r m i s n o t t h e s u b j e c t o f an e s t a b l i s h e d Code o f
Practice. The B r i t i s h Department o f T r a n s p o r t method o f a s s e s s i n g
124
Copyright CRC Press

t h e s t r e n g t h o f e x i s t i n g arches i s s u b j e c t t o c u r r e n t r e v i e w and
r e s e a r c h and d o u b t l e s s w i l l be m o d i f i e d i n t h e l i g h t o f r e s e a r c h and
experience.
More g e n e r a l l y b r i d g e i n s p e c t i o n and assessment i s a m a j o r
s p e c i a l i s t t a s k . R o u t i n e i n s p e c t i o n s can be s u p e r f i c i a l owing t o t h e
l a c k o f s k i l l e d men and r e s o u r c e s a t t h e r i g h t t i m e .
12 B r i t a i n and Europe
I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e f e r now t o B r i t a i n ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
European Community. From a t e c h n o l o g i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , a t l e a s t , i t i s
l o g i c a l t h a t t h e b e s t i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e i n a l l t h e member
c o u n t r i e s s h o u l d be b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n t o one p o o l , whether t h e way
chosen t o do t h i s i s t h e b e s t remains t o be seen. I t w i l l n o t do t o
p r e t e n d t h a t t h e t e c h n i c a l advantages a r e a l l t h e r e i s t o i t ; the
p o l i t i c a l context i s extremely important.
I t i s i n t e n d e d t h a t by t h e end o f 1991 t h e " i n t e r n a l m a r k e t "
w i l l be c o m p l e t e . T h i s i s when t h e r e w i l l be f r e e access t h r o u g h o u t
t h e European Community o f p r o d u c t s and s e r v i c e s . A C o n s t r u c t i o n
Products D i r e c t i v e sets out the r u l e s . I n implementation there w i l l
be European Standards w h i c h w i l l cover e v e r y aspect o f c o n s t r u c t i o n .
I n t h e f i r s t i n s t a n c e n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s and codes w i l l c o n t i n u e
t o be a c c e p t a b l e i n p a r a l l e l w i t h European Standards ( o r ISO,
I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t a n d a r d i s a t i o n O r g a n i s a t i o n Standards where t h e y do
not e x i s t ) . E v e n t u a l l y o n l y European Standards w i l l be a c c e p t a b l e -
b u t i t w i l l t a k e many y e a r s b e f o r e t h e o t h e r documents a r e
superseded.
A number o f B r i t i s h Standards have been g r a n t e d t h e s t a t u s o f
European S t a n d a r d s , o r Euronorms, and g i v e n d u a l n u m b e r i n g . I n some
i n s t a n c e s B r i t i s h Standards have been d r a f t e d w i t h an eye t o becoming
Euronorms; a l t e r n a t i v e l y , ISO Standards t o whose d r a f t i n g B r i t a i n
has c o n t r i b u t e d may a l s o c a r r y b o t h B r i t i s h Standard and Euronorm
numbers.
13 Eurocodes
More c o m p l i c a t e d i s t h e s e r i e s o f Eurocodes, b e i n g d r a f t e d by
e n g i n e e r s o f v a r i o u s European N a t i o n a l i t y . The l i s t o f Eurocodes is
as f o l l o w s : -
EC 1 General P r i n c i p l e s
EC 2 Concrete
EC 3 Steel
EC 4 Composite
Steel/Concrete
EC 5 Timber
EC 6 Masonry
EC 7 Foundations
EC 8 Seismic
EC 9 Act i o n s / L o a d i n g s
1 25
Copyright CRC Press

Wherever p o s s i b l e t h e d r a f t i n g Committees have made use o f work
done i n a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s : EC 1 uses much o f
t h e work o f ISO t o g e t h e r w i t h t h a t o f o t h e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l b o d i e s ; EC
2 i s v e r y c l o s e l y based upon t h e work o f CEB; EC 3 on t h a t o f
European Commission f o r S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l w o r k and so o n . Much o f t h e
work on t h e f i r s t t h r e e Eurocodes has been done a l t h o u g h i f a
N a t i o n a l Code i s a compromise t h a n an I n t e r n a t i o n a l Code must be a
second o r d e r compromise. The d r a f t addresses b u i l d i n g d e s i g n and
bridge design w i l l f o l l o w l a t e r . The s t r a t e g y o f Eurocodes r e q u i r e s
t h a t n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s work i s l i m i t e d t o a c a r e and maintenance
b a s i s , t h a t any new work i s done i n t h e European Standards framework
and t h a t t h e European Standards s h o u l d accommodate UK r e q u i r e m e n t s -
and i n a d d i t i o n s t r u c t u r e d f o r ready a p p l i c a t i o n .
Any pessimism as t o t h e e a r l y r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e Eurocode
s t r a t e g y may be t a k e n as j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e argument o v e r j u s t one
w o r d : A c t i o n s , e v e n t u a l l y t o be used as t h e t i t l e f o r EC 9 . (The
word i s i n t e n d e d t o mean a wide range o f m a n i f e s t a t i o n s i n d i f f e r e n t
u n i t s , including forces, r e s t r a i n t s , deformations, shrinkage,
m o i s t u r e and t h e r m a l movements, e t c . ) I n a f o o t n o t e t o one d r a f t o f
EC 2 t h e r e i s t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e t e r m ' e f f e c t s o f t h e a c t i o n s '
c o v e r s a w i d e r range o f e f f e c t s t h a n t h e t e r m ' a c t i o n e f f e c t s ' , w h i c h
o n l y r e f e r s t o b e n d i n g moments, t o r s i o n a l moments, l o n g i t u d i n a l
f o r c e s , and t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e s .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
There a r e numerous o t h e r examples i n t h e Eurocodes o f f a m i l i a r

words w h i c h have assumed u n f a m i l i a r g u i s e s . To be f a i r i t i s n o t a
one-way t r a f f i c s i n c e q u i t e a few E n g l i s h words have been accepted t o
w h i c h c o n t i n e n t a l p u r i s t s would t a k e e x c e p t i o n .
14 P r a c t i c a l Use of BS 5400
BS 5400 ( R e f . 4 ) r e p r e s e n t s a c o n s i d e r a b l e achievement i n t h e f i e l d o f
l i m i t s t a t e codes o f p r a c t i c e and i t s use i s necessary i n t h e UK when
d e s i g n i n g b r i d g e s f o r t h e Department o f T r a n s p o r t and f o r o t h e r
Client Authorities. As t h e a u t h o r was n o t concerned i n i t s d r a f t i n g
d i r e c t l y o t h e r t h a n w i t h P a r t 9 B r i d g e B e a r i n g s i t i s perhaps
a p p r o p r i a t e t o emphasise t h e advances i t has made i n b r i n g i n g l i m i t
s t a t e t h i n k i n g i n t o a b r i d g e code.
15 BS 5400 f o r S t e e l Bridge Design
BS5400: P a r t 3 d e a l s w i t h s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s and much o f t h e r e s e a r c h

work c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e l a s t t w e n t y y e a r s has been i n c o r p o r a t e d
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e M e r i s o n Committee work on s t e e l p l a t e p a n e l s and box
girders. Such a s p e c t s mean t h a t t h e code i s a complex one and
g e n e r a l l y a g r e a t d e a l o f c r o s s r e f e r e n c i n g i s r e q u i r e d f r o m one
clause to another. One p a r t o f t h e code i s n o t always c o n s i s t e n t
w i t h a n o t h e r p a r t . An example i s t h e use o f t h e d e s i g n f a c t o r w h i c h
i n Part 3 i s included i n the resistance side of the c a l c u l a t i o n
whereas i n P a r t 4 i t i s i n c l u d e d as a l o a d f a c t o r .
Part 3 i n p a r t i c u l a r provides basic formulae f o r the v a r i o u s
t a b l e s and graphs used i n d e s i g n w h i c h i n t u r n promotes t h e
126
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development o f computer s o f t w a r e f o r number c r u n c h i n g . M a u n s e l l has
d e v e l o p e d a programme caused STRJDE w h i c h has c o n s i d e r a b l y a s s i s t e d
t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s s i n c e i t f r e e s t h e e n g i n e e r and g i v e s h i m t i m e t o
d e v e l o p an optimum d e s i g n . The c o r o l l a r y i s t h a t f o r s t e e l d e s i g n t h e
document e n a b l e s an e n g i n e e r t o c a r r y o u t t h e n e c e s s a r y checks f o r
each element o f a proposed o r e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e b u t g i v e s l i t t l e
g u i d a n c e as t o t h e i n i t i a l s i z i n g o f members o r l a y o u t o f s t i f f e n e r s
etc. There a r e no s h o r t c u t r u l e s t o o b t a i n optimum p a n e l s i z e s such
as f o r webs. For t h i s reason t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s can be q u i t e l e n g t h y
u n t i l t h e e n g i n e e r becomes s u i t a b l y e x p e r i e n c e d .
For t h e d e s i g n o f s t e e l w o r k i n b u i l d i n g s t h e BS 449 i s now
j o i n e d by a l i m i t s t a t e code BS 5950. T h i s complex document w i l l
r e q u i r e f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n and amendment i n due c o u r s e . The same
comments can be a p p l i e d t o BS 5400 P a r t 3 f o r t h e d e s i g n o f s t e e l
b r i d g e s b u t h a p p i l y t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t . B r i d g e e n g i n e e r s a r e more
a t t u n e d t o complex c a l c u l a t i o n s i n r e c e n t y e a r s .
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t Eurocode 3 f o r s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s
d e a l s w i t h b u i l d i n g t y p e s t r u c t u r e s and t h e r e i s no immediate
i n t e n t i o n t o e n l a r g e t h e document t o d e a l w i t h b r i d g e s t o t h e
s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f BS 5400. N e v e r t h e l e s s i n t h e f u t u r e b o t h b r i d g e s
and o f f s h o r e s t r u c t u r e s w i l l be b r o u g h t i n t o t h e Eurocode n e t .
16 BS 5400 f o r Concrete Bridge Design
B e f o r e t h e i s s u e o f BS 5400 c o n c r e t e b r i d g e s were designed s i m i l a r t o

t h e b u i l d i n g codes and as m o d i f i e d by memoranda i s s u e d by t h e
Government D e p a r t m e n t . L i k e t h e c o n c r e t e code f o r b u i l d i n g s BS 8100,
BS 5400 does n o t f a c i l i t a t e t h e d e s i g n o f s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e s and t h e
r e l e v a n t c l a u s e s a r e d o t t e d a r o u n d . An i m p o r t a n t aspect i s t h a t t h e
d e s i g n i s l i m i t s t a t e and w h i l s t much t h a t may be made o f t h e change
t o u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e f o r m a t t h i s i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e most
d r a s t i c change s i n c e much o f t h e b r i d g e d e s i g n i s s t i l l governed by
s e r v i c e a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a using elastic analysis. For example g l o b a l
a n a l y s i s o f s t r u c t u r e s i s s t i l l p e r f o r m e d e l e a s t i c a l l y even i f
u l t i m a t e s e c t i o n design i s used. For b e n d i n g o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
t h e s e r v i c e a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a o f c r a c k c o n t r o l governs n o t u l t i m a t e
strength.
Prestressed concrete s e c t i o n s i n bending are s t i l l designed
e l a s t i c a l l y f o r t h e Class 1 and Class 2 c r i t e r i a . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f
p a r t i a l p r e s t r e s s i n g t o Class 3 i s n o t y e t p e r m i t t e d .
S p e c i a l d e t a i l s such as h a l f j o i n t s , deep beams, end b l o c k s and
t h e l i k e r e q u i r e extended a n a l y s i s . I n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s e i t h e r
e l a s t i c o r u l t i m a t e d e s i g n i s employed depending on t h e r e s u l t s o f
research.
17 Improvement i n Design Information
Over t h e l a s t t w e n t y y e a r s t h e r e has been a d r a m a t i c improvement i n

t h e q u a l i t y and q u a n t i t y o f a d v i c e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t o b r i d g e
e n g i n e e r s i n c l u d i n g w i n d and t e m p e r a t u r e l o a d i n g s , d e s i g n f o r shear
i n b o t h p r e s t r e s s e d and r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , design of p a r t i a l l y
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
127
Copyright CRC Press

p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e and d e s i g n o f end b l o c k s and deep beams.
S i m i l a r l y box g i r d e r s have been e x t e n s i v e l y r e p o r t e d t o g e t h e r w i t h
t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f c r a c k and s h r i n k a g e e f f e c t s . W i t h t h e c l o s e
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c o n c r e t e b r i d g e d e s i g n t o t h e methods o f e r e c t i o n
such as i n c r e m e n t a l l a u n c h i n g , balanced c a n t i l e v e r i n g and p r e c a s t
segmental c o n s t r u c t i o n i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o v i s u a l i s e such p r o g r e s s
h a v i n g been made so c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y w i t h o u t t h e use o f c o m p u t e r s .
As t h e Eurocodes loom o v e r t h e h o r i z o n t h e B r i t i s h Standards
I n s t i t u t e and a l l t h e o t h e r b o d i e s i n v o l v e d w i t h Codes o f P r a c t i c e
w i l l be d e d i c a t i n g more and more e f f o r t i n t o t h e European d i m e n s i o n ,
c o n s e q u e n t l y work on B r i t i s h Standards w i l l i n e v i t a b l y t a k e a l o w e r
p r i o r i t y . A l t h o u g h BS 5400 as a b r i d g e code w i l l be g e n e r a l l y
improved i t i s n o t t h e c u r r e n t i n t e n t i o n t o do a d r a s t i c r e w r i t i n g .
On t h e o t h e r hand t h e Eurocodes w i l l c o n c e n t r a t e a t l e a s t i n t h e
i n i t i a l p e r i o d on d e a l i n g w i t h b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s and i t i s
t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y t h a t BS 5400 w i l l have some c o n s i d e r a b l e f u r t h e r
l i f e i n i t . Perhaps much o f i t w i l l be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e f u t u r e
Eurocode f o r b r i d g e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
18 References
P r a c t i c a l Design o f R e i n f o r c e d and P r e s t r e s s e d Concrete S t r u c t u r e s
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIP Recommendations, Thomas T e l f o r d L t d , London 1984.
B r i t i s h Standards I n s t i t u t i o n BS 5750 : 1987 Q u a l i t y Systems P a r t

1, S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r design/development, p r o d u c t i o n ,
i n s t a l l a t i o n and s e r v i c i n g . (ISO 9001)
QAS 8370/243 : Q u a l i t y Assessment Schedule t o BS 5750 P a r t 1,

r e l a t i n g t o c i v i l and/or s t r u c t u r a l engineering l e d
m u l t i - d i s c i p l i n a r y engineering project design.
BS 5400: S t e e l , c o n c r e t e and composite b r i d g e s .
P a r t 1 : 1978. General Statement
Part 2: 1978. S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r Loads
Part 3: 1982 Code o f p r a c t i c e f o r d e s i g n o f s t e e l bridges
Part 4:
1984. Code o f p r a c t i c e f o r d e s i g n o f c o n c r e t e bridges
Part 5: 1979. Code o f p r a c t i c e f o r d e s i g n o f composite

bridges
P a r t 6: 1980. S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r m a t e r i a l s and workmanship
steel
P a r t 7: 1978. S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r m a t e r i a l s and workmanship,

c o n c r e t e , r e i n f o r c e m e n t and p r e s t r e s s i n g tendons
128
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Part 8: 1978. Recommendations f o r m a t e r i a l s and workmanship,
c o n c r e t e , r e i n f o r c e m e n t and p r e s t r e s s i n g tendons
Part 9: Bridge Bearings:

S e c t i o n 9 . 1 1983. Code o f p r a c t i c e f o r d e s i g n o f b r i d g e
bearing
S e c t i o n 9 . 2 1983. S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r m a t e r i a l , m a n u f a c t u r e
and i n s t a l l a t i o n o f b r i d g e b e a r i n g .
P a r t 10: 1980.Code o f p r a c t i c e f o r f a t i g u e
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
129
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THE F I X E D T R A F F I C LINK ACROSS THE
G R E A T B E L T IN DENMARK
N.J. G I M S I N G
Professor, Dept Structural Engineering, Technical University of
Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
(Technical Adviser for the East Bridge of the Great Belt L i n k )
Abstract
The paper p r e s e n t s the p r o j e c t f o r a f i x e d t r a f f i c l i n k a c r o s s the
Great B e l t i n Denmark, c o n s i s t i n g of a bored r a i l w a y t u n n e l , a m u l t i -
span c o n c r e t e box g i r d e r bridge f o r road and r a i l w a y , and a major
suspension bridge f o r road. The l i n k i s a t present under c o n s t r u c t i o n
and w i l l be completed i n 1996.
Keywords: Bored Tunnel, Box G i r d e r Bridge, Cable-Stayed Bridge, Sus-
pension Bridge, Ship C o l l i s i o n .
1 Introduction
A f t e r having s e r i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d a f i x e d t r a f f i c l i n k a c r o s s the Great

B e l t i n Denmark f o r more than 5o y e a r s , the p r o j e c t has f i n a l l y
reached the c o n s t r u c t i o n stage.
When completed in 1996 the Great B e l t Link w i l l comprise:
- the second longest underwater r a i l w a y tunnel in Europe, as i t w i l l

be surpassed only by the Channel Tunnel, which i s under c o n s t r u c -
t i o n i n the same period as the Great B e l t Link.
- the longest road bridge in Europe, as the E a s t Bridge w i l l be

approximately 10% longer than the Oland Bridge in Sweden.
- the longest combined road and r a i l w a y bridge in Europe, as the

West Bridge w i l l be approximately twice as long as the present
r e c o r d holder, the Storstrom Bridge in Denmark
The t o t a l c o s t of the l i n k i s estimated a t approximately 18.5

b i l l i o n Danish Crowns (DDK) corresponding to 1.7 b i l l i o n Pounds (GBP).
2 Geographical C o n d i t i o n s
Denmark c o n s i s t s of the p e n i n s u l a J u t l a n d , forming a p a r t of the

European c o n t i n e n t , and a c o n s i d e r a b l e number of i s l a n d s among which
Zealand (with the c a p i t a l of Copenhagen) and Funen are the l a r g e s t
(Figure 1 ) .
130
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F i g u r e 1 . The l o c a t i o n o f t h e major Danish b r i d g e s .
The p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y i s s p l i t among t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s
w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 45% i n J u t l a n d , 10% on Funen, and 45% on Zealand.
Due t o t h e c o u n t r y ' s l o c a t i o n on t h e European map, t h e Danish
highways and r a i l w a y s have t o c a r r y n o t o n l y t h e d o m e s t i c t r a f f i c
between t h e n a t i o n a l p r o v i n c e s , b u t a l s o t o f o r m an i m p o r t a n t p a r t
o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a f f i c r o u t e s f r o m Sweden, Norway and F i n l a n d
t o t h e European c o n t i n e n t .
The d e c i s i o n t o s t a r t c o n s t r u c t i o n o f f i x e d l i n k s across t h e many
s t r a i t s s e p a r a t i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f Denmark was t a k e n a l r e a d y
i n t h e 1920.es, and i n 1935 t h e f i r s t L i t t l e B e l t B r i d g e ( F i g u r e 2)
j o i n e d J u t l a n d and Funen. Two y e a r s l a t e r , t h e S t o r s t r o m B r i d g e south
o f Zealand was added, so t h a t t h e c o u n t r y a t t h e end o f t h e 1930.es
was u n i t e d i n two t r a f f i c a l u n i t s s e p a r a t e d o n l y by t h e Great B e l t .
F i g u r e 2. The first L i t t l e B e l t Bridge from 1935.
131
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The main reason f o r not adding t h e f i n a l stone, a bridge or tunnel
a c r o s s t h e Great B e l t , i n d i r e c t c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e other prewar
b r i d g e s was t h a t t h e task o f c r o s s i n g t h i s s t r a i t i s of a q u i t e d i f f e -
r e n t magnitude. Thus, t h e widths of t h e L i t t l e B e l t i s l e s s than 1km,
the S t o r s t r o m approximately 3.5km, but the Great B e l t 18km.
As t h e main f e r r y r o u t e s a c r o s s the Great B e l t operate between
the towns of Korsor on Zealand and Nyborg on Funen, i t was n a t u r a l
a l s o t o c o n s i d e r t h i s l o c a t i o n f o r the alignment of the f i x e d l i n k .
Here, t h e Great B e l t i s d i v i d e d into two channels, the E a s t Channel
and t h e West Channel, separated by the small i s l a n d of Sprogo so t h a t
the f i x e d l i n k could be composed of two s e p a r a t e bridges or t u n n e l s .
The two channels a r e of almost equal widths, approximately 8km,
but w i t h a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t bottom p r o f i l e ( F i g u r e 3 ) . Thus, the E a s t
Channel has s h a l l o w water depths of l e s s than 10m extending almost
3km out from each shore, whereas the c e n t r a l deep water channel
r e a c h e s a water depth of 55m. I n the West Channel the water depth
i s more c o n s t a n t and between 18m and 28m over a width of almost 5km.
GREAT BELT
KNUDSHOVED x- ^ HALSSKOV
(FUNEN) l|l||||
i ii r^^^^W^^^MlJMiJ^
| l|
^-28m
|i,7 km|
^ H
t
*^^mmaa ^^^&a»> ' --~ BB B
(ZEALAND)
18,5 km -55m ^
F i g u r e 3. Cross s e c t i o n of the Great B e l t a t t h e l o c a t i o n

of the f i x e d l i n k .
A l s o , t h e two channels d i f f e r by t h e i r importance f o r n a v i g a t i o n ,

as t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l n a v i g a t i o n route from the B a l t i c Sea t o the North
Sea runs through the E a s t Channel, whereas the West Channel i s used
o n l y by l o c a l s h i p t r a f f i c t o ports on Funen and the s m a l l e r i s l a n d s
to t h e south.
3 The 1978 design f o r a f i x e d link
The f i r s t r e a l i s t i c designs f o r a bridge a c r o s s t h e Great B e l t were

worked out a l r e a d y i n 1936, but due t o the outbreak of t h e Second
World War i n 1939 a l l plans of s t a r t i n g a c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n had t o
be postponed t o more p e a c e f u l times.
A f t e r t h e war, renewed i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of
c o n s t r u c t i n g a bridge a c r o s s the Great B e l t were i n i t i a t e d i n 1948,
and during t h e f o l l o w i n g 25 y e a r s a large v a r i e t y of t e c h n i c a l s o l u -
t i o n s were s t u d i e d by a number of committees and working groups.
Then, i n 1973, t h e long i n v e s t i g a t i o n period came t o a p r e l i m i n a r y
end when t h e Danish Parliament approved the f i r s t Act on the c o n s t r u c -
t i o n of a f i x e d t r a f f i c l i n k a c r o s s the Great B e l t .
In t h i s Act i t was s t a t e d t h a t the l i n k should be c o n s t r u c t e d
as a pure bridge l i n k with bridges a c r o s s both the E a s t and the West
Channels.
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The a c t u a l d e s i g n o f t h e Great B e l t B r i d g e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e A c t
o f 1973 was c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m 1976 t o 1978, and i t r e -
s u l t e d i n a c h o i c e o f two s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e l a r g e spans a c r o s s t h e
n a v i g a t i o n channel ( i n t h e East C h a n n e l ) , e i t h e r a c a b l e s t a y e d b r i d g e
w i t h a main span o f 780m o r a suspension b r i d g e w i t h a main span o f
1416m ( F i g u r e 4 ) .
F i g u r e 4. Suspension b r i d g e a c r o s s t h e East Channel

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e s i g n f r o m 1978.
A c r o s s t h e West Channel a low l e v e l b r i d g e w i t h a v e r t i c a l c l e a r -

ance o f maximum 14m was planned t o be b u i l t .
I n t h e summer o f 1978 t h e b r i d g e a u t h o r i t y , named S t a t s b r o e n S t o r e
Baelt, was r e a d y t o s i g n t h e f i r s t c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t r a c t ( c o m p r i s i n g
p r e p a r a t i o n o f work s i t e areas on Z e a l a n d ) , b u t b e f o r e t h i s was
a c t u a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d a newly formed c o a l i t i o n government d e c i d e d
t o postpone t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e l i n k f o r a n o t h e r 5 y e a r s .
A t t h e end o f t h e postponement p e r i o d , i n 1983, i t was d e c i d e d
t o c o n s i d e r once more o t h e r t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s t h a n t h e combined
r o a d and r a i l w a y b r i d g e . Thus, i n t h e f o l l o w i n g 3 y e a r s a l a r g e number
o f c o m b i n a t i o n s o f b r i d g e s , immersed t u n n e l s and bored t u n n e l s were
e v a l u a t e d , n o t o n l y f r o m a c o n s t r u c t i o n a l and t r a f f i c a l v i e w p o i n t b u t
a l s o t o a l a r g e e x t e n t by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l aspects.
4 Formation of the Great B e l t Link Ltd.
In p a r a l l e l w i t h the technical investigations, p o l i t i c a l discussions

s t a r t e d i n o r d e r t o c l a r i f y whether i t would be p o s s i b l e t o f i n d a
t e c h n i c a l and f i n a n c i a l s o l u t i o n t h a t c o u l d a t t r a c t a m a j o r i t y i n
t h e P a r l i a m e n t . I m m e d i a t e l y , t h i s d i d n o t seem v e r y easy t o accom-
l i s h , as t h e Government i n power wanted t o s t a r t c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
t h e combined r o a d and r a i l w a y b r i d g e ( a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 1973 A c t ) ,
whereas t h e l a r g e s t o p p o s i t i o n p a r t y , t h e S o c i a l d e m o c r a t s , would
s u p p o r t o n l y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a pure r a i l w a y l i n k .
133
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However, i n the summer of 1986 a p o l i t i c a l compromise was reached
by the two p o l i t i c a l groups, and the s o l u t i o n was to c o n s t r u c t the
l i n k i n two stages so t h a t the r a i l w a y l i n k would be opened f i r s t ,
but be f o l l o w e d by the road l i n k a f t e r a period of l e s s than 4 y e a r s .
With the requirement t h a t the r a i l w a y l i n k should come f i r s t , i t
became i n d i s p e n s a b l e to l e t the t r a i n c r o s s the E a s t Channel i n a
t u n n e l , e i t h e r immersed or bored, whereas the c r o s s i n g of the West
Channel r e q u i r i n g only moderate navigation openings most favourably
could be accomplished by the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a low l e v e l bridge, i n i -
t i a l l y opened to t r a i n t r a f f i c only, but l a t e r extended to a l s o
a l l o w i n g a passage of v e h i c u l a r t r a f f i c . Thus, the t o t a l l i n k would
c o n s i s t of t h r e e major c r o s s i n g s : The E a s t Railway Tunnel, the E a s t
Road Bridge and the West Road and Railway Bridge ( F i g u r e 5 ) .
F i g u r e 5. Bridges and tunnel of the Great B e l t Link

( c o u r t e s y of K.H.Ostenfeld)
For the roadway l i n k a c r o s s the E a s t Channel two t e c h n i c a l s o l u -

t i o n s seemed p o s s i b l e , e i t h e r the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a high l e v e l bridge
w i t h a l a r g e n a v i g a t i o n span or an immersed t u n n e l .
Based on the p o l i t i c a l compromise from 1986, the Danish Parliament
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approved i n 1987 the Second Act on the c o n s t r u c t i o n of a f i x e d t r a f f i c
l i n k a c r o s s the Great B e l t .
In t h i s Act i t was s p e c i f i e d t h a t a l i m i t e d company with the Danish
s t a t e as the only shareholder should be formed to coordinate the
design, c o n s t r u c t i o n and operation of the Great B e l t L i n k . The f i -
nancing should only t o a very l i m i t e d extent be based on a d i r e c t
funding by the s t a t e but mainly on domestic and f o r e i g n loans. How-
e v e r , i t was s t a t e d t h a t these loans would be guaranteed by the Danish
state.
The formation of the Great B e l t Link L t d . , or j u s t STOREB/ELT as
i t i s g e n e r a l l y c a l l e d , was i n i t i a t e d i n the s p r i n g of 1987, and i n
the f o l l o w i n g months conceptual designs f o r the f o l l o w i n g s t r u c t u r e s
were prepared by the c o n s u l t i n g engineers (COWIconsult):
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Railway tunnel under the E a s t Channel c o n s t r u c t e d as a bored
t u n n e l , an immersed s t e e l tunnel or an immersed concrete t u n n e l .
Combined road and r a i l w a y bridge a c r o s s the West Channel based

on e i t h e r a s i n g l e deck s t e e l s t r u c t u r e , a double deck composite
s t r u c t u r e or a s i n g l e deck concrete s t r u c t u r e .
Road bridge a c r o s s the E a s t Channel with e i t h e r a c a b l e stayed

or a suspension span a c r o s s the n a v i g a t i o n channel.
Road tunnel under the E a s t Channel to be c o n s t r u c t e d as an im-

mersed s t e e l tube or an immersed concrete tube.
Based on these conceptual designs, the master plan f o r the con-

s t r u c t i o n of the t o t a l f i x e d l i n k was worked out ( F i g u r e 6 ) . According
to t h i s plan the r a i l w a y l i n k s h a l l be opened to t r a f f i c i n the s p r i n g
of 1993 and the road l i n k i n the summer of 1996.
1987 1968 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Rail/Road Bridge C Z3
Western Channel
Railway Tunnel C Z3
Eastern Channel
Road Crossing I I
Eastern Channel m
Ran/Road Works
on Approaches
Opening Railway •
1. April 1993
1. Jan 1996
Opening Roadway
I '
(ZD Design H23 Construction
F i g u r e 6. Master plan f o r the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the Great B e l t Link
Immediately a f t e r completion of the conceptual designs the work

was s t a r t e d on p r e p a r i n g the tender designs f o r the E a s t Railway
Tunnel and the West Bridge, whereas the tender designs f o r the E a s t
Road Link were planned to be worked out two y e a r s l a t e r due to the
l a t e r completion date of t h i s p a r t of the l i n k .
5 E a s t Railway Tunnel
For the E a s t Railway Tunnel three tender designs were prepared, as

the conceptual design phase had shown t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e in c o s t
between the t h r e e b a s i c s o l u t i o n s was so small t h a t none of them
could be r u l e d out immediately.
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T h i s assumption was t o a large extent v e r i f i e d when the bids were
r e c e i v e d on t h e d i f f e r e n t options i n June 1988, as i t i s seen from
the f o l l o w i n g l i s t of c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s o f f e r e d :
Bored tunnel 3.2 - 4.3 b i l l i o n DKK

(approx. 290 - 390 m i l l i o n GBP)
Immersed concrete tunnel 3.8 - 4.1 b i l l i o n DKK

Immersed s t e e l tunnel 3.7 - 4.0 b i l l i o n DKK

I t appears t h a t t h e r e was a c o n s i d e r a b l e overlap between the bids

on the d i f f e r e n t tunnel types, although the immediate i n d i c a t i o n was
t h a t the cheapest s o l u t i o n was t o be found f o r a bored t u n n e l . How-
e v e r , the f a c t t h a t the bids g e n e r a l l y were accompanied by a number
of r e s e r v a t i o n s and t h a t STOREByELT had t o c a r r y a l a r g e r r i s k i f
choosing a bored tunnel with i t s inherent g e o l o g i c a l u n c e r t a i n t y
implied t h a t t h e bids had t o be c a r e f u l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d and e v a l u a t e d .
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In October 1988 ST0REB/ELT was ready t o s t a r t the c o n t r a c t nego-
t i a t i o n with t h e consortium t h a t had presented the most a t t r a c t i v e
b i d , and on November 28, 1988 the c o n t r a c t t o c o n s t r u c t a bored
r a i l w a y tunnel under the E a s t Channel was awarded t o the MT Group,
a consortium comprising the Danish c o n t r a c t o r Monberg & Thorsen and
t h r e e f o r e i g n c o n t r a c t o r s (German, French and American).
The double t r a c k r a i l w a y tunnel w i l l c o n s i s t of two s i n g l e t r a c k
tubes each with an i n t e r n a l diameter of 7.7m and interconnected by
c r o s s passages a t 250m d i s t a n c e ( F i g u r e 7 ) . The tunnel l i n i n g w i l l
g e n e r a l l y be made of 400mm t h i c k p r e c a s t concrete segments bolted
together. Only a t t h e l o c a t i o n s of the c r o s s passages t h e l i n i n g i s
going t o be made o f c a s t i r o n . A l l tunnel l i n i n g i s t o be waterproof
f o r the f u l l h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e of up t o 8 bars.
F i g u r e 7. Cross s e c t i o n of the E a s t Railway Tunnel

The t o t a l tunnel length w i l l be approximately 8km of which 7.3km

w i l l be c o n s t r u c t e d by boring, whereas the remaining lengths w i l l be
made by the cut and cover method.
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The f o u r f u l l f a c e tunnel boring machines (TBMs) a r e designed
to work i n t h e upper t i l l l a y e r s with l a r g e g r a n i t i c boulders as w e l l
as i n t h e lower marl l a y e r s , which a r e expected t o be h i g h l y permeable
in a number of f i s s u r e d r e g i o n s . I t i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o i n c o r -
porate i n t o t h e TBMs an e a r t h p r e s s u r e balanced s h i e l d .
In t h e beginning of 1989 the consortium began to c o n s t r u c t the
tunnel ramps on Zealand ( F i g u r e 8 ) and o f f the coast of Sprogo, and
at t h e same time the f a b r i c a t i o n of the tunnel boring machines was
initiated.
F i g u r e 8. A e r i a l photo of the tunnel ramp on Zealand.
At t h e end of 1989 the f a b r i c a t i o n of t h e tunnel l i n i n g elements

began a t a s p e c i a l p l a n t e r e c t e d on the work s i t e area on t h e Zealand
side.
The TBMs a r e t o be d e l i v e r e d a t the s i t e i n t h e e a r l y s p r i n g of
1990, and immediately afterwards the tunnel boring process w i l l s t a r t
(Figure 9 ) .
F i g u r e 9. The tunnel boring machine under assembly

at James Howden Co., L t d . i n Glasgow.
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6 West Bridge
The p r e p a r a t i o n of the tender designs f o r the West Bridge was s t a r t e d

in the autumn of 1987, s h o r t l y a f t e r completion of the conceptual
designs f o r t h i s bridge.
In t h e conceptual design phase the f o l l o w i n g t h r e e proposals had
been i n v e s t i g a t e d ( F i g u r e 1 0 ) :
F i g u r e 10. Cross s e c t i o n s of the t h r e e bridges included i n the

tender designs f o r the West Bridge ( c o u r t e s y of K.H.Ostenfeld).
138
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- a composite proposal comprising a double deck s t r u c t u r e with an
upper c o n c r e t e s l a b under the roadway, two v e r t i c a l s t e e l t r u s s e s ,
and a lower r a i l w a y deck in s t e e l .
- a c o n c r e t e proposal comprising t h r e e i n d i v i d u a l box g i r d e r s one

c a r r y i n g the two r a i l w a y t r a c k s , and each of the other two a c a r -
riageway f o r the motorway.
- a s t e e l proposal comprising one 37m wide box g i r d e r with the

r a i l w a y t r a c k s on one s i d e and the motorway on the other.
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s had shown t h a t the optimum span f o r the t h r e e

options d i f f e r e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y , and i t was t h e r e f o r e decided to base
the composite design on a span length of 144m, the concrete design
on a span length of 105m, and the s t e e l design on a span length of
120m. I n a l l c a s e s , the span lengths were maintained along the t o t a l
bridge length as no s p e c i a l n a v i g a t i o n spans were to be provided.
The p r e l i m i n a r y c o s t e s t i m a t e s from the conceptual design phase
i n d i c a t e d t h a t the composite proposal and the concrete proposal would
be very c l o s e w i t h regards to c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t , whereas the s t e e l
proposal appeared to be somewhat more expensive.
Consequently, a t the s t a r t of the tender design phase i t had to
be decided whether a l l t h r e e options or only two should be f u r t h e r
e l a b o r a t e d to the l e v e l of tender designs. The f i n a l d e c i s i o n was to
continue with a l l t h r e e options, as the t o t a l c o s t of the s t e e l option
was very s e n s i t i v e to the c o s t of f a b r i c a t i n g the s t e e l boxes. There-
f o r e , the c o s t could be n o t i c e a b l y reduced i f a major s h i p yard
decided to undertake t h i s production (as i t had been the case a few
y e a r s e a r l i e r a t the c o n s t r u c t i o n of the Faro Bridges, which were
based on a s i m i l a r d e s i g n ) .
For the s u b s t r u c t u r e s two d i f f e r e n t designs were i n v e s t i g a t e d
during the conceptual design phase, e i t h e r a concrete c a i s s o n with
open c e l l s or a concrete c a i s s o n with a s o l i d s l a b at the bottom. In
c o s t these two options seemed to be very c l o s e , but as i t was f e l t
t h a t the open c a i s s o n to a l a r g e r degree would a s s u r e a uniform
c o n t a c t w i t h the s o i l , t h i s option was chosen f o r the tender design.
The t o t a l bridge length v a r i e d s l i g h t l y (between 6048m and 6120m)
with the s u p e r s t r u c t u r e design due to the d i f f e r e n c e in span length
between the t h r e e o p t i o n s .
I r r e s p e c t i v e l y of the s u p e r s t r u c t u r e design the alignment was
chosen to have a constant h o r i z o n t a l c u r v a t u r e with a r a d i u s of 2okm
and a l s o a constant v e r t i c a l c u r v a t u r e .
For t e n d e r i n g the West Bridge, f i v e c o n s o r t i a were p r e q u a l i f i e d
in March 1988, and in the f o l l o w i n g month the tender documents were
d i s t r i b u t e d to these c o n s o r t i a .
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On November 30, 1989 the bids were r e c e i v e d i n d i c a t i n g the f o l l o w -
ing c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s f o r the tender designs:
Composite Bridge 3.0 - 4.2 b i l l i o n DKK

Concrete Bridge 3.0 - 4.6 b i l l i o n DKK

Steel Bridge 4.0 - 4.7 b i l l i o n DKK

As i t can be seen, these bids to a large extent confirmed the

c o n c l u s i o n drawn a f t e r the conceptual design phase regarding the
r e l a t i v e c o s t of the d i f f e r e n t options. Thus, the lower bids f o r
the composite bridge and the concrete bridge options were very c l o s e
indeed, whereas the lower bids f o r the s t e e l bridge option were sub-
s t a n t i a l l y higher. The reason f o r t h i s was t h a t the l a r g e r s h i p y a r d s
had l o s t i n t e r e s t i n bridge g i r d e r f a b r i c a t i o n a f t e r having e x p e r i -
enced a boom i n the s h i p b u i l d i n g a c t i v i t i e s .
Apart from a number of bids on bridges i n accordance with the
tender d e s i g n s , a r e l a t i v e l y large number of bids based on a l t e r n a -
t i v e s or v a r i a n t s were submitted by the p a r t i c i p a t i n g c o n s o r t i a .
T h i s was i n c o n t r a s t to the s i t u a t i o n a t the tendering of the E a s t
Railway Tunnel, where no a l t e r n a t i v e s had been presented.
The a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r the West Bridge comprised a number of con-
c e p t s based on s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t concepts, such as a multispan
arch bridge, a double decked concrete t r u s s of high s t r e n g t h c o n c r e t e ,
a haunched c o n c r e t e g i r d e r , and a pure s t e e l t r u s s with both the upper
roadway deck and the lower r a i l w a y deck comprising s t i f f e n e d s t e e l
p l a t e s . A l s o f o r the s u b s t r u c t u r e s a l t e r n a t i v e s were r e c e i v e d , mainly
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a p p l i c a t i o n of c a i s s o n s c l o s e d a t the bottom by a
s o l i d s l a b and by using p r e f a b r i c a t e d p i e r s h a f t s t o reduce the amount
of work a t t h e exposed s i t e .
The b i d s on a l t e r n a t i v e s ranged from 2.4 b i l l i o n DKK t o 4.0 b i l l i o n
DKK (approx. 220 m i l l i o n GBP t o 360 m i l l i o n GBP).
The lowest b i d was r e c e i v e d on an a l t e r n a t i v e design comprising
a double decked c o n c r e t e t r u s s made of high s t r e n g t h concrete and
w i t h e x t e r n a l c a b l e s . T h i s a l t e r n a t i v e was c a r e f u l l y s t u d i e d , but the
f i n a l c o n c l u s i o n was t h a t i t d i d i n too many a s p e c t s i n v o l v e an
e x t r a p o l a t i o n of e x i s t i n g technology and t h a t i t would be impossible
to p r e d i c t the long term behaviour under the dynamic t r a i n load and
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in t h e h o s t i l e environment of the Great B e l t . T h i s a l t e r n a t i v e was

t h e r e f o r e abandoned.
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F i g u r e 11. A l t e r n a t i v e design f o r the West Bridge as presented
by t h e European Storebaelt Group.
The second lowest b i d was r e c e i v e d on a concrete box g i r d e r bridge

( F i g u r e 11) c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s :
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e composed of two box g i r d e r s , a narrow one under

the r a i l w a y and a wide one c a r r y i n g the e n t i r e roadway.
haunched g i r d e r s with a p a r a b o l i c bottom s l a b to be e r e c t e d

as a double c a n t i l e v e r having the f u l l length of the span
and r e a c h i n g from midspan to midspan.
p i e r s to be made of m u l t i c e l l u l a r c a i s s o n s with c l o s e d
bottoms.
p i e r s h a f t s made of p r e c a s t concrete u n i t s .
A f t e r e v a l u a t i o n of a l l bids i n the lower end of the i n t e r v a l ,

i t was found t h a t t h e c o n t r a c t should be negotiated e i t h e r with the
consortium having presented the lowest b i d on the tender design f o r
the composite bridge or with the consortium having presented t h e above
mentioned a l t e r n a t i v e b i d based on a haunched concrete box g i r d e r .
A f t e r a p r e l i m i n a r y c l a r i f i c a t i o n round, ST0REB£LT decided i n
March 1989 t o s t a r t c o n t r a c t n e g o t i a t i o n s with "European S t o r e b a e l t
Group"(ESG), t h e consortium t h a t had presented the a l t e r n a t i v e with
haunched c o n c r e t e g i r d e r s .
During t h e s e n e g o t i a t i o n s i t a l s o became n e c e s s a r y t o update the
a l t e r n a t i v e design t e c h n i c a l l y , e.g. by i n c r e a s i n g the depth of the
r a i l w a y g i r d e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y and r e l o c a t e the expansion j o i n t s . Fur-
thermore, i t was decided t o i n c r e a s e the t o t a l bridge length to 6611m
as i t was d i s c l o s e d t h a t the t r a n s i t i o n point between bridge and
embankment a t Sprog0 should be d i s p l a c e d approximately 500m towards
the E a s t t o a r r i v e a t the optimum s o l u t i o n .
141
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I n comparison w i t h t h e t e n d e r d e s i g n f o r a c o n c r e t e b r i d g e , t h e
ESG d e s i g n was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a somewhat l a r g e r span i n t h e con-
t i n u o u s s e c t i o n (110.4m), whereas t h e spans a d j a c e n t t o t h e e x p a n s i o n
j o i n t s were reduced t o 81.75m.
On June 26, 1989 t h e c o n t r a c t was f i n a l l y s i g n e d w i t h t h e ESG
c o n s o r t i u m t h a t o r i g i n a l l y comprised a Dutch, a Swiss, a B r i t i s h and
a D a n i s h c o n t r a c t o r , b u t l a t e r d u r i n g t h e c o n t r a c t n e g o t i a t i o n s was
e x t e n d e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e two more Danish c o n t r a c t o r s .
D u r i n g t h e autumn o f 1989, t h e c o n t r a c t o r s p r e p a r e d t h e work s i t e
a r e a on Funen where t h e b r i d g e components s h a l l be f a b r i c a t e d i n v e r y
l a r g e u n i t s w e i g h i n g up t o 6000 t o n s . For t h e 110.4m b r i d g e l e n g t h
r e a c h i n g f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f one span t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e n e x t t h e
t o t a l s t r u c t u r e w i l l c o n s i s t o f only f i v e elements:
a m u l t i c e l l u l a r caisson w i t h a closed bottom

two p i e r s h a f t s
a d o u b l e c a n t i l e v e r box g i r d e r element f o r r a i l w a y
a d o u b l e c a n t i l e v e r box g i r d e r element f o r roadway
For t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and e r e c t i o n o f t h e s e elements a s p e c i a l

f l o a t i n g c r a n e ( F i g u r e 12) i s a t p r e s e n t b e i n g b u i l t i n H o l l a n d f o r
d e l i v e r y i n t h e autumn o f 1990.
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F i g u r e 12. Computer p l o t o f t h e s p e c i a l f l o a t i n g c r a n e
t o be used f o r t r a n s p o r t and e r e c t i o n o f t h e West B r i d g e .
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7 E a s t Road Bridge
During the conceptual design phase in the summer of 1987 both a bridge
and an immersed tunnel were i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r the road l i n k a c r o s s
the E a s t Channel. However, as the c o s t e s t i m a t e s had shown t h a t the
tunnel would be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s u b s t a n t i a l l y higher c o n s t r u c t i o n
c o s t s , as w e l l as higher o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t s , i t was decided in October
1988 t h a t only the bridge option should be f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e d in the
tender design phase.
During the conceptual design phase, i t was shown t h a t the optimum
spans f o r both a c a b l e stayed bridge s o l u t i o n and a suspension bridge
s o l u t i o n were c l o s e to those found f o r the combined road and r a i l w a y
bridge during the 1977-78 design period. Consequently, the conceptual
d e s i g n s f o r the main spans of the E a s t Road Bridge were prepared
simply by t r a n s f o r m i n g the double deck t r u s s g i r d e r from 1978 to a
s i n g l e deck box g i r d e r ( F i g u r e 13).
For the approach spans the changes were somewhat l a r g e r , as i t
was found t h a t the spans should be i n c r e a s e d to a r r i v e a t an optimal
s o l u t i o n . Thus, the conceptual designs f o r the road bridge d i f f e r e d
not o n l y by the change from a double deck t r u s s to a s i n g l e deck box
but a l s o by having a l a r g e r span (164m i n s t e a d of 144m).
14.0 14.0
11.5 11.5
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F i g u r e 13. Cross s e c t i o n of the designs f o r a combined

road and r a i l bridge from 1978 and a pure road bridge
from 1986.
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In the conceptual design from 1987 the length of the E a s t Bridge
was assumed to be the same as chosen i n 1978 (approx. 5.5km). T h i s
length was w e l l j u s t i f i e d i n case of s e l e c t i n g an immersed r a i l w a y
t u n n e l , as t h i s r e q u i r e d a 1200m ramp extending out from the c o a s t
of Zealand, thus a l l o w i n g an embankment of s i m i l a r length f o r the
bridge. However, a f t e r having decided i n November 1988 to c o n s t r u c t
a bored r a i l w a y tunnel without a ramp o f f the c o a s t , i t was decided
to abandon the o f f s h o r e embankment by extending the bridge to a length
of 6.8km.
The conceptual designs from 1987 were prepared by the c o n s u l t i n g
e n g i n e e r s without a s s i s t a n c e from a r c h i t e c t s , but as i t was considered
of g r e a t importance t h a t e s p e c i a l l y t h i s p a r t of the t o t a l l i n k would
be a e s t h e t i c a l l y p l e a s i n g the a r c h i t e c t s were asked to update the
e n g i n e e r i n g design during the summer of 1988.
T h i s r e s u l t e d i n a number of a r c h i t e c t u r a l recommendations r e g a r d -
ing t h e shape of the g i r d e r s , the p i e r s h a f t s , the abutments and the
pylons. Thus, the pylons were proposed to be c o n s t r u c t e d without the
t r a d i t i o n a l c r o s s beam below the bridge g i r d e r and with a more mono-
l i t h i c t r a n s i t i o n between the pylon legs and the p i e r s t r u c t u r e
(Figure 14).
F i g u r e 14. A r c h i t e c t ' s proposal from 1988 f o r the

E a s t Bridge main span.
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During the s p r i n g of 1989, a number of supplementary i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
were c a r r i e d out as p a r t of a general updating e x e r c i s e of the concep-
t u a l designs f o r the E a s t Road Bridge.
For the main spans i t was decided not only to determine the optimum
span f o r a c a b l e stayed and a suspension bridge, but to make c o s t
e s t i m a t e s f o r q u i t e l a r g e i n t e r v a l s of main spans f o r both bridge
t y p e s . Thus, f o r the c a b l e stayed bridge option a main span i n t e r v a l
from 800m to 1400m and f o r the suspension bridge a main span i n t e r v a l
from 1000m to 2000m were s t u d i e d . The c o s t e s t i m a t e s included a l l
r e l e v a n t items w i t h i n a r e f e r e n c e length of 2360m. Consequently, not
o n l y the c o s t of s u p e r s t r u c t u r e and s u b s t r u c t u r e but a l s o the r e q u i r e d
amount of compensation dredging ( t h a t d i f f e r e d from case to c a s e )
were i n c l u d e d .
From the c o s t e s t i m a t e s i t could be concluded t h a t the t h e o r e t i c a l
optimum f o r a c a b l e stayed bridge was achieved f o r a main span of
900m, whereas the optimum main span was around 1200m f o r a suspension
bridge. For both bridge types the well-known f l a t n e s s of the c o s t
minimum was found, so t h a t main spans could be chosen somewhat higher
than the t h e o r e t i c a l optimum without s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t i n g the t o t a l
c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t . However, to go to the upper end of the span i n t e r -
v a l s would g i v e a s i g n i f i c a n t c o s t i n c r e a s e beyond the budget l i m i t s .
D e c i s i v e f o r the f i n a l choice of main span length and type of
bridge were to a l a r g e extent c o n s i d e r a t i o n s regarding the n a v i -
gational safety.
At the bridge s i t e the navigation i s r e g u l a t e d by a s e p a r a t i o n
scheme comprising two shipping l a n e s , each with u n i d i r e c t i o n a l t r a f -
f i c . The t o t a l width of the s e p a r a t i o n scheme i s 1600m and the angle
between the d i r e c t i o n of n a v i g a t i o n and the bridge a x i s i s 67.5
degrees. Thus, a main span of 1800m would be r e q u i r e d i f the e x i s t i n g
s e p a r a t i o n scheme should be kept f r e e of bridge p i e r s .
However, the n a v i g a t i o n a u t h o r i t i e s did not i n i t i a l l y r u l e out
the p o s s i b i l i t y of having the two pylon p i e r s p o s i t i o n e d in the e x i s t -
ing s e p a r a t i o n scheme, provided t h a t the s i d e spans could be used by
s m a l l e r s h i p s l e a v i n g the main span open f o r the l a r g e s t s h i p s , which
are the most d i f f i c u l t to manoeuvre. Also, i t would be p o s s i b l e by
dredging a t the shoulders of the e x i s t i n g shipping lanes to improve
n a v i g a t i o n by r e l o c a t i n g the s e p a r a t i o n scheme in such a way t h a t a
more p e r p e n d i c u l a r i n t e r s e c t i o n with the bridge a x i s was achieved,
and t h i s should a l s o make i t more acceptable to reduce the widths of
the shipping l a n e s .
To study the i n f l u e n c e of the main span length on the n a v i g a t i o n a l
s a f e t y , a number of r e a l - t i m e s i m u l a t i o n s were conducted a t the Danish
Maritime I n s t i t u t e and, i n i t i a l l y , t e s t s were run f o r a 780m c a b l e
stayed bridge and a 1400m suspension bridge. The r e s u l t of these
s i m u l a t i o n s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d t h a t the s m a l l e r span was unacceptable,
whereas the l a r g e r span did not have the same adverse e f f e c t on the
n a v i g a t i o n a l s a f e t y , provided t h a t the s h i p s were f u l l y f u n c t i o n a l
and were maneuvered by competent navigators (such as p i l o t s accustomed
to the c o n d i t i o n s in the Great B e l t ) .
The updating e x e r c i s e performed in the s p r i n g of 1989 a l s o i n -
cluded the approach spans, as more e l a b o r a t e a n a l y s e s of the hydro-
l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s had shown t h a t the number of approach span p i e r s
was not so c r i t i c a l as e a r l i e r a n t i c i p a t e d . At the same time, the
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bidding of the West Bridge had c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d t h a t a concrete
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e was competitive to a s t e e l s u p e r s t r u c t u r e .
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e l a t e d to the approach spans i n d i c a t e d t h a t
the optimum s o l u t i o n was achieved by having approach spans composed
of continuous concrete g i r d e r s with a constant span length of approx-
imately 120m and a s i n g l e box c r o s s s e c t i o n ( F i g u r e 15), or continuous
s t e e l g i r d e r s with span lengths of approximately 140m.
F i g u r e 15. Cross s e c t i o n of the concrete proposal f o r the

approach spans of the E a s t Bridge.
The tender design phase f o r the E a s t Bridge began in September

1989 and i t was i n i t i a t e d by preparation of four o u t l i n e designs,
comprising c a b l e stayed bridges with spans of 916m and 1204m as w e l l
as suspension bridges w i t h spans of 1448m and 1688m.
The main purpose of the o u t l i n e design phase was to determine
the f e a s i b i l i t y of the d i f f e r e n t options in r e l a t i o n to the naviga-
t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s , to the c o n s t r u c t a b i l i t y , and to the c o s t of con-
s t r u c t i o n . Consequently, the o u t l i n e designs were not only i n v e s t i -
gated to determine the q u a n t i t i e s r e q u i r e d , but were a l s o followed
by f u r t h e r n a v i g a t i o n a l s i m u l a t i o n s , by wind tunnel t e s t s , and by
thorough e v a l u a t i o n s of c o n s t r u c t i o n a l methods.
The o u t l i n e design i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d a b e n e f i t f o r
n a v i g a t i o n s a f e t y by choosing the l a r g e r span and, a t the same time,
i t was found t h a t c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s of the d i f f e r e n t options were
more equal than e a r l i e r expected - due to the f a c t t h a t the bridges
w i t h s m a l l e r spans r e q u i r e d s e v e r a l c o s t l y measures to be taken to
secure them a g a i n s t s h i p c o l l i s i o n and to improve n a v i g a t i o n a l con-
ditions.
With t h i s r e s u l t , the Board of the Great B e l t Link L t d . decided
in February 1990 t h a t the tender design of the E a s t Bridge should be
based on a main span in the upper range, i . e . 1600-1700m.
So, b e s i d e s becoming the l a r g e s t bridge in Europe when c o n s i d e r i n g
the t o t a l length, the E a s t Bridge w i l l a l s o get the longest f r e e span.
146
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8 References
G i m s i n g , N.J. (1984) S t o r e b a l t s b r o e n / - t u n n e l e n ( i n D a n i s h ) . T e k n i s k
For l a g , Copenhagen
K . H . O s t e n f e l d : Denmark's Great B e l t L i n k , COWIconsult, 1989.

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CORROSION R E S I S T A N C E IN S T E E L S
FOR MOTORWAY BRIDGES
K. J O H N S O N
B r i t i s h Steel Technical, S w i n d e n Laboratories, Rotherham,
England, U K
W. R A M S A Y
B r i t i s h Steel, General Steels Commercial, M o t h e r w e l l , Scotland, U K
Abstract
During the 1980s steel has shown a steady increase in share of the highway bridge market
and one of the factors that has led to this growth has been improvements in corrosion
protection. The principal corrosion protection options that are available to the bridge
engineer are discussed.
The majority of steel bridges are protected by the application of painting systems.
Typical Department of Transport specified systems involve the application of 5 or 6 coats to
produce a total dry-film thickness of 200-300 microns and require minor maintenance after
6 years and major maintenance after 15 years.
Recently a high-build elastomeric urethane coating has been used on a new steel
bridge over the River Ythan. Plate girders were blast cleaned in the shops and treated
with a single, spray-applied coat to a minimum dry-film thickness of 1000 microns. A
period of at least 20 years to first maintenance is anticipated.
Weathering steels account for about 10% of the steel bridge market. They form a
stable protective oxide coating and achieve a low terminal corrosion rate. Their
limitations are described and suggestions for their future use are made.
Finally, the enclosure of structural steelwork on composite bridges is described as a
method of corrosion protection which will receive much greater emphasis in the future.
Keywords: Corrosion, Costs, Coatings, Weathering steels, Enclosures.
1 Introduction
Until recently, the commonly held view was that steel bridges suffer from the inherent
disadvantage of requiring corrosion maintenance. Conversely, concrete bridges were
considered to be essentially maintenance free. It is now known that is not the case and, in
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a sense, the position has been reversed.
In March 1989, following a great deal of public concern, a report by G. Maunsell and
Partners on the performance of concrete bridges was published. The report covered a
survey of 200 representative structures drawn from the 5900 concrete bridges for which
the Department of Transport is responsible in England. It concluded that approximately
three-quarters of these bridges are affected by chloride attack and severe corrosion will
inevitably occur unless urgent action is taken.
In contrast, it has always been recognised that steel bridges require corrosion
protection and the materials, methods and procedures for providing this are well
established and effective. An appropriate way of illustrating the advances that have been
made in corrosion protection of steel bridges may be to compare the practices which were
used on the old Forth Rail Bridge and the relatively new Forth Road Bridge.
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The Rail Bridge was completed i n 1890 and at that time little thought was given to the
maintenance of the structure. Paradoxically that subject has since passed into British
mythology (a 'Forth Bridge Job' is one that is never ending). Even more oddly, there is no
truth to the story that a team of painters starts at one end of the bridge, works its way to
the far bank and then goes back and starts again. The reality is more complicated but,
even so maintenance painting is a continuous effort.
The protection that was originally applied to the external surfaces of the bridge
steelwork involved wire brushing to remove rust and scale, applying hot boiled-linseed oil
and then a number of coats of red lead based paints. The insides of the large tubular
members were treated with a white lead based paint, to show up any rusting. The total
area which was painted amounted to approximately 145 acres! Little consideration was
given to gaining access for maintenance; painters were expected to have the climbing
skills of Alpine mountaineers. Consequently, since the advent of the Health and Safety
laws in 1974, access to some of the more difficult areas of the structure is at present not
possible.
In contrast, when the Forth Road Bridge was built, 26 years ago, much more thought
was given to the protection and maintenance of the structure. The fabricated steelwork
was treated using purpose-designed plant installed i n disused hangars at Drem Airfield,
about 5 miles from the site. Automatic centrifugal blast cleaning was followed by
automatic zinc metal spraying and then all external surfaces were treated with an etch
primer, a primer, and two finishing coats. Provision was made for access for maintenance
painting by the installation of two hand-driven gantries. In recent years these have been
replaced by power-driven gantries and a new walkway has been added to give direct access
to the upper parts of the superstructure.
These two bridges, standing side by side over the F i r t h of Forth, therefore symbolise
some of the changes i n attitude and advances in materials and techniques that have been
made in corrosion protection of steel bridges. In the 26 years since the Forth Road Bridge
was built, further advances have been made and some of these are described i n this paper.
2 The cost of corrosion protection on steel bridges
Figure 1 shows a breakdown of costs in typical bridgework tenders. Although the absolute
costs are clearly subject to change, i t can nevertheless be seen that the cost of initial
O v e r a l l cost per tonne

£650 £900 £1500
Cheap Typical Expanaive
Fig. 1. Breakdown of costs in a typical bridgework tender.

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corrosion protection varies between 10-15% of the total cost of the erected steelwork. These
costs do not take account of subsequent maintenance, which is discussed later in this
paper.
Various methods are used to protect steel bridgework and obviously the choice of
method w i l l reflect on the cost of protection. The principal methods used are outlined
below.
3 Conventional p a i n t i n g systems
The majority of steel bridges are protected from corrosion by the application of paint
coatings. For many years the steelwork for new bridges has been shop-treated by blast-
cleaning, followed by the application of primer and intermediate coats. After
transportation to site and subsequent erection the steelwork is then further treated with
finishing coats.
I n the U K , much of this work is covered by the Department of Transport's
'Specification for Highway Works, Part 6, Series 1900, Protection of Steelwork Against
Corrosion' and the equivalent SDD document. This describes methods of surface
preparation, metal coatings, multicoat painting systems and procedures for testing of
paints, application of paints, etc.
The accompanying 'Notes for Guidance on the Specification for Highway Works' then
goes on to describe 11 protective systems. Selection of a protective system for a particular
bridge is dependent upon environment, accessibility and required durability.
The painting systems described i n the document are based upon the use of
conventional blast-primers, primers, intermediate coats and finishing coats. Typical
systems involve the application of 5 or 6 coats to produce a total dry-film thickness of 200-
300 microns. For example, i n a marine environment, with 'ready' access, painting after
blast cleaning would involve the application of:-
Shop treatment -
1 coat Zinc Phosphate Chlor-Rubber Alkyd Blast Primer
2 coats Zinc Phosphate Chlor-Rubber Undercoat
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1 coat MIO Chlor-Rubber Undercoat

Despatch to site and erect
Site treatment -
1 coat Chlor-Rubber Undercoat
1 coat Chlor-Rubber Finish
Overnight drying intervals would normally be required between each coat and the
total minimum dry-film thickness would be 300 microns. Bridge beams treated in this
manner would be held i n the fabrication/painting shop for at least 4 days and would then
require extensive site treatment, which is expensive, difficult to control, subject to the
weather and introduces substantial delays to the site programme.
In the opinion of the writers this approach to bridge painting is outdated and could be
greatly improved by the use of modern high-build painting systems.
4 H i g h - b u i l d p a i n t i n g systems
In recent years protective coatings technology has made significant advances, partly as a
result of the challenge of protecting North Sea offshore structures. I n extreme
environments high demands are made of corrosion protection systems and subsequent
maintenance is very difficult and expensive. The coatings which have been developed for
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use on such structures rely heavily on 2-pack chemically-cured resin systems which
produce highly durable coatings and can be applied as very thick or 'high-build' films.
On the initiative of Grampian Regional Council, a new steel bridge over the River
Ythan at Newburgh, about 10 miles north of Aberdeen, has been treated with a high-build
elastomeric urethane coating. This was a composite design plate-girder bridge i n 3 spans
and the complete protective system was applied as a single coat of 1000-1250 microns, in
the shops, after fabrication.
Sophisticated spray-equipment is required to apply these coatings since they usually
have a very short pot-life. I n this case a twin-feed airless spray unit was used, involving a
proportioning pump, an in-line mixer and thermostatically controlled in-line fluid heaters.
Early apprehension about the use of such equipment under fabricating shop conditions
proved to be unfounded and i n general the spraying operation proceeded smoothly without
any major difficulties. Problems relating to masking of areas to be left uncoated, spraying
procedures, inspection and quality control, treatment of site weld areas, treatment of
damage areas etc. were resolved during the course of the work.
A large number of dry-film thickness readings were taken during the course of the
work and these are shown in Fig. 2 as a frequency distribution. This shows that
- very few measurements were below the minimum requirement of the specification
(i.e. 1000 microns or 1 mm)
- more than 70% of measurements were i n excess of the specification maximum
- the mean film thickness on all of the measurements taken on the bridge beams was
1.71 mm (with a standard deviation of 0.63 mm)
Fig. 2. Frequency distribution of all film thickness measurements on 6 beams,

treated with the high-build elastomeric urethane system.
Laboratory tests on plate panels which were coated during the course of the contract
gave very encouraging results. Direct pull-off adhesion tests produced values between
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1000-1700 psi, a level of adhesion which is considered excellent for such a coating. Salt
spray tests on thick coatings such as this are normally limited to about 2000 h duration. I n
this case tests were continued to 9000 h , giving excellent results, both i n terms of spread of
corrosion from a scribe-mark and the general durability of the coating. These tests and
other field experience with high-build coatings suggest that a period of at least 20 years to
first maintenance can reasonably be expected from a protective coating of this type.
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At the time of the contract the cost of the High Build System was found to be slightly
higher than the cost of the equivalent 6 coat DoT system, though life cycle costs would be
expected to show a considerable advantage.
Following their experience with the Waterside Bridge, Grampian Regional Council
have used this type of high-build paint system on further bridges and i t is understood that
the Scottish Development Dept. (SDD) have now approved this system as an alternative
which may be considered alongside the conventional DoT systems for future steel bridges.
5 Weathering steel bridges
The first use of weathering steels i n bridges i n the U K was a small footbridge over an
artificial lake at York University which was erected in 1967. During the ensuing 23 years
approximately 100 weathering steel bridges have been built in the UK. Current use of
weathering steels accounts for about 10% of the total steel bridge market. The majority of
these have been i n the medium span range and are of plate-girder construction.
Weathering steels, of which Cor-Ten is the most common, are low alloy steels typically
containing up to 3% of alloying elements such as phosphorus, chromium, nickel, copper
and vanadium. On exposure to air under suitable conditions they rust to form an adherent
oxide coating. This acts as a protective layer which, with time and under appropriate
conditions, causes the corrosion rate to reduce until it reaches a negligible level.
Conventional coatings are therefore unnecessary since the steel provides its own
protection.
These steels have properties comparable w i t h Grade 50 steels to BS4360 - Weldable
Structural Steels and this standard also includes weathering steel grades (WR50).
WR50A or Cor-Ten A can be used for many structural applications, including
footbridges, but for bridgework generally, considerations of notch ductility require the use
ofWR50B or Cor-Ten B.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
During the early part of their life weathering steels corrode in a similar manner and at
a similar rate to mild steels. As the protective oxide layer develops the corrosion rate falls
to a low terminal value, Fig. 3. The time required for a weathering steel to form a stable
protective coating depends upon its orientation, the degree of atmospheric pollution and
the frequency with which the surface is wetted and dried. For this reason, each proposed
bridge structure should be considered individually with respect to its local environment as
Average c o r r o s i o n
l o s s , microns
T e s t exposure, years
Fig. 3. Industrial exposure - Port Talbot.
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there can be large differences i n corrosion rates, dependent upon geographical location and
positional effects.
The Department of Transport Standard BD/7/81 and the equivalent SDD document
refer to the use of'Weathering Steels for Highway Structures' and states that they should
not be used when:-
- the atmospheric chloride ion concentration is greater than 0.1 mg/100 c m per day, 2
average
- the atmospheric SO2 concentration is greater than 2.1 mg/100 c m per day, average 2
- the bridge is over a road subject to de-icing salts and the headroom is less than 7.5 m
A British Steel study of airborne salinity at eighteen sites i n the U K concluded that
although very high chloride levels are encountered at the coastline, these fall very rapidly
on moving inland. The values obtained suggest that only a very narrow coastal strip
(approximately 1-1-J- km) has a sufficiently high airborne salinity to adversely affect the
performance of weathering steels.
Usually i t is i n industrial locations that weathering steels show their greatest
advantage over mild steel. Sulphur dioxide in the air reacts with the alloying elements to
produce insoluble sulphates which plug the rust pores and the corrosion rate falls rapidly.
It has been observed i n the U K that bridges and buildings i n Cor-Ten weather to
different extents, as measured by both appearance and metal loss, depending upon their
compass orientation. Controlled atmospheric corrosion tests have shown that greatest
corrosion occurs on north-westerly facing steel surfaces, almost certainly because they are
wetted for longer due to rain carried by the prevailing wind and they take longer to dry,
since they are most shaded from the sun (Fig. 4).
Corrosion 9 Years exposure
loss, microns
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5001 l 1 1 1 I 1 l l 1 1 1 I I
300 100 0 100 300 700 500 300 100 0 100 300 500
Corrosion loss, microns Corrosion loss, microns
Cor-Ten Mild steel
Fig. 4. Corrosion losses of mild and Cor-Ten A steels exposed

vertically, facing different compass directions.
Weathering steels should be blast-cleaned, to remove millscale, before exposure to

provide a sound uniform surface for the formation of the oxide coating. Under most
conditions a stable rust patina w i l l be established i n about 2-3 years, changing in colour
from brown through to almost black, though the ultimate colour w i l l depend upon the
conditions at the site.
Drainage of corrosion products can be expected during the first 2 or 3 years exposure
and can stain or streak adjacent materials, e.g. concrete piers. Provision should be made to
divert this from vulnerable surfaces.
A continually wet surface w i l l cause weathering steels to corrode at approximately the
same rate as mild steel. Detailing should therefore avoid crevices or other water retention
areas. Drainage and ventilation should be provided. A l l interior surfaces (e.g. box girders)
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and faying surfaces should be painted or sealed to prevent entry of moisture. Structures
should be periodically inspected to ensure that all joints and surfaces are performing
satisfactorily.
It is generally considered that bridge steelwork in bare unprotected weathering steels,
with a 1 mm corrosion allowance, approximates i n cost to bridge steelwork i n Grade 50
steel, protected with a conventional multicoat painting system.
It has also been claimed that paint coatings perform significantly better when applied
on weathering steel, as compared to a mild steel substrate. These claims have come
predominantly from the United States where i t is suggested that improved paint
performance on weathering steels will double the time to first maintenance of a typical
bridge painting system. A recently conducted survey i n USA indicated that 300 0001 of
bare Cor-Ten will be used on bridges over the next five years and that 130 000 tons of
painted Cor-Ten w i l l be used over the same period.
Painting of weathering steel bridges has not been used as a standard practice in the
UK, though occasionally painting has been used as a remedial measure on weathering
steel bridges which have inadvertently been built i n an inappropriate environment.
Indeed the DoT Standard BD/7/81 states that 'paint does not have an increased life on
weathering steel.
The underlying reasons for any possible improved paint performance are unclear and
will probably be to some extent dependent upon prevailing climatic conditions.
Consequently, i n view of the major cost consequences of this possibility, a test programme
has been commenced by British Steel to evaluate the performance of various bridge
painting systems on weathering steels and on mild steel in a number of environments.
Clear indications from this test programme are not expected for another 4-5 years.
6 Enclosure of steel bridges
This method of protecting structural steelwork on composite bridges was proposed in 1980
by TRRL. It relies upon the principle that clean steel does not corrode significantly at
relative humidities as high as 99%, provided certain environmental contaminants, such as
sulphur dioxide and/or chlorides, are absent or are present only at low levels. The concept
therefore is to enclose steel bridge beams (which are already sheltered by a concrete deck)
with plastic or other sheeting, thereby reducing the corrosivity of the environment to
which the steel is exposed.
After preliminary experiments at a number of bridges to establish the feasibility and
validity of the method, the first full scale enclosure was carried out on the 3 span composite
river bridge at Conon, near Inverness. The bridge had been completed in 1982 and the
painted beams were totally enclosed i n 1984, with stiffened anodised aluminium sheeting.
Measurements have since been made periodically of humidity, temperature, time-of-
wetness, atmospheric chlorides and sulphur dioxide and corrosion rates have been
measured on bare steel test panels. The results of these tests, carried out both inside and
immediately outside the enclosure have confirmed that the method produces an
environment of low corrosivity and suggests that the painted steel beams w i l l remain
maintenance free for decades. The enclosure method may also be applicable to unpainted
steel beams and could also be used to extend the life of weathering steel bridges which have
inadvertently been constructed i n unfavourable environments.
A further advantage of the method is that the enclosure panels can provide a
permanent access platform for future inspection and maintenance, providing the cladding
is designed for such loading. This built-in access must be considered as a major benefit for
bridges over rivers, motorways etc. A major use of the enclosure method is currently being
undertaken on the Tees Viaduct where GRP sheeting is being used.
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The method is applicable to both new and existing bridges though beam sizes and
spacings w i l l obviously affect the economics. Deep, closely spaced beams, which allow a
large surface area of structural steelwork to be enclosed with a small amount of cladding
w i l l give the most economic enclosures. Beam depths of less than about 2 m make access
and inspection more difficult, as well as being economically less favourable. Beam
spacings of more than 2.75 m represent an upper limit imposed by the strength and
stiffness of many potential enclosure cladding materials.
The Steel Construction Institute are currently involved i n writing, on behalf of the
Department of Transport, a draft Departmental Standard and Advice Note on enclosures.
This w i l l include design guides and advice on cladding materials.
7 Maintenance of steel bridges
7.1 Maintenance o f conventional p a i n t i n g systems

The majority of steel bridges are protected from corrosion by the application of paint
coatings. Consequently the mechanisms by which paint films fail are of relevance.
A l l paint films are permeable to atmospheric gases and in particular oxygen, water
vapour and water. The degree of permeability varies from one coating type to another and
is also dependent upon film thickness; however, i n all cases water and oxygen reach the
steel surface. The reasons for corrosion not subsequently occurring are complex and
unresolved but are almost certainly to a large extent due to the paint film imposing a large
electrical resistance i n the path of any possible corrosion current. This protection
mechanism is only effective while the paint adheres to the steel surface. If adhesion is lost
or markedly reduced, osmotic pressures are developed under the paint film causing
blistering, general loss of adhesion and, eventually, corrosion of the steel surface. This
degradation occurs, in a sense, through the film.
A second form of degradation occurs as a result of spread of corrosion from the
discontinuities in the coating. These may be 'holidays' (i.e. omissions during application),
mechanically damaged areas, localised film weaknesses (e.g. air or solvent voids), or
localised disruptions of the coating by the above 'through film' mechanism. In all of these
cases corrosion occurs at the discontinuity and spreads under the film, forming a crevice in
which corrosion can proceed at an increased rate, leading to an underfilm degradation of
the paint coating.
The third mechanism by which paint coatings degrade is concerned with erosion from
the surface of the f i l m . This may be the result of U V degradation or, more simply,
mechanical erosion due to wind-borne sands etc.
In the wet, temperate climate of the U K through-film and underfilm degradation are
the common modes of failure; UV degradation is less significant and mechanical erosion is
specific to a small number of extreme sites.
It is expected that new steel bridgework which has been treated with one of the
Department of Transport conventional multicoat painting systems will require minor
maintenance after 6 years and major maintenance after 15 years.
The procedures employed by the Department for the maintenance of conventionally
painted steel bridgework involve:-
- defining the extent of the failure; local, general etc.

- carrying out a site survey
- w r i t i n g a specification for the maintenance work
- carrying out a site feasibility t r i a l
- execution of the contract
- testing of materials during the course of the contract
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all of which is described i n the Departmental Standard BD/18/83 and Advice Note
BA/13/83.
The systems used are, of course, conventional multicoat systems, similar to those
used on new steel bridgework.
7.2 Maintenance of h i g h - b u i l d p a i n t i n g systems

Experience with these systems on bridgework is limited so that predictions of maintenance
periods can not be made with certainty. However, accelerated tests and general field
experience suggest a period of at least 20 years before major maintenance is required, and
possibly much longer.
The thick, highly cross-linked films produced by these materials pose their own
problems when the need for that maintenance does arise. Most experience of this kind has
been w i t h high-build (usually solvent-free) epoxy coatings which have proved to be
difficult to maintain due to lack of adhesion between the original coatings and the
maintenance coats. This difficulty has been overcome, at a cost, by insisting that the
surface of the original coating is abraded before the maintenance coats are applied. A t the
present moment, this requirement would also be made for the high-build elastomeric
urethane coatings even though these are much less susceptible to intercoat adhesion
problems. In practice this would be achieved by lightly blast-cleaning the overall surface
and, since blast-cleaning is a well established practice on bridge maintenance sites, would
not be expected to cause significant problems i n terms of either practicability or cost.
7.3 Maintenance of weathering steel bridges

Weathering steel bridges are not entirely maintenance free. Structures should be
periodically inspected to ensure that decks and expansion joints are not leaking, that the
weathering steel surface is free from debris and that all surfaces are performing
satisfactorily.
Departmental Standard BD/7/81 requires that visual examinations of critical areas
should be carried out at least every 2 years and steel thickness measurements should be
made at intervals of approximately 6 years during the life of the structure.
7.4 Maintenance of enclosures

The enclosure sheeting which protects the bridge beams w i l l , of course, be fully exposed
and w i l l eventually require maintenance or replacement. The form this takes and the
period involved will be dependent upon the local environment and the cladding material
used.
7.5 Commuted maintenance costs

The evaluation of future maintenance costs for highway bridges is a continuing
controversial topic. Until recently, commuted maintenance costs were applied to steel
bridges but not to concrete bridges.
Recent DoT Standards BD36/88 and BA28/88, which are intended for the purpose of
comparing alternative designs, include costs for inspection and maintenance of concrete
bridges. The steel industry considers that this is a step i n the right direction but that the
cost rates given in the new standard still do not truly reflect the real situation and that
steel is still at a disadvantage.
8 T h e m a r k e t f o r steel bridges
During the 1980s steel has shown a steady increase i n its share of the highway bridge
market. This has been due to a combination of several factors:-
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- steel costs have fallen relative to concrete costs
- fabrication costs have reduced
- the introduction of limit state design codes
- improved corrosion protection systems for steel and a growing awareness that
concrete bridges are not maintenance free
A market survey has been carried out on all highway bridges i n England and Wales,
completed during the period A p r i l 1983 to April 1988, whose maximum span was in the
range 15 m - 50 m. A n excellent response, i n excess of 90%, gave a base of 612 structures.
Figure 5 shows the changing market share of steel and concrete over the 5 year period,
both in terms of numbers of bridges and deck area. Steel has increased its share both in
terms of numbers of structures built (10%->28%) and i n terms of deck area (ll%-»53%).
Deck area is considered to be the most realistic method of making this comparison.
Q Concrete
Percentage Percentage Share by deck area
Share by number of structures
100-
90-
80"
70"
60-
50"
40-
30-
20'
10'
1983/4 ' 1984/5 ' 1985/6 1986/7 1
1987/8 1983/4 1984/5 ' 1985/6 1986/7
Years Years
Fig. 5. Highway bridges in England and Wales.

1983-1988 15 m - 50 m span
The data were also analysed by span range, Fig. 6, which shows that steel has
increased its share i n all 3 span categories, but particularly in the intermediate 25-35 m
range.
S Steel
Percentage Percentage
100 15 m - 25 m span 100- 25 m - 35 m span
90 90-
p,n.
80 70 -
70 60-
60 50
50 40
40 30
30 20 •
20 10-
10 0
0 1983/4 '1984/5' 1985/6'1986/' '1987/8 1983/4 '1984/5' 1985/6* 1986/7*1987/8
Years
Percentage 35 m - 50 m span
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1983/4 '1984/51* 1985/6*1986/7'1987/8

Years
Fig. 6. Highway bridges in England and Wales.
1983 -1988 Share by deck area
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9 Prospects for the future
Corrosion protection remains a critical part of the overall package which w i l l ensure that
steel maintains and increases its share of the total bridge market.
In the USA there are no Federal procedures or practices dealing with bridge corrosion
protection as there are i n the U K . Moreover there is much greater emphasis placed on air
pollution by the organic solvents in paints. The net result is that the developments i n
bridge corrosion protection i n the USA are heavily concerned with weathering steels:-
- the growing use of weathering steels for bridges. The bad experience of the
Michigan Department of Transportation with weathering steel bridges during the
late 1970s has generally been attributed to leaking deck-joints, salt-spraying and
bad detailing and a major growth i n use is now expected
- the recent introduction of Cor-Ten B-QT, a high yield strength steel which is being
promoted for plate-girder bridgework
- the growing use of painted Cor-Ten, to increase life to first maintenance
I n mainland Europe, weathering steels are used for bridges, but not extensively and the
principal developments seem to be concerned with reducing the cost of conventional
painting systems. This is being achieved by reducing the number of coats applied, e.g. a
current French chlorinated rubber specification for rural, urban and industrial
environments involves the application of only 3 coats to produce a film thickness of
180 microns and is claimed to give a life of 15 years to first major maintenance. Possibly
the French climate is less aggressive than in the UK?
In the U K , the authors expect a continuing growth in market share for steel bridges.
This w i l l involve more weathering steel bridges, a growing use of the enclosure method,
particularly for river bridges and possibly motorway bridges, and a move away from
conventional multicoat painting systems towards the very high-build systems as used on
the Waterside bridge, possibly applied in specially equipped, purpose built shops.
10 Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Dr. R. Baker, Director of Research, British Steel for permission
to publish this paper.
11 References
Bishop, R. Enclosure - A n alternative to bridge painting. TRRL research report No. 83.
Johnson, K.E. and Stanners, J.F. The characterisation of corrosion test sites,
EUR 7433 E N .
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Wallbank, E.J. (1989) The performance of concrete in bridges. G. Maunsell & Partners
for Department of Transport.
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FIBER REINFORCED PLASTIC BRIDGES
IN CHONGQING 1983-1988
R.N. BRUCE, Jr
Dept Civil Engineering, Tulane University, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA
Abstract
T h i s paper i s a b r i e f report d e s c r i b i n g the p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f two f i b e r r e i n f o r c e d p l a s t i c b r i d g e s b u i l t i n C h o n g q i n g , P e o p l e s
R e p u b l i c o f China, d u r i n g t h e decade o f t h e 1980's. T h e two b r i d g e s
t h a t a r e d e s c r i b e d a r e t h e GRP P e d e s t r i a n C a b l e - S t a y e d B r i d g e , a n d t h e
Guanyinqiao P e d e s t r i a n Bridge. T h e GRP P e d e s t r i a n C a b l e - S t a y e d B r i d g e
was c o m p l e t e d i n 1986, a n d t h e G u a n y i n q i a o P e d e s t r i a n B r i d g e w a s com-
p l e t e d i n 1988. Both b r i d g e s a r e a unique combination o f high
s t r e n g t h s t e e l and r e i n f o r c e d concrete with g l a s s r e i n f o r c e d p l a s t i c
(GRP). I t i s n o t e d t h a t t h i s p a p e r p e r t a i n s t o w o r k done b y o t h e r s -
t h e p a p e r i s a " t r i p r e p o r t " w h i c h p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n on a n innova-
t i v e u s e o f FRP (GRP) m a t e r i a l s i n b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e s .
Keywords: F i b e r R e i n f o r c e d P l a s t i c B r i d g e s , G l a s s R e i n f o r c e d P l a s t i c
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Bridges, P l a s t i c Bridges, Cable-Stayed Bridges, Bridges.
1 Introduction
T h r o u g h t h e e f f o r t s o f Mr. C h e n K e s h e n g , S e n i o r E n g i n e e r , a n d Madame
Cheng L i p i n g , Deputy C h i e f E n g i n e e r o f t h e C h i n a Highway a n d T r a n s p o r -
t a t i o n S o c i e t y ; t h e a u t h o r w a s i n v i t e d t o i n s p e c t two o f t h e t h r e e
f i b e r r e i n f o r c e d p l a s t i c b r i d g e s i n Chongqing. Both o f t h e b r i d g e s
were c o n c e i v e d and b u i l t by The R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e o f Composite
M a t e r i a l B r i d g e s o f t h e Chongqing I n s t i t u t e o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
I t i s n o t e d t h a t t h i s p a p e r p e r t a i n s t o w o r k done b y o t h e r s , a n d
t h a t t h e a u t h o r d i d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e p r o j e c t s r e p o r t e d . The
p a p e r i s a " t r i p r e p o r t " w h i c h p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n on a n i n n o v a t i v e
u s e o f FRP ( G R P ) m a t e r i a l i n b r i d g e s . Much i n f o r m a t i o n p e r t a i n i n g t o
mechanical properties of the materials, technical d e t a i l s of the
d e s i g n , a n d methods o f f a b r i c a t i o n and e r e c t i o n , were n o t a v a i l a b l e t o
the author; and thus the paper i s l i m i t e d to t h e b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n s
provided. I n t h e c a s e o f t h e f i r s t b r i d g e d e s c r i b e d , some t e c h n i c a l
i n f o r m a t i o n w a s p r o v i d e d b y Mr. T a n g Guodong o f t h e C o m p o s t i t e
M a t e r i a l B r i d g e I n s t i t u t e i n Chongqing.
2 GRP P e d e s t r i a n C a b l e - S t a y e d Bridge
The f i r s t b r i d g e v i s i t e d w a s t h e GRP P e d e s t r i a n C a b l e - S t a y e d B r i d g e
j o i n i n g two p a r t s o f t h e campus o f t h e C h o n g q i n g I n s t i t u t e o f
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Transportation. The b r i d g e was c o m p l e t e d i n 1986, and i s shown i n
Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 GRP Pedestrian Cable Stayed Bridge
The l a y o u t o f t h e b r i d g e i s a n u n s y m m e t r i c a l s y s t e m h a v i n g a s i n g l e
t o w e r and a s i n g l e h a r p e d a r r a y o f c a b l e s t a y s . The s i d e s p a n s and
the tower are of r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e , w i t h the tower h a v i n g a h e i g h t
o f 11m and a n i n c l i n a t i o n o f 15° f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l . Each of the seven
c a b l e s t a y s c o n s i s t s o f 19 No. 5 s t e e l w i r e s e n c a s e d i n a p o l y e t h y l e n e
tube.
The e n t i r e l e n g t h o f t h e b r i d g e i s 50m w h i c h i n c l u d e s a non-
c o n t i n u o u s m a i n s p a n and two s i d e s p a n s . The m a i n s p a n c o n s i s t s o f a
s i n g l e FRP box g i r d e r w i t h c o v e r p l a t e s . The FRP g i r d e r i s 27.4m
l o n g , and 4.3m wide. The w e i g h t o f t h e FRP g i r d e r i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8
tons. The c o s t o f t h e s i n g l e FRP box g i r d e r was 1 2 0 , 0 0 0 y u a n , o r ap-
p r o x i m a t e l y 45% of the t o t a l c o s t of the p r o j e c t . The t o t a l c o s t o f
t h e c o m p l e t e d s t r u c t u r e , i n c l u d i n g a t e s t p r o g r a m , was 2 6 0 , 0 0 0 y u a n
f o r a u n i t c o s t o f 1,000 yuan per square meter. To t r a n s l a t e t h e u n i t
c o s t i n t o d o l l a r s w o u l d r e s u l t i n a r a n g e b e t w e e n $25 p e r s q u a r e f o o t
and $13 p e r s q u a r e f o o t , d e p e n d i n g on t h e e x c h a n g e r a t e u s e d .
Complete t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g b r i d g e d e s i g n , m a t e r i a l s ,
and c o n s t r u c t i o n , was n o t a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i m e o f inspection;
however, l i m i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n has been p r o v i d e d r e l a t e d to the g l a s s
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f i b e r r e i n f o r c e d p l a s t i c , and r e l a t e d t o d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .
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The GRP i s composed o f h i g h s t r e n g t h p l a s t i c r e i n f o r c e d w i t h g l a s s
fiber. The b o n d b e t w e e n t h e f i b e r a n d t h e p l a s t i c i s e n h a n c e d b y t h e
u s e o f a r e s i n . The h i g h s t r e n g t h p l a s t i c i s r e f e r r e d t o a s a p l a s t i c
resin. Some o f t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e GRP w e r e p r o v i d e d .
The s t r u c t u r a l s t i f f n e s s ( E I and G I ) i s d e p e n d e n t on m a t e r i a l
p a r a m e t e r s a n d member c r o s s - s e c t i o n . Although the p h y s i c a l s t i f f n e s s
o f t h e m a t e r i a l ( E , G) i s l e s s t h a n t h a t f o r c o n c r e t e o r s t e e l , t h e
s t i f f n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r a l members c a n be i n c r e a s e d by i n -
c r e a s i n g t h e g e o m e t r i c s t i f f n e s s i n t e r m s o f moment o f i n e r t i a o f t h e
cross-section. V a l u e s o f e l a s t i c m o d u l u s ( E , G) c a n be i n c r e a s e d by
the proper choice of f i b e r o r i e n t a t i o n .
The FRP box g i r d e r u s e d i n t h e GRP P e d e s t r i a n C a b l e - S t a y e d B r i d g e
c o n s i s t e d o f a t o p a n d b o t t o m f l a n g e , and f i v e v e r t i c a l w e b s . The a r -
r a n g e m e n t o f f i b e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n t h e webs c o u l d be p l a c e d a t a n
a n g l e o f 45° i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e i n c r e a s e d s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e t o s h e a r
s t r e s s e s , t h u s i m p r o v i n g t h e s t r e n g t h and s t i f f n e s s o f t h e l a m i n a t e d
s e c t i o n s u s e d i n t h e box g i r d e r . T h i s predetermined arrangement of
the f i b e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t can r e s u l t i n a m a t e r i a l h a v i n g a n i s o t r o p i c
properties. T h e s e a n i s o t r o p i c p r o p e r t i e s m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d in
design. I n the case of f i b e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t p l a c e d i n a
l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n o n l y , p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s may be d e t e r m i n e d .
The e l a s t i c m o d u l u s o f t h e GRP i n t e n s i o n and c o m p r e s s i o n a r e
g i v e n , r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) .
E
o - E
f " V
f +
^ d " f>
V
( )
2
where
modulus o f GRP
modulus o f plastic resin

E
m "
E f - modulus o f glass fiber
V
m " percentage content of resin
V f = percentage content of fiber
The s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f t h e GFP i s b e t w e e n 1.4 - 2.2. For the GRP

r e i n f o r c e d i n a l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n only, the t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h i s
10,000 kg/cm . 2
D e s i g n c r i t e r i a i n c l u d e d a d e s i g n l i v e l o a d o f 350 kg/cm , w i t h a
f a c t o r o f s a f e t y o f 10 f o r d i r e c t s t r e s s , and a F . S . b e t w e e n 3 and 6
for shear s t r e s s . The a l l o w a b l e d e f l e c t i o n i s L / 6 0 0 . The highest
d e s i g n t e m p e r a t u r e u n d e r s e r v i c e c o n d i t i o n s i s 70°C.
The d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e i n v o l v e d a s e q u e n c e o f t h r e e s t e p s . The first
s t e p was t h e d e s i g n o f a s i n g l e l a m i n a t e , i n v o l v i n g t h e m a t e r i a l com-
p o s i t i o n , q u a n t i t y , and a r r a n g e m e n t . The s e c o n d s t e p was t h e d e s i g n
o f t h e l a m i n a t e d p l a t e s , i n v o l v i n g t h e d i r e c t i o n and b u i l d i n g s e q u e n c e
of the s i n g l e laminates i n t o a laminated p l a t e or sandwich s t r u c t u r e .
161
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Copyright CRC Press

The t h i r d s t e p w a s t h e o v e r a l l d e s i g n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , i n v o l v i n g
volume, s i z e , and geometric p r o p o r t i o n s . I t i spointed out that the
t h r e e s t e p s i n t h e design procedure a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d and interdepen-
dent.
S p e c i a l commentary may b e made w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d e s i g n o f t h e
FRP b o x g i r d e r . The depth o f t h e g i r d e r i s v a r i a b l e so a s t o form t h e
d e c k w i t h a l o n g i t u d i n a l s l o p e o f 2%, s u f f i c i e n t f o r d r a i n i n g w a t e r o n
the deck. A l l o f t h e l a m i n a t e d p l a t e s i n t h e box g i r d e r have a t h i c k -
n e s s o f 10 cm. e x c e p t t h e c e n t e r l o n g i t u d i n a l web p a n e l w h i c h h a s a
t h i c k n e s s o f 16cm.
The FRP b o x g i r d e r was f a b r i c a t e d i n t h e New M a t e r i a l F a c t o r y o f
Wuhan I n d u s t r y U n i v e r s i t y . T h e b o x g i r d e r was t r a n s p o r t e d a n d e r e c t e d
i n one p i e c e . T h e b r i d g e was t e s t e d u n d e r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f d e a d l o a d
and l i v e l o a d . The t e s t s i n c l u d e d s t a t i c and dynamic t e s t s t o d e t e r -
m i n e t h e s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o r o f t h e c o m p l e t e d GRP b r i d g e . The s t a t i c
t e s t i n d i c a t e d c o m p a t i b l e r e s u l t s when o b s e r v e d v a l u e s a n d c a l c u l a t e d
v a l u e s were compared. Maximum m i d s p a n d e f l e c t i o n was m e a s u r e d t o b e
3.5 cm., l e s s t h a n t h e a l l o w a b l e d e f l e c t i o n o f L / 6 0 0 .
The d y n a m i c t e s t s i n c l u d e d a n i m p a c t t e s t a n d a " P e o p l e P a s s i n g
Bridge" v i b r a t i o n test. I n t h e i m p a c t t e s t , a w e i g h t o f 1.47kN was
d r o p p e d f r o m a h e i g h t o f 1.5m, i m p a c t i n g t h e m i d - s p a n o f t h e GRP
bridge. A s a r e s u l t o f t h e i m p a c t t e s t , t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e GRP b o x
g i r d e r w a s d e t e r m i n e d t o b e e q u a l t o 3.15Hz, t h e s t r a i n a m p l i t u d e was
4 1 . 7 5 x £ , a n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e c o e f f i c i e n t was 0.107.
I n t h e "People P a s s i n g B r i d g e " t e s t s , t h r e e procedures were used.
When a g r o u p o f 4 0 p e r s o n s w a l k e d r a n d o m l y t h r o u g h t h e b r i d g e , t h e t o -
t a l s t r a i n a m p l i t u d e o f t h e GRP g r i d e r was l e s s t h a n 2 6 * £ , ap-
proximating the relevant s t a t i c s t r a i n . When two g r o u p s o f p e r s o n s ,
e a c h g r o u p h a v i n g 15 p e r s o n s , q u i c k l y m a r c h e d r e v e r s e l y a l o n g t h e two
s i d e s o f t h e b r i d g e , t h e v i b r a t i o n was g r e a t e r t h a n t h e f i r s t c a s e ,
a n d t h e m e a s u r e d f r e q u e n c y was 2.5 Hz.
I n t h e t h i r d p r o c e d u r e , 4 p e r s o n s r a n a c r o s s t h e GRP g i r d e r w i t h
3Hz f r e q u e n c y , a g g r a v a t i n g t h e v i b r a t i o n . T h e maximum s t r a i n
a m p l i t u d e w a s m e a s u r e d t o b e 50M£ , s i g n i f i c a n t l y l a r g e r than the
f i r s t p r o c e d u r e i n v o l v i n g 40 p e r s o n s . The r u n n i n g f r e q u e n c y o f t h e
p e o p l e a p p r o x i m a t e d t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y o f t h e GRP g i r d e r , t h u s
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
causing the significant amplification.
The c o m p l e t e d b r i d g e was r e v i e w e d b y t h e PRC M i n i s t r y o f Communica-
t i o n s , t h e agency r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . About 40 e x p e r t s o f
highway, r a i l w a y , m a t e r i a l and urban c o n s t r u c t i o n took p a r t i n t h e
review.
The r e v i e w i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e c o s t o f t h e FRP b r i d g e i s l e s s t h a n
t h e c o s t o f t h e same b r i d g e i n s t e e l , a n d t h a t t h e FRP b r i d g e i s m a i n -
tenance f r e e . T h i s GRP P e d e s t r i a n C a b l e - S t a y e d B r i d g e i s t h e f i r s t i n
t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e d e s i g n may b e u s e d f o r t h e p e d e s t r i a n b r i d g e s o f
c i t i e s i n China.
3 Guanyinqiao P e d e s t r i a n Bridge I n Chong Q i n g
The s e c o n d b r i d g e v i s i t e d was t h e G u a n y i n q i a o P e d e s t r i a n B r i d g e o f
J i a n g b e i D i s t r i c t i n Chongqing. T h e b r i d g e was c o m p l e t e d i n May o f
1988. T h e b r i d g e i s d e s c r i b e d a s a s p a c e f r a m e , w i t h FRP d e c k g r i d e r s
162
Copyright CRC Press

suspended from r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e r i g i d frames. The model o f the
b r i d g e i s shown i n F i g . 2.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 2 Model o f G u a n y i n q i a o Pedestrian Bridge
The b r i d g e c r o s s e s a n i n t e r s e c t i o n o f two m a i n s t r e e t s i n downtown

Chongqing. The s t r u c t u r a l l a y o u t i s i n t h e s h a p e o f a n a n c i e n t
Chinese coin. The s p a n o f t h e r i g i d f r a m e i s 70m, w i t h t h e o v e r a l l
t o t a l l e n g t h o f t h e b r i d g e e q u a l t o 157 m. The f o u r l o n g FRP g i r d e r s
a r e 19 m l o n g . The f o u r FRP g i r d e r s f o r m i n g t h e c e n t r a l g e o m e t r y a r e
9m l o n g . A l l e i g h t FRP g i r d e r s a r e 4.3m w i d e , a n d 0.9m d e e p . A l l
g i r d e r s a r e hung from t h e s p a c e frames by h i g h s t r e n g t h w i r e . Total
w e i g h t o f t h e FRP g i r d e r s was 43 t o n s , w i t h t h e 19m g i r d e r s e a c h
w e i g h i n g 7.29 t o n s a n d 9m g i r d e r s e a c h w e i g h i n g 3.46 t o n s . The c o s t
o f t h e FRP g i r d e r s i n p l a c e r e p r e s e n t e d 4 2 % o f t h e t o t a l c o s t o f t h e
completed p r o j e c t . The t o t a l c o s t o f t h e p r o j e c t was 1,700,000 y u a n .
T h i s amount c o n v e r t s t o $ 4 8 5 , 0 0 0 t o $ 2 4 3 , 0 0 0 d e p e n d i n g on t h e e x c h a n g e
r a t e used.
The FRP g i r d e r s w e r e f a b r i c a t e d i n C h o n g q i n g G l a s s F i b e r P r o d u c t
F a c t o r y t h e n t r a n s p o r t e d and e r e c t e d i n s i n g l e p i e c e s . Those r e s p o n -
s i b l e f o r t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e FRP b r i d g e s i n C h o n g q i n g
h a v e i n d i c a t e d c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f FRP b r i d g e s a s f o l l o w s :
1. C o s t o f FRP b r i d g e s i s l e s s t h a n s t e e l b r i d g e s o f same t y p e .
2. T h e r e i s no r u s t i n g p r o b l e m , a n d m a i n t e n a n c e i s m i n i m i z e d .
163
Copyright CRC Press

3. T e s t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e FRP s t r u c t u r e i s m a i n t e n a n c e f r e e f o r 40
y e a r s , except i n e s p e c i a l l y bad environment. Tests indicate
t h a t i s i t u n n e c e s s a r y t o worry about t h e problem o f l i f e span
f o r FRP b r i d g e s .
4. FRP h a s good p r o p e r t i e s f o r r e s i s t i n g f a t i g u e a n d l o w e n e r g y
impact.
5. FRP i s e a s y t o form a n d t o c o l o r .
The f i n a l a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e G u a n y i n q i a o Pedestrian Bridge i n serv-

ice i s shown i n F i g . 3.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 3 Guanyingiao Bridge i n Service
A t t e m p t s a r e b e i n g made t o o b t a i n a d d i t i o n a l t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n
on t h e GRP b r i d g e s i n C h i n a , i n c l u d i n g t h e v e h i c u l a r b r i d g e i n B e i -
jing. When s u c h i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e c e i v e d , i t w i l l b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o
an expanded v e r s i o n o f t h i s r e p o r t .
References
1. Guodong, T a n g , A n a l y t i c a l a n d E x p e r i m e n t a l Work o f GRP C a b l e -

Stayed Pedestrian Bridge. Composite M a t e r i a l B r i d g e I n s t i t u t e ,
Chongq i n g , Ch i n a .
164
Copyright CRC Press

THE T E S T PERFORMANCE OF A F U L L -
S C A L E PRESTRESSED BRICKWORK
BRIDGE A B U T M E N T
S.W. GARRITY, T.G. GARWOOD
Dept Civil Engineering and Building, Bolton Institute of Higher
Education, Bolton, England, UK
Abstract
A prestressed clay brickwork diaphragm wall, representing part of a
6.6m high bridge abutment, was b u i l t i n the laboratory. The wall was
test loaded by a system of hydraulic rams fixed to a similarly
constructed reaction w a l l . The rams were arranged to simulate both
the longitudinal load applied to the abutment at carriageway level
and the earth pressure forces acting on the back face. I n the test,
no cracking was observed i n the brickwork u n t i l the applied loading
was well i n excess of that corresponding to the design service
condition. At the f i n a l stage of the test there was no indication of
impending shear or bending f a i l u r e . The bending moment and shear
force resisted by the abutment at this stage were greater than those
produced by the design ultimate loads as defined i n BS 5400.
Keywords: Brickwork, Prestressing, Bridges, Full-Scale Testing.
1 Introduction
Concrete has generally been regarded by engineers as a durable
material requiring l i t t l e or no maintenance. However, an alarming
number of Britain's concrete highway bridges, many of which were
constructed during the major road building programmes of the 1960s
and early 1970s, are now showing signs of deterioration. Although
there are many l i k e l y causes of such deterioration, the most serious
and widespread problem i s reinforcement corrosion arising from the
use of de-icing s a l t s i n winter. Bridge piers and abutments are often
the worst affected, i n some cases requiring major repairs. Based on
the r e s u l t s of a survey of 200 bridges i n England by Wallbank (1989),
i t has been estimated that i t would cost about £600 million over a
ten year period to repair a l l the concrete bridges owned by the
Department of Transport. This figure does not include the cost of
disruption to the road users.
I n the past, masonry was used extensively i n B r i t a i n for arch
bridges and for the piers and abutments of beam and slab bridges.
Such masonry structures have generally performed well over long
periods of time, i n many cases requiring only minimal maintenance.
Inevitably, masonry bridge abutments were usually of r e l a t i v e l y
massive construction because of masonry's inherently low flexural
strength. Reinforced concrete construction was considered to be
165
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Copyright CRC Press

stronger i n flexure and l e s s costly than masonry. Consequently, i n
modern construction, masonry has been used primarily as an
aesthetically pleasing cladding for reinforced concrete abutments
rather than as a structural material.
Curtin et a l (1982, 1982a, 1982b) have shown that the prestressed
masonry "diaphragm" or c e l l u l a r wall i s an e f f i c i e n t structural form
which can be used economically to r e s i s t large l a t e r a l loads.
Prestressed clay brickwork diaphragm wall construction may therefore
be a cost-effective alternative to reinforced concrete for bridge
abutments, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f whole l i f e costs and aesthetic appeal are
considered. As f a r as the authors are aware, the f i r s t instance of
where this form of bridge abutment construction was used i n practice
was the Glinton - Northborough by-pass i n Cambridgeshire, as reported
by B e l l (1989a).
Curtin (1986), Ambrose et a l (1988) and Curtin and Howard (1988a)
have carried out tests on prestressed clay brickwork diaphragm walls.
However, the wall sections tested and the magnitude and distribution
of the test loads were not appropriate for a bridge abutment.
The work reported i n this paper i s the f i r s t of a series of tests
on a f u l l scale prestressed clay brickwork bridge abutment b u i l t i n
the laboratory. The headroom available limited the height of
brickwork to 4.275 m. This would be the height of brickwork, from the
top of foundation to the capping beam s o f f i t , i n an abutment of 6.6m
overall height as shown i n Figure 1.
25 0m span beartings
carriageway
?• r
J
drained backfill : \ b r i d
9 e d e c k
\
Kacfive s
0 ^ »' ' R.C. capping beam —
Kat rest =°' >

6
!
, U-275m 6-6m
tun*at s
IBkN/nTi PRESTRESSED CLAY
r
BRICKWORK DIAPHRAGM
abufmenf widfh = 13715m; WALL CONSTRUCTION
carriageway width = 7-3m.
Macalloy bars
my/
R.C. Foundation i
J.
Fig.1. Highway bridge with prestressed brickwork
diaphragm wall abutments
2 Test details
2.1 Test arrangement
Details of the test arrangement are shown i n Figure 2. Engineering
bricks having an average crushing strength of 103 N/mm and 5.8% 2
166
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Copyright CRC Press

water absorption were used with a 1:\:3 (cement:lime:sand) volume
batched mortar. The brickwork bonding pattern shown i n Figure 3 was
developed to obviate the need for steel t i e s which have often proved
to be a maintenance l i a b i l i t y i n building construction. Minimum use
i s made of cut or special bricks and the bonding pattern i s v e r s a t i l e
i n that the web spacing and the overall depth can be altered i n
multiples of 225mm. The test abutment construction i s described i n
greater d e t a i l elsewhere by Garrity and Garwood (1989b).
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TEST ABUTMENT REACTION WALL
capping beam anchorages -\—R.C. capping beams

(precast)
UOmm diameter
Macalloy bars
HllH 5U00
1000mm space between
brickwork for scaffolding
threaded coupler-
=!&=
a) Elevation 4j
.6 2 U 1 3 5
order of stressing •
600
900 kN capacity hydraulic
ram IT
I I •IT
11
200kN capacity'
U275
hydraulic ram
1I
i! -57 courses high
11
clay brickwork
27 N* 100 kN capacity
hydraulic rams !•! I I
diaphragm wall
!•! 1l
SlOOxtBOO R.C. slab 1000
b)A-A All dimensions are in millimetres
Fig.2. Details of test arrangement
167
Copyright CRC Press

S; 5
\ i
3375 250 1125
1125
EBJ M M M M
• I H.H 1111 H.H 1111KUHI •
- : : \ 7
-- Macalloy 75tf5 250
- - bars
HJ
2/5 275
4-1
closer
All dimensions are in millimetres
Fig. 3. Brickwork bonding pattern

(alternate courses shown)
2.2 Prestressing
The' prestressing force was provided by 6 No. 40mm diameter Macalloy
bars at an eccentricity of 250mm. The prestressing force i n each bar
was 910 kN; the prestress i n the brickwork was 1.02 N/mm and 3.74 2
N/mm i n the front and back flanges respectively. I n the 5 month

2
period between prestressing and testing, the losses were as shown i n

Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of losses of prestress
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Source Loss (%)
Relaxation of Macalloy Bars 3.5

(Manufacturers data)
E l a s t i c Shortening of Brickwork 0.1

(after topping up of prestress)
Creep of Brickwork 0.8
7°C Ambient Temperature Rise 0.7
TOTAL LOSS OF PRESTRESS = 5.1%
2.3 Test loading

Most bridge abutments are designed to withstand the combination of
168
Copyright CRC Press

forces shown i n Figure 4. However, force PI was not simulated i n the
test as i t would have a small beneficial effect. Forces P2 and P3
were combined and applied using s i x large capacity hydraulic rams.
Twenty seven smaller rams, each with a load capacity of lOOkN and
connected to a single e l e c t r i c a l l y controlled pump, were used to
provide force P4. These rams were arranged i n seven levels, as shown
i n Figure 2, to produce the trapezoidal distribution of earth
pressure loading that would be applied to the f u l l 6.6m height of the
abutment. The shear force and bending moment diagrams shown i n Figure
4 correspond to the active earth pressure condition with no
longitudinal load ( i . e . P2 = 0 ) .
The forces produced by the rams were measured using load c e l l s
connected to a data logger. Proving ring measurements were also taken
to check the load c e l l readings.
PI
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a) Abutment design loading bl Simulated loading

P1 - vertical reaction from deck due to self weight superimposed dead and live load
P2 = longitudinal load
P3 s earth pressure force above brickwork
PU= on "
Shear force [kN] Bending moment [kNmJ
Fig.4. Design and simulated loading
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3 Behaviour of the abutment under test
The test was carried out over two days. On the f i r s t day, only the
earth pressure forces (P3 and P4) were applied. The loads were
increased i n eight equal increments so that by load stage 8 the total
earth pressure force was twice that produced by active earth pressure
based on Rankine's theory. At this stage no cracking was observed.
The horizontal deflection a t the top of the wall was approximately
1.5mm.
On the second day of the test the earth pressure force was
maintained a t a f a i r l y constant l e v e l of twice the active value while
the longitudinal load (P2) was increased i n ten equal increments. At
the end of the test, load stage 18, the longitudinal load was 750 kN.
The applied loads and the corresponding bending moments and shear
forces, f o r the significant load stages of the test, are given i n
Table 2.
Table 2. Details of significant load stages
Load Total earth Longitudinal Shear Bending

stage pressure load load force moment
[P3 + P4] [P2]
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kNm)
1 138.9 0 139 309
4 500.7 0 501 1139
8 1014.5 0 1015 2314
9 1027.3 75 1102 2648
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
10 966.0 150 1146 2886

11 985.3 225 1210 3200
12 997.1 300 1297 3647
15 1055.8 525 1581 4791
18 1075.4 750 1825 5924
At load stage 11, small v e r t i c a l cracks appeared i n the webs at the

foot of the abutment. This cracking was probably caused by the
hogging curvature of the base which produced large horizontal tensile
strains i n the top surface of the concrete; these strains were
transmitted through the bottom bed joint to the brickwork. The cracks
did not develop s i g n i f i c a n t l y with increased loading.
At load stage 12, cracks became v i s i b l e i n the concrete base; the
position of some of these cracks coincided with the aforementioned
v e r t i c a l cracks i n the brickwork webs.
At load stage 15, horizontal cracking developed i n the bottom bed
joint of the rear flange of the abutment. Decompression had occurred,
i . e . the prestress had been annulled, and furthermore the flexural
strength of the brickwork had been reached.
At load stage 18, the horizontal crack at the foot of the rear
flange had opened to a width of approximately 5nm. Additionally, the
crack had propagated along the web bed joint to within approximately
550mm of the front face of the abutment. The abutment was, i n effect,
rotating bodily about the foot of the front flange. However, at this
stage there was no indication that either shear or flexural f a i l u r e
of the abutment was imminent.
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I t i s interesting to note that there was some diagonal cracking i n
the base resulting from the v e r t i c a l shearing action caused by the
downward l i n e load from the front flange and the upward forces from
the prestressing bars.
On removal of the load, the abutment returned to i t s original
position and a l l the cracks closed up.
The development of cracks i n the brickwork abutment and reinforced
concrete base i s summarised i n Figure 5.
Test abutment Reaction wall

—1
flanges -
ft
WEB
Macalloy bar-
TT
a) Load stage 12
b)Load stage 15
abutment rotates
compression [U
c) Load stage 18
Fig.5. Development of cracks during testing
171
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4 Discussion
4.1 Flexural cracking of the base during testing
The cracks i n the reinforced concrete base noted at load stage 12 of
the test were probably caused by the combination of the tensile force
F l and the hogging bending moment Ml at section A-A, as shown i n
Figure 6a. I n practice however, the concrete base would not have to
r e s i s t force F l . Also, i f the equilibrium of the zone of concrete
below the brickwork i s considered, as shown i n Figure 6b, the bending
moment at section A-A would be considerably l e s s than Ml. Thus, i n
practice, the tensile s t r a i n i n the concrete at the top of the base
would be much l e s s than that produced i n the t e s t ; thus flexural
cracking of the base and subsequent cracking of the brickwork webs
would probably not occur.
7T*7H
a) Test abutment
M2*M1
heel
M eer M1 - M <g Ml
b) Abutment in practice
h toe
F i g . 6 . Flexural cracking of the base
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4.2 Horizontal bending of abutment flanges
I n design, the spacing of the webs of a diaphragm wall i s often
governed by the low flexural strength of the flanges. I n fact,
calculations based on the characteristic tensile strength of the
brickwork indicate that the flanges would not be strong enough to
r e s i s t the earth pressure loading. To investigate this possible
limitation, 10 of the 27 No. 100kN capacity hydraulic rams were
positioned close to the centre of the flanges, as shown i n Figure 2.
As a consequence, between load stages 8 and 18, the flanges were
subjected to l o c a l shear forces and bending moments which were
greater than those which would be generated by at-rest earth
pressure. However, the difference i n the horizontal deflections
measured at the abutment web and at the flange mid-span position was
negligible; this indicates that there was no cracking i n the flanges
as a result of horizontal flexure. The high apparent flexural
resistance of the flanges i s attributed to horizontal arching of the
brickwork between the abutment webs.
4.3 Shear
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There was no sign of diagonal cracking i n the webs of the abutment
either before or after flexural cracking had occurred. Furthermore,
when the maximum load was applied, at load stage 18, there was no
evidence that shear f a i l u r e was imminent. I t i s also interesting to
note that the v e r t i c a l cracks at the bottom of the abutment, which
appeared at load stage 11 as a result of bending i n the concrete
base, did not move any further up the web and did not trigger off a
shear f a i l u r e i n the subsequent loading.
Roumani and Phipps (1988b) have shown that the major factors which
affect the shear strength are the amount of prestress, the shear
span/depth ratio and the principal tensile strength of the brickwork.
Using the e l a s t i c shear stress distribution for an I-section, the
principal tensile stresses were calculated for load stage 14. This
was the f i n a l load stage before flexural cracking occurred. The
principal tensile stresses were 1.54 N/mm at the web-flange
2
interface and 1.02 N/mm at the centroid of the section. No attempt

2
was made to determine the principal tensile stresses after flexural

cracking.
4.4 Design service condition

In order to assess the structural performance of the test abutment
under working or service conditions, i t i s necessary to determine
r e a l i s t i c values for the horizontal longitudinal and earth pressure
forces shown i n Figure 4. Using the recommendations of BS 5400(1978)
for the bridge shown i n Figure 1, the total longitudinal load applied
over a single notional carriageway width i s 408kN. Assuming that the
bridge deck would be s u f f i c i e n t l y r i g i d to distribute this load
uniformly through the bearings and capping beam over the f u l l width
of the abutment, the longitudinal load appropriate for the 3.375m
wide test section would be lOOkN. Related to an abutment of 6.6m
total height this would produce a bending moment of 660kNm at
foundation l e v e l .
For the service condition, given the small value of the abutment
deflection at load stage 8, i t i s considered that earth pressure
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Copyright CRC Press

forces should be based on the b a c k f i l l i n the at-rest state. Taking
the at-rest pressure coefficient to be 0.6, the total earth pressure
force acting on the abutment, caused by drained b a c k f i l l of weight
18kN/m and a surcharge of 10kN/m , would be 928kN. The corresponding
3 2
bending moment i s 2188kNm.

Combining the effects of the longitudinal load and the earth
pressure forces means that, under service conditions, the abutment
would be subjected to a maximum shear force of 1028kN and a maximum
bending moment of 2848kNm. As can be seen from Table 2, these values
are very close to the shear force and bending moment resisted by the
abutment at load stage 10, when no cracking had occurred. However,
although minor cracking was noted at load stage 11, i t was not u n t i l
after load stage 14, when the shear force and bending moment were
1504kN and 4437kNm respectively, that horizontal flexural cracks were
observed.
I t i s relevant to note that the design service bending moment i s
l e s s than 3665 kNm, which i s the magnitude of the decompression
moment.
4.5 Design ultimate condition

Using an effective p a r t i a l safety factor of 1.375 for the
longitudinal load and 1.65 for the earth pressure forces, the design
ultimate shear force for the abutment would be 1669kN and the design
ultimate bending moment would be 4518kNm. However, i n the test, the
abutment resisted a shear force of 1825kN and a bending moment of
5924kNm without f a i l u r e occurring.
Hence, although the actual strength of the abutment was not
determined experimentally, i t has been demonstrated that the abutment
was strong enough to r e s i s t the design ultimate shear force and
bending moment.
5 Conclusions and principal findings
5.1 Losses
Over the f i v e month period between prestressing and testing, the
loss of prestress i n the abutment was between 5% and 6%. Allowing for
a wider range of ambient temperature than that encountered i n the
laboratory, i t i s recommended that a loss of prestress of between 10%
and 15% i s used i n design.
5.2 Cracking of the abutment foundation

Although small v e r t i c a l cracks were induced at the foot of the
brickwork webs by the hogging curvature of the concrete base, i t i s
unlikely that such cracks would occur i n practice. However, as an
interim measure, i t i s suggested that the flexural tensile stress i n
the top surface of the concrete base, under service conditions, i s
limited to 2 N/mm. 2
The authors also recommend that the abutment foundation should be

reinforced to cater for v e r t i c a l shear beneath the brickwork
produced by the upward tensile force i n the Macalloy bars and the
v e r t i c a l compressive stress i n the front flange of the abutment.
174
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5.3 Horizontal flexural strength of the flanges
The effective horizontal flexural strength of the 215mm thick
abutment flanges, spanning between webs of the same thickness at
1125mm centres, was adequate to r e s i s t the maximum earth pressure
loading.
5*4 Resistance to BS 5400 design service and ultimate loads

Under simulated design service loading, as defined i n BS5400, there
was no cracking i n the brickwork. Also, the abutment was able to
r e s i s t bending moments and shear forces greater than those produced
by the design ultimate loads, and there was no indication that either
shear or flexural f a i l u r e was imminent.
6 Acknowledgements
The authors would l i k e to thank the following:- Armitage Brick

Limited for providing the bricks for the project; McCalls Special
Products, for providing the Macalloy bars and prestressing
accessories and Tilcon Limited for providing the premixed lime and
sand for the mortar.
Funding for the project was provided mainly from research grants
awarded by the former National Advisory Body for Public Sector Higher
Education.
7 References
Ambrose, R.J., Hulse, R. and Mohajery, S. (1988) Cantilevered

prestressed diaphragm walling subjected to l a t e r a l loading.
Proceedings of the Eighth International Brick/Block Masonry
Conference (ed J.W. De Courcy), Elsevier Applied Science, Dublin,
pp. 583-594.
B e l l , S.E. (1989a) Development of prestressed clay brickwork i n the
United Kingdom. Proceedings of the Fifth Canadian Masonry
Symposium, Vancouver, pp. 155-163.
B r i t i s h Standards I n s t i t u t i o n (1978) BS5400 : Steel, Concrete and
Composite Bridges. London.
Curtin, W.G. (1986) An investigation of the structural behaviour of
post-tensioned brick diaphragm walls. The Structural Engineer,
64B, 4, pp. 77-84.
Curtin, W.G. and Howard, J . (1988a) Lateral loading tests on t a l l
post-tensioned brick diaphragm walls. Proceedings of the Eighth
International Brick/Block Masonry Conference (ed. J.W. De Courcy),
E l s e v i e r Applied Science, pp. 595-605.
Curtin, W.G. and Phipps, M.E. (1982) Prestressed masonry diaphragm
walls. Proceedings of the Sixth International Brick/Block Masonry
Conference (ed Laterconsult s . v . l . ) , Andil, Rome, pp. 971-980.
Curtin, W.G., Shaw, G., Beck, J.K. and Bray, W. (1982a) Post-
tensioned brickwork. Proceedings of the Sixth International
Brick/Block Masonry Conference (ed Laterconsult s . v . l . ) , Andil,
Rome pp. 961-970.
175
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Copyright CRC Press

Curtin, W.G., Shaw, G . , Beck, J . K . and Pope, L . S . (1982b) Post-
tensioned, free cantilever diaphragm wall project. Proceedings of
the Institution of C i v i l Engineers Conference - Reinforced and
Prestressed Masonry, Thomas Telford Limited, London, pp. 79-88.
Garrity, S.W. and Garwood, T . G . (1989b) The construction and testing
of a f u l l - s c a l e prestressed clay brickwork diaphragm wall bridge
abutment. Proceedings of the 2nd International Masonry Conference
(to be published), London.
Roumani, N.A. and Phipps, M.E. (1988b) The ultimate shear strength of
unbonded prestressed brickwork I and T section simply supported
beams. Proceedings of the British Masonry Society, 2, pp. 82-84.
Wallbank, E . J . (1989) The Performance of Concrete i n Bridges:
A Survey of 200 Highway Bridges. H.M.S.O., London.
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OPTIMUM COST DESIGN OF COMPOSITE
AND NONCOMPOSITE STEEL BRIDGES
M. M A F I
Civil Engineering Dept, Union College, Schenectady, New York, USA
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Abstract
B r i d g e s w i t h c o m p o s i t e and noncomposite c a s t - i n - p l a c e c o n c r e t e s l a b s
on s t e e l s t r i n g e r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d f o r o p t i m i z a t i o n . A quick review
o f r e l e v a n t c o n c e p t s i n o p t i m i z a t i o n i s done. Design v a r i a b l e s ,
c o n s t r a i n t s , and o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s a r e d e f i n e d . Using a
u n i v a r i a t e m e t h o d , a p r o g r a m was w r i t t e n i n FORTRAN t h a t s e a r c h e s
t h r o u g h p o s s i b l e s y s t e m c o n f i g u r a t i o n s and f i n d s t h e l o w e s t c o s t
design for a particular locale. I n three to f i v e seconds a f t e r
i n p u t t i n g t h e r e q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e u s e r w i l l be i n f o r m e d o f
c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e optimum d e s i g n a n d few n e a r optimum
d e s i g n s i f he w i s h e s t o . This includes thickness of concrete slab,
s l a b r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n , t y p e a n d number o f r o l l e d
s t e e l s e c t i o n s and t h e i r s p a c i n g s . The o u t p u t c a n a l s o b e t i e d t o a
CADD p r o g r a m a n d a d r a w i n g b e g e n e r a t e d f o r t h e optimum d e s i g n w i t h
t h e d i m e n s i o n s shown.
Keywords: Bridge Designs, Bridge Optimization, Short-Span Bridges,
Composite B r i d g e s , Noncomposite B r i d g e s .
1 Introduction
The number a n d p e r c e n t a g e o f d e f i c i e n t b r i d g e s i n h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
i s alarmingly high. The r e s u l t o f a s u r v e y o f b r i d g e s i n t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s ( B e t t e r R o a d s 1 9 8 6 ) shows t h a t n a t i o n w i d e 4 2 % o f
bridges are substandard. T h i s p e r c e n t a g e f o r some s t a t e s i s a s h i g h
a t 69%. The a v a i l a b l e f u n d s a r e h a r d l y s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n or replacement of a l l d e f i c i e n t bridges (Hegarty
1986). Many s t r u c t u r a l l y d e f i c i e n t a n d f u n c t i o n a l l y o b s o l e t e
b r i d g e s w e r e b u i l t p r i o r t o 1950, a n d h a v e e x c e e d e d t h e i r u s e f u l
l i f e and s h o u l d be r e p l a c e d . The a b o v e f a c t s make i t i m p e r a t i v e
t h a t new b r i d g e c o n s t r u c t i o n be a s economical as p o s s i b l e .
E f f o r t s h a v e b e e n made on s e v e r a l f r o n t s t o d e c r e a s e t h e c o s t
of bridges. S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f c o m p o n e n t s , new selection
t e c h n i q u e s , development o f new m a t e r i a l s , a n d o p t i m i z a t i o n o f c r o s s
s e c t i o n s a r e among t h e e f f o r t s t h a t c a n be named.
I n a s e p a r a t e p u b l i c a t i o n ( M a f i , 1 9 8 8 ) , the above m e n t i o n e d
s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c i t e d and development o f an e x p e r t s y s t e m f o r
bridge s e l e c t i o n i s reported. Using the expert system developed i n
t h a t s t u d y , t h e u s e r c a n d e t e r m i n e w h i c h b r i d g e type i s the most
177
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economical f o r a given s i t e while a l s o providing s t r u c t u r a l
i n t e g r i t y , adequate s e r v i c e a b i l i t y , and s u f f i c i e n t s a f e t y . A f t e r a
b r i d g e t y p e i s s e l e c t e d , h o w e v e r , f u r t h e r economy c a n s t i l l b e
a c h i e v e d b y r e f i n i n g component p r o p o r t i o n i n g , s p a c i n g , a n d
i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n o f members i n s u c h a way a s t o p r o d u c e t h e minimum
cost. I n o t h e r words, o p t i m i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s c a n be u s e d t o
minimize the c o s t o f bridges w i t h r e s p e c t to the dimensions o f
d i f f e r e n t c o m p o n e n t s , a r r a n g e m e n t o f members, a n d g e o m e t r y o f
s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n a s e l e c t e d bridge type.
I n t h i s p a p e r two w i d e l y u s e d b r i d g e t y p e s w e r e s e l e c t e d f o r
o p t i m i z a t i o n - namely, composite and noncomposite c a s t - i n - p l a c e
c o n c r e t e deck on s t e e l s t r i n g e r s . T h e s e two b r i d g e t y p e s w i l l b e
d e s c r i b e d and t h e i r o v e r a l l d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i l l be
highlighted. The o p t i m i z a t i o n problem w i l l be d e f i n e d . The g e n e r a l
definitions of design variables, constraints, objective function,
method o f programming, a n d s o l u t i o n a p p r o a c h u s e d i n t h e
o p t i m i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e w i l l be f o l l o w e d by t h e s p e c i f i c s r e g a r d i n g
the b r i d g e problem a t hand.
2 The Bridge Types S e l e c t e d and T h e i r Design C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
The b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s t y p e o f b r i d g e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e i n t h e
N a t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i v e H i g h w a y R e s e a r c h p r o g r a m r e p o r t 222 ( 1 9 8 0 )
states:
" T h i s i s a v e r y common t y p e o f b r i d g e . A wide range
o f s t a n d a r d w i d e f l a n g e a n d I-Beam s h a p e s a r e
available. T h e s i z e a n d s p a c i n g o f beams may b e
a d j u s t e d from s i t e t o s i t e t o o p t i m i z e t h e u s e o f
material. The s t a n d a r d r o l l e d shapes a r e t y p i c a l l y
u s e d f o r s p a n s w h i c h a r e l e s s t h a n 90 f t . T h i s
bridge system i s w i d e l y used a l l over the world.
Studs a r e g e n e r a l l y used t o achieve composite
a c t i o n e x c e p t f o r v e r y s h o r t s p a n s w h e r e i t may b e
economical t o omit t h e s t u d s " ( p . 9 7 ) .
A t y p i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h i s t y p e o f b r i d g e i s shown i n
F i g u r e 1.
Studs for composite action
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-Standard Rolled Shape

Steel Stringer
PERMANENT FORM WITH S I T E -

CAST DECK AT MIDSPAN SITE-CAST DECK AT ABUTMENT
Fig. 1. T y p i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n s o f b r i d g e s w i t h c a s t - i n - p l a c e
c o n c r e t e d e c k on s t e e l s t r i n g e r s
178
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I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , b o t h noncomposite and c o m p o s i t e
arrangements were c o n s i d e r e d . Due t o t h e h i g h c o s t o f p r o v i d i n g
s h o r i n g most c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h o u t s h o r i n g , and
h e n c e t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n method h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s s t u d y .
No c o v e r p l a t e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d f o r c o m p o s i t e s e c t i o n s ; s i n c e ,
a c c o r d i n g to the manual o f s t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n (1980:2-97), "high
l a b o r c o s t h a s made t h e i r u s e r a r e . "
Dead l o a d s , t r u c k and l a n e l o a d s , impact l o a d and t h e p r o p e r
c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e s e a r e u s e d a c c o r d i n g t o AASHTO s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .
The l o a d f a c t o r d e s i g n m e t h o d i s u s e d f o r a n a l y s i s o f t h e b r i d g e .
I n t h i s m e t h o d t h r e e l o a d l e v e l s a r e c o n s i d e r e d , i . e . , maximum
d e s i g n l o a d , o v e r l o a d , and s e r v i c e l o a d .
F o r s h o r t - s p a n b r i d g e s , t h e u s e o f r o l l e d w i d e - f l a n g e beams i s
a l w a y s more e c o n o m i c a l t h a n t h e u s e o f p l a t e g i r d e r s , e x c e p t f o r
a r e a s w h e r e f a b r i c a t i o n c o s t s a r e f a i r l y low. I n t h i s study wide
f l a n g e s r a n g i n g f r o m W5 t o W36 w e r e u s e d . The p r o p e r t i e s f o r t h e s e
wide f l a n g e s a r e the ones l i s t e d i n the manual o f s t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n
(American I n s t i t u t e of S t e e l C o n s t r u c t i o n , 1980). Today the c a r b o n
s t e e l u s e d f o r b r i d g e s i s A36, w h i c h a s a minimum y i e l d p o i n t o f 36
ksi. When h i g h e r s t r e n g t h i s d e s i r e d , A588 s t e e l w i t h minimum y i e l d
p o i n t o f 50 k s i i s u s u a l l y s p e c i f i e d . A few b r i d g e s w e r e a n a l y z e d
and d e s i g n e d t o i d e n t i f y a l l t h e f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d . A l l the
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f AASHTO w e r e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e d e s i g n s .
3 The Bridge O p t i m i z a t i o n Problem
The b r i d g e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f s e v e r a l beams t h a t s p a n
i n the d i r e c t i o n of the t r a f f i c , w i t h a r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e deck
p l a c e d on t o p o f t h e beams. The c o n c r e t e d e c k i s d e s i g n e d a s a
continuous s l a b spanning t r a n s v e r s e l y over the s e v e r a l i n t e r i o r
beams, w h i c h a c t a s s i m p l e s u p p o r t s . The beams a r e t h e n d e s i g n e d t o
c a r r y l o n g i t u d i n a l b e n d i n g moments. I f adequate mechanical shear
c o n n e c t o r s a r e u s e d , t h e s l a b c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a s a c o v e r p l a t e f o r
t h e beams a n d t h u s h e l p them t o c a r r y t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l moments
compositely. The u s e o f s h e a r c o n n e c t o r s a l l o w s f o r t h e u s e o f
s m a l l e r s t e e l beams, b u t t h e c o s t o f t h e s h e a r c o n n e c t o r s m u s t be
added.
W i t h i n t h i s c o n c e p t , many d e s i g n s s a t i s f y t h e f u n c t i o n a l
requirements. The p r o b l e m a t h a n d i s t h a t o f d e v e l o p i n g a n
a u t o m a t e d d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e w h i c h , by v a r y i n g t h e f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d ,
s e e k s t h e optimum g e o m e t r y a n d member s e l e c t i o n t h a t y i e l d t h e
minimum c o s t s .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4 Design V a r i a b l e s
4.1 Design V a r i a b l e s i n G e n e r a l
The s e t o f q u a n t i t i e s t h a t d e s c r i b e s a s t r u c t u r a l s y s t e m i s
c o m p r i s e d o f two g r o u p s . These q u a n t i t i e s t h a t are f i x e d before
a n a l y s i s and a r e n o t v a r i e d d u r i n g o p t i m i z a t i o n , a r e c a l l e d p r e -
assigned parameters. D e s i g n v a r i a b l e s , the second group, a r e v a r i e d
during optimization. The c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r e - a s s i g n e d p a r a m e t e r s and
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design variables completely defines a design.
4.2 D e s i g n V a r i a b l e s F o r The Bridge Problem

The v a r i a b l e s o f t h e p r o b l e m c a n be grouped i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g
categories:
Geometrical variables
D i m e n s i o n s o f t h e r o l l e d w i d e f l a n g e beam s e c t i o n s
Concrete slab thickness
A r e a o f main r e i n f o r c i n g s t e e l and d i s t r i b u t i o n s t e e l i n
concrete slab
Degree o f beam-slab i n t e r a c t i o n (composite, noncomposite)
Number a n d s p a c i n g o f beams
Span o f t h e b r i d g e
Width o f t h e b r i d g e
Material variables
Concrete strength
Yield point of reinforcing steel
Y i e l d point of structural steel
Cost v a r i a b l e s
Unit cost of reinforcing bars
Unit cost of structural steel
Unit cost of concrete
Loading v a r i a b l e s
T y p e o f l o a d i n g (AASHTO t r u c k a n d a l t e r n a t e m i l i t a r y
l o a d i n g , 125 p e r c e n t o f AASHTO l o a d s , a n d PaDOT p e r m i t
load)
Type o f w e a r i n g s u r f a c e
Curb and p a r a p e t types
A d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s f o r composite design
Type and s i z e o f s h e a r c o n n e c t o r s
T r a n s v e r s e and l o n g i t u d i n a l s p a c i n g o f shear connectors
Modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y o f c o n c r e t e
Cost of single stud
Range o f l o n g i t u d i n a l s h e a r
Anticipated cycles of stress reversal
5 Constraints
5.1 C o n s t r a i n t s i n G e n e r a l
As n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , any s e t o f v a l u e s a s s i g n e d t o t h e d e s i g n
v a r i a b l e s , c o l l e c t i v e l y r e f e r r e d to as the design vector {X}, i s
c a l l e d a design. Only those designs t h a t s a t i s f y a l l the
requirements a r e acceptable. These a r e c a l l e d f e a s i b l e designs.
The r e s t o f t h e p o s s i b l e d e s i g n s a r e u n a c c e p t a b l e , and h e n c e a r e
called infeasible. The r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a t must be s a t i s f i e d i n o r d e r
to produce a f e a s i b l e design a r e c a l l e d c o n s t r a i n t s . C o n s t r a i n t s can
u s u a l l y be e x p r e s s e d i n t h e form o f e q u a l i t i e s and/or i n e q u a l i t i e s
such a s :
g l ({X}) < 0 i = 1, ...K
hj ({X}) = 0 j = 1, . . . L
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where {X} i s the v e c t o r of N design variables
K i s t h e number o f i n e q u a l i t i e s
L i s t h e number o f e q u a l i t i e s
5.2 C o n s t r a i n t s For The Bridge Problem

The c o n s t r a i n t s c o n s i d e r e d a r e t h o s e r e l a t i n g t o s l a b d e s i g n ,
noncomposite s t r i n g e r d e s i g n , and composite s t r i n g e r d e s i g n .
5.2.1 S l a b Design C o n s t r a i n t s
The c o n s t r a i n t s f o r t h e c o n c r e t e s l a b a r e t h e same f o r c o m p o s i t e
and noncomposite d e s i g n s . They a r e a s f o l l o w s :
a. A minimum s l a b t h i c k n e s s o f ( S + 1 0 ) / 3 0 i s r e q u i r e d , b u t n o t
l e s s t h a n 6.5 i n c h e s , w h e r e S i s t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e e d g e s
o f t h e f l a n g e s p l u s h a l f t h e beam f l a n g e w i d t h . I n some s t a t e
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
d e p a r t m e n t s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t h i s minimum i s s e t a t h i g h e r
values.
b. H a l f an i n c h w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d a s an i n t e g r a l w e a r i n g s u r f a c e .
c. The t o p c o v e r f o r t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n t h e s l a b s h o u l d be a t
l e a s t 2.5 i n c h e s .
d. The bottom c o v e r f o r t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n t h e s l a b s h o u l d be a t
least 1 inch.
e. The overhang o f t h e deck s l a b o u t s i d e o f t h e f a s c i a s t r i n g e r
s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 4.25 f e e t , o r h a l f t h e s t r i n g e r s p a c i n g ,
whichever i s smaller.
f. T h e maximum s t e e l r a t i o i s 0.75 p^.
g. A minimum s t e e l r a t i o o f 2 0 0 / f , o r e n o u g h t o d e v e l o p a
v
f a c t o r e d moment a t l e a s t 1.2 t i m e s t h e c r a c k i n g moment i s

required, unless the reinforcement i s a t l e a s t one-third
g r e a t e r than t h a t r e q u i r e d by t h e a n a l y s i s .
h. T h e same m a i n r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s t o b e u s e d f o r t h e n e g a t i v e a n d
p o s i t i v e moments o f t h e c o n t i n u o u s s p a n .
5.2.2 S t r i n g e r Design C o n s t r a i n t s f o r Composite Systems

F o r t h e s a k e o f b r e v i t y , t h e c o n s t r a i n t s on s t r i n g e r design f o r only
composite systems a r e given. They a r e a s f o l l o w s :
a. There s h o u l d be a t l e a s t t h r e e s t r i n g e r s .
b. T h e number o f s t r i n g e r s s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d t h e maximum number
o f beams d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e u s e r .
c. T h e f a s c i a beam s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t a s s t r o n g a s t h e
i n t e r m e d i a t e ones.
d. T h e d e p t h o f t h e s t r i n g e r s h o u l d b e l e s s t h a n t h e maximum
depth i n p u t by the u s e r .
e. I f d / t = 13300/ ( F ) / 2
w y
1
v = 0.35 F d t , t h e n t h e
a n d u y w
s e c t i o n i s compact, and t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f t h e s e c t i o n
m u s t b e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e maximum moment, w h i c h i s d e f i n e d a s
M = 1.3 { M
m a x + M + 5/3
D S (M DC) } L + T
where Mpjs moment due t o d e a d l o a d o n s t r i n g e r

=
Mnc " moment due t o d e a d l o a d o n c o n c r e t e
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ML + i moment due t o l i v e load plus impact
<
f. I f t h e above c r i t e r i a a r e v i o l a t e d , b u t D / t = 150, and
w
<
V = 0 . 5 8 F y D t , t h e n t h e s e c t i o n i s noncompact, a n d t h e
u w
s t r e s s e s a c t i n g o n s t e e l due t o 1.3 Mpg a c t i n g o n s t e e l

a l o n e , a n d 1.3 { Mpc + 5/3 (ML + j ) } a c t i n g o n t h e c o m p o s i t e
s e c t i o n , should not exceed Fy.
g. T h e s t r e s s e s o n t h e s t e e l beam due t o Mpg a c t i n g o n s t e e l
beam a l o n e a n d t h o s e due t o {Mpc + 5/3 (ML + i ) } a c t i n g o n
t h e c o m p o s i t e s e c t i o n s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 0.95 F y .
h. T h e d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o m p o s i t e s e c t i o n due t o l i v e l o a d p l u s
i m p a c t s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 1/800 t i m e s t h e s p a n .
i. The h e i g h t - o v e r - d i a m e t e r r a t i o o f t h e s t u d s must be g r e a t e r
t h a n o r e q u a l t o 4.
j. E i g h t y - f i v e percent of the ultimate strength of a l lthe
s t u d s p l a c e d b e t w e e n t h e p o i n t s o f z e r o moment a n d maximum
moment m u s t b e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s m a l l e r v a l u e o f t h e
formulas
Pi - A F s y
P - 0.85 f b e
2
c
where A = total area of steel section ( i n )
s
2
F y — minimum s p e c i f i e d y i e l d p o i n t f o r t h e s t e e l
section (psi)
f = s p e c i f i e d 28-day c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h o f
concrete ( p s i )
c
b = e f f e c t i v e flange width ( i n )
c — thickness of the concrete slab ( i n )
k. T h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f one s t u d w i t h a height-over-diameter
r a t i o o f more t h a n 4 i s e q u a l t o
S u - 0.4 d 2
(f' c E )V2
C
where d = diameter o f s t u d ( i n )
E - modulus of elasticity of concrete ( p s i )
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
c
1. To s a t i s f y f a t i g u e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r studs, the following

i n e q u a l i t y must h o l d :
Z n r
>
S p
r
9 V
rQ
with Z r = ad z
and S r = — - —
where a - 13,000 f o r 100,000 c y c l e s

10,600 f o r 500,000 c y c l e s
7,850 f o r 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 c y c l e
5,500 f o r o v e r 2 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 c y c l e s
d = diameter of studs ( i n )
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V r = r a n g e o f s h e a r due t o l i v e l o a d s a n d i m p a c t . A t any
s e c t i o n , t h e range o f s h e a r s h a l l be t a k e n a s t h e
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e minimum a n d maximum s h e a r e n v e l o p e s
db)
Q = s t a t i c moment a b o u t t h e n e u t r a l a x i s o f t h e c o m p o s i t e
s e c t i o n o f the transformed compressive concrete a r e a ( i n ) 3
I - moment o f i n e r t i a o f t h e t r a n s f o r m e d c o m p o s i t e
stringer ( i n ) 4
p — c e n t e r - t o - c e n t e r d i s t a n c e between rows o f s t u d s ( i n )
n = r a t i o o f modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y o f s t e e l , E , t o t h a t o f s
concrete, E . c
6 Objective Function
6.1 O b j e c t i v e F u n c t i o n i n General
Among t h e many f e a s i b l e s o l u t i o n s , some a r e b e t t e r t h a n o t h e r s .
Such a c o n c l u s i o n i s p o s s i b l e only i f t h e r e i s a q u a l i t y o f which
more o r l e s s c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e b e t t e r s o l u t i o n . Mathematically
s p e a k i n g , t h a t d e s i r e d q u a l i t y must be e x p r e s s e d i n t h e form o f a
function of the design variables, F ({X}). This function, usually
c a l l e d t h e " o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n " o r " m e r i t f u n c t i o n , " c a n be
e v a l u a t e d , a n d i t s v a l u e i s t h e n u s e d t o compare f e a s i b l e s o l u t i o n s .
F i n d i n g t h e b e s t a l t e r n a t i v e c a n t h e n b e l o o k e d upon a s f i n d i n g t h e
maximum n o r minimum v a l u e o f t h e o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n .
6.2 O b j e c t i v e F u n c t i o n f o r t h e Bridge Problem

The o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n i s t h e t o t a l c o s t o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l ,
c o n c r e t e , r e i n f o r c i n g s t e e l , and studs ( i f composite). The u n i t
c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h these items a r e input by t h e u s e r . The u n i t
c o s t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l and t h e r e i n f o r c i n g s t e e l a r e
e x p r e s s e d i n d o l l a r s p e r pound, w h e r e a s t h e u n i t p r i c e f o r c o n c r e t e
i s u s u a l l y given i n d o l l a r s per cubic yard. Assuming t h a t t h e
r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s i n t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e a r e a s extend a c r o s s
the b r i d g e , t h e weight o f the main r e i n f o r c i n g bar, W, i s R
W R = 2 (A /144.0)(B)(L)(7 )
S M R
where: L = span length ( f t )
B - bridge width ( f t )
ASM =
a r e a o f main reinforcement per foot of slab along
the span o f the bridge ( i n ) 2
7 R = u n i t weight of reinforcing bars (lb/ft ) 3
The weight o f d i s t r i b u t i o n r e i n f o r c e m e n t , Wn, i s

W = (A /144.0)(B)(L)(T )
D S D R
w h e r e : Ago =
area of d i s t r i b u t i o n reinforcement per foot across
the bridge ( i n ) 2
a n d t h e w e i g h t o f t e m p e r a t u r e r e i n f o r c e m e n t , W»r, i s
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Copyright CRC Press

W = (A /144.0)(B)(L)(-r )
T S T R
w h e r e : AgT — a r e a of temperature reinforcement per foot along the

span ( i n ) 2
The c o s t o f a l l t y p e s o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t , C R , i s t h u s
C R = (W + W + W )(U )
R D T R
where U R i s t h e u n i t c o s t o f r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s p r o v i d e d by t h e
user.
The c o s t o f t h e c o n c r e t e , Cfj, i s
C = (L)(B)(t /12.0)(U )
C s c
where t i s t h e t h i c k n e s s o f s l a b i n i n c h e s , and U
s i s the u s e r - c
provided u n i t c o s t of concrete.
The c o s t o f s t e e l beams, C is B
C = (W)(L)(N )(U )B B B
w h e r e W — w e i g h t p e r u n i t l e n g t h o f s t e e l beam u n d e r
consideration
N — number o f s t e e l beams u s e d
B
U - u n i t c o s t o f s t e e l beam g i v e n b y t h e u s e r .
B
Therefore, the v a l u e of the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n , or the t o t a l c o s t

f o r t h e n o n c o m p o s i t e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , Op, i s
C = CR + C + C T c B
where C R , Cfj , a n d C are as defined e a r l i e r .

B
To c a l c u l a t e t h e t o t a l c o s t f o r t h e c o m p o s i t e d e s i g n , t h e c o s t o f
t h e s t u d s Cg, m u s t be a d d e d t o t h e c o s t e q u a t i o n :
C - (N )(N )(U ) S S B S
w h e r e Ng = number o f n e c e s s a r y s t u d s f o r one s t r i n g e r
N - number o f c o m p o s i t e s t e e l s t r i n g e r s i n t h e
B
superstructure
Ug — c o s t o f one s t u d .
The t o t a l c o s t f o r a c o m p o s i t e d e s i g n , Crjx» i s
CT R + C C = C C + C
B S + C
w h e r e C R , Cfj, a n d C are defined B i n the same way as f o r the

noncomposite design.
7 Problem Formulation
7.1 Formulation o f an O p t i m i z a t i o n Problems i n General

A f t e r d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s , c o n s t r a i n t s , and t h e o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d , any p r o b l e m o f o p t i m a l s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n c a n
be s t a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g form: choose v a l u e s of the d e s i g n
v a r i a b l e s , s u b j e c t to the g i v e n c o n s t r a i n t s , t h a t w i l l minimize the
o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n ; t h a t i s , c h o o s e t h e components o f v e c t o r {X}
satisfying
g i ({X}) = i = 1, ...K
hj ({X}) =0 j = 1, ...L
so that
F ({X} min.
E a c h d e s i g n v a r i a b l e o r component o f { X } c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a s one
dimension i n a design space. S i n c e t h e v e c t o r { X } i s composed o f
d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s , a n d t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e s t r u c t u r e c a n be computed
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by a n a l y s i s e q u a t i o n s f o r any { X } , t h e s e e q u a t i o n s c a n be s e p a r a t e d
from t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n and u s e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e r e s p o n s e
b e h a v i o r s which a r e needed i n the c o n s t r a i n t e x p r e s s i o n s . This
f o r m u l a t i o n , w h i c h f o c u s e s a t t e n t i o n on t h e d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s p a c e ,
i s used i n t h i s study.
7.2 S e a r c h Method
The m e t h o d u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y i s c a l l e d t h e u n i v a r i a t e m e t h o d i n
w h i c h t h e minimum o f t h e f u n c t i o n i s a p p r o a c h e d i n a s u c c e s s i o n o f
a p p r o x i m a t i o n s by a d d i n g a s c a l a r m u l t i p l e o f a u n i t v e c t o r a l o n g
one o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e a x e s t o t h e p r e v i o u s a p p r o x i m a t i o n . This
method p r o c e e d s a c c o r d i n g to the f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a :
{X)i + x = { X ) i + a ± {S)i
where {X}j_ - the v e c t o r r e p r e s e n t i n g the c u r r e n t design
+ 1 ™ t h e new design
{S}^ - the c y c l i c o r d e r i n g of the u n i t v e c t o r s ,

S = ( 1 , 0, 0,
X 0), S = ( 0 , 1, 0, 2 0),
... a n d S - ( 0 , 0,
n 0, ..., 1 )
= the p o s i t i v e or negative s t e p c h o s e n so that
F ( { X } ) I + 1 < F({X)i).
A f t e r a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , { X } Q , has been chosen, a m u l t i p l e of the

u n i t v e c t o r along the f i r s t coordinate a x i s i n the design v a r i a b l e
s p a c e i s a d d e d t o t h i s i n i t i a l d e s i g n t o o b t a i n a new p o i n t . The
o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e new p o i n t a n d c o m p a r e d w i t h
the v a l u e of the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n f o r the s t a r t i n g p o i n t . I f
movement i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e a x i s d o e s n o t d e c r e a s e
the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n , the s i g n of the s t e p i s changed to e v a l u a t e
movement i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . Movement a l o n g t h e f i r s t
c o o r d i n a t e a x i s c o n t i n u e s u n t i l no f u r t h e r i m p r o v e m e n t i n t h e v a l u e
of the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n takes p l a c e . The n e x t move w i l l t h e n be
made a l o n g t h e s e c o n d c o o r d i n a t e a x i s . H e r e a g a i n , a p r o b e i s made
i n both d i r e c t i o n s to determine the d i r e c t i o n along which the
objective function decreases.
T h i s p r o c e d u r e c o n t i n u e s u n t i l a move a l o n g a l l t h e c o o r d i n a t e
a x e s h a s b e e n a t t e m p t e d , a t w h i c h p o i n t a new c y c l e s t a r t s b y u s i n g
the f i r s t coordinate a x i s again.
A number o f v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e m e t h o d a r e p o s s i b l e , d e p e n d i n g on
the r a t i o n a l e used f o r implementing t h i s e x p l o i t a t i o n (Fox 1971).
The s t a r t i n g p o i n t , t h e minimum s t e p l e n g t h , a n d t h e s t o p
c r i t e r i o n a r e t h e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s t o be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e
u n i v a r i a t e method. A j u d i c i o u s s e l e c t i o n of these three f a c t o r s
adds t o the e f f i c i e n c y o f the o p t i m i z a t i o n program.
I n s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n problems, i t i s u s u a l l y not d i f f i c u l t to
s e l e c t an i n i t i a l d e s i g n , s i n c e any o v e r - d e s i g n c o n f i g u r a t i o n t h a t
s a t i s f i e s the c o n s t r a i n t s can s e r v e as the i n i t i a l p o i n t i n the
design v a r i a b l e space. The o t h e r two f a c t o r s , t h e minimum s t e p
185
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Copyright CRC Press

l e n g t h and the stop c r i t e r i o n , s h o u l d be c u s t o m i z e d f o r any
p a r t i c u l a r problem.
7.3 P a r t i c u l a r s o f t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n program
I n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n program, t h e
number o f v a r i a b l e s h a d t o d e c r e a s e . An e f f o r t was made t o i n c l u d e
a s many v a r i a b l e s a s p o s s i b l e i n t h e c a t e g o r y o f p r e - a s s i g n e d
v a r i a b l e s d e f i n e d i n 4.1, a b o v e . Span, b r i d g e w i d t h , t h e y i e l d
s t r e s s o f s t e e l , t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e , and whether t h e
s t r u c t u r e i s composite or note a r e a l l pre-assigned.
Some v a r i a b l e s , l i k e s p a c i n g a n d number o f s t r i n g e r s , a r e n o t
independent o f each other. D i s c r e t e v a l u e s f o r moments o f i n e r t i a
and o t h e r c r o s s s e c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s o f s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l were u s e d .
The s l a b t h i c k n e s s w a s a l s o t r e a t e d a s a d i s c r e t e - v a l u e d v a r i a b l e
w i t h h a l f - i n c h i n c r e m e n t s i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a more p r a c t i c a l v a l u e .
A number o f m o d i f i c a t i o n s h a d t o b e made t o t h e u n i v e r s a l s e a r c h
m e t h o d t o accommodate t h e a b o v e p o i n t s . A f t e r e a c h move a l o n g t h e
a x i s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e number o f s t r i n g e r s , a n o t h e r move i s made
along t h e a x i s corresponding t o t h e deck t h i c k n e s s . F o r each
c o m b i n a t i o n o f number o f s t r i n g e r s a n d t h i c k n e s s o f s l a b , c o u p l e d
w i t h t h e v a l u e s f o r p r e - a s s i g n e d v a r i a b l e s , t h e s l a b d e s i g n and t h e
s e l e c t i o n o f the r o l l e d wide-flange stringer a r e c a r r i e d out
considering a l l the relevant constraints.
I n e s s e n c e , t h e program s e a r c h e s through p o s s i b l e system
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s and r e j e c t s a l l t h a t a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y i n f e a s i b l e .
Only t h e d e s i g n s s a t i s f y i n g a l l o f t h e c o n s t r a i n s w i l l be r e t a i n e d
f o r c a l c u l a t i o n o f c o s t a n d f o r e v e n t u a l c o m p a r i s o n t o f i n d t h e one
with the lowest cost.
7.4 Assumptions F o r The Bridge Problems

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n s h a v e b e e n made i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e
optimization algorithm:
a . I f s u f f i c i e n t b r a c i n g i s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e u s e r , a l l t h e beams
a r e assumed t o d e f l e c t e q u a l l y . O t h e r w i s e , e a c h beam i s
a s s u m e d t o d e f l e c t due t o i t s s h a r e o f l i v e l o a d .
b . T h e w e i g h t o f t h e c o n c r e t e i s a s s u m e d t o b e 145 l b / f t . 3
c. The modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y o f s t e e l i s assumed t o be

29,000 k s i .
d. T h e m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y o f c o n c r e t e i s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e
f o l l o w i n g formula:
E c = to -
1 5
(33) (f')V2
c
where E c - modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y of concrete ( p s i )
u> = u n i t w e i g h t o f c o n c r e t e , h e r e 145 l b / f t 3
f' - ultimate strength of concrete ( p s i )

c
e. T h e maximum d e f l e c t i o n o f a s i m p l y supported stringer i s
assumed t o o c c u r a t midspan.
186
Copyright CRC Press

f. Bond and s h e a r a r e assumed t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r c o n c r e t e
slab.
g. The w e i g h t o f t h e c u r b s a n d p a r a p e t s i s a s s u m e d t o b e
c a r r i e d by a l l the s t r i n g e r s .
h. The c o n c r e t e s l a b i s a s s u m e d t o p r o v i d e f u l l l a t e r a l s u p p o r t
for the s t r i n g e r .
i. Two s t u d s i n a row a r e u s e d on t h e u p p e r f l a n g e o f t h e
stringer.
8 Program D e s c r i p t i o n
The p r o g r a m i s composed o f f o u r p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t i s t h e i n p u t

section. The p r o g r a m g i v e s t h e u s e r two c h o i c e s f o r i n p u t t i n g
information. The u s e r c a n p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t e r a c t i v e l y o r
s t o r e a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n n e e d e d i n a f i l e w h i c h w i l l be r e a d by t h e
program. The i n p u t f i l e c o n t a i n s q u e s t i o n s a n d p r o v i d e s s a m p l e
responses to those questions. The u s e r w i l l h a v e t o e d i t o n l y t h o s e
n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s t h a t a r e d i f f e r e n t from the d e f a u l t v a l u e s .
I n t h e s e c o n d p a r t , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i s p r o c e s s e d a n d some d a t a
generation takes place. At t h i s p o i n t , the o p t i m i z a t i o n procedure
s t a r t s a n d o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n s t o r e d on s e p a r a t e f i l e s i s a c c e s s e d b y
the c o n t r o l program. During the o p t i m i z a t i o n procedure the
o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n h a s t o be c a l c u l a t e d r e p e a t e d l y . The t h i r d p a r t
o f the program does the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s . The f i n a l
p a r t o f t h e p r o g r a m d e a l s w i t h t h e o u t p u t when t h e u s e r i s g i v e n
s e v e r a l o p t i o n s a b o u t t h e amount, k i n d , a n d f o r m a t o f r e s u l t s .
9 U t i l i z a t i o n of the program, an example
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
9.1 Example i n p u t
T h i s e x a m p l e i s i n t e n d e d t o show t h e r e s u l t s o f one r u n o f t h e
program. The b e s t way t o p r o v i d e t h e i n p u t i s t o c a l l a s p e c i a l
i n p u t f i l e and type the n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s t h a t r e l a t e to the problem
at hand. Any e d i t o r t h a t h a n d l e s A S C I f i l e s c a n be u s e d . The u s e r
i n p u t c a n b e t y p e d a n y w h e r e on t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l i n e s . For t h i s
e x a m p l e p r o b l e m , some i m p o r t a n t p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e i n p u t
f i l e are as f o l l o w s :
S p a n : 65 f t ; w i d t h : 47.5 f t ; l o a d i n g : HS20 a n d m i l i t a r y l o a d ;
F y f o r s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l : 50 k s i ; F y f o r r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s :
60 k s i ; f f o r c o n c r e t e : 4 k s i ; No. o f t r a f f i c l a n e s : 4
c
I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s i z e o f s t u d s u s e d , l i m i t s on d e p t h o f s t r i n g e r s ,
minimum a n d maximum s l a b t h i c k n e s s , p a r a p e t s p e c i f i c a t i o n , u n i t
p r i c e s , a n d a few o t h e r p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e i n p u t f i l e
are not mentioned here f o r the sake of b r e v i t y .
9.2 Example Output

The p r o g r a m w i t h t h e a b o v e i n p u t was r u n on a VAX 1 1 / 7 8 5 a t
U n i o n C o l l e g e a n d i t t o o k 6.7 s e c o n d s t o r u n . At the completion of
a run, the program informs the u s e r of s e v e r a l options f o r the
form, e x t e n t , and t y p e o f o u t p u t . At the r e q u e s t of the u s e r the
187
Copyright CRC Press

p r o g r a m c a n c r e a t e a f i l e w h i c h c a n b e r e a d b y a CADD p r o g r a m t o
c r e a t e t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e optimum d e s i g n . F i g u r e 2 shows t h e
c o m p u t e r g e n e r a t e d c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e minimum c o s t c o m p o s i t e
d e s i g n f o r t h i s problem.
I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e optimum d e s i g n a n d n e a r optimum d e s i g n s c a n
be r e q u e s t e d i n t a b u l a r f o r m . T a b l e 1 shows t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r
the c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e i n the example.
Table 1. I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e optimum a n d t h e n e x t - b e s t design for

the composite bridge.
BEAM SLAB MAIN DISTRIBUTIO N

NO. O F SPACING THICKNESS REINFORCEMEN T REINFORCEMEN T NO. Of COST
DESI6N BEAMS (ft ) STEEL SECTIOH (In. ) (1n.*/ft ) (1n.*/ft ) STUDS (5 )
Optimum S 10.7 5 W36X13S 9.0 0 0.6 1 0.4 1 156 14482 9

Next Bes t 6 8.6 0 W30X124 8.0 0 0:58 0.3 9 142 15125 9
10 Other advantages o f the program
I n a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g optimum a n d n e a r optimum s o l u t i o n s , t h e
program e n a b l e s the u s e r t o see the e f f e c t s o f changes o f s e v e r a l
v a r i a b l e s o n t h e optimum d e s i g n . F o r e x a m p l e , many o f t h e f o l l o w i n g
q u e s t i o n s c a n b e a n s w e r e d b y c h a n g i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e number i n t h e
i n p u t f i l e a n d t h e n n o t i n g t h e e f f e c t o n t h e optimum d e s i g n i n t h r e e
seconds.
- What h a p p e n s t o o v e r a l l c o s t i f I u s e t h e more e x p e n s i v e Fy=50
k s i s t e e l i n s t e a d o f t h e r e g u l a r Fy=36 k s i ?
- What i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d e s i g n a n d c o s t i f I make my s y s t e m
composite?
- How do c h a n g e s i n c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h a n d p r i c e a f f e c t optimum
design?
- What i s t h e e f f e c t o n c o s t s o f minimum s l a b t h i c k n e s s m a n d a t e d
by s e v e r a l s t a t e s ?
- What i s t h e optimum s p a c e b e t w e e n s t r i n g e r s f o r d i f f e r e n t s p a n
lengths t oprovide lowest cost?
11 Appendix A. Conversion Table
1 i n c h - 0.0254 m
1 f o o t = 0.3048m
1 lb/ft = 1 5 7 . 0 8 6 Newton/m
3 3
1 K s i = 6.89 x 1 0 Newton/m 6 2
12 References
A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n o f S t a t e Highway & T r a n s p o r t a t i o n O f f i c i a l s
(AASHTO), S t a n d a r d S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r Highway B r i d g e s , ( 1 9 8 9 ) .
A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e o f S t e e l C o n s t r u c t i o n . Manual o f S t e e l
C o n s t r u c t i o n , 8 t h e d . , 1980.
188
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47.5 *
44
a. •36X135
JUL
2.8 '
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
10.75' 10.75 10.75 ' 10.75 '

2.25 2.25
Fig. 2. Computer g e n e r a t e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f t h e minimum c o s t composite design
f o r t h e example problem.
Copyright CRC Press
B e t t e r R o a d , ( 1 9 8 6 ) , Nov., p . 4 2 .
F o x , R . L . ( 1 9 7 1 ) O p t i m i z a t i o n Methods f o r E n g i n e e r i n g Design,
A d d i s o n - W e s l e y , R e a d i n g , Ma.
H e g a r t y , M.J. ( 1 9 8 6 ) , D e s i g n v a r i a b l e s a n d s y s t e m s s c e n a r i o o f low-
v o l u m e b r i d g e s , Problem Report, W e s t V i r g i n i a U n i v . ,
Morgantown, WV.
M a f i , M. ( 1 9 8 5 ) C o s t - e f f e c t i v e , S h o r t - s p a n B r i d g e S y s t e m . Ph.D.
T h e s i s , P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , S t a t e C o l l e g e , Pa.
M a f i , M. ( 1 9 8 8 ) A b a s i c e x p e r t s y s t e m f o r t y p e s e l e c t i o n o f b r i d g e s
( B E S T B r i d g e ) , i n Proceedings o f ASEE Conference, P o r t l a n d ,
Oregon,
N a t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i v e H i g h w a y R e s e a r c h P r o g r a m , B r i d g e s o f Secondary
Highways and L o c a l Roads: R e h a b i l i t a t i o n and Replacement. NCHRP
R e p o r t 2 2 2 , May 1 9 8 0 .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
190
Copyright CRC Press

A COMPUTER-BASED METHODOLOGY
FOR INVESTIGATION OF BRIDGE
VEHICLE/SUPERSTRUCTURE
INTERACTION
T.E. FENSKE, S.M. FENSKE
Dept Civil Engineering, University of Louisville, Louisville,
Kentucky, USA
Abstract
T h i s paper p r e s e n t s a summary of our c u r r e n t e f f o r t s i n t h e
development of an a n a l y t i c a l methodology f o r t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of
v e h i c l e - s u p e r s t r u c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n problems which r e s u l t from a
v e h i c l e t r a v e r s i n g a highway b r i d g e s y s t e m . T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s
prompted by u n c e r t a i n t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c u r r e n t d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s
w h i c h have been shown t o be e i t h e r o v e r l y c o n s e r v a t i v e o r u n s a f e under
general traversing vehicular loading.
The a n a l y t i c a l methodology c o n s i d e r s t h e v e h i c l e - s u p e r s t r u c t u r e
i n t e r a c t i o n problem based upon a moving mass, moving f o r c e , o r
pseudo-moving s t a t i c l i v e l o a d f o r m u l a t i o n . The k i n e m a t i c c o u p l i n g ,
due t o t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e t r a v e r s i n g v e h i c l e mass, i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e
moving mass f o r m u l a t i o n . The a n a l y t i c a l methodology i s based upon t h e
f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s method, and n e c e s s a r y a l g o r i t h m s have been
implemented. The d i r e c t i n t e g r a t i o n s o l u t i o n procedure i s employed.
Keywords: B r i d g e s , B r i d g e Dynamics, Computer-Aided A n a l y s i s / D e s i g n ,
K i n e m a t i c Coupling, B r i d g e Super s t r u c t u r e / V e h i c l e Dynamic I n t e r a c t i o n .
1 Intrcduction
Highway b r i d g e s a r e v e r y l a r g e , i n t r i c a t e s t r u c t u r e s i n w h i c h t h e
means o f t r a n s f e r r i n g v e h i c u l a r l o a d i n g through t h e b r i d g e and i n t o
t h e s u p p o r t i n g s u b s t r u c t u r e i s not completely understood. This i s
because t h e e x t e n t o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f each s t r u c t u r a l component o f
t h e b r i d g e i s not f u l l y known. F o r example, i n a highway g i r d e r
b r i d g e t h e r e a r e t y p i c a l l y t h r e e major s t r u c t u r a l components which can
be c o n s i d e r e d t o compose a b r i d g e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e . They i n c l u d e (1)
t h e deck s l a b , (2) t h e g i r d e r s , and (3) t h e diaphragms. The v e h i c u l a r
l o a d i n g i s p a s s e d from t h e deck i n t o t h e g i r d e r s and diaphragms and
then t o the supporting substructure. T h e r e i s a l s o a f o u r t h component
f o r g i r d e r b r i d g e s . T h i s f o u r t h component i s t h e edge s t i f f n e s s
r e s u l t i n g from a g u a r d r a i l ( b a r r i e r ) o r s i d e w a l k which, i f p r e s e n t ,
may have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e b r i d g e .
The complexity o f a b r i d g e makes a n a c c u r a t e s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s
d i f f i c u l t t o perform. As a v e h i c l e t r a v e r s e s a highway b r i d g e
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e i n i t i a l l y a t r e s t , t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e d e f l e c t s from t h e
o r i g i n a l e q u i l i b r i u m p o s i t i o n . F o r c e s a c t i n g upon t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e
a r e a combination o f f o r c e s due t o v e r t i c a l a c c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e
v e h i c l e and b r i d g e m a s s e s , t h e h o r i z o n t a l e f f e c t of v e h i c l e v e l o c i t y ,
p l u s t h e s t a t i c f o r c e due t o t h e weight o f t h e combined v e h i c l e / b r i d g e
system. F o r g i r d e r b r i d g e s , t h e s e f o r c e s combine t o g i v e maximum
s t a t i c and dynamic e f f e c t s t h a t a r e d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e v a r i o u s
supporting g i r d e r s . The t r a v e r s i n g v e h i c l e , which c a u s e s t h e combined
191
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s t a t i c and dynamic e f f e c t s , i s termed " l i v e l o a d i n g " because the
loading e f f e c t i s t r a n s i e n t .
2 CLTrrent S o l u t i o n Approaches
Many a n a l y t i c a l methods e x i s t w h i c h c a n be u s e d t o p r e d i c t t h e complex

r e s p o n s e o f t h e v e h i c l e - s u p e r s t r u c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n problem. However,
c u r r e n t b r i d g e d e s i g n p r a c t i c e , a s recommended by t h e American
A s s o c i a t i o n o f S t a t e Highway and T r a n s p o r t a t i o n O f f i c i a l s (AASHTO,
1 9 8 3 ) , a v o i d s a d i r e c t t r e a t m e n t o f t h e dynamic behavior o f v e h i c l e -
bridge interaction. I n s t e a d , t h e dynamic b e h a v i o r i s addressed by
i n c r e a s i n g t h e s t a t i c d e s i g n l i v e l o a d by an "impact f a c t o r " t a k e n a s
a f u n c t i o n o f span l e n g t h and h a v i n g a maximum v a l u e of 0 . 3 . Again
c o n s i d e r i n g a g i r d e r b r i d g e , t h e s t a t i c d e s i g n l i v e loads u s e d a r e
e v a l u a t e d based upon wheel l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c t o r s . These
d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c t o r s r e p r e s e n t how t h e l o a d i n g e f f e c t of t h e
t r a v e r s i n g v e h i c l e i s d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e v a r i o u s supporting g i r d e r s .
The a p p l i c a b l e parameters f o r u s i n g t h e AASHTO t r u c k wheel l o a d
d i s t r i b u t i o n a r e based upon t h e b r i d g e t y p e and g i r d e r s p a c i n g .
These s t a n d a r d d e s i g n procedures f o r e v a l u a t i n g l i v e l o a d
d i s t r i b u t i o n and impact (dynamic e f f e c t ) a r e e a s y t o apply and r e q u i r e
o n l y minimal computational e f f o r t . However, t h e need t o a c h i e v e
g r e a t e r economy i n b r i d g e c o n s t r u c t i o n and t h e need t o i n s u r e s a f e
d e s i g n s t a n d a r d s mandates t h e development o f more a c c u r a t e and
r e l i a b l e procedures. Refinement o f t h e AASHTO e m p i r i c a l f a c t o r s i s
n e c e s s i t a t e d by t h e need t o a v o i d u n c o n s e r v a t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n s under
c e r t a i n l i m i t e d c o n d i t i o n s o f span and b r i d g e c o n t i n u i t y . A p p l i c a t i o n
o f AASHTO d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c t o r s have been shown t o l e a d t o u n s a f e
c o n d i t i o n s f o r d e s i g n under some s i t u a t i o n s (Hays and Hachey, 1 9 8 4 ) .
A l s o , because o f t h e s i m p l i f i e d n a t u r e o f t h e AASHTO e m p i r i c a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n factor applied to various design conditions, i t i s
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
o v e r c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r most a p p l i c a t i o n s . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s ,
design practice leads to excessive costs. Another study (Dorton, e t .
a l . , 1977) i l l u s t r a t e d t h a t , an a c c u r a t e l a t e r a l l i v e l o a d
d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c t o r would r e s u l t i n a d e s i g n moment t h a t i s 27 p e r c e n t
l e s s t h a n t h e AASHTO recx3mmended v a l u e .
U s i n g t h e AASHTO impact formula o f 50/(L+125) < 0.3 t o account
f o r t h e dynamic e f f e c t of t h e t r a v e r s i n g v e h i c l e by i n c r e a s i n g t h e
s t a t i c d e s i g n l i v e l o a d moment i s o b v i o u s l y u n r e l i a b l e i n t h e c a s e s
where t h e l a t e r a l l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n i s u n r e l i a b l e ( s i n c e t h e d e s i g n
l i v e load i s d i r e c t l y proportional to the d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c t o r ) .
However, even i n c a s e s where t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c t o r i s s u f f i c i e n t l y
a c c u r a t e , t h e u s e o f t h e AASHTO e m p i r i c a l impact formula i s h i g h l y
q u e s t i o n a b l e because o f i t s l i m i t e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e dynamic
parameters o f t h e b r i d g e s y s t e m . The parameters normally u s e d t o
d e s c r i b e t h e dynamic b e h a v i o r o f b r i d g e s a r e t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s ,
mode s h a p e s , and t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t and a c c e l e r a t i o n response under
forced v i b r a t i o n . I t i s recognized t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l magnification
o f t h e s t a t i c l i v e l o a d e f f e c t c a n o c c u r i n a continuous b r i d g e system
when a v e h i c l e t r a v e r s e s t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e a t a speed c o i n c i d i n g w i t h
t h e n a t u r a l frequency o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . This effect requires either
r a p i d v e h i c l e t r a n s i t or a r e l a t i v e l y large vehicle-superstructure
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mass r a t i o , which g e n e r a l l y h a s n o t been t h e c a s e . However, a s t h e
t r e n d i n new d e s i g n s c o n t i n u e s toward l i g h t e r and more f l e x i b l e
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s , t h e problem o f t h e dynamic behavior i s becoming
i n c r e a s i n g l y more p r e v a l e n t (Brown, 1 9 7 7 ) . The dynamic e f f e c t h a s
been shown t o be both c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r and c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n
t h e AASHTO recommended v a l u e o f 30 p e r c e n t (Green, 1977).
These s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n s from t h e impact formula c a n be
r e l a t e d t o t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e n a t u r a l frequency, t h e e f f e c t o f which
i s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e AASHTO e m p i r i c a l impact formula. When t h e
frequency o f t h e b r i d g e i s between 2 Hz and 5 Hz, i t i s i n t h e range
o f most l a r g e t r u c k s and, t h u s , t h e dynamic e f f e c t of t h e
v e r i i c l e - s u p e r s t r u c t u r e becomes s i g n i f i c a n t . On t h e o t h e r hand, i f t h e
b r i d g e n a t u r a l frequency i s f a r removed from t h i s t r u c k frequency
r a n g e , t h e dynamic e f f e c t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s . The primary r e a s o n
t h a t a more r i g o r o u s dynamic e f f e c t i s not i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e
AASHTO impact formula i s t h e d i f f i c u l t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an a c c u r a t e
and r e l i a b l e a n a l y s i s procedure. A central difficulty in a l l analysis
approaches t o t h e v e h i c l e - s u p e r s t x u c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n problem i n v o l v e s
f i n d i n g a s u i t a b l e method f o r t r e a t i n g t h e k i n e m a t i c c o u p l i n g term
w h i c h a r i s e s i n t h e mathematical f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e problem. Existing
a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n t e c h n i q u e s make u s e o f s i m p l i f y i n g assumptions so
a s n o t t o t r e a t t h e dynamic c o u p l i n g e f f e c t .
The k i n e m a t i c c o u p l i n g e f f e c t i s due t o t h e t r a v e r s i n g v e h i c l e
p o s i t i o n change w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i m e , i . e . , t h e v e l o c i t y o f t h e
vejiicle. To i l l u s t r a t e t h e k i n e m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p , a s i m p l i f i e d
v e h i c l e - s u p e r s t r u c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n model r e p r e s e n t e d by a s i m p l e beam
and s i n g l e mass p a r t i c l e i s shown i n F i g u r e 1. The equation o f motion
f o r t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e c a n be e x p r e s s e d i n g e n e r i c form a s
my + c y + k y = F ( x , t ) (1)
i n which t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e p r o p e r t i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by m (mass),
w,y
F(r,,t)
x(t)
L
(span length)
F i g . 1 . Vehicle-Superstructure Interaction
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c (damping), k ( s t i f f n e s s ) , and y ( = y ( x , t ) , t h e displacement f u n c t i o n
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e v e r t i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t a t p o s i t i o n x and t i m e t ) . y
and y r e p r e s e n t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v e l o c i t y and a c c e l e r a t i o n . The
c o u p l i n g e f f e c t comes from examining t h e f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n F ( x , t ) .
F ( x , t ) i s t h e r e a c t i o n f o r c e e x e r t e d by t h e moving p a r t i c l e mass on
t h e beam s u p e r s t r u c t u r e . When t h e mass i s a t p o s i t i o n £ ( t ) , t h e
f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n F ( x , t ) c a n be r e l a t e d t o t h e v e r t i c a l a c c e l e r a t i o n of
t h e p a r t i c l e by Newton's second law, i . e . ,
d w 2
F(x,t) = -m[g + 5-(C,t)] 6(x-£) (2)

dt z
I n E q u a t i o n 2 , mg r e p r e s e n t s t h e weight o f t h e p a r t i c l e and 6 (x) i s

t h e D i r a c D e l t a f u n c t i o n h a v i n g v a l u e o f 1 when £ ( t ) = x and z e r o
elsewhere. S i n c e t h e p a r t i c l e mass p o s i t i o n £ ( t ) i s a f u n c t i o n o f
t i m e , t h e e x p l i c i t form o f t h e t r a n s v e r s e a c c e l e r a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d a s
d w(t,t)
2
3w 2
3w2
= _ ( v ^ ) + (2v)
dt z
3x z
3x3t
3w . 3w 2
+ (v) + — (3)
3x at
i n w h i c h v = £ ( t ) , i . e . , l o n g i t u d i n a l mass v e l o c i t y . The k i n e m a t i c
c o u p l i n g i s from t h e mixed d e r i v a t i v e and n e g l e c t i n g t h i s e f f e c t
r e s t r i c t s t h e f o r m u l a t i o n t o s m a l l v e l o c i t i e s . The f o r m u l a t i o n o f
t h i s problem t y p e i s c a l l e d a "moving-mass" problem. However,
n e g l e c t i n g t h e v e l o c i t y e f f e c t s i n E q u a t i o n 3 reduces t h e a n a l y s i s
problem t o a "moving f o r c e " approximation. I n either case, the
v a r i a t i o n from t h e AASHTO impact formula c a n be v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t .
These b r i d g e d e s i g n d i f f i c u l t i e s may be avoided o r c o n t r o l l e d by
d e v e l o p i n g an a c c u r a t e and r e l i a b l e b r i d g e a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e .
O b t a i n i n g a c c u r a t e and r e l i a b l e l i v e l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n f a c t o r s and
r e l a t e d dynamic c o n t r i b u t i o n s r e q u i r e s a r e l i a b l e methodology t h a t
a c c u r a t e l y c o n s i d e r s t h e s i g n i f i c a n t parameters t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e
outcome o f t h e a n a l y s i s . Unquestionably, when c o n s i d e r i n g l a r g e
redundant systems f o r w h i c h c l o s e d - f o r m s o l u t i o n s a r e n o n e x i s t e n t , t h e
most r e l i a b l e and comprehensive method o f a n a l y s i s a v a i l a b l e today i s
t h e f i n i t e element method.
3 A n a l y t i c a l Methodology
As p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , t h e f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s procedure i s
u t i l i z e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e t r a n s i e n t response o f g e n e r a l
b r i d g e systems s u b j e c t e d t o t r a v e r s i n g v e h i c u l a r l o a d i n g . For
example, s l a b b r i d g e s have been modeled u s i n g e i t h e r i s o t r o p i c o r
o r t h o t r o p i c p l a t e f i n i t e e l e m e n t s . These elements can be e i t h e r
4-node Melosh p l a t e elements o r 4-, 8-, o r 9-node M i n d l i n p l a t e
elements. The M i n d l i n p l a t e elements account f o r s h e a r e f f e c t , and
e i t h e r f u l l o r reduced i n t e g r a t i o n c a n be employed. On t h e o t h e r hand,
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g i r d e r t y p e b r i d g e s have been modeled losing a combination o f beam and
p l a t e elements.
The e q u i v a l e n t n o d a l f o r c e v e c t o r , used i n t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e
e q u a t i o n of motion, i s formulated f o r t h e v a r i o u s t r a v e r s i n g v e h i c l e
locations. These v e h i c l e l o c a t i o n s c a n be s p e c i f i e d by u s i n g a
constant a c c e l e r a t i o n , l i n e a r a c c e l e r a t i o n , or constant v e l o c i t y
approach. When t h e e f f e c t o f t h e mass of t h e moving v e h i c l e i s
c o n s i d e r e d , t h e a n a l y s i s i s c o u p l e d , and i t i s termed "moving mass 11
analysis. However, when o n l y t h e f o r c e of t h e moving v e h i c l e i s

c o n s i d e r e d , t h e a n a l y s i s i s l i n e a r and i s termed "moving f o r c e "
a n a l y s i s . A pseudo-moving s t a t i c e f f e c t a l s o c a n be examined.
D i r e c t i n t e g r a t i o n i s u t i l i z e d i n t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e dynamic
i n t e r a c t i o n problem. S e v e r a l schemes have been iirplemented:
Newmark's B e t a method, H i l b e r t ' s Alpha method, and a m o d i f i e d H i l b e r t
scheme.
3.1 B a s i c Algorithms
The g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n o f motion f o r t h e b r i d g e system i s g i v e n by
MY + CY + KY = F ( x , t ) (4)
where Y i s t h e nodal d i s p l a c e m e n t v e c t o r and Y and Y r e p r e s e n t nodal

v e l o c i t i e s and a c c e l e r a t i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . M, C , and K r e p r e s e n t t h e
g l o b a l mass, damping, and s t i f f n e s s m a t r i c e s . F ( x , t ) represents the
nodal f o r c i n g function.
I f t h e mass o f t h e moving v e h i c l e s i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e n o d a l
f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n , F ( x , t ) , t h e n t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e k i n e m a t i c
c o u p l i n g e f f e c t c a n be e x p r e s s e d a s
F ( x , t ) = -mg - m[ - ] = F + F (5)
8t 2 b D
T h i s equation i s a p p l i c a b l e f o r t h e loaded elements o n l y , "m" i s t h e

mass of t h e t r a v e r s i n g v e h i c l e . I n t h i s e q u a t i o n , F * can be d e f i n e d
a s t h e e q u i v a l e n t dynamic n o d a l l o a d i n g and c a n be expressed a s
F * = -M*Y - C*Y - K * Y
D (6)
where M*, C * , and K * c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e e q u i v a l e n t mass,

damping, and s t i f f n e s s m a t r i c e s . Substituting the forcing function
e x p r e s s i o n i n t o t h e e q u a t i o n o f motion and r e a r r a n g i n g y i e l d s
(M + M*)Y + (C + C * ) Y + (K + K * ) Y = F . g (7)
T h i s equation r e p r e s e n t s t h e moving mass problem t h a t i n c l u d e s t h e

kinematic coupling e f f e c t . N e g l e c t i n g t h e k i n e m a t i c e f f e c t would
a l l o w f o r t h e moving f o r c e f o r m u l a t i o n o f
(M + M*)Y + CY + KY = F g . (8)
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S i m i l a r l y , t h e pseudo-moving s t a t i c f o r m u l a t i o n can be e x p r e s s e d a s
KY = F . s (9)
The d e s c r i b e d f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e a n a l y t i c methodology h a s
compared f a v o r a b l y i n e x t e n s i v e comparisons t o c l o s e d - f o r m s o l u t i o n s
and e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s .
4 A p p l i c a t i o n o f A n a l y t i c a l Methodology
The f i r s t s t e p i n a p p l y i n g t h e a n a l y t i c a l methodology i s modeling t h e

b r i d g e system. F o r example, t h e highway g i r d e r b r i d g e i s modeled u s i n g
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a combination o f beam and p l a t e f i n i t e elements. A t y p i c a l two-span
highway g i r d e r b r i d g e i s modeled a s shown i n F i g u r e 2 . F i g u r e 2(a)
r e p r e s e n t s t h e o v e r a l l b r i d g e geometry and F i g u r e 2(b) shows t h e
g e n e r a t e d f i n i t e element mesh. The beam and p l a t e elements s e l e c t e d
EE
HE
(a)
t —- TE» ISP TSZ'

BE:
T5TT m<
an
J6V _ _ 168* _ 3
.a
(b)
Fig. 2. Highway Bridge tfodel
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s a t i s f y requirements f o r n o d a l c o m p a t i b i l i t y . The b r i d g e s u p p o r t i n g
g i r d e r s , g u a r d r a i l s , and t r a n s v e r s e diaphragms a r e modeled
a s beam elements. The roadway deck i s modeled u s i n g p l a t e bending
elements.
The dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s a r e obtained upon
f o r m u l a t i n g t h e a n a l y s i s model by employing t h e d e s c r i b e d a n a l y t i c a l
algorithms. The r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l methodology compare v e r y
f a v o r a b l y t o c l o s e d - f o r m s o l u t i o n s . F o r example, c o n s i d e r t h e s i m p l y
supported p l a t e shown i n F i g u r e 3 (without b e i n g g i v e n s p e c i f i c d a t a
r e g a r d i n g v e h i c l e f o r c e , mass, v e l o c i t y , p l a t e geometry, e t c . ) A
comparison o f r e s u l t s f o r t h e moving mass (MM), moving f o r c e (MF), and
s t a t i c (S) a n a l y s i s f o r both an i s o t r o p i c ( I ) and o r t h o t r o p i c (0)
p l a t e i s given i n T a b l e 1.
A more g e n e r a l s l a b b r i d g e i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 4 . For t h i s
s t r u c t u r e , t h e u s e o f o r t h o t r o p i c p l a t e elements i s r e q u i r e d . The
p l a t e element bending r i g i d i t i e s c a n be e v a l u a t e d u s i n g t h e shaded
p o r t i o n shown on t h e b r i d g e c r o s s - s e c t i o n . Again, without g i v i n g the
s p e c i f i c s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n problem shown i n F i g u r e 4, a comparison
of r e s u l t s i s presented i n Table 2.
F i g . 3 . Simply Supported P l a t e
T a b l e 1. C e n t e r Node Comparison - Simply Supported P l a t e
Plate Analysis Deflection (in.)

Type Procedure AM CF % Dif f
I S -0.81006 -0.81000 0.0074

0 S -0.20188 -0.21200 4.9400
I MF -0.03360 -0.03170 5.8600
0 MF -0.00670 -0.00660 0.9700
I MM -0.03440 -0.03180 7.6400
0 MM -0.00680 -0.00700 3.5200
A M - A n a l y t i c a l Methodology, C F - C l o s e d Form
197
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Y
EL GJ (for «dg» b«<uO

29 33
2 3 4 L 5 6 7
EX GJ
in it
F i g . 4 . G e n e r a l S l a b Bridge
Table 2. C e n t e r Node Comparison - G e n e r a l S l a b Bridge
Analysis Deflection ( i n . )
Procedure AM CF % Diff
MF -0.00619 -0.00610 1. 3800

MM -0.00652 -0.00671 2. 8600
A M - A n a l y t i c a l Methodology, C F - C l o s e d Form
5 Conclusion
The developed a n a l y t i c a l methodology h a s been demonstrated t o be an

a c c u r a t e and r e l i a b l e a n a l y s i s t o o l f o r t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e
dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n problem.
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198
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6 Acknowledgement
T h i s work h a s been sponsored by t h e N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e Foundation under

G r a n t No. MSM-8708691.
7 References
American A s s o c i a t i o n o f S t a t e Highway and T r a n s p o r t a t i o n O f f i c i a l s ,

Standard S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r Highway B r i d g e s , T h i r t e e n t h E d i t i o n ,
1983.
Brown, C . W., "An E n g i n e e r ' s Approach t o Dynamic A s p e c t s o f B r i d g e

D e s i g n , " P r o c e e d i n g s , Symposium on Dynamic Behavior o f B r i d g e s ,
Crowthorne, B e r k s h i r e , England, 1977.
Dorton, R. A . , Holowka, M . , and K i n g , J . P . C . , "The Conestogo R i v e r

B r i d g e — d e s i g n and t e s t i n g , " Canadian J o u r n a l of C i v i l
E n g i n e e r i n g , V o l . 4, 1977.
Green R . , "Dynamic Response of B r i d g e S u p e r s t r u c t u r e s - O n t a r i o

O b s e r v a t i o n s , " P r o c e e d i n g s , Symposium on Dynamic B e h a v i o r of
B r i d g e s , Crowthorne, B e r k s h i r e , England, 1977.
Hays, C . 0 . , and Hachey, J . E . , " L a t e r a l D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Wheel Loads

on Highway B r i d g e s U s i n g t h e F i n i t e Element Method," S t r u c t u r e s and
M a t e r i a l s R e s e a r c h Report No. 84-3, u n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a ,
G a i n s v i l l e , F l o r i d a , 1984.
199
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A R E L I A B I L I T Y - B A S E D CAPACITY
R A T I N G OF E X I S T I N G BRIDGES BY
INCORPORATING S Y S T E M
INDENTIFICATION
H - N . CHO
Dept Civil Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea
C-B. Y U N
Dept Civil Engineering, Korean Advanced Institute of Science and
Technology, Seoul, Korea
A.H-S. ANG
Dept Civil Engineering, University of California, Irvine,
California, USA
M . SHINOZUKA
Dept Civil Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton,
New Jersey, USA
Abstract
This paper develops practical models and methods for the assessment of safety
and rating of damaged and/or deteriorated bridges by incorporating a system
identification technique for the explicit inclusion of the degree of deterioration or
damage and of the actual bridge response. And, based on the proposed model,
reliability-based rating methods are proposed as LRFR(Load and Resistance Fac-
tor Rating) and system reliability-index rating criteria. The proposed limit state
model explicitly accounts for the degree of deterioration or damage in terms of
the damage and response factors. The damage factor in the paper is proposed as
the ratio of the current stiffness to the intact stiffness.
Based on the observation and the results of applications to existing bridges,
it may be concluded that the proposed rating models, which explicitly account
for the uncertainties and the effects of degree of deterioration or damage based
on the system identification technique, provide more realistic and consistent
safety-assessment and capacity- rating.
1 Introduction
In spite of the remarkable advances in structural modeling, numerical analysis
and nondestructive testing, it is still difficult to predict realistic failure
behavior and capacity-rating of existing road bridges, especially when those
bridges are deteriorated or damaged to a significant degree. Recently, this has led
to an increasing attention to the problems of safety assessment and rating of exist-
ing bridge's, as well as the identification of the degree of deterioration or dam-
age of those bridges in connection with the maintenance and rehabilitation prob-
lems.
This paper develops practical models and methods for the assessment of safety
and rating of damaged and/or deteriorated bridges by incorporating such an ela-
borate technique as system identification or more approximately FFT analysis for
the explicit inclusion of the degree of deterioration or damage and of the actual
bridge response. And, based on the proposed model, reliability-based rating
methods are proposed as LRFR(Load and Resistance Factor Rating) and system
reliability-index rating criteria.
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2 Limit State Model for Deteriorated or Damaged Bridges
For the development of a probability-based LRFR criteriafCho and Ang 1989] a
linear limit state function for a structure may be used and stated as
(1)
where R is the structural resistance, and S, is the ith load effect.

A realistic safety assessment or rating of existing bridges requires a rational
determination of the degree of deterioration or damage. Therefore, the limit
state function, E q . l , must incorporates some random variates to reflect such
deterioration/damage and the underlying uncertainties. Various approaches,
such as system identification [Shinozuka et al 1978,1982], fuzzy set
theory[Yao 1986] or probabilistic measure of structural redundancy have been
suggested[Frangopol and Curley 1986]. A rational approach utilizing the system
identification[Hoshiya and Saito 1984] for the damage assessment of structural
members are proposed herein for practical application. However, in lieu of
such elaborate techniques as system identification, the resistances of the
deteriorated or damaged members are made to be estimated on the basis of
visual inspection and/or simple in-situ tests with a practical analysis utilizing the
FFT technique, supplemented with the engineering judgement.
The true resistance R may be modelled as,
R =R D N n F R (2)
where R = the nominal resistance of the intact member in which the material
n
strengths of the resistance are assumed as the real nominal values estimated on the
basis of the NDT test results if available; D = the damage factor, which is the F
ratio of the current stiffness, K to the intact stiffness, K , i.e. K IKj ( = co^ / © / )
D> f D
in which <o and <D/ are the fundamental natural frequencies of the damaged and
D
the intact structures; and N = the correction factor for adjusting any bias and
R
incorporating the uncertainties involved in the assessment of R and D . n F
The mean-value of N represents the bias correction, R and its C.O.V.

represents the uncertainties in the material strength, fabrication, construction,
structural modelling, and damage assessment.
For the rating purpose, the proposed load model needs to consider only the
dead load and truck loads as the primary loadings for short span bridges. Thus,
the load effects may be expressed as:
S = C D N +C L KN
D n D L n L (3)
where C ,C = the influence coefficients for dead and live load effects, which are
D L
estimated based on the current stiffness parameters of the deteriorated or damaged

bridges ; D J^ = the nominal dead and truck loads, respectively; K = the response
n n
ratio equal to K (\+l) in which K is the ratio of the measured stress to the calcu-
s s
lated stress and I is the impact factor, either measured or calculated; and N ,N = D L
the correction factors for adjusting the bias and uncertainties in the estimated D n
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and L , respectively.
n
In Eq.3 the uncertainties in the load effect model should include those associ-
ated with the analysis, load distribution, traffic load model and load test. Also,
the random live-load effect should be evaluated on the basis of the current
stiffness parameters of the deteriorated or damaged bridges, and the actual or
estimated response ratio of the measured stress to the calculated one.
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3 Damage Assessment by System Identification
For the purpose of capacity rating of existing bridge structures, which
might have experienced significant structural damage through years of service,
the structural damage may be approximately modelled as a reduction of the
stiffness of a critical element[Yun and Min 1989] as
D <«>= K (e) _ K {e)= £ ^ K (e) ( 4 )
where K^ and are the element stiffness matrices with and without damage,
e)
respectively; and a is the element coefficient^ 1 < a < 0). For the cases of rein-
e e
forced concrete bridges, it may be represented by a reduction of the stiffness of a

critical element as
D F = i ^ (5)
In this study, the identification of the reduction of the element stiffness due
to structural damage is carried out by two steps as follows;
(1) Determination of modal properties : The first few natural frequencies and
the corresponding vibrational modes of the damaged structure are evaluated
based on the dynamic response records measured at several locations of the
structure. The extended Kalman filtering algorithm [Hoshiya and Saito 1984;
Yun, et al. 1988] has been applied to the estimation of the modal parame-
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ters. For this purpose, a state vector is defined by including the unknown
parameters as the augmented state variables and nonlinear state equation is con-
structed from the equation of motion.
(2) Determination of structural damage : Comparing the estimated modal

quantities with those of the undamaged structure, the location and degree of dam-
age are determined with an aid of the inverse modal perturbation
technique[Yun and Min 1989] :
[T][pW]{a} =< (6)

P{<M
where { a } is the vector for the unknown element damage coefficient; [T] and
r/>(*)] are the transformation and modal perturbation matrices associated
with the k-th mode, which are obtained in terms of the known or measured quanti-
ties; (o and \i are the k-th natural frequency and generalized mass of the
ok ok
undamaged structure; (& and { § } are the k-th natural frequency and mode shape
k k
of the damaged structure which are measured; and p is the unknown scale fac-
tor of the measurement value of {<)> } . The unknown damage coefficient vectork
{a} is evaluated by way of minimizing the estimation error.
4 Reliability Assessment of Existing Bridges

An existing bridge structure may be rated on the basis of a specified target
reliability. This requires the assessment of the reliability of a bridge in either
element-reliability or system-reliability level. Obviously, system reliability is
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more desirable for the rating purpose regardless of the degree of the model-
ling accuracy or numerical approximations involved in the assessment. For this
reason, the stable configuration approach(SCA)[Quek and Ang 1986] is used
to provide a practical and approximate method for estimating the system reli-
ability against ultimate collapse of R.C. bridges, which may be considered to be a
brittle mode of failure for which the SCA is particularly effective. Of course,
for steel girder bridges that fail in ductile mode, the failure mode approach
(FMA) considering only a few dominant failure modes may be more desirable
and can be used without any further numerical difficulties. For the purpose of
bridge rating, a second order bound estimate based on the approximate formula-
tion of SCA or FMA is preferred to more elaborate theoretical formulation. A
computer code developed based on the approximate SCA formulation of system
reliability and the AFOSM method incorporating the equivalent-normal
transformation and Haosfer-Lind's iterative algorithm are used for a practical
evaluation of the system reliability index = T h e n , using the relia-
bility index as a requirement for structural safety, the values of P, are suggested
as a guide for developing rating criteria of deteriorated and/or damaged
bridges.
5 Reliability-Based Rating Criterion
A load and resistance factor rating(LRFR) criterion may be developed

corresponding to a specified target reliability index. Based on Eqs.2 and 3, the
following rating criterion expressed in terms of the rating factor, RF, which is the
ratio of the nominal load carrying capacity, p , to the standard rating load, P , rt L
specified in the code may be obtained:
VD R -y' C D
F n D D n
(7)
YLC KP
L L
For the rating of an existing deteriorated bridges, the following two load levels
of capacity rating of Eq.7 may have to be provided. At the service or lower level,
the capacity rating may be referred to as the Service Load Rating(SLR) which
corresponds to the allowable safe load level for the normal operation of the
bridge. At the over-load or higher load level, the capacity rating may be referred
to as the Maximum Over-Load Rating(MOR) which corresponds to the abso-
lute permissible load level for special operation(over-load permit) of the
bridge. The nominal safety parameters, <t>', YD and Y L » of the LRFR criterion of
Eq.7 for each load level, SLR or MOR, corresponding to a specified target relia-
bility (tentatively, p„ = 3.0 for SLR, = 2.0 for MOR) may be calibrated
by using the well established procedure for code calibration[Ravindra and Lind
1983].
For the assessment of reliability of existing bridges and the calibration
of rating criterion, the statistical uncertainties of resistance and load effects
are estimated from the data available in Korea [Shin et al. 1988] and partly from
the engineering judgement. As the results of the calibration, the proposed LRFR
criteria are shown in Table 1, which is given as in the form of the rating provi-
sions for R.C. T-beam and slab bridges.
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Table 1. LRFR-Rating Criteria
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Bridge SLR MOR
O.SOD R - -1.20C D
F n D n 0.95 D R -1.20F n CD
D n
R.C. T-beam
1.85 C KP L L \.6SC KP L L
0.85D /? - -\.20C D
F n D n \MD R -120C
F n D D n
R.C. Slab
1.85 C L 1.65 C KP L L
6 Application Examples
6.1 Damage Assessment
At first, an example analysis is carried out by using records generated by the simu-
lation technique in order to verify the present method of the damage estima-
tion. The structural model used is a R.C. beam with a uniform T-section as in Fig
1. Four different cases with damages at single or multiple locations are investi-
gated. It is assumed that response time histories due to an impact load applied
at Node 7 are measured at four nodes,i.e. Nodes 4,5,6 and 7. The first three
natural frequencies and the first mode shape for each case are determined
from the response time histories by using the extended Kalman filtering tech-
nique. Then, the element damage coefficients are estimated by the
inverse modal perturbation. Table 2 summaries the assumed exact and the
estimated values for the element damage coefficients. The results indicate that
the present method can identify the locations of the damages very precisely.
The accuracy of the estimated degree of damage has been founded to be somewhat
deteriorated, but still remains in a reasonable range. Currently, experimental
studies are being carried out to verify the applicability of the method to real
structures.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
( D O © © ® ® ® ©jfa
240 cm
fee*
E = 2.48x10* k g / c n ' A=400.0 cm*

l/=0.2 I =21054.0 cm 4
p= 2.30 ton/m 3
Fig.1. Structural model of R.C. beam with a uniform T-section.
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Table 2. Exact and Estimated Damage Coefficient a ) e
Cases Element Assumed Estimated Natural Frequencies

No. Exact Damage Damage (0)1,(02,(03 in Hz)
3 0.0
4 0.0007 60.1
damage I 5 0.4 0.5810 257.0
6 0.0006 547.0
7 0.0001
3 0.4 0.5380
4 0.0030 58.0
damage II 5 0.4 0.5361 242.0
6 0.0037 536.0
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7 0.0
3 0.4 0.5210
4 0.0 56.8
damage HI 5 0.4 0.5206 238.0
6 0.2 0.1956 533.0
7 0.0021
1 0.4 0.5970
4 0.0016 58.7
damage I V 5 0.4 0.5549 250.0
6 0.2 0.2093 534.0
7 0.0
3 0.2 0.2202
4 0.0 60.4
damage V 5 0.2 0.2202 247.0
6 0.2 0.2205 557.0
7 0.0
1 0.3 0.4178
4 0.0010 61.1
damage V I 5 0.2 0.2257 252.0
6 0.2 0.2266 554.0
7 0.0
Note: Natural Frequencies of the undamaged structure (in Hz)

(O = 64.3, (O = 257.5, <o = 578.8
ol o2 o3
6.2 Reliability Assessment

The models and methods of reliability analysis using the stable
configuration approach and the AFOSM algorithm proposed in the paper are
applied for the reliability-assessment of three existing R.C. T-beam bridges
which were field-tested for the safety-evaluation and capacity rating. Table 3
summarizes the bridge data obtained from the measurements and calculations
performed for the safety-assessment of these bridges.
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Table 3. Bridge Data
Bridge Jinjeon Wolcheon Seosang
Bridge Type R.C. T-beam R.C. T-beam R.C. T-beam
Design Load D-9 D-13.5 D-13
Construction Year 1932 1956 1957
Rating Load DB-24 DB-24 DB-24
No. of Girder 6 3 4
Girder Space(cm) 127 195 110
Span Length(cm) 1000 1400 1100
M N (t-m) 64.2 226 123
M D (t-m) 24.5 87.5 29.8
M L (t-m) 10.4 35.9 37.5
DF 0.75 0.89 0.86
Gcat latest 3.35 1.64 1.22
(l+/ )/(l+',)
c 0.90 1.17 1.05
5 /5,
c 1.22 4.48 5.28
K 1.06 0.69 1.03
5 „(t-m)
D 24.5 87.5 29.8
%(t-m) 11.02 24.59 38.63

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1+1 1.3 1.12 1.26
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The results of reliability evaluation in terms of the element-reliability and
system-reliability indices of the example bridges are shown in Table 4.
The data summarized in Table 3 as well as the visual inspections of these
bridges indicate that the bridges are significantly deteriorated and/or damaged. Ac-
cordingly, the estimated reliability indices are found to be remarkably low for the
bridges as shown in Table 4. It has to be noted that the low reliability indices of
the bridges result also from the fact that the current rating load used for safety as-
sessment is higher than the original design load. It may be also observed that the
estimated system-reliability indices are consistently higher than the results for the
element-reliability in spite of the fact that the system reliability evaluated based on
the SCA method is an approximate conservative estimate. It may be argued that
the system reliability index may have to be used, if possible, rather than the
element-reliability index in order to take into account some reserved safety related
to the redundancy of the bridge system. Furthermore, the results of the reliability
evaluation as compared with the rating factors discussed in the following section,
indicated that the reliability index may be used as a preliminary measure of the
rating of existing bridges with only visual inspection before performing extensive
field measurement.
Table 4. Reliability Indices of Bridges
Element-Rel. 1.42 2.87 1.64

(Int. Girder) (Int. Girder) (Ext. Girder)
System-Rel. 1.81 3.70 2.19
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Table 5. Rating of Bridges
SLR 0.45 1.24 0.68

LKrK
MOR 0.90 2.13 1.01
WSR 0.48 1.02 0.54
LFR 0.52 1.37 0.72
I.RF 0.48 1.27 0.67

A A CTTTA
AASHTO
O.RF 0.80 2.12 1.12
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6.3 Reliability-Based LRFR Criterion
The recommended provisions of LRFR criterion as in Table 1 are applied for the
rating of the bridges discussed in the previous section. As the rating vehicle for
the L R F R criterion, the DB-24 which is the standard design-truck of the
KSCE(Korea Society of Civil Engineers) bridge design code is used. The DB-
standard trucks are similar to the AASHTO's standard design trucks. Note that,
for example, the configurations of D-18 and DB-18 of the K S C E correspond to
those of H-20 and HS-20 of the AASHTO. The combined weight on the first
two axles of DB-18 is 18 tons which corresponds to 20 short-tons of HS-20. A
comparison of the results between the proposed LRFR rating and the conventional
rating such as WSR, L F R and the AASHTO rating is presented in Table 4.
There are strong coherences between the estimated values for the SLR-rating fac-
tors and the reliability indices, which vary depending on the state of damage
and/or deterioration of the bridges. It may be observed from Table 5 that, in
general, the results of the conventional rating methods are not considerably
different for those of the LRFR method for these particular bridges, although
there are still some significant differences between the results of the proposed
L R F R rating and those of the conventional ratings. However, considering that the
current WSR or L F R criterion could result in rather irrational ratings because of
inherent shortcomings in the conventional criteria which do not account for all the
underlying uncertainties and the degree of the deterioration and damage, and thus
are not reliability based, the results of the LRFR may be regarded as more
rational ratings. It is interesting to observe that the rating of each example bridge
at SLR and MOR levels are somewhat similar to those of the AASHTO rating
although the AASHTO rating specification is not reliability-based. However, as
stated above, the differences between the proposed and the conventional ratings
may, mainly, be attributed to the fact that the proposed LRFR do explicitly ac-
count for the degree of the deterioration and damage in terms of the damage
factor and the safety factors, , which are derived on the basis of the reli-
ability methods. Furthermore, it may be noted that the results of rating of each
example bridge reasonably well correspond to the reliability indices presented
in Table 4.
7 Conclusions
Based on the observation and the results of the application, it may be conclud-
ed that the proposed rating models, which explicitly account for the uncertain-
ties and the effect of the degree of deterioration or damage based on the system
identification or F F T analysis, provide more realistic and consistent safety-
assessment and capacity-rating. Thus, it is strongly recommended that the system
reliability index p, and LRFR rating, rather than the conventional WSR or
L F R rating, be preferably used in practice for the realistic assessment of safe-
ty and remaining reserved capacity of deteriorated and/or damaged bridges.
8 References
Cho, H-N. and Ang, A.H-S., "Reliability Assessment and Reliability-Based Rating
of Existing Road Bridges", 5th International Conference on Structural
Safety and Reliability(ICOSSAR'89), USA, Aug. 7-11, 1989
208
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--``,,`,,````,
Frangopol, D.M. and Curley, J.P., "Effects of Redundancy Deterioration on the
Reliability of Truss Systems and Bridges", Proc. of a Session, Structural
Div. A S C E Convention, Seattle, Washington, Apr. 1986, pp.30-45.
Hoshiya, M. and Saito,E., "Structural Identification by Extended Kalman Filter",
J. of Eng. Mechanics, Vol 110, No.12, Dec.1984, ppl757-1770
Quek, S-T. and Ang, A.H-S., "Structural System Reliability by the Method of
Stable Configuration", SR Series No. 529, Dept of Civil Eng., Univ.of 111.,
Urbana-Champaign, Nov. 1986.
Ravindra, M.K. and Lind, N.C., "Trends in Safety Factor Optimization,"Beams and
Beam Columns, ed. R. Narayanan, Applied Science Publishers, Barking, Essex,
UK, 1983, pp. 207-236
Shin, J - C , Cho, H-N. and Chang, D-I., "A Practical Reliability-Based Capacity
Rating of Existing Road Bridges," J. of Structural Eng./Earthquake Eng.,
JSCE, Vol.5, No.2, Oct. 1988, pp. 245-254.
Shinozuka M., Yun,C.B and Imai,H., "Identification of Linear Structural
Systems", Technical Report NSF-ENG-76-12257-2, Columbia University,
NewYork N.Y. May. 1978
Shinozuka, M., Yun,C.B. and Imai,H., "Identification of Linear Structural
Dynamic System", J. of ASCE, Vol 108, N0.EM6, Dec.1982 , ppl371-1389
Yao, J.T.P., "An Unified Approach to Safety Evaluation of Existing Struc-
tures", Proc. of a Session, Structural Div., A S C E Convention,Seattle,
Washington, Apr. 1986, pp. 22-29.
Yun,C.B., Kim,W.J., and Ang,A.H-S., "Damage Assessment of Bridge Stru-
ctures by System Identification", Proc.of Korea. Japan Joint Seminar
of Emerging Technologies in Structural Engineering and Mechanics Nov.
23-25,1988, Seoul Korea, ppl82-193
Yun,C.B, and Min,J.K., Estimation of Structural damages by Inverse Modal
Perturbation Method", M.S. thesis, KAIST 1989
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209
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BRIDGE R A I L DESIGN AND CRASH
WORTHINESS
M. ELGAALY, H. DAGHER, S. KULENDRAN
Civil Engineering Dept, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
Abstract
T h i s p a p e r a d d r e s s t h e i s s u e s of b r i d g e r a i l d e s i g n and
c r a s h w o r t h i n e s s . I t g i v e s b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of r e s e a r c h
work i n c l u d i n g f u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t s conducted i n the
U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t b r i e f l y d i s c u s s e s t h e r e c e n t AASHTO G u i d e
S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r b r i d g e r a i l i n g s . I t d e s c r i b e s geometry
and s t r e n g t h d e s i g n f o r s t a n d a r d s t e e l and aluminum open
b r i d g e r a i l i n g s developed f o r a consortium of the
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s i n t h e New E n g l a n d s t a t e s .
F i n a l l y , i t p r e s e n t s r e s u l t s of computer s i m u l a t i o n s of
c r a s h t e s t s and a d d r e s s p l a n s f o r f u l l - s c a l e t e s t s .
Keywords: Bridge R a i l i n g , Geometric Design, Strength
D e s i g n , F u l l - S c a l e C r a s h T e s t s , Computer S i m u l a t i o n .
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1 Introduction
Although the primary purpose of bridge t r a f f i c r a i l i n g s i s

to contain v e h i c l e s , consideration i s a l s o given to
p r o t e c t i o n of the occupants of the v e h i c l e i n c o l l i s i o n
w i t h the r a i l i n g , p r o t e c t i o n of other v e h i c l e s near the
c o l l i s i o n , a n d p r o t e c t i o n o f p e r s o n s a n d p r o p e r t y on
roadways or other a r e a s underneath the b r i d g e . R e c e n t l y the
A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n of S t a t e Highway and T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
O f f i c i a l s (AASHTO) h a v e i s s u e d g u i d e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r
b r i d g e r a i l i n g w h i c h r e q u i r e t h a t r a i l i n g s and t r a n s i t i o n s
be s u b j e c t e d t o f u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t i n g , to i n s u r e s a f e
performance. Other c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , which are not d i r e c t l y
safety related, include r a i l i n g cost effectiveness,
a p p e a r a n c e a n d f r e e d o m o f v i e w , snow r e m o v a l , a n d
m a i n t e n a n c e of t h e r a i l i n g s u c h a s p a i n t i n g and a c c i d e n t
damage r e p a i r .
The a u t h o r s of t h i s p a p e r have conducted r e s e a r c h work
s p o n s o r e d by a c o n s o r t i u m of t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n departments
o f t h e New E n g l a n d s t a t e s t o r e v i e w t h e i r b r i d g e r a i l i n g s
and t r a n s i t i o n s s t a n d a r d s i n t h e l i g h t of t h e c r a s h
w o r t h i n e s s q u e s t i o n . The o b j e c t i v e of t h e work was t o
d e v e l o p s t a n d a r d open b r i d g e r a i l and t r a n s i t i o n d e s i g n s
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w h i c h meet, t o t h e e x t e n t p o s s i b l e , t h e g e o m e t r i c and
s t r e n g t h r e q u i r e m e n t s i n t h e AASHTO g u i d e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
and p a s s the f u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t i n g .
During the course of t h e i r s t u d i e s , the authors reviewed
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n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e c h n i c a l l i t e r a t u r e , i n c l u d i n g
r e p o r t s and v i d e o t a p e s of s e v e r a l f u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t s ,
c o n d u c t e d m o s t l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . B a s e d on t h e s e
r e v i e w s a n d t h e g u i d e l i n e s o u t l i n e d i n t h e AASHTO G u i d e
S p e c i f i c a t i o n s , two open b r i d g e r a i l i n g and t r a n s i t i o n
d e s i g n s , o n e i s made o f s t e e l a n d t h e o t h e r i s made o f
aluminum, were p r o p o s e d . Computer s i m u l a t i o n s of an 18,000
l b t r u c k c r a s h i n t o t h e d e s i g n e d r a i l s and t r a n s i t i o n s a t a
s p e e d o f 50 mph a n d a n a n g l e o f 15 d e g r e e s w e r e p e r f o r m e d
u s i n g a computer program, BARRIER V I I . T h e s e d e s i g n s
p a s s e d t h e c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t e d c r a s h t e s t s , and w i l l be
subjected to actual f u l l - s c a l e crash t e s t s i n the near
future.
I n t h i s p a p e r r e s e a r c h work c o n d u c t e d by o t h e r s w i l l be
r e v i e w e d , and geometry and s t r e n g t h d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
w i l l be d i s c u s s e d . Requirements f o r f u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t s ,
and computer s i m u l a t i o n of v e h i c l e c r a s h i n t o the r a i l i n g
w i l l b e d e s c r i b e d . E m p h a s i s w i l l be p l a c e d on t h e open
bridge r a i l i n g s developed for the transportaion departments
o f t h e New E n g l a n d s t a t e s .
2 R e v i e w O f R e s e a r c h Work
Most o f t h e r e s e a r c h work r e l a t e d t o b r i d g e r a i l i n g was

conducted i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . T h i s work i n c l u d e s f u l l -
s c a l e c r a s h t e s t i n g a s w e l l a s d e v e l o p i n g and t e s t i n g
e n e r g y a b s o r b i n g d e v i c e s . I n 1970, t h e C a l i f o r n i a
Department of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n reported the r e s u l t s of t h e i r
f i r s t f u l l - s c a l e v e h i c l e impact t e s t , N o r d l i n et a l .
( 1 9 7 0 ) . L a t e r , t h e y r e p o r t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f f i v e t e s t s on
c o n c r e t e p a r a p e t w i t h s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l t u b e p l a c e d 12 i n .
above t h e p a r a p e t , N o r d l i n e t a l . ( 1 9 7 1 ) , and t h e r e s u l t s
o f two f u l l - s c a l e v e h i c l e i m p a c t t e s t s on s t e e l b r i d g e r a i l
o f r e l a t i v e l y open p r o f i l e , N o r d l i n e t a l . ( 1 9 7 2 ) . Between
1 9 7 8 a n d 1 9 8 0 a t o t a l o f 30 f u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t s w e r e
c o n d u c t e d by t h e T e x a s T r a n s p o r t a t i o n I n s t i t u t e ( T T I ) , Buth
e t a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) . T w e n t y - o n e o f t h e s e t e s t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d on
f i v e i n - s e r v i c e r a i l i n g d e s i g n s a n d n i n e w e r e p e r f o r m e d on
an i n s t r u m e n t e d w a l l . The f i v e r a i l i n g d e s i g n s t e s t e d a r e
s t e e l and aluminum and had r e l a t i v e l y open p r o f i l e s . The
t e s t s employed compact ( 1 , 8 0 0 l b ) , m e d i u m - s i z e ( 2 , 2 5 0 l b ) ,
and f u l l - s i z e ( 4 , 5 0 0 l b ) s e d a n s , and 2 0 , 0 0 0 l b and 3 2 , 0 0 0
l b b u s e s . T h e s p e e d a t i m p a c t v a r i e d b e t w e e n 55 a n d 60 mph
a n d t h e a n g l e o f i m p a c t v a r i e d b e t w e e n 15 a n d 25 d e g r e e s .
I n order to develop comprehensive performance standards for
b r i d g e r a i l s and c r a s h w o r t h y d e s i g n s t h a t c o u l d be
recommended f o r u s e , t h e F e d e r a l Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
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(FHWA) c o n t r a c t e d w i t h t h e S o u t h w e s t R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e t o
conduct another s e r i e s of bridge r a i l t e s t s . These t e s t s
b e g u n i n 1 9 8 3 , a n d w e r e p e r f o r m e d on s i x d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f
b r i d g e r a i l d e s i g n s s e l e c t e d f r o m a l i s t o f 166 a p p r o v e d
S t a t e s t a n d a r d p l a n s , B r o n s t a d e t a l . ( 1 9 8 7 ) . The b r i d g e
r a i l t y p e s i n c l u d e c o n c r e t e p a r a p e t s , s t e e l r a i l i n g of
r e l a t i v e l y open p r o f i l e s and c o m b i n a t i o n s t h e r e o f . A l l
b r i d g e r a i l s y s t e m s w i t h f e w e x c e p t i o n s w e r e t e s t e d a t 60
mph w i t h a n 1 8 0 0 l b m i n i c a r i m p a c t i n g a t 20 d e g r e e s a n d a
4 5 0 0 l b f u l l - s i z e s e d a n i m p a c t i n g a t 25 d e g r e e s . One s y s t e m
was e v a l u a t e d u s i n g a 4 0 , 0 0 0 l b i n t e r - c i t y bus i m p a c t i n g a t
60 mph a n d 1 5 - d e g r e e a n g l e . I n 1 9 8 5 , t h e r e s u l t s o f t w e l v e
f u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t s p e r f o r m e d on a r a i l i n g s y s t e m
c o n s i s t i n g of 10-gage t h r i e - b e a m s t e e l r a i l attached to
W6x9 s t e e l p o s t s s p a c e d a t 8 f t . 4 i n . w e r e r e p o r t e d ,
B r y d e n and P h i l l i p s ( 1 9 8 5 ) . The s y s t e m was t e s t e d w i t h and
w i t h o u t a 6 i n . c u r b u s i n g 4500 a n d 1800 l b v e h i c l e s . In
1986, a H i g h w a y P l a n n i n g a n d R e s e a r c h (HPR) p r o g r a m p o o l e d -
f u n d s t u d y on b r i d g e r a i l s was i n i t i a t e d . T h i s s t u d y c a l l e d
f o r t h e T e x a s T r a n s p o r t a t i o n I n s t i t u t e t o C o n d u c t 38 b r i d g e
r a i l a n d 12 t r a n s i t i o n t e s t s . R e s u l t s f r o m c r a s h t e s t i n g a
r e l a t i v e l y open p r o f i l e s t e e l b r i d g e r a i l were r e p o r t e d ,
Buth e t a l . ( 1 9 8 8 ) . The b r i d g e r a i l was t e s t e d u s i n g an
18.000 l b s i n g l e - u n i t t r u c k . The speed of the v e h i c l e j u s t
p r i o r t o i m p a c t w a s 5 0 . 8 mph a n d t h e a n g l e o f i m p a c t w a s
1 5 . 1 d e g r e e s . A m e t a l r a i l 18 i n . h i g h m o u n t e d o n t o p o f a
32 i n . c o n c r e t e p a r a p e t w a s c r a s h t e s t e d u s i n g 8 0 , 0 0 0 l b
v a n - t y p e t r u c k , H i r s c h e t a l . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . The b r i d g e r a i l was
s t r u c k b y s u c h a t r u c k a t 4 8 . 4 mph a t a n a n g l e o f 14.5
d e g r e e s . B r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f some o f t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d
c r a s h t e s t s and t h e l e s s o n s l e a r n e d from t h e s e t e s t s a r e
g i v e n by M c D e v i t t ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
The use of e n e r g y - a b s o r b i n g d e v i c e s i n b r i d g e r a i l i n g
d e s i g n was c o n s i d e r e d . I n 1969 a n a r t i c l e w h i c h d e s c r i b e s
the a p p l i c a t i o n s of a NASA-developed fragmenting tube
energy absorber i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n of highway b r i d g e r a i l s
w a s p u b l i s h e d , Woolam ( 1 9 6 9 ) . F o u r f u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t s
were conducted to determine the c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h i s
s y s t e m , S t o c k e r e t a l . ( 1 9 7 0 ) , and a d e s i g n method was
d e v e l o p e d , Woolam a n d G a r z a ( 1 9 7 0 ) . A n e n e r g y - a b s o r b i n g
b r i d g e r a i l system t h a t u s e s the p l a s t i c deformation of
s t e e l r i n g s as t h e p r i m a r y impact energy a b s o r b e r has been
d e v e l o p e d t h r o u g h f u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t i n g and t h e u s e of
BARRIER V I I computer program, K i m b a l l e t a l . ( 1 9 7 6 ) . The
s y s t e m d e s i g n i s c a p a b l e o f w i t h s t a n d i n g i m p a c t s by l a r g e
v e h i c l e s such as b u s e s and t r u c k s w i t h o u t i m p a r t i n g high
a c c e l e r a t i o n s to impacting s m a l l e r v e h i c l e s . Ten f u l l - s c a l e
c r a s h t e s t s were p e r f o r m e d w i t h v e h i c l e s r a n g i n g from 2,000
t o 4 0 , 0 0 0 l b i m p a c t i n g w i t h a s p e e d o f 55mph a n d a t a n
a n g l e o f 19 d e g r e e s . A bridge r a i l which incorporates
s t r u c t u r a l s t e e l tube r a i l i n g s and p o s t s and h i g h s t r e n g t h
r u b b e r e n e r g y a b s o r b e r s was d e v e l o p e d and t e s t e d , Beason e t
212
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al. ( 1 9 8 6 ) . R e s u l t s o f t h e c r a s h t e s t s show t h a t t h i s r a i l
c a n s m o o t h l y r e d i r e c t a 4500 l b a u t o m o b i l e i m p a c t i n g w i t h a
v e l o c i t y o f 60 mph a n d a n a n g l e o f 25 d e g r e e s a n d r e m a i n i n
s e r v i c e w i t h no m a i n t e n a n c e .
I n G r e a t B r i t a i n s i x f u l l - s c a l e i m p a c t t e s t s w e r e made
on d e s i g n s o f aluminum b r i d g e r a i l s , J e h u e t a l . (1969),
and t h r e e t y p e s of s t e e l b r i d g e r a i l s were s u b j e c t e d to
v e h i c l e i m p a c t t e s t s , Blarney ( 1 9 7 2 ) . C l a r k ( 1 9 7 2 ) , traced
the development of bridge r a i l s i n G . B . which l e a d to the
i s s u i n g of the Department of the E n v i r o n m e n t ' s T e c h n i c a l
Memorandum N o . B E 5 . He d i s c u s s e d t h i s memorandum a n d
compared t h e aluminum and s t e e l a l t e r n a t i v e s . I n the
N e t h e r l a n d s t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r Road S a f e t y R e s e a r c h C a r r i e d
out r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e most s u i t a b l e b r i d g e r a i l , Paar
( 1 9 7 3 ) . B a s e d on t h i s r e s e a r c h t h e N e t h e r l a n d a u t h o r i t i e s
issued guidelines for bridge r a i l design. I n Japan,
Shimogami ( 1 9 8 7 ) , t h e M i n i s t r y of C o n s t r u c t i o n h a s
c o l l e c t e d a l o t o f a c c i d e n t d a t a t h r o u g h o u t 2 0 , 0 0 0 km o f
d e s i g n a t e d s e c t i o n s of t h e n a t i o n a l h i g h w a y s . The P u b l i c
Works R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e o f t h e J a p a n e s e M i n i s t r y of
Construction has analyzed these data.
3 AASHTO G u i d e Specifications
B a s e d o n a n a t i o n w i d e d a t a a v e r a g e d o v e r t h e y e a r s 1984 a n d
1985, t h e r e a r e a b o u t two f a t a l a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g b r i d g e
r a i l s e v e r y day i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
I n 1 9 8 8 , AASHTO i s s u e d G u i d e S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r B r i d g e
R a i l i n g s a s an a l t e r n a t i v e to e x i s t i n g b r i d g e r a i l i n g
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n t h e AASHTO S t a n d a r d S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r
H i g h w a y B r i d g e s . T h e s e new G u i d e S p e c i f i c a t i o n s d e f i n e
t h r e e b r i d g e r a i l i n g performance l e v e l s and a s s o c i a t e d
c r a s h t e s t s and performance r e q u i r e m e n t s , a l o n g w i t h
guidance for determining the appropriate r a i l i n g
performance l e v e l f o r a g i v e n b r i d g e s i t e . The performance
l e v e l s and s e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s g i v e n i n t h e Guide
S p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e b a s e d on c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e
p r o b a b i l i t i e s t h a t a b r i d g e r a i l i n g w i l l be s u b j e c t e d t o
g i v e n impact c o n d i t i o n s , the consequence of those impacts
g i v e n t h a t performance l e v e l r a i l i n g s a r e i n p l a c e , and the
c o s t of p r o v i d i n g the v a r i o u s performance l e v e l r a i l i n g s .
The c r a s h t e s t i n g and e v a l u a t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s a r e i n
a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e c r a s h t e s t p r o c e d u r e g i v e n i n t h e NCHRP
R e p o r t 230 ( 1 9 8 7 ) . T h e t e s t v e h i c l e s i n c l u d e 1 , 8 0 0 lbs
s m a l l a u t o m o b i l e , 5 , 4 0 0 l b s p i c k u p t r u c k , 1 8 , 0 0 0 l b s medium
s i n g l e - u n i t t r u c k , and 50000 l b s v a n - t y p e tractor-trailer.
T h e i m p a c t s p e e d v a r i e s b e t w e e n 45 a n d 65 mph a n d t h e a n g l e
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o f i m p a c t v a r i e s b e t w e e n 15 a n d 20 d e g r e e s .
These Guide S p e c i f i c a t i o n s are a p p l i c a b l e to r a i l i n g s
f o r new b r i d g e s a n d f o r b r i d g e s b e i n g r e h a b i l i t a t e d t o t h e
extent that r a i l i n g replacement i s obviously appropriate.
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The S p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e not a p p l i c a b l e t o determine the
adequacy of e x i s t i n g r a i l i n g s .
4 Geometric Design
At a l l performance l e v e l s , t h e geometry of t h e r a i l i n g
s h o u l d g u a r d a g a i n s t bumper, w h e e l , and hood s n a g g i n g and
should provide stable post-impact t r a j e c t o r i e s for the
impacting v e h i c l e .
4.1 C u r b s and S i d e w a l k s
Curbs and s i d e w a l k s a r e c o n s i d e r e d as i n t e g r a l p a r t s of the
b r i d g e r a i l i n g . A b r u s h c u r b w i l l h a v e a n i n f l u e n c e on t h e
c a p a b i l i t y of a r a i l i n g s y s t e m t o c o n t a i n and r e d i r e c t an
e r r a n t v e h i c l e and hence i t i s r e q u i r e d t o c r a s h t e s t t h e
r a i l i n g w i t h t h e curb a l o n g w i t h i t . The w i d t h of a b r u s h
c u r b s h a l l n o t e x c e e d 9 i n c h e s and d e s i r a b l y 6.
F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s recommended t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n
t h e f a c e o f t h e c u r b and t h e f a c e o f t h e r a i l be a s s m a l l
as p o s s i b l e .
Of p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n i s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e b r u s h
curb to produce a ramping e f f e c t t h a t might a l l o w a v e h i c l e
to c l i m b over a r a i l i n g or a t r i p p i n g e f f e c t t h a t would
i n c r e a s e the l i k e l i h o o d for high-bodied v e h i c l e s to r o l l
over a r a i l i n g . Furthermore, i n order to insure a safe
post-impact trajectory, t h e body o f an e r r a n t v e h i c l e
should impact the r a i l before the wheels impact the curb.
A s i d e w a l k i s , a l s o , an i n t e g r a l p a r t of a r a i l i n g
s y s t e m and s h o u l d be c r a s h t e s t e d a l o n g w i t h t h e r a i l i n g .
The minimum recommended w i d t h o f a s i d e w a l k i s 4 f e e t .
4.2 R a i l i n g s
The a c c e p t a b i l i t y of r a i l i n g geometry s h a l l be v e r i f i e d
through c r a s h t e s t i n g . The Guide S p e c i f i c a t i o n s
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r r a i l i n g g e o m e t r y do n o t i n s u r e t h a t
when c r a s h t e s t e d , a r a i l w i l l p a s s t h e acceptance
c r i t e r i a . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e n o t
followed, there i s a l i t t l e chance a r a i l w i l l pass the
c r a s h t e s t . As recommended i n t h e G u i d e S p e c i f i c a t i o n s , t h e
minimum h e i g h t o f t h e r a i l i n g m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e t o p o f t h e
r o a d w a y s h a l l n o t b e l e s s t h a n 27 i n c h e s f o r p e r f o r m a n c e
l e v e l 1 , a n d 32 i n c h e s f o r p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l 2 . T h e
d i s t a n c e between t h e bottom of t h e bottom r a i l and t h e top
s u r f a c e o f t h e r o a d o r c u r b s h a l l n o t e x c e e d 10 i n c h e s .
The t r a f f i c f a c e o f a l l r a i l i n g s s h o u l d be smooth and
c o n t i n u o u s . R a i l s p l i c e s s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o t a k e t h e
f o r c e s and t h e d e f o r m a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from t h e i m p a c t ,
w i t h o u t s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e two s p l i c e d p a r t s o f t h e r a i l .
The c l e a r a n c e from t h e f a c e o f t h e r a i l t o t h e f a c e of t h e
post must be b i g enough t o p r e c l u d e c o n t a c t by s u b s t a n t i a l
v e h i c l e p a r t s t h a t might p e n e t r a t e an opening i n the
214
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r a i l i n g . I n t h e G u i d e S p e c i f i c a t i o n s a minimum c l e a r a n c e o f
10 i n c h e s i s s u g g e s t e d . T h i s i s a n a b s o l u t e minimum f o r a n y
r a i l i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n where snagging i s an obvious
p o s s i b i l i t y and i t i s recommended t h a t t h i s clearance
s h o u l d b e a minimum o f 12 i n c h e s . T h e s p a c i n g b e t w e e n t h e
p o s t s i n an open r a i l i n g i s d i c t a t e d by t h e d e s i g n l o a d s
a n d s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 10 f e e t .
T h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d recommended d i m e n s i o n s a r e i n t e n d e d
t o g u a r d a g a i n s t bumper, w h e e l and hood s n a g g i n g f o r
a u t o m o b i l e s and t o p r o v i d e s t a b l e p o s t - i m p a c t trajectories
f o r a u t o m o b i l e s , l i g h t t r u c k s , and p a s s e n g e r v a n s .
4.3 T r a n s i t i o n s
T r a f f i c b a r r i e r s on b r i d g e a p p r o a c h e s m u s t be p r o p e r l y
t r a n s i t i o n e d t o t r a f f i c r a i l i n g s on b r i d g e s . Inadequate
g u a r d r a i l s t i f f e n i n g a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n may r e s u l t i n
s u b s t a n t i a l d e f l e c t i o n of t h e g u a r d r a i l and subsequent
snagging or poor r e d i r e c t i o n of the v e h i c l e . The b r i d g e
r a i l and t h e approach r a i l s h o u l d have s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r a l
characteristics. B a s e d on computer s i m u l a t i o n and f u l l -
s c a l e crash t e s t s , the use of l a r g e r posts near the bridge
i s not as e f f e c t i v e as reducing the spacing of standard
posts.
5 Strength Design
T h e G u i d e S p e c i f i c a t i o n s c o n t a i n s no i n s t r u c t i o n on t h e
s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s of bridge r a i l i n g s . I n s t e a d ,
a c c e p t a b i l i t y of t h e r a i l i n g i s t o be d e t e r m i n e d through
c r a s h t e s t i n g . However, t h e e x p e n s e o f c r a s h t e s t i n g makes
a c u t - a n d - t r y approach t o d e s i g n i m p r a c t i c a l , and g u i d a n c e
i s needed f o r the s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n of a r a i l i n g system.
The Guide S p e c i f i c a t i o n s g i v e magnitudes, d i s t r i b u t i o n s ,
and l o c a t i o n s of r a i l i n g d e s i g n l o a d s . F o r each performance
l e v e l t h r e e components o f t h e d e s i g n l o a d a r e g i v e n ; namely
h o r i z o n t a l (or t r a n s v e r s e ) , l o n g i t u d i n a l , and v e r t i c a l . F o r
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
example the magnitudes of the t r a n s v e r s e d e s i g n loads are

3 0 , 8 0 , a n d 140 k i p s ; f o r p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l s 1 , 2 , a n d 3 ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y . The l o a d f o r p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l 2 s h o u l d be
a p p l i e d o v e r a n a r e a w h i c h i s e q u a l t o 28 i n c h e s a l o n g t h e
l e n g t h o f t h e r a i l i n g a n d 14 i n c h e s i n t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r
d i r e c t i o n i n the p l a n e of t h e r a i l i n g . The l o c a t i o n of the
c e n t e r o f t h i s p a t c h i s 17 i n c h e s f r o m t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e
r o a d . D i m e n s i o n s o f t h e l o a d e d p a t c h and i t s l o c a t i o n from
t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r o a d f o r p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l s 1 and 3 a r e
given i n the Guide S p e c i f i c a t i o n s . Applied simultaneously
w i t h t h e s e t r a n s v e r s e l o a d s , a r e t h e v e r t i c a l and
l o n g i t u d i n a l l o a d s i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e r a i l i n g . The
magnitude of the i n - p l a n e loads f o r performance l e v e l 2 are
t 24 k i p s i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r a i l i n g a n d
15 k i p s d o w n w a r d o r 5 k i p s u p w a r d . T h e s e i n - p l a n e l o a d s
215
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a r e a p p l i e d o v e r t h e same p a t c h a r e a a s t h e l a t e r a l l o a d s .
The magnitude of t h e i n - p l a n e l o a d s f o r performance l e v e l s
1 and 3 a r e g i v e n i n t h e Guide S p e c i f i c a t i o n s . The i n -
p l a n e l o a d s , l o n g i t u d i n a l and v e r t i c a l , a r e t o be a p p l i e d
at the t r a f f i c faces of the l o n g i t u d i n a l r a i l elements.
L o a d s on t h e p o s t s a r e assumed t o be t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h
the l o n g i t u d i n a l r a i l elements. L o n g i t u d i n a l loads are to
b e d i s t r i b u t e d t o no m o r e t h a n t h r e e p o s t s .
I n t h e Guide S p e c i f i c a t i o n s i t i s assumed t h a t a r a i l i n g
w i l l be n e a r i t s u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h when s u b j e c t e d t o t h e
a f o r e m e n t i o n e d d e s i g n l o a d s . T h u s , r a i l i n g a n a l y s i s and
d e s i g n s h o u l d be b a s e d on u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h a p p r o a c h e s , for
example, through the a p p l i c a t i o n of p l a s t i c a n a l y s i s to
s t e e l bridge r a i l i n g s . I t i s f u r t h e r suggested that
a n c h o r a g e s a n d s p l i c e s p r o v i d e t h e f u l l moment a n d s h e a r
c a p a c i t y o f t h e r a i l s a n d a t l e a s t 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e
t e n s i l e strength of the r a i l .
For maintenance purposes, i t i s h i g h l y d e s i r a b l e t h a t
b r i d g e d e c k s , r a i l i n g a t t a c h m e n t s t o b r i d g e d e c k s , and
b r i d g e r a i l i n g s b e d e s i g n e d s o t h a t i m p a c t damage t o
r a i l i n g does not c a r r y i n t o the b r i d g e deck or other bridge
elements. R a i l i n g l o a d s a p p l i e d to the bridge deck s l a b
s h a l l be b a s e d on t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f t h e r a i l i n g
used.
I n t h e c o u r s e o f d e v e l o p i n g a p r o p o s e d open r a i l d e s i g n
f o r New E n g l a n d s t r i c t a d h e r e n c e t o t h e G u i d e
S p e c i f i c a t i o n s was n o t p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t p r o d u c i n g v e r y
c o n s e r v a t i v e d e s i g n s w h i c h a r e n o t recommended from b o t h
e c o n o m i c a l and p e r f o r m a n c e p o i n t s o f v i e w . A f l e x i b l e but
s t r o n g r a i l i n g s y s t e m c a n a b s o r b more e n e r g y and m i n i m i z e
t h e damage w h i c h a n i m p a c t i n g v e h i c l e w i l l s u s t a i n . I t
appears t h a t the S p e c i f i c a t i o n s need m o d i f i c a t i o n s a t least
w i t h r e s p e c t t o open b r i d g e r a i l d e s i g n .
6 Dynamic A n a l y s i s
The i n t e r a c t i o n of a v e h i c l e w i t h a b a r r i e r i s d i f f i c u l t to
s i m u l a t e on a c o m p u t e r . D y n a m i c e f f e c t s , large
d i s p l a c e m e n t s , and i n e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r must a l l be
c o n s i d e r e d . The dynamic l o a d s a r e not e x p l i c i t l y s p e c i f i e d ,
b u t must be d e t e r m i n e d by s a t i s f y i n g f o r c e e q u i l i b r i u m and
d i s p l a c e m e n t c o m p a t i b i l i t y between t h e v e h i c l e and t h e
barrier.
A computer program BARRIER V I I , w h i c h t a k e s i n t o
c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d e f f e c t s , was d e v e l o p e d a t
t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , P o w e l l (1970 and 1973) . A
dynamic s t e p - b y - s t e p a n a l y s i s i s c a r r i e d out by t h e
program. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g and t h e end of each s t e p , the
f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r s a r e known a n d d e t e r m i n e d ,
respectively:
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1. The p o s i t i o n s , v e l o c i t i e s , and a c c e l e r a t i o n s of a l l
p o i n t s on t h e v e h i c l e a n d b a r r i e r ,
2. The magnitudes and d i r e c t i o n s of t h e normal and
f r i c t i o n f o r c e s e x e r t e d between t h e v e h i c l e and t h e
b a r r i e r , and t h e p o s i t i o n s a t which t h e y a c t , and
3 . T h e a x i a l f o r c e s a n d b e n d i n g moments i n t h e b a r r i e r
members.
To r u n t h e program t h e b a r r i e r i s i d e a l i z e d a s a
f r a m e w o r k . T h e r a n g e o f member t y p e s a v a i l a b l e i n t h e
program p e r m i t s c o n s i d e r a b l e f l e x i b i l i t y i n the
i d e a l i z a t i o n p r o c e d u r e . The program a l s o has f e a t u r e s which
p e r m i t t h e a n a l y s i s o f b a r r i e r s w h i c h do n o t l i e i n a
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
s i n g l e p l a n e . F o r example, b r i d g e r a i l s i n w h i c h a low
l e v e l b a r r i e r makes c o n t a c t w i t h t h e v e h i c l e w h e e l s w h i l e a
h i g h e r l e v e l b a r r i e r makes c o n t a c t o n l y w i t h t h e body c a n
be a n a l y z e d .
The v e h i c l e i s i d e a l i z e d a s a body o f a r b i t r a r y s h a p e
w h i c h p o s s e s s e s mass and r o t a t i o n a l i n e r t i a . The p a r t of
the v e h i c l e boundary which i n t e r a c t w i t h the b a r r i e r i s
d e f i n e d by s p e c i f y i n g a number o f p o i n t s a t w h i c h c o n t a c t
w i t h t h e b a r r i e r may b e m a d e . A d i s c r e t e n o n - l i n e a r s p r i n g
i s t h e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each p o i n t . The s p r i n g s a r e assumed
t o h a v e no m a s s a n d n o d a m p i n g . W h e e l p o s i t i o n s c a n a l s o b e
d e f i n e d , a n d b r a k e s c a n b e s p e c i f i e d t o be e i t h e r on o r o f f
during the a n a l y s i s .
The agreement between t h e r e s u l t s from t h e program and
a v a i l a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a i s v e r y e n c o u r a g i n g and t h e
s o l u t i o n technique i s s u r p r i s i n g l y r e l i a b l e i n view of the
c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e p r o b l e m . F o r some c o m p l e x b a r r i e r s ,
however, experimentation i n the s e l e c t i o n of time s t e p s ,
d a m p i n g v a l u e s , a n d o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s may b e n e c e s s a r y t o
obtain stable solutions.
BARRIER V I I was u s e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e s t a n d a r d b r i d g e
r a i l s a n d t r a n s i t i o n s d e v e l o p e d f o r New E n g l a n d .
7 Proposed Standard Designs
A s t e e l and aluminum b r i d g e r a i l i n g d e s i g n s were developed

w h i c h meet, t o t h e e x t e n t p o s s i b l e , t h e g e o m e t r i c and
s t r e n g t h requirements of the Guide S p e c i f i c a t i o n s ; the
g e o m e t r i c d e s i g n i s shown i n f i g u r e ( 1 ) . A l t e r n a t e d e s i g n s
w e r e a l s o d e v e l o p e d , t h e a l t e r n a t e s t e e l d e s i g n i s shown i n
f i g u r e ( 2 ) . Computer s i m u l a t i o n s of an 18,000 l b t r u c k
c r a s h i n t o t h e d e s i g n e d r a i l s and t r a n s i t i o n s ( s t e e l and
a l u m i n u m ) a t a s p e e d o f 50 mph a n d a n a n g l e o f 15 d e g r e e s
were c o n d u c t e d u s i n g t h e computer program BARRIER V I I .
The b r i d g e r a i l model u s e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e
p r o p o s e d s t e e l d e s i g n i s shown i n f i g u r e ( 3 ) . T h e v e h i c l e
t r a j e c t o r i e s a f t e r i m p a c t i n g a t t h e r a i l m i d - s p a n a r e shown
i n f i g u r e ( 4 ) . The t r a n s v e r s e and l o n g i t u d i n a l s h e a r s and
moments t i m e - h i s t o r i e s i n t h e p o s t a r e shown i n f i g u r e (5).
217
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F i n a l l y , t i m e - h i s t o r i e s o f a x i a l t e n s i o n and bending moment
i n t h e t o p r a i l a r e shown i n f i g u r e ( 6 ) .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig.1 Geometric design F i g > 2 Alternate design
Node numbers
'. ffl
3
a 7
, 9
a" .' a" .' a
3 7 19
a 23
a 27
cp 31
cp » b
35 37 3 9
- cc4I 43
- 45
a 47
- 49
a 51
2 jji 6 p O Tl2 14 Ti6 i « T » 22 p 4 26 T28 SO T32 34 T36 38 T40 42 T44 46 7*8 50 752
10*fj 6-3' 1— 6*-3' —I- 6-3' -4- e-i' -4- 6 - 3 ' ^ f - 6*-3'-4- 6-3*-4— 6T-3--4- 6-3'—i-6-3'-4-6-3"-X-6-3"—J
Member numbers
, 15 . 16 . 17 . 16 . 19 . 20 . 21 . 22 . 23 .
62 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56
43 44 45 <6
y 25 , 26 27 , 26 29 , 30 31 , 32 34 35 37
33 , t 36 t 36 39 , 40
Fig.3 Bridge r a i l model
TIME « 0 . 0 0 SECS TIME « 0-04 SECS
10.00 15.00 40.00 6S.00 90.00 -10 00 15.00 40.00 65.00 SC0C
TIME = 0 . 1 6 SECS TIME * 0 . 2 0 SECS
-10.00 15-00 40.00 65.00 90.00 -10.00 15.00 40.00 65.0C 90.0C
Fig.4 V e h i c l e t r a j e c t o r i e s a f t e r impact
218
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TIME 0-08 SECS T I ME » 0 - 1 2 SECS
10.00 15-00 40-00 65.00 90.00 -10-00 15-00 40.00 65-CO
TIME = 0.24 SECS TIME = 0-28 SECS
-10.00 15.00 40-00 65.00 90.00 -10-00 15-00 40-00 65.OC 90-CC
TIME * 0.32 SECS TIKE =0-36 SECS
'-10-00 15.00 40.00 65.00 90.00 10.00 15-00 40-00 65-00 90-00
TIME = 0.40 SECS TIME = 0 . 4 4 SECS
-10.00 15.00 40-00 65.00 90.00 -10-00 15-00 ' 40-00 65-CO 30-OC
Fig.4 V e h i c l e t r a j e c t o r i e s a f t e r impact
F i g . 5 Transverse and l o n g i t u d i n a l shears and moments i n p o s t
219
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Fig.6 Bending moment and a x i a l tension i n top r a i l
8 Full-scale Crash Tests
As r e q u i r e d by t h e G u i d e S p e c i f i c a t i o n s a n y new b r i d g e r a i l
d e s i g n s h o u l d be c r a s h t e s t e d b e f o r e i t i s u s e d - T h e r e are
o n l y a few t e s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s which
a r e s p e c i a l i z e d i n f u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t i n g . The r e q u i r e d
t e s t l e n g t h o f a b a r r i e r s y s t e m i s 7 5 f e e t . Two c r a s h tests
on t h e t r a n s i t i o n and t h r e e on t h e b r i d g e r a i l w i l l be
required.
9 Acknowledgment
T h e f u n d s r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e c o n s o r t i u m o f t h e New E n g l a n d
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t s made t h i s s t u d y p o s s i b l e . The
technical support of the consortium bridge r a i l technical
committee i s appreciated.
10 References
Beason, W.L. e t a l . (1986) A l o w - m a i n t e n a n c e , energy-

a b s o r b i n g b r i d g e r a i l , i n Texas T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
I n s t i t u t e Research Report 417-1F.
Blarney, C. ( 1 9 7 2 ) B r i d g e p a r a p e t t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t i n
collaboration with the B r i t i s h Steel Corporation, i n
T r a n s p o r t a n d R o a d R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t LR 4 9 2 .
B r o n s t a d , M.E. e t a l . (1987) B r i d g e r a i l d e s i g n s and
performance standards, i n Report No. FHWA/RD-87/049,
F e d e r a l H i g h w a y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n / W a s h i n g t o n , DC.
Bryden, J.E. and P h i l l i p s , R.G. (1985) Performance o f a
thrie-beam s t e e l - p o s t bridge r a i l system, in
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Research Record 1024.
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B u t h , E . F . e t a l . (1984) S a f e r b r i d g e r a i l i n g , i n Report
N o . FHWA/RD-82/072, F e d e r a l H i g h w a y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
Washington, DC.
B u t h , E . F . e t a l . (1988) T e s t r e p o r t 7069-15 - I l l i n o i s
2399 b r i d g e r a i l , i n T e x a s T r a n s p o r t a t i o n I n s t i t u t e
Draft Report.
C l a r k , M.N. (1972) S t e e l p a r a p e t s t o B E 5 , i n J o u r n a l o f
t h e I n s t i t u t i o n o f Highway E n g i n e e r s , V o l . 1 9 , No.10.
H i r s c h , T . J . e t a l . (1986) C o n c r e t e s a f e t y shape w i t h
m e t a l r a i l on t o p t o r e d i r e c t 8 0 , 0 0 0 l b t r u c k s , i n
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n R e s e a r c h R e c o r d 1065.
J e h u , V . J . e t a l . (1969) B r i d g e p a r a p e t t e s t s c a r r i e d out
i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h B r i t i s h Aluminum Company, i n Road
R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t L R 281.
K i m b a l l , C . E . e t a l . ( 1 9 7 6 ) D e v e l o p m e n t o f a new
c o l l a p s i n g - r i n g bridge r a i l system, i n Transportation
R e s e a r c h R e c o r d N o . 566.
M c D e v i t t , C . F . (1987) C r a s h t e s t i n g b r i d g e r a i l s and
t r a n s i t i o n s , i n P u b l i c Roads, V o l . 5 1 , No.3.
N o r d l i n , E . F . e t a l . (1970) Dynamic t e s t s o f C a l i f o r n i a
t y p e 9 b r i d g e b a r r i e r and type 8 b r i d g e approach g u a r d -
r a i l , i n H i g h w a y R e s e a r c h R e c o r d N o . 302.
N o r d l i n , E . F . e t a l . (1971) Dynamic t e s t s o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a
t y p e 20 b r i d g e b a r r i e r r a i l , i n H i g h w a y R e s e a r c h R e c o r d
NO. 343.
N o r d l i n , E . F . e t a l . (1972) Dynamic t e s t s o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a
t y p e 15 b r i d g e r a i l , i n H i g h w a y R e s e a r c h R e c o r d N o . 386.
N a t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i v e H i g h w a y R e s e a r c h P r o g r a m R e p o r t 23 0
( 1 9 8 7 ) Recommended p r o c e d u r e s f o r t h e s a f e t y p e r f o r m a n c e
e v a l u a t i o n of highway appurtenances.
P a a r , H . G . (1973) C r a s h - b a r r i e r r e s e a r c h and a p p l i c a t i o n i n
t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , i n H i g h w a y R e s e a r c h R e c o r d N o . 4 60.
P o w e l l , G . H . (1970) Computer e v a l u a t i o n o f a u t o m o b i l e
b a r r i e r s y s t e m s , i n F e d e r a l Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
R e p o r t N o . FHWA-RD-73-73.
P o w e l l , G . H . (1973) BARRIER V I I : A computer program f o r
e v a l u a t i o n of automobile b a r r i e r systems, i n Federal
H i g h w a y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n R e p o r t N o . FHWA-RD-73-51.
Shimogami, T . (1987) E f f i c i e n c y a n a l y s i s o f t r a f f i c safety
countermeasures, i n Annual Report Roads (Japan).
S t o c k e r , A . J . e t a l . (1970) F u l l - s c a l e c r a s h t e s t s o f t h e
fragmenting-tube-type energy-absorbing bridge r a i l , i n
H i g h w a y R e s e a r c h R e c o r d N o . 302.
Woolam, W . E . (1969) A e r o s p a c e e n e r g y a b s o r b e r a p p l i e d t o
highway s a f e t y , i n U . S . Naval r e s e a r c h Laboratory,
S h o c k V i b r a t i o n B u l l e t i n 4 0 , P a r t 5.
Woolam, W . E . a n d G a r z a , L . R . (1970) D e s i g n f a b r i c a t i o n a n d
i n s t a l l a t i o n of a fragmenting-tube-type energy absorber
i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a b r i d g e r a i l , i n Highway R e s e a r c h
R e c o r d N o . 302.
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PARTFOUR
REINFORCED
C O N C R E T E BRIDGES
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A SIMPLE METHOD FOR DESIGNING
BRIDGE DECK SLABS
B. deV. BATCHELOR
Professor of Civil Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada
P. SAVIDES
Research Assistant, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Abstract
T h i s p a p e r p r e s e n t s a summary o f s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d o v e r t h e
p a s t t w o d e c a d e s o n t h e e f f e c t s o f c o m p r e s s i v e membrane
a c t i o n on t h e b e h a v i o u r o f b r i d g e d e c k s l a b s . Analytical
and e x p e r i m e n t a l models u s e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e
described. The work has r e s u l t e d i n t h e development of a
v e r y s i m p l e , e c o n o m i c a l method f o r d e s i g n i n g b r i d g e d e c k
slabs. T h i s method t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e b e n e f i c i a l
e f f e c t s o f c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n a n d h a s b e e n
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e O n t a r i o Highway B r i d g e D e s i g n Code
s i n c e 1979, and i n t o t h e most r e c e n t e d i t i o n of t h e
C a n a d i a n Code f o r t h e d e s i g n o f highway b r i d g e s . The
s i m p l i c i t y a n d e c o n o m y o f t h e m e t h o d h a v e a r o u s e d much
interest i n other j u r i s d i c t i o n s .
Keywords: B r i d g e D e c k S l a b s , C o m p r e s s i v e Membrane A c t i o n ,
E m p i r i c a l D e s i g n Method.
1 Introduction
The t r a d i t i o n a l approach to c o n c r e t e b r i d g e deck s l a b

d e s i g n has been to c o n s i d e r bending e f f e c t s o n l y , assuming
t h a t the r e s u l t i n g shear capacity i s adequate. The methods
o f a n a l y s i s a r e u s u a l l y e l a s t i c a n d a n y e f f e c t s o f membrane
action are ignored. I n r e a l i t y , however, t y p i c a l bridge
d e c k s l a b s f a i l i n p u n c h i n g a t much h i g h e r l o a d s t h a n t h e i r
bending c a p a c i t i e s .
The main r e a s o n f o r t h i s s t r e n g t h enhancement i s t h e
e x i s t e n c e of i n - p l a n e compressive forces i n the s l a b s which
a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s " c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n " o r
"arching action". Thus the s l a b p a n e l s tend to a c t as
arches between supporting g i r d e r s .
T h e o r e t i c a l and l a b o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t Q u e e n ' s
U n i v e r s i t y , s u p p l e m e n t e d by f i e l d s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t by
the O n t a r i o M i n i s t r y of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , have e s t a b l i s h e d
t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n i n b r i d g e
d e c k s l a b s i s c o n s i d e r a b l e , and c a n be p r e d i c t e d q u i t e
225
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c l o s e l y i n c e r t a i n systems. The r e s u l t s of t h e s e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have been c o n f i r m e d by i n d e p e n d e n t s t u d i e s
both i n t h e U . S . A . and t h e U n i t e d Kingdom.
T h e s e s t u d i e s have formed t h e b a s i s f o r a s i m p l e ,
e c o n o m i c a l , e m p i r i c a l d e c k s l a b d e s i g n method p r e s c r i b e d i n
t h e O n t a r i o H i g h w a y B r i d g e D e s i g n C o d e (OHBDC) ( 1 9 7 9 ,
1983). The i n c l u s i o n of the e f f e c t s of compressive
m e m b r a n e a c t i o n i n d e s i g n r e s u l t s i n much l o w e r
r e i n f o r c e m e n t p e r c e n t a g e s t h a n would be r e q u i r e d w i t h
conventional design approaches. The method h a s a l s o been
e f f e c t i v e l y used i n the e v a l u a t i o n of e x i s t i n g deck s l a b s .
The C a n a d i a n S t a n d a r d s A s s o c i a t i o n h a s adopted t h e
e m p i r i c a l d e s i g n m e t h o d i n t h e CSA S t a n d a r d S 6 - M 8 8 , " D e s i g n
of Highway B r i d g e s " (1988) and t h e r e i s i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e
A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n o f S t a t e H i g h w a y O f f i c i a l s (AASHTO)
w i l l do t h e s a m e i n t h e n e x t e d i t i o n o f t h e " S t a n d a r d
S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r Highway B r i d g e s " .
2 Studies o f c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n i n s l a b s
The f a c t t h a t b r i d g e d e c k s l a b s w i t h r e l a t i v e l y h i g h
s p a n / t h i c k n e s s r a t i o s t e n d t o f a i l i n t h e p u n c h i n g mode
r a t h e r than i n f l e x u r e under c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d s , has been
k n o w n f o r some t i m e . H a r r i s (1957) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h i s was
o b s e r v e d b y F r e y s s i n e t i n 1945 d u r i n g t e s t s on p r e s t r e s s e d
concrete slabs. T h i s was l a t e r c o n f i r m e d by Guyon (1960)
i n t e s t s on p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e b r i d g e d e c k s l a b s . The
c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e n g t h enhancement o b s e r v e d by O c k l e s t o n
( 1 9 5 5 , 1958) i n t e s t s on t h e c o n c r e t e f l o o r o f a t h r e e -
s t o r e y b u i l d i n g i s w e l l known. He a t t r i b u t e d t h i s
e n h a n c e m e n t t o c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n , a n d r e s e a r c h e r s
have s i n c e concentrated i n determining the exact
c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h i s a c t i o n to the f l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h of
slabs, p a r t i c u l a r l y the f l a t slabs i n b u i l d i n g s . A
comprehensive review of these s t u d i e s has been p r e s e n t e d
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
by B a t c h e l o r ( 1 9 8 7 ) , t h e r e f o r e o n l y a few o f t h e s e w i l l be
e l a b o r a t e d on b e l o w .
A g o o d e x p l a n a t i o n ( F i g u r e 1) o f c o m p r e s s i v e membrane
a c t i o n was p r e s e n t e d by L i e b e n b e r g ( 1 9 6 0 ) . F i g u r e 1(a)
s h o w s t h a t c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n c a n d e v e l o p i n a
c r a c k e d u n r e i n f o r c e d s l a b , w h i l e F i g u r e 1(b) shows t h a t i n
a c r a c k e d r e i n f o r c e d s l a b t h e a p p l i e d l o a d i s r e s i s t e d by
f l e x u r e a n d c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n . However, i t can
b e s e e n f r o m F i g u r e 1 ( c ) t h a t c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n
w i l l not d e v e l o p i n a p l a t e c o n s t r u c t e d from a m a t e r i a l
h a v i n g t h e same s t r e s s s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t e n s i o n a n d
compression.
T y p i c a l l y , c o m p r e s s i v e membrane e f f e c t s d e v e l o p v e r y
r a p i d l y , a n d r e a c h a maximum v a l u e a t s m a l l s l a b
d e f l e c t i o n s (Park 1964)). T a y l o r and Hayes (1965) reported
i n c r e a s e s o f u p t o 60% i n t h e p u n c h i n g s t r e n g t h o f
laterally restrained slabs. S i m i l a r f i n d i n g s were r e p o r t e d
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A P P L I E D LOAD
IN-PLANE
STRESSES
FORCES
COMPRESSIVE
ft FORCE
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I SUPPORT I
a ) COMPRESSIVE MEMBRANE ACTION
BOUNDARY
3CQ l )
^
MOMENT
AND
FORCE
b ) BOUNDARY ACTION
a 30
c ) STRESS RESULTANTS I N SLAB HAVING
SAME S T R E S S - S T R A I N RELATIONSHIP
I N COMPRESSION AND TENSION
Fig. 1. C o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n in slabs.
by B r o t h c i e and H o l l e y ( 1 9 7 1 ) . S i n c e t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s , a number

o f s t u d i e s on t h e s t r e n g t h of b r i d g e deck s l a b s have been
c o n d u c t e d on d i r e c t m o d e l s a t Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y a t
K i n g s t o n , O n t a r i o , Canada w i t h a v i e w to d e t e r m i n i n g the
d e g r e e o f c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n . The r e s u l t s of the
s t u d i e s on s q u a r e b r i d g e d e c k s l a b s a r e r e p o r t e d by Tong
and B a t c h e l o r (1971) and B a t c h e l o r and T i s s i n g t o n ( 1 9 7 6 ) .
T h e y s h o w t h a t c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n d o e s d e v e l o p i n
t h e s e s l a b s , and s u g g e s t methods f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
magnitude of t h i s effect.
A number o f s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d on r e c t a n g u l a r
d e c k s l a b s o f c o m p o s i t e I - b e a m b r i d g e s a s r e p o r t e d by
Newmark e t a l . ( 1 9 4 6 , 1 9 5 8 ) . S i e s s and V i e s t (1953)
r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e d e s i g n o f s l a b s o f s u c h b r i d g e s w a s much
too c o n s e r v a t i v e . S i m i l a r f i n d i n g s w e r e r e p o r t e d by Thomas
and S h o r t ( 1 9 5 2 ) . A methodical study of the behaviour of
t h e d e c k s l a b s o f c o m p o s i t e I - b e a m b r i d g e s was p r e s e n t e d by
H e w i t t and B a t c h e l o r ( 1 9 7 5 ) . They proposed methods for
227
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d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m a g n i t u d e o f c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n i n
s u c h s y s t e m s , w h i c h l a t e r formed t h e b a s i s f o r t h e d e s i g n
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s i n t h e O n t a r i o Highway B r i d g e D e s i g n Code.
H e w i t t (1972) e x t e n d e d a model u s e d by Kinnunen and
N y l a n d e r (1960) t o s t u d y t h e punching s t r e n g t h of s i m p l y
supported s l a b s . Hewitt s u c c e s s f u l l y introduced the
e f f e c t s o f c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n a n d b o u n d a r y moments
i n t o t h i s model i n s t u d y i n g t h e p u n c h i n g s t r e n g t h o f deck
s l a b s of I-beam b r i d g e s . F i g u r e 2 shows d e t a i l s o f t h e
m o d i f i e d model i n w h i c h t h e o u t e r p o r t i o n o f a segment o f
t h e s l a b , bounded by t h e s h e a r c r a c k and two r a d i a l c r a c k s
s u b t e n d i n g t h e a n g l e B, i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be loaded through
a compressed c o n i c a l s h e l l t h a t d e v e l o p s from t h e p e r i m e t e r
of t h e loaded area to the root of the shear c r a c k . The
c o n i c a l s h e l l o f v a r y i n g t h i c k n e s s i s assumed t o have
CONCENTRATED
LOAD
P
a) BOUNDARY FORCES I N SLAB

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b ) FORCES ON ELEMENT
Fig. 2. Model o f s l a b a t punching.
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d i m e n s i o n s shown i n F i g u r e 2 ( a ) s u c h t h a t t h e c o m p r e s s i v e
s t r e s s e s a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e loaded a r e a and a t
the root of the crack are approximately equal.
The e l e m e n t shown i n F i g u r e 2 ( b ) i s a c t e d upon by t h e
e x t e r n a l f o r c e PB/2t t a n d b y t h e s t r e s s r e s u l t a n t s d e s c r i b e d
by B a t c h e l o r and H e w i t t ( 1 9 7 5 ) . T h e y h a v e e x p l a i n e d how
t h i s model c a n be u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l u e s of t h e
boundary f o r c e s from t e s t s of a c t u a l b r i d g e deck s y s t e m s .
3 Selected laboratory and f i e l d studies
3.1 L a b o r a t o r y studies
I n a major study of the punching strength of s l a b s of
s t e e l / c o n c r e t e c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e s , H e w i t t (1972) u s e d 1/8
s c a l e m o d e l s o f medium s p a n b r i d g e s . Some d e c k s l a b p a n e l s
contained conventional orthotropic reinforcement, while
o t h e r s c o n t a i n e d i s o t r o p i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t v a r y i n g from z e r o
t o 0.6%. R e i n f o r c e m e n t l o c a t i o n and c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h were
varied. The s l a b p a n e l s were t e s t e d under s t a t i c and
repeated concentrated loading as described by H e w i t t
( 1 9 7 2 ) , H e w i t t and B a t c h e l o r (1975) and B a t c h e l o r (1987).
I t was shown t h a t p u n c h i n g s t r e n g t h o f a s l a b p a n e l was
n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e l o a d ,
p r e v i o u s f a i l u r e s i n adjacent p a n e l s , s t r e n g t h of concrete
or dead l o a d s t r e s s e s . The s t u d i e s confirmed t h a t the
c o n v e n t i o n a l d e c k s l a b d e s i g n method was t o o c o n s e r v a t i v e .
The r e s u l t s of t h e s e s t u d i e s l e d H e w i t t and B a t c h e l o r
( 1 9 7 5 ) t o p r o p o s e t h a t 0.2% i s o t r o p i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t , top
and bottom, i s a d e q u a t e from c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f s t r e n g t h and
serviceability. From r e p e a t e d l o a d s t e s t s , B a t c h e l o r e t
al. ( 1 9 7 8 ) c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e 0.2% i s o t r o p i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t
has considerable strength against fatigue f a i l u r e . The
1 9 7 9 e d i t i o n o f t h e OHBDC a d o p t e d t h i s e m p i r i c a l d e s i g n
m e t h o d w i t h 0.3% i s o t r o p i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n s t e a d o f 0.2%.
T h e f i r s t e d i t i o n o f t h e OHBDC i n 1 9 7 9 , c r e a t e d w i d e
i n t e r e s t i n t h e e m p i r i c a l d e s i g n method. B e a l (1982) and
K i r k p a t r i c k et a l . (1984), confirmed the f i n d i n g s of the
earlier studies. I n 1985, g e n e r a l c o n f i r m a t i o n of t h e
O n t a r i o e m p i r i c a l d e c k s l a b d e s i g n method was p r o v i d e d by
Fang e t a l . , E l l i n g e t a l . and T s u i e t a l .
R e c e n t l y , P e r d i k a r i s and Beim (1988) c o n f i r m e d t h a t
i s o t r o p i c a l l y r e i n f o r c e d bridge decks designed according to
t h e OHBDC ( 1 9 8 3 ) o u t p e r f o r m t h e o n e s r e i n f o r c e d
o r t h o t r o p i c a l l y i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e AASHTO ( 1 9 8 3 )
provisions. However, they a l s o concluded t h a t a c o n s t a n t
m o v i n g l o a d i s more c r i t i c a l t h a n e i t h e r a f i x e d p u l s a t i n g
load or a s t a t i c load. Studies are also i n progress i n the
U n i t e d Kingdom a s r e p o r t e d by J a c k s o n ( 1 9 8 8 ) .
3.2 T r a n s v e r s e l y p r e s t r e s s e d bridge decks

An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t r a n s v e r s e p r e s t r e s s i n g i n b r i d g e decks
was c a r r i e d o u t a t McMaster U n i v e r s i t y , O n t a r i o , from which
229
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M o l l (1985) p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e t h i c k n e s s o f b r i d g e d e c k s be
r e d u c e d , and t h e two l a y e r s o f n o r m a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n e a c h
d i r e c t i o n be r e p l a c e d by one l a y e r o f reinforcement
prestressed only i n the transverse d i r e c t i o n . T e s t s on a
c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e d e c k d e s i g n e d a c c o r d i n g l y , p r o v e d t o be
s a t i s f a c t o r y i n terms of the u l t i m a t e l i m i t s t a t e . The
p r e s t r e s s e d s l a b a l s o performed s a t i s f a c t o r i l y under
s e r v i c e l o a d s w i t h r e s p e c t to both d e f l e c t i o n and c r a c k i n g .
S a v i d e s ( 1 9 8 9 ) r e p o r t e d on s t a t i c l o a d i n g t e s t s
p e r f o r m e d a t Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y , O n t a r i o , on a t h r e e - g i r d e r
model b r i d g e c o n s t r u c t e d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1/4 s c a l e , w i t h a
43 mm t h i c k d e c k , h a v i n g a s p a n / d e p t h r a t i o o f 1 3 . 2 . A
v i e w o f t h e b r i d g e model i s shown i n F i g u r e 3 . The deck
was p r e s t r e s s e d o n l y i n t h e t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n . The deck
s l a b p a n e l s f a i l e d i n punching a t an average s a f e t y factor
of 7.4. The t r a n s v e r s e p r e s t r e s s enhanced the development
o f c o m p r e s s i v e membrane a c t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e b e h a v i o u r o f
the deck s l a b under s e r v i c e loading. From t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
r e s u l t s , there i s every i n d i c a t i o n that the prestressed
d e c k s l a b c o u l d be an a c c e p t a b l e i f not improved
a l t e r n a t i v e i n composite bridge deck d e s i g n .
W h i l e t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a t Q u e e n ' s U n i v e r s i t y , was
t a k i n g p l a c e , P o s t o n e t a l . ( 1 9 8 8 ) p u b l i s h e d a s t u d y on t h e
e f f e c t s of t r a n s v e r s e p r e s t r e s s i n bridge decks. After
t e s t s on a 0 . 4 5 s c a l e b r i d g e m o d e l , t h e y c o n c l u d e d t h a t a
t r a n s v e r s e l y p r e s t r e s s e d d e c k c a n be e x p e c t e d t o f a i l i n
p u n c h i n g s h e a r a t a minimum s a f e t y f a c t o r o f s e v e n ,
confirming the r e s u l t s of the Queen's i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
3.3 F i e l d Studies
D o r t o n e t a l . ( 1 9 7 7 ) h a v e r e p o r t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f t e s t s on
a f u l l s c a l e experimental bridge i n Conestogo, Ontario.
Some o f t h e d e c k s l a b p a n e l s w e r e p r o v i d e d w i t h
conventional orthotropic reinforcement, while others
c o n t a i n e d i s o t r o p i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t r a n g i n g f r o m 0.1% to
0.6%. The b e h a v i o u r of the b r i d g e under e x t e n s i v e testing,
c o n f i r m e d t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e e m p i r i c a l d e s i g n method and
j u s t i f i e d i t s i n c l u s i o n i n t h e 1 9 7 9 e d i t i o n o f t h e OHBDC.
F u t u r e t e s t s on t h e C o n e s t o g o b r i d g e ( B a k h t and M a r k o v i c
( 1 9 8 5 ) ) h a v e shown t h a t t h e d e c k s l a b c o n t i n u e s t o p e r f o r m
satisfactorily. The O n t a r i o M i n i n s t r y of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
and Communications h a s a l s o conducted e x t e n s i v e field
t e s t i n g on d e c k s l a b s i n s e r v i c e . The t e s t p r o c e d u r e and
r e s u l t s h a v e been r e p o r t e d by Bakht and C s a g o l y (1979) and
a l s o c o n f i r m t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e e m p i r i c a l method o f d e c k
slab design.
4 Design applications
The f i r s t (1979) e d i t i o n of t h e O n t a r i o Highway B r i d g e

D e s i g n Code s p e c i f i e d an a c c e p t a b l e e m p i r i c a l d e c k s l a b
d e s i g n method b a s e d on t h e s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d i n O n t a r i o .
230
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Fig. 3. View of the model b r i d g e deck.
The code r e d u c e d t h e d e s i g n o f most deck s l a b s s i m p l y t o a

p r e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p r o v i s i o n o f t w o l a y e r s o f 0.3%
i s o t r o p i c r e i n f o r c e m e n t top and bottom f o r a t o t a l of four
l a y e r s of reinforcement, provided t h a t a l l the f o l l o w i n g
c o n d i t i o n s were met:
S l a b span ( g i r d e r spacing) does n o t e x c e e d 3 . 7 m.

The s l a b extends a t l e a s t 1.0 m beyond t h e exterior
g i r d e r , or a kerb of e q u i v a l e n t cross section i s
provided.
The s p a c i n g of r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n each layer does not
e x c e e d 300 mm.
I n t e r m e d i a t e diaphragms or c r o s s frames are provided at
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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a maximum s p a c i n g o f 8 . 0 m.
Diaphragms or c r o s s frames are provided a t a l l s u p p o r t s .
The skew a n g l e of t h e s l a b system does not exceed 2 0 .
The r a t i o of g i r d e r s p a c i n g to s l a b t h i c k n e s s does not
e x c e e d 1 5 , w i t h t h e m i n i m u m s l a b t h i c k n e s s b e i n g 1 9 0 mm.
The e m p i r i c a l m e t h o d w a s made m a n d a t o r y i n t h e s e c o n d
e d i t i o n o f t h e OHBDC ( 1 9 8 3 ) , p r o v i d e d t h a t c e r t a i n l e s s
s t r i n g e n t c o n d i t i o n s a r e met. For example, the c o n d i t i o n
r e g a r d i n g s k e w i s r e l a x e d a s shown i n F i g u r e 4, w i t h a
doubling of reinforcement i n the support region. In
a d d i t i o n , t h e e m p i r i c a l method i s a l l o w e d f o r s l a b s
s u p p o r t e d on c o n c r e t e g i r d e r s w i t h o u t intermediate
diaphragms. T h e minimum s l a b t h i c k n e s s h a s b e e n i n c r e a s e d
t o 2 2 5 mm f o r d u r a b i l i t y p u r p o s e s a n d t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g a n
i n c r e a s e d l e v e l o f c o m p r e s s i v e membrane e n h a n c e m e n t . In
a d d i t i o n , c h a r t s are provided f o r use i n e v a l u a t i n g deck
s l a b s w h i c h do n o t c o n f o r m t o t h e s p e c i f i e d c r i t e r i a .
r—PREFERRED
\ ORIENTATION OF
\ REINFORCEMENT
GIRDER
0.6% 0.3% ISOTROPIC 0 6°,

EXTERIOR INTERIOR
a) SUMMARY OF REINFORCEMENT
SPECIFICATIONS
/TOP FACE
p =0.003
p =0.003
p = 0.003
N
80TT0M FACE
b) REINFORCEMENT IN INTERIOR PANEL
Fig. 4. S l a b r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n t h e Ontario Highway Bridge

D e s i g n Code ( 1 9 8 3 ) .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
232
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T h e s e c h a r t s were d e r i v e d from t h e t h e o r e t i c a l models and
computer programs d e s c r i b e d by B a t c h e l o r e t a l . ( 1 9 8 5 ) , and
have proven extremely u s e f u l i n r e h a b i l i t a t i o n .
T h e 1988 e d i t i o n o f t h e C a n a d i a n S t a n d a r d s A s s o c i a t i o n ' s
" D e s i g n of Highway B r i d g e s " (CSA/CAN-S6-M88) has
i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e e m p i r i c a l method f o r d e s i g n i n g b r i d g e d e c k
s l a b s a s an a l t e r n a t i v e to the y i e l d l i n e t h e o r y . There i s
e v e r y i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e n e x t AASHTO e d i t i o n o f t h e
" S t a n d a r d S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r Highway B r i d g e s " w i l l i n c l u d e
t h e e m p i r i c a l d e s i g n method s p e c i f i e d by t h e C a n a d i a n
bridge codes.
5 Conclusions
The s t u d i e s d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s paper have l e d to t h e

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e u s e o f e l a s t i c methods f o r a n a l y s i n g
bridge deck s l a b s gives r e s u l t s t h a t are w a s t e f u l . This is
c o m p o u n d e d b y t h e p r a c t i c e o f i g n o r i n g c o m p r e s s i v e membrane
a c t i o n i n a s y s t e m t h a t h a s b e e n shown t o d e v e l o p h i g h
membrane f o r c e s , a n d w h i c h t y p i c a l l y f a i l s i n p u n c h i n g
r a t h e r t h a n t h e b e n d i n g mode a s s u m e d i n c o n v e n t i o n a l
design.
The e m p i r i c a l method u s e d i n Canada f o r d e s i g n i n g
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e deck s l a b s i s s i m p l e t o a p p l y , and
r e s u l t s i n considerable savings i n reinforcement without
compromising s a f e t y . The s i g n i f i c a n t s a v i n g i n v o l v e d w i l l
provide the i n c e n t i v e for the adoption of t h i s e m p i r i c a l
method i n o t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n s i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e .
Recent r e s e a r c h has i n d i c a t e d the f e a s i b i l i t y of
d e v e l o p i n g a s i m i l a r method f o r d e s i g n i n g t r a n s v e r s e l y
p r e s t r e s s e d bridge deck s l a b s .
6 References
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s l a b s under s h o r t - t e r m uniform l o a d i n g w i t h edges
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Engs, 28, pp. 125-150.
P e r d i k a r i s , P . C . and Beim, S . (1988) R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
b r i d g e d e c k s under p u l s a t i n g and moving l o a d . J . S t r .
E n g . , 114(No. 3 ) , pp. 591-607.
Poston, R.W. P h i p p s , A . R . A l m u s t a f a , R . A . Breen, J . E . and
C a r r a s q u i l l o , R . L . (1988) E f f e c t s of T r a n s v e r s e
P r e s t r e s s i n g i n Bridge Decks. J . S t r . E n g . , 114(No. 4 ) ,
pp. 743-764.
S a v i d e s , P. (1989) Punching S t r e n g t h o f T r a n s v e r s e l y
P r e s t r e s s e d Deck S l a b s o f Composite I-Beam B r i d g e s .
M.Sc. T h e s i s , Queen's U n i v e r s i t y at Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.
S i e s s , C P . a n d V i e s t , I . M . ( 1 9 5 3 ) S t u d i e s o f S l a b a n d Beam
Highway B r i d g e s , P a r t I I - T e s t s o f Continuous R i g h t I -
beam B r i d g e s . U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s , Eng. Exp. S t n ,
Bull. 416.
T a y l o r , R . a n d H a y e s , B . ( 1 9 6 5 ) Some t e s t s o n t h e e f f e c t o f
edge r e s t r a i n t on p u n c h i n g s h e a r i n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
s l a b s . Mag. Cone. R e s . , 17, p p . 3 9 - 4 4 .
Thomas, F.G. a n d S h o r t , A . (1952) A l a b o r a t o r y
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f some b r i d g e d e c k s y s t e m s . Proc. Inst.
C i v . Engs, 1 (pt. 1 ) , pp. 125-187.
Tong, P . Y . and B a t c h e l o r , B . d e V . (1971) C o m p r e s s i v e
membrane e n h a n c e m e n t i n t w o - w a y b r i d g e s l a b s , i n
C r a c k i n g , D e f l e c t i o n , and U l t i m a t e Load of Concrete S l a b
S y s t e m s , Amer. Cone. I n s t . P u b l i c a t i o n S P - 3 0 , p p . 2 7 1 -
286.
T s u i , C . B u r n s , N . H . and K l i n g n e r , R . L . (1985) B e h a v i o r o f
O n t a r i o - t y p e B r i d g e Decks on S t e e l G i r d e r s : Negative
Moment R e g i o n a n d L o a d C a p a c i t y . Center for
Transportation Research, U n i v e r s i t y of Texas at A u s t i n ,
R e s . R e p . CTR 3 5 0 - 3 .
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B E H A V I O U R OF I N T E G R A L REINFORCED
C O N C R E T E SKEWED SLAB BRIDGES
H . D A G H E R , M . E L G A A L Y , J. K A N K A M
Dept C i v i l Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, U S A
Abstract
The d e s i g n of a r i g i d - f r a m e s i n g l e - s p a n b r i d g e i s
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d w h e n t h e b r i d g e h a s no s k e w . For skew-
b r i d g e s , t h e d e s i g n i s c o m p l i c a t e d by h i g h e r s h e a r s and
moments t h a t d e v e l o p n e a r t h e o b t u s e a n g l e . The f i n i t e
e l e m e n t m e t h o d c a n b e u s e d t o c o m p u t e t h e s e moments a n d
s h e a r s but i t i s too time consuming f o r everyday d e s i g n .
T h i s p a p e r o u t l i n e s work b e i n g done t o s i m p l i f y t h e d e s i g n
of such b r i d g e s .
Keywords: Design, R i g i d - f r a m e , Concrete, Skew-slab, Bridge,
S h e a r , Moment, F i n i t e E l e m e n t .
1 Introduction
Many i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d o n t h e b e h a v i o u r o f
skew s l a b s under l o a d : Bakht ( 1 9 8 8 ) , Cheung e t . a l .
( 1 9 6 8 ) , C l a r k ( 1 9 8 4 ) , Cope ( 1 9 7 7 , 1980, 1983a, 1983b,
1984a, 1984b, 1985, 1989), G r e i m a n n e t . a l . (1983),
Mahmoudzadeh e t . a l . ( 1 9 8 4 ) , M e h r e i n ( 1 9 6 7 ) , a n d N i l s o n
(1980). However, most o f t h i s work r e l a t e s t o skew s l a b s
w h i c h a r e s u p p o r t e d on c o l u m n s o r on n o n i n t e g r a l s u p p o r t s .
T h i s paper d e s c r i b e s the development of a s i m p l i f i e d
method f o r t h e e c o n o m i c a l d e s i g n of r i g i d frame r e i n f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e skewed s l a b b r i d g e s . A recent nationwide survey
conducted as p a r t of t h i s r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e d t h a t s e v e r a l
S t a t e s had b r i d g e s of t h i s type e i t h e r a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g or
projected for the future. Besides being l e s s expensive,
r i g i d - f r a m e b r i d g e s a r e l e s s a f f e c t e d by d e - i c i n g c h e m i c a l s
and f u n c t i o n f o r extended p e r i o d s w i t h o u t a p p r e c i a b l e
maintenance or r e p a i r .
T h e s e b r i d g e s h a v e h i g h s h e a r s a n d moments n e a r t h e
o b t u s e a n g l e s o f t h e s l a b , w h i c h c a n be computed w i t h
f i n i t e element modelling. However, t h e f i n i t e element
method i s too t i m e consuming f o r e v e r y d a y d e s i g n . I n an
ongoing r e s e a r c h program a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Maine,
s p e c i a l p u r p o s e p r e - and p o s t - p r o c e s s o r s were d e v e l o p e d to
expedite the f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s . Parametric studies
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are b e i n g conducted, l e a d i n g t o a s i m p l i f i e d d e s i g n method
for such b r i d g e s . L a t e r on i n t h e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m ,
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e m o d e l s o f t h e s e b r i d g e s w i l l be t e s t e d
for experimental v e r i f i c a t i o n of the analytical results.
This w i l l eventually lead to the production of a design
manual f o r such b r i d g e s .
2 Finite Element Modelling
The f i n i t e e l e m e n t m o d e l s of the structure comprise the

following elements:
F l a t Plate elements w i t h f i v e degrees of freedom per

node a r e used i n t h e w a l l s and skew. I n general, these
e l e m e n t s a r e t o be r e s t r a i n e d a g a i n s t in-plane rotation
( d r i l l i n g ) when t h e e l e m e n t s i n t e r s e c t i n g a t one node
a r e i n t h e same p l a n e .
Beam e l e m e n t s w i t h s i x d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m a r e used in
t h e beams a t t h e e d g e s o f t h e skew s l a b .
Boundary elements are used t o r e s t r a i n t h e 'drilling 7
d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m i n p l a t e e l e m e n t s when t h e s e a r e n o t
in the d i r e c t i o n of a global coordinate axis. Boundary
e l e m e n t s a r e a l s o u s e d t o o b t a i n t h e r e a c t i v e moments
and f o r c e s a t t h e b a s e o f t h e w a l l s .
3 Preprocessor
A s p e c i a l p r e p r o c e s s o r has been developed f o r r i g i d frame

r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e skewed s l a b b r i d g e s w h i c h a r e t o be
a n a l y s e d u s i n g t h e SAP4 F i n i t e E l e m e n t S t r u c t u r a l A n a l y s i s
Program, d e s c r i b e d i n Bathe, W i l s o n and Peterson (1974). A
m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n o f t h i s program which had been adapted f o r
t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a i n e c o m p u t e r s y s t e m was u s e d f o r t h e
analysis.
With the preprocessor, the user i n t e r a c t i v e l y specifies
o n l y t h e o v e r a l l d i m e n s i o n s , m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s and
loading conditions of the bridge. The p r e p r o c e s s o r itself
g e n e r a t e s t h e numbers and c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e nodes o f t h e
s t r u c t u r e , t h e numbers and c o n n e c t i v i t i e s o f t h e p l a t e and
beam e l e m e n t s , a n d o t h e r n e c e s s a r y d a t a i n t h e f o r m a t
r e q u i r e d b y t h e SAP4 p r o g r a m .
The p r e p r o c e s s o r c o n s i s t s o f a m a i n p r o g r a m and seven
s u b r o u t i n e s as d e s c r i b e d b e l o w :
Program Jpreskew : The M a i n P r o g r a m ; r e a d s i n d e s i g n d a t a

and calls the subroutines to perform
t h e i r assigned f u n c t i o n s .
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Subroutine Jnodpd: Generates nodal points and their
coordinates.
Subroutine Jpenuc: Generates plate elememts and their

connectivities.
Subroutine Jbelc : G e n e r a t e s beam e l e m e n t s and their

connectivities.
Subroutine Jbedir: Generates boundary elements and their

directions.
Subroutine Jbccod: Generates the general restraint

condition codes for a l l nodes.
Subroutine Jcdrbe: Generates codes for displacement and

r o t a t i o n f o r boundary elements.
Subroutine Jsapdf: Creates the SAP4 d a t a file.
An e x a m p l e o f a f i n i t e e l e m e n t m e s h g e n e r a t e d b y the
p r e p r o c e s s o r i s shown i n F i g u r e 1.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig.1. T y p i c a l f i n i t e element mesh f o r r i g i d frame skew

slab bridge
4 Convergence Studies
Using the preprocessor, convergence s t u d i e s have been

c a r r i e d o u t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e optimum s i z e o f e l e m e n t t o be
u s e d t o e n s u r e maximum a c c u r a c y o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e
a n a l y s i s w i t h o u t t a k i n g u n n e c e s s a r i l y l a r g e amount o f
computer t i m e .
F o r t h e s t r u c t u r e s h o w n i n F i g . 2, v e r t i c a l
d i s p l a c e m e n t s c a u s e d by t h e s e l f - w e i g h t of t h e s t r u c t u r e at
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(a) The whole frame
Fig.2. S t r u c t u r e used i n convergence s t u d v
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p o i n t s E a n d G , w h e r e maximum v a l u e s o c c u r i n t h e s l a b , a s
w e l l as at point F , the center of the slab, are given i n
Table I f o r three d i f f e r e n t models. I t c a n be seen t h a t
v e r y good c o n v e r g e n c e o c c u r s a s t h e number o f n o d e s i n t h e
s t r u c t u r e i s i n c r e a s e d f r o m 495 i n model I I t o 1078 i n
model I I I .
Table 1. R e s u l t s of convergence studies
Model I Model I I Model I I I
No. of nodes 136 495 1078
No. of elements* 112 448 1008
Max. d i m e n s i o n
of element ( f t . ) 9' 4.2' 2.7'
V.D.~~ at E and G 0.222"(86.0%) 0.252"(97.7%) 0.258"(100%)
V.D.** at F 0.138"(93.2%) 0.145"(98.0%) 0 . 1 4 8 " (100%)
* : T o t a l number o f p l a t e e l e m e n t s i n t h e s l a b and two w a l l s

**: V e r t i c a l displacement.
5 Postprocessor
A p o s t p r o c e s s o r i s i n t h e course of development to put the

r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s i n t o t h e form of c o n t o u r p l o t s ,
c u r v e s , a n d t a b l e s s h o w i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f moments a n d
shearing forces i n the loaded s t r u c t u r e . At the time of
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
p r e p a r i n g t h i s p a p e r , t h e f o l l o w i n g components o f t h e
p o s t p r o c e s s o r had been completed:
Program J p o s k e w l : T h i s p r o g r a m o p e r a t e s on t h e o u t p u t
f r o m t h e SAP4 F i n i t e E l e m e n t S t r u c t u r a l A n a l y s i s
P r o g r a m . I t r e s o l v e s t h e moments a n d membrane f o r c e s o f
p l a t e e l e m e n t s i n t o t h e r e q u i r e d components and p u t s
them i n t o a p p r o p r i a t e f i l e s .
Program Jposkew2: T h i s program matches t h e c e n t r o i d a l

coordinates of p l a t e elements with the corresponding
moments a n d membrane f o r c e s p r o d u c e d b y J P O S K E W l . T h e
o u t p u t f r o m JP0SKEW2 i s u s e d t o g e n e r a t e c o n t o u r p l o t s
s u c h a s t h o s e shown i n F i g s . 3a a n d 3 b . I t c a n be s e e n
f r o m t h e s e t w o p l o t s t h a t t h e b e n d i n g moments n e a r t h e
o b t u s e a n g l e s a r e much h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e e l s e w h e r e . For
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WALL
(a). M l u b e n d i n g moments p e r u n i t l e n g t h i n t h e v e r t i c a l
plane c o n t a i n i n g t h e normal span. ( i n . k i p s . / i n . )
WALL
WALL
(b). Mx, b e n d i n g moments p e r u n i t l e n g t h i n t h e v e r t i c a l

p l a n e c o n t a i n i n g t h e skew s p a n . ( i n . k i p s . / i n . )
ig-3. T y p i c a l b e n d i n g moments p e r u n i t l e n q t h i n t h e skew s l a b o f

t h e s t r u c t u r e shown i n F i g . 2 . , s u b j e c t e d t o i t s own w e i g h t .
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s e c t i o n s o f t h e skew s l a b n e a r e i t h e r w a l l , t h e b e n d i n g
moment p e r u n i t l e n g t h , Mx, i n t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e
c o n t a i n i n g t h e skew span i n c r e a s e s f r o m 1.6 in.kips./in.
i n t h e acute corner t o 35.5 i n . k i p s . / i n . i n the obtuse
c o r n e r , w i t h an average v a l u e o f 10.4 in.kips./in.
Program Jposkew3: T h i s program matches the nodal

coordinates of the structure with the corresponding
v e r t i c a l displcacements. The o u t p u t f r o m t h e p r o g r a m is
used t o p l o t t h e d e f l e c t e d shape o f t h e s t r u c t u r e i n the
v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n , s u c h as t h a t shown i n F i g . 4 .
v / y y y y y y y y //
-7 y y y y y y y y yy
^ f ^ ^ y ^ A
i
..i .
\\
F i g . 4. Deformed shape o f s t r u c t u r e i n Fig.2 s u h j e c t e d t o
i t s own w e i g h t .
6 Design Guide
The f i r s t phase o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l w o r k i s e x p e c t e d t o be
c o m p l e t e d by t h e end o f June 1990. Preliminary design aids
i n t h e form o f t a b l e s and c o n t o u r p l o t s g i v i n g t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f moments a n d s h e a r i n g f o r c e s p e r u n i t l e n g t h
i n t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l be r e a d y b y t h e n . These w i l l be
produced f o r u n i t concentrated, l i n e , and d i s t r i b u t e d loads
in various locations i n the structure; the effects of
a c t u a l d e s i g n l o a d s w i l l be o b t a i n e d by s u p e r p o s i t i o n . The
d e s i g n g u i d e w i l l i n c l u d e examples d e s c r i b i n g t h e use o f
the proposed s i m p l i f i e d design method.
7 Experimental Verification
To v e r i f y t h e a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n t h e f i r s t y e a r
(1989-90) of the research, model t e s t i n g of one-quarter
s c a l e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e specimens w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t i n
the Structural Engineering Laboratory at the University of
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M a i n e i n t h e p e r i o d 1 9 9 0 - 9 2 . The results of the tests will
be used t o r e f i n e t h e a n a l y t i c a l design method, i f
required.
8 Conclusions
R i g i d frame r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e skewed s l a b b r i d g e s have

h i g h s h e a r s and moments n e a r t h e o b t u s e a n g l e o f t h e s l a b .
These s h e a r s and moments c a n be computed w i t h finite
element m o d e l l i n g b u t t h e method i s t o o t i m e consuming f o r
e v e r y d a y d e s i g n . An o u t l i n e has been g i v e n o f work b e i n g
done t o produce a d e s i g n g u i d e w h i c h w i l l s i m p l i f y t h e
design o f such b r i d g e s .
9 Acknowledgements
The a u t h o r s w i s h t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e Maine D e p a r t m e n t o f
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y M r . Jame C h a n d l e r , B r i d g e
Engineer, f o r funding t h i s research.
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and d e s i g n . E l s e v i e r A p p l . S c . P u b l i s h e r s , London and
NY.
G r e i m a n n , L . F . , W o l d e - T i n s a e , A . M . and Yang, P . S . (1983)
Skewed b r i d g e s w i t h i n t e g r a l abutments. Transportation
R e s e a r c h Record 903, B r i d g e s and C u l v e r t s , N a t i o n a l
Academy o f S c i e n c e s .
Mahmoudzadeh, M . , D a v i s , R . E . a n d Semans, F . M . (1984)
M o d i f i c a t i o n of s l a b design standards f o r e f f e c t s of
s k e w . U S D O T , FHWA a n d C a l i f . D O T , S a c r a m e n t o .
M e h r a i n , M. a n d Bouwkamp, J . G . ( 1 9 6 7 ) F i n i t e e l e m e n t
a n a l y s i s o f skew c o m p o s i t e g i r d e r b r i d g e s . D e p t . o f
C i v i l E n g . , Univ. of C a l i f . , Berkeley.
N i l s o n , A . H . e t a l . (1980) F i n i t e element a n a l y s i s of
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . ASCE.
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OPTIMIZATION OF PRESTRESSED
C O N C R E T E SINGLE C E L L BOX GIRDER
BRIDGES
D.N. TRIKHA, P.C. JAIN, N . M . BHANDARI, B.R. BADAWE
Civil Engineering Dept, University of Roorkee, Roorkee, India
Abstract
The p a p e r p r e s e n t s a n o p t i m i z a t i o n s t u d y o f s i n g l e c e l l prestressed
concrete box girder bridge superstructures by the a p p l i c a t i o n of a
FEM-SLP t e c h n i q u e d e v e l o p e d by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e f i n i t e e l e m e n t a n a l y s i s
with optimization procedure using sequential linear programming
method. Eight noded isoparametric flat shell elements have been
adopted f o r the f i n i t e e l e m e n t a n a l y s i s of the s u p e r s t r u c t u r e . The
p o w e r f u l s i m p l e x method i s u s e d f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f l i n e a r programming
problem. The analysis procedure i n t e r a c t s with the optimization
technique a t each d e s i g n i t e r a t i o n stage. Optimization i s carried
out with respect to the size v a r i a b l e s which d e f i n e thicknesses
of v a r i o u s components o f t h e box g i r d e r and the shape v a r i a b l e s
identified as the r a t i o s of the w i d t h of t h e box to t h e o v e r a l l
r o a d w a y w i d t h ( B / C ) and t h e d e p t h o f t h e g i r d e r a t a s u i t a b l e l o c a t i o n
to t h e b r i d g e s p a n ( D / L ) . M i n i m i z a t i o n o f t h e w e i g h t o f t h e s u p e r -
structure defines the o b j e c t i v e . S u i t a b l e s a f e t y c r i t e r i a have been
devised to keep the s t r e s s e s w i t h i n the s a f e l i m i t s t h r o u g h o u t the
continuum.
S i x b r i d g e p r o b l e m s , t h r e e e a c h o f t h e c a n t i l e v e r and the s i m p l y
s u p p o r t e d t y p e s h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d and t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n t a b u l a r
f o r m . G r a p h s s h o w i n g t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e optimum w e i g h t w i t h D/L
r a t i o s and the c o n t o u r s of e q u a l w e i g h t have been p r e s e n t e d f o r a
typical structure.
Keywords: Optimization, Box Girder Bridge, Superstructure, Finite
E l e m e n t Method, S e q u e n t i a l L i n e a r Programming.
1 Introduction
I n t h e l a s t 3-4 d e c a d e s , a t r e m e n d o u s i n c r e a s e i n b r i d g e c o n s t r u c t i o n
activity has been witnessed t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d . Of the various
p o s s i b l e c r o s s s e c t i o n a l shapes, s i n g l e c e l l prestressed concrete box
g i r d e r s h a v e o f t e n b e e n p r e f e r r e d o v e r o t h e r s h a p e s f o r medium s p a n
ranges of 40 m -100 m f o r r e a s o n s o f economy, p l e a s i n g a e s t h e t i c s ,
high t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s and amenability to t h e modern methods o f
c o n s t r u c t i o n . I t t h u s becomes i m p e r a t i v e to m i n i m i z e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t
of materials by minimizing the total w e i g h t of such s t r u c t u r e s .
Since the a n a l y s i s of box girder bridges requires considerable
245
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c o m p u t a t i o n a l e f f o r t , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t a n a l y s i s and o p t i m i z a t i o n
proceed s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s t a r t i n g from an i n i t i a l c h o i c e o f the c r o s s -
s e c t i o n a l dimensions.
Box g i r d e r s have complex c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n , and
i n case o f t h i n w a l l e d s e c t i o n s , they develop d i s t o r t i o n a l s t r e s s e s
of comparable magnitudes as the p r i m a r y s t r e s s e s . For t r u e e s t i m a t e
of these s t r e s s e s , use o f r a t h e r i n t r i c a t e f i n i t e element procedure
employing s u i t a b l e s h e l l elements becomes e s s e n t i a l , and as such, the
o p t i m i z a t i o n p r o c e d u r e must necessary remain s i m p l e t o be i n t e g r a t e d
w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e t o save c o m p u t a t i o n a l e f f o r t .
The e f f i c i e n c y and a c c u r a c y o f the f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s a r e
dependent on t h e type o f the element used. I n the p r e s e n t s t u d y ,
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
e i g h t noded i s o p a r a m e t r i c f l a t s h e l l elements have been chosen by
combining bending a c t i o n w i t h membrane a c t i o n , as d e s c r i b e d b r i e f l y
i n a subsequent paragraph. The e f f e c t o f p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e i s
s i m u l a t e d by e q u i v a l e n t l o a d concept.
O p t i m i z a t i o n o f box g i r d e r b r i d g e s has r e c e i v e d c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s
a t t e n t i o n . Lacey and Breen [1] c a r r i e d o u t an o p t i m i z a t i o n s t u d y o f
s e g m e n t a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d box g i r d e r b r i d g e s c o n s i d e r i n g the m i n i m i z a -
t i o n o f the c o s t as the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n . D a t t a e t a l . [ 2 ] have
t r e a t e d t h e problem as a c o n s t r a i n e d n o n - l i n e a r programming problem
and c o n s i d e r e d t h i c k n e s s e s o f the bottom f l a n g e , area o f p r e s t r e s s i n g
s t e e l and e c c e n t r i c i t i e s o f the p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e as d e s i g n v a r i -
ables. S i n ha [3] c o n s i d e r e d t h i c k n e s s e s o f the web and the s o f f i t
s l a b as d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s and achieved the optimum w e i g h t o f box
g i r d e r b r i d g e s by FEM-SLP approach.
I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , the t h i c k n e s s e s o f the web, the s o f f i t s l a b ,
the deck s l a b between the webs and the c a n t i l e v e r s l a b have been
t r e a t e d as t h e d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s and m i n i m i s a t i o n o f the w e i g h t o f the
b r i d g e as the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n . S e q u e n t i a l l i n e a r programming
t e c h n i q u e i s adopted f o r o p t i m i z a t i o n . The p o w e r f u l s i m p l e x a l g o r i t h m
i s used f o r s o l v i n g t h e l i n e a r programming e q u a t i o n s . Shape v a r i a b l e s
v i z . B/C and D/L r a t i o s a r e v a r i e d e x t e r n a l l y t o o b t a i n the g l o b a l
optimum w e i g h t .
2 F i n i t e Element A n a l y s i s
S i n c e the f i n i t e element method i s w e l l documented, i t i s n o t necce-

s s a r y t o d e s c r i b e the same. I n the p r e s e n t s t u d y , an e i g h t noded
i s o p a r a m e t r i c p a r a b o l i c s h e l l elements have been used as o b t a i n e d by
s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the p l a n e s t r e s s element
developed by E r g a t o u d i s [4] and those o f the p l a t e bending element
r e p o r t e d by H i n t o n e t a l . [5,6]. The element i s based on the M i n d l i n s !
p l a t e t h e o r y which d i f f e r s from the c o n v e n t i o n a l p l a t e t h e o r y i n

the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t the normals t o the mid s u r f a c e b e f o r e d e f o r m a t i o n
r e m a i n s t r a i g h t b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y normal t o the mid s u r f a c e a f t e r
d e f o r m a t i o n ( F i g . 1). Thus e f f e c t o f t r a n s v e r s e shear d e f o r m a t i o n s
i s accounted for. The chosen s h e l l element has f i v e degrees o f
freedom a t each node w i t h an a d d i t i o n a l s i x t h f i c t i t i o u s degree
of freedom, \ f t z ^ ( a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f i c t i t i o u s c o u p l e (M . ^ t o f a c i l i -
1 1
t a t e t h e assembly o f the o v e r a l l s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x o f the s t r u c t u r e .
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(a) PLANE STRESS (MEMBRANE) ( b ) PLATE BENDING ACTION
ACTION
( c ) DEFORMATION OF THE CROSS SECTION OF PLATE

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIG.1 - G E N E R A L I Z E D P L A N E S T R E S S AND P L A T E BENDING

ACTIONS AND DEFORMATIONS OF PLATE S E C T I O N
Thus th e force-displacemen t relation s fo r th e elemen t ma y b e

state d a s
wher e [ K ] e i s th e stiffnes s matri x o f orde r 48x4 8 fo r th e chose n

el ement.
For smal l deformations , th e membran e actio n an d th e bendin g
actio n remai n uncouple d an d a s such , th e abov e relationshi p ma y
be expresse d a s
(2)
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Copyright CRC Press

where the s u b s c r i p t s p and b s t a n d f o r t h e p l a n e s t r e s s and the
p l a t e b e n d i n g a c t i o n s r e s p e c t i v e l y , and $ i s the rotation about
f
z
a x i s . The t e r m s k i j in [K ] which r e l a t e 0 r o t a t i o n s
f
at the f
e i g h t nodes to moments h*ave b e e n d e f i n e d u s i n g a f u d g e f a c t o r * * ^

so t h a t
kij = <* EtA for i = j ,
and kij = - j «C f EtA for i f j ,
where A = Area of the element

t = T h i c k n e s s of the e l e m e n t
E = Modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l
= Fudge f a c t o r the v a l u e of which i s taken 0.001.
A f t e r due t r i a l s , 56 number o f t h e c h o s e n 8-noded e l e m e n t s h a v e

b e e n u s e d to d i s c r e t i z e t h e c a n t i l e v e r t y p e o f box g i r d e r s , w h e r e a s
for simply supported bridges, 52 s u c h e l e m e n t s h a v e b e e n found to
be s u f f i c i e n t f o r d i s c r e t i z a t i o n ( F i g . 2 ) .
Figure 2 a l s o shows s i m u l a t i o n o f p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e by e q u i v a l e n
nodal loads. L o s s e s i n the p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e have been c a l c u l a t e d
b o t h a t t r a n s f e r and a t s e r v i c e stages by c o n v e n t i o n a l methods a t
d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s c o i n c i d i n g w i t h t h e v e r t i c a l mesh l i n e s i n o r d e r
to d e t e r m i n e t h e f o r c e s to be a p p l i e d a t these l o c a t i o n s so that
t h e s e f o r c e s when added to t h e p r e s t r e s s i n g force applied at the
ends r e s u l t i n a c h i e v i n g the net prestressing force acting a t a
given location.
3 C r i t e r i a For Safe Design
The c o m p o n e n t p l a t e s o f a box girder are essentially i n a bi-axial

state of stress. Several experimental investigations have been
r e p o r t e d a s r e g a r d s the s t r e n g t h of c o n c r e t e s u b j e c t e d to a b i - a x i a l
state of s t r e s s under d i f f e r e n t combinations such a s compression-
c o m p r e s s i o n , c o m p r e s s i o n - t e n s i o n and tension-tension. I n the p r e s e n t
s t u d y , t h e f a i l u r e e n v e l o p e b a s e d on t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
of K u f e r e t a l . [ 8 , 9 ] has been adopted. For d e v i s i n g the s a f e d e s i g n
criteria for the above s t r e s s combinations, t h e same e n v e l o p e i s
assumed to be v a l i d a t t h e w o r k i n g s t r e s s s t a g e . The safe design
c r i t e r i o n thus obtained f o r d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s combinations.
(i) Compression-compression s t a t e
( ^ + / 2 ) 2
( d y * 3-65<T ) 2 * ( 3 a )
or F <; ^ (3b)
Where F given by the left hand expression of equation 3a has been
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Copyright CRC Press

DECK SLAB
L 28 100 12 4
—
148
- -6
3fr—-— —0
© 33
© 57 ® 81 © 105 © 129 153
©
LINE 9 58 82 106 130 . " 1541
34 WEB
t
10 1— - 59 J
83 © 107 I3L g) 155
11 " "^156
36 60 84 108 132
PRESTRESSING CABLE PROFILE
( i ) DISCRETIZATION AND SYMBOLIC R E P R E S E N T A T I O N OF PRESTRESSING FORCE
28
x33
LOCATION
OF
PRESTRESSING 3 5
CABLES NODAL P
H_r^£jq--
36 LOADS
36
(ii) LOCATION O F P R E S T R E S S I N G (iii) E Q U I V A L E N T NODAL LOADS DUE

C A B L E S AT ANY SECTION
TO A P P L I E D PRESTRESSING FORCE PF
(a) SIMPLY SUPPORTED BOX GIRDER BRIDGE
DECK SLAB PRESTRESSING
FORCE / SECTIONS
21 / 39 57 129 / \ 147 165
93 V M l
( I ) DISCRETIZATION AND SYMBOLIC R E P R E S E N T A T I O N OF

PRESTRESSING FORCE
LOCATION OF
PRESTRESSING CABLES D
^CK SLAB
19 20
21 \ 22 / 23 24 25
\ / — NODAL
LOADS
( i l ) LOCATION OF PRESTRESSING CABLES (iii) EQUIVALENT NODAL L O A D S DUE

TO A P P L I E D P R E STRE SING F O R C E P F
AT ANY SECTION
(b) CANTILEVER BOX GIRDER BRIDGE
F I G . 2 - DISCRETIZATION AND SIMULATION OF PRESTRESSING FORCES

A S EQUIVALENT NODAL LOADS
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c a l l e d t h e R e f e r e n c e s t r e s s , / i s the u n i a x i a l p e r m i s s i b l e compre-
1
s s i v e s t r e s s i n c o n c r e t e and 6 and ^ the p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s i n

a r e
directions 1 and 2 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
(ii)Tension-compression s t a t e
For a t e n s i o n - c o m p r e s s i o n b i a x i a l s t a t e o f s t r e s s a t a point, the
c r i t e r i o n f o r s a f e d e s i g n may be w r i t t e n as d e v i s e d
k " °- 6 2 5 x
*2 ( 4 a )
or F < / (4b)
Where l e f t hand s i d e o f e q u a t i o n 4a r e p r e s e n t s the r e f e r e n c e s t r e s s

F
f
and U* i s t h e r a t i o o f t h e p e r m i s s i b l e s t r e s s e s i n t e n s i o n and
f
compression f o r concrete.
( i i i ) Tension-tension s t a t e
I n case b o t h the p r i n c i p a l stresses are tensile, the s a f e design
c r i t e r i o n may be w r i t t e n as
Where F ! f
i s the r e f e r e n c e s t r e s s f o r t h i s s t a t e o f s t r e s s .
4 Optimization Strategy
The s t r e s s a n a l y s i s by t h e f i n i t e element method f o r g i v e n t h i c k n e s s e s

and the o p t i m i z a t i o n o f these t h i c k n e s s e s by l i n e a r programming
have been i n t e g r a t e d t o o b t a i n minimum w e i g h t o f a b r i d g e super-
s t r u c t u r e . S u i t a b l e c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e t h i c k n e s s e s
which a r e t r e a t e d as the d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s have been imposed by s p e c i -
f y i n g the maximum and minimum v a l u e s . S i n c e the s e n s i t i v i t i e s o f each
d e s i g n v a r i a b l e a r e d i f f e r e n t a t each d e s i g n s t a g e , a stagewise
l i n e a r programming has been adopted t o d e v e l o p an economical s o l u t i o n
a l g o r i t h m . The s e n s i t i v i t i e s o f the s t r e s s e s and the d i s p l a c e m e n t s ,
which h e l p i n d e c i d i n g the b e s t d i r e c t i o n s i n which t o implement
changes, a r e d e t e r m i n e d a t the s t a g e o f the f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s .
Thus s t a r t i n g f r o m some i n i t i a l chosen v a l u e s , the problem o f o p t i m i -
z a t i o n has been f o r m u l a t e d as a sequence o f l i n e a r programming problem
by i m p o s i n g r e s t r i c t i o n s on move l i m i t s o f the d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s
a t each i t e r a t i o n stage.
4. 1 I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s
Two types o f d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s have been i d e n t i f i e d as given below.
(A) S i z e v a r i a b l e s which comprise the t h i c k n e s s e s o f the component

p l a t e s o f t h e box s e c t i o n . They a r e d e s i g n a t e d as t^, t^, t
and t ^ as t h e t h i c k n e s s e s o f the web, the s o f f i t s l a b , the deck
s l a b between t h e webs and the c a n t i l e v e r s l a b r e s p e c t i v e l y .
(B) Geometric v a r i a b l e s which d e f i n e the c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f the box
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s e c t i o n . . These a r e
(i) B/C r a t i o i . e . t h e r a t i o o f t h e box w i d t h B t o the t o t a l
width C o f t h e deck i n c l u s i v e o f t h e c a n t i l e v e r p o r t i o n s a t
the deck s l a b .
(ii) D/L r a t i o i . e . t h e r a t i o o f t h e d e p t h D o f t h e box g i r d e r
to t h e span l e n g t h L. D i s t h e maximum box g i r d e r d e p t h
at t h e p i e r end f o r c a n t i l e v e r b r i d g e s , and t h e c o n s t a n t
g i r d e r depth f o r simply supported bridges.
I n case o f c a n t i l e v e r b r i d g e s , t h e d e p t h o f t h e c e l l i s assumed
to v a r y p a r a b o l i c a l l y a l o n g t h e span. I f D i s the maximum d e p t h o f
the box g i r d e r a t t h e p i e r s e c t i o n , and Do i s the depth o f the
g i r d e r adopted a t t h e f r e e end, t h e d e p t h D o f the c e l l a t a
f f
d i s t a n c e x from t h e p i e r i s o b t a i n e d as ( F i g . 3*5 •
D = Do + (D - Do) (1 - f ) 2
(6)
I n case o f s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d b r i d g e s , t h e d e p t h D o f t h e box
g i r d e r i s assumed t o be c o n s t a n t f o r t h e e n t i r e span, as i s n o r m a l l y
the case.
4.2 To a c h i e v e a global optimum

The l o c a l optima a r e o b t a i n e d f i r s t by c a r r y i n g o u t t h e p a r a m e t r i c
s t u d i e s by a p p l y i n g t h e FEM-SLP process as below.
( i ) F o r a g i v e n span l e n g t h L and k e e p i n g t h e v a l u e o f D/L ratio
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
c o n s t a n t , t h e l o c a l optimum w e i g h t s f o r d i f f e r e n t B/C r a t i o s
a r e o b t a i n e d , from which t h e optimum v a l u e o f B/C r a t i o i s
determined.
( i i ) Keeping t h e B/C r a t i o c o n s t a n t , t h e l o c a l optimum w e i g h t s f o r
different D/L r a t i o s a r e o b t a i n e d from which t h e optimum v a l u e
of D/L r a t i o i s d e t e r m i n e d .
The r a n g e s o f t h e v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e D/L and B/C r a t i o s a r e

s u i t a b l y determined u s i n g p a s t experience.
5 F o r m u l a t i o n o f L i n e a r Programming Problem
5- 1 Move l i m i t s
C e r t a i n move l i m i t s have been imposed on t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e design^
v a r i a b l e s so t h a t s t a r t i n g from t h e i n i t i a l v a l u e s o f {T*^ = | ^ , ^ t L , t ^ , l
These v a r i a b l e s can assume any s u i t a b l e v a l u e s w i t h i n t h e jTj r a a :
and { T } . Thus
m i n
^ T
f i n
< l?\ tm™* (7)
The maximum and minimum changes i n the design v a r i a b l e s a r e thus

g i v e n by
251
Copyright CRC Press

(8)
and
mm
D = Dmax'
D =D + ( D - 0 ) ( 1 - - f )
X 0 0
2
t4min t^min
1— . - ! 1 , 1
1
- *01 m l n
\Q2 min
i
SECTION AT FREE END
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I
L <i - j
i T
SECTION AT SUPPORT
( a ) CANTILEVER BRIDGE (DEPTH VARVING ALONG SPAN)
f f
1 t 2 min
0
SECTION AT SUPPORT SECTION AT MID SPAN
(b) SIMPLY SUPPORTED BRIDGE (DEPTH CONSTANT ALONG SPAN)
FIG. 3 — VARIATION OF DESIGN VARIABLES
252
Copyright CRC Press

The changes i n the d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s may be e i t h e r p o s i t i v e or nega-
t i v e . I f they a r e n e g a t i v e , t h e r e a r e transformed t o non-negative
v a l u e s t h r o u g h the f o l l o w i n g s i d e c o n s t r a i n t :
fdTV" a X
- {dTf l n
(9)
5.2 Objective function

M i n i m i z a t i o n o f the t o t a l w e i g h t o f the s u p e r s t r u c t u r e has been
adopted as the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n f o r the o p t i m i z a t i o n problem.
The t o t a l w e i g h t o f the s u p e r s t r u c t u r e may be expressed as the sum o f
the w e i g h t s o f a l l i t s elements * e' as g i v e n below :
I A. x t . x f (10)
i =1
where A. , t . and Y a r e the a r e a , the thickness and the m a t e r i a l

d e n s i t y o f t?he element i . Since f o r a given bridge s u p e r s t r u c t u r e
of s p e c i f i e d g e o m e t r i c c o n f i g u r a t i o n , the d e n s i t y o f the m a t e r i a l and
the a r e a s o f the elements a r e c o n s t a n t , the v a r i a t i o n o f the element
t h i c k n e s s e s d e t e r m i n e the w e i g h t change. The spanwise v a r i a t i o n o f
these t h i c k n e s s e s have been assumed as below, F i g . 3- The deck
s l a b t h i c k n e s s ( t _ ) and the c a n t i l e v e r s l a b t h i c k n e s s ( t ^ ) a r e assumed
c o n s t a n t over the span f o r b o t h the c a n t i l e v e r e d and s i m p l y supported
bridges. t h e i r thickness t a t any s e c t i o n i s g i v e n by
t = t. (11)
l
where, i =3,4 and t^ i s the s p e c i f i e d thickness
The web and the s o f f i t s l a b t h i c k n e s s e s , t . ( i = 1,2) a r e assumed

t o v a r y p a r a b o l i c a l l y a l o n g the span as g i v e n below :
(i) for cantilever bridges
t = t ,[1
01
- (1 - f
L1
) ] + t,(1
2
- ~ )
L
2
(12)
and ( i i ) f o r simply supported bridges
PY P PY P
t = t .[1 - o - f^ri + t, d - (13)

01 L1 L
Where L = span l e n g t h o f a g i r d e r
t . = the minimum t h i c k n e s s a t the f r e e end/mid-span f o r
the c a n t i l e v e r / s i m p l y supported b r i d g e s
t. = the t h i c k n e s s a t the s u p p o r t s e c t i o n
t = thickness a t distance x from the s u p p o r t s e c t i o n .
S i n c e the chosen d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s a r e the t h i c k n e s s e s t. at

p r e d e f i n e d l o c a t i o n s , and t . remains c o n s t a n t d u r i n g any v a r i a \ i o n
253
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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of t , t h e f i r s t term i n e a c h o f t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n s makes z e r o c o n t -
r i b u t i o n to the v a r i a t i o n i n t o t a l weight *W of the superstructure. f
Hence i f t h e change i n t h e t h i c k n e s s e s d u r i n g t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n p r o c e s s
be ^dT\ w h i c h m i n i m i z e s t h e i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l w e i g h t , t h e c h a n g e i n
the t o t a l w e i g h t dW may t h e n be w r i t t e n a s
dW = W dtl 1 + W dt
2 2 + W dt
3 3 + W dt4 4 (14)
Where W. = A.Y = constant f o r a n element

11
The c h a n g e i n t h i c k n e s s e s c a n be e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e , t h e
o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n may be w r i t t e n by u s i n g the transformed thick-
n e s s e s , a s below :
To minimize W.dtt + W_dt* + W d t * + V L d t t0 (15)
5-3 S t r e s s c o n s t r a i n t s
To e n s u r e s a f e t y o f d i f f e r e n t component p l a t e s d u r i n g optimization,
the constraints on s t r e s s e s s u c h t h a t t h e i r combination does n o t
a f f e c t t h e s a f e t y o f s t r u c t u r e any where, have been a p p l i e d . A t any
predefined c r i t i c a l locations K', t h e r e f e r e n c e s t r e s s F , defined f
a b o v e f o r d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n s o f s t r e s s e s and a f t e r considering
t h e e f f e c t o f c h a n g e s i n t h e d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s , s h o u l d be l e s s than
the p e r m i s s i b l e value. The e q u a t i o n f o r s t r e s s c o n s t r a i n t s i s thus
written as
4 * F (K)
F (K) + £ J". dt, - / <0 (16)
i -1 " i
where F (K) i s , the r e f e r e n c e s t r e s s F at K c r i t i c a l point f o r

m th ., ,. ,. , .
m loading condition,
^F(K)
ro
^ k i s t h e change i n t h e r e f e r e n c e s t r e s s F w i t h r e s p e c t to
i thickness t . f o r a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e t h i c k n e s s by d t . ,
l J
l '
and g i s the u n i a x i a l permissible compressive s t r e s s i n conc-
° r e t e , a t t r a n s f e r / s e r v i c e stage.
To these stress constraints, the s i d e c o n s t r a i n t s a s stated

in equation 9 a r e added t o f o r m t h e c o m p l e t e l i n e a r programming
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
p r o b l e m e q u a t i o n s w h i c h a r e s o l v e d by t h e s i m p l e x method.
The s t r e s s s e n s i t i v e s h?/ c> t . of reference s t r e s s F with r e s p e c t
to t h e d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s t . a r e evaluated w i t h i n the f i n i t e element
a n a l y s i s a s d e s c r i b e d below i n b r i e f .
5-3-1 Stress sensitivity

The s t r e s s r e s u l t a n t s N , N and N f o r p l a n e s t r e s s a c t i o n and
M, M , M
x , Q and Q x f or t h e p l a t e Bending a c t i o n a t t h e e l e m e n t
X Y
gauss p o i n t a r e determined a s forces per u n i t width of the p l a t e .

From t h e s e , the extreme f i b r e s t r e s s e s £ and ^ > principle x
254
Copyright CRC Press

s t r e s s e s ^ and c f reference stress F2
a n d
i n terms o f ^ and g^
are e a s i l y evaluated.
Let F and be the r e f e r e n c e s t r e s s and the d i s p l a c e m e n t
v e c t o r a t a gause p o i n t f o r a p a r t i c u l a r d e s i g n v a l u e t.. Using
comma n o t a t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , f o r a change o f At:, i n the
d e s i g n v a r i a b l e , the d i s p l a c e m e n t s and r e f e r e n c e s t r e s s e s c o r r e s p o n d -
i n g t o t h e new d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s ( t . ± 1/2 A t . ) may be expressed as
( {i\ ± 1/2 {£} , t . A t . ) and F [^t] ± *\/2\s\ , t . A t . ] . The d e r i v a -
t i v e o f t h e r e f e r e n c e s t r e s s F, c o r r e s p o n d i n g \o t h e change d t . i n
the d e s i g n v a r i a b l e t . may then be w r i t t e n using- c e n t r a l d i f f e r e n c e
e q u a t i o n as below :
(17)
The change i n v a r i a b l e A t . i s decided by e x p e r i e n c e and degree

of accuracy d e s i r e d . E v a l u a t i o n of d e r i v a t i v e s o f the nodal d i s p l a c e -
ment w i t h r e s p e c t t o the d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s t ^ , j£j ^ r e q u i r e d i n the
above e q u a t i o n has been done as e x p l a i n e d below : '
5.3-2 D e r i v a t i v e s of displacements
The e q u a t i o n s o f e q u i l i b r i u m , e q u a t i o n 1, o b t a i n e d d u r i n g the
f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s r e l a t e the nodal l o a d v e c t o r {Yi\ t o the nodal
d i s p l a c e m e n t v e c t o r {£] . D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b o t h s i d e s o f t h i s e q u a t i o n
w i t h respect to t . , and e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f the d i s -
placements i s o b t a i n e d as
t i
[ K ]
^ , t i = { H } f U - ^ H K ] ) t . (18)
i n which t h e r i g h t hand s i d e may be termed as the f o r c e d e r i v a t i v e

r e q u i r i n g e v a l u a t i o n o f the d e r i v a t i v e s o f the nodal l o a d v e c t o r and
s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x w i t h r e s p e c t to the design v a r i a b l e s .
The d e r i v a t i v e o f the nodal l o a d v e c t o r JRJ ^ formed i n i s
the s t i f f n e s s s u b r o u t i n e a t t h e same time as ( R ^ i s ^ s e t up [ 1 0 ] ^

The element s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x [ K ] c o n s i s t s o f [ K ] and [ K ] e e p e
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e p l a n e s t r e s s and p l a t e bending a c t i o n s r e s p e c t i v e l y
and a f i c t i t i o u s s t i f f n e s s term [ K ^ ] c o r r e s p o n d i n g to the sixth
d e g r e e o f freedom.
The p l a n e s t r e s s s t i f f n e s s s u b m a t r i x i s g i v e n by
[K ] 6 P
= { / [ B ] [ D ] [ B ] dv
T
(19)
i n which [ B ] and [ D ] do n o t c o n t a i n any term depending on t h i c k n e s s

t. Hence t h e d e r i v a t i v e o f [ K ] w i t h r e s p e c t t o t i s obtained
e p
s i m p l y by d i v i d i n g every term i n [K ] by t . The d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n P
o f [ K ] i s s i m i l a r l y o b t a i n e d by d i v i d i n g i t by t .
6
The p l a t e bending . s t i f f n e s s s u b m a t r i x c o n n e c t i n g nodes i to j

i s g i v e n by
oh 1 1
T
[K ]° e
= J J [ B . r [ D ] [ B ] | J | dg d n (20)
-1-1 J
255
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Copyright CRC Press

Here t h e s u b m a t r i x [D ] o f the e l a s t i c r i g i d i t i e s c o n s i s t s o f terms
containing t and t . Hence the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f t h e terms i n
[K ] i s done by c o n s i d e r i n g i n d i v i d u a l terms s e p a r a t e l y and d i v i d i n g
them by 3 / t and 1/t respectively.
The m a t r i x [ K ] ^ i s formed s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h the f o r m a t i o n o f
[K ] i n the s t i f f n e s s s u b r o u t i n e . Thus a l l the q u a n t i t i e s r e q u i r e d
f o r the f o r m a t i o n o f e q u a t i o n s i n the l i n e a r programming problem have
been e v a l u a t e d d u r i n g t h e f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s . These e q u a t i o n s
a r e processed by s i m p l e x a l g o r i t h m . The s l a c k v a r i a b l e s a r e added
whenever necessary t o change the i n e q u a l i t i e s i n t o e q u a l i t i e s .
The v a r i a t i o n i n the i n i t i a l l y chosen v a l u e s o f the d e s i g n v a r i a -
b l e s s a t i s f y i n g t h e s t r e s s c o n s t r a i n t s and m i n i m i z i n g the weight
of t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e a r e evaluated i n each i t e r a t i o n t i l l t h e
s p e c i f i e d number o f i t e r a t i o n s a r e over o r the optimum i s a c h i e v e d .
The optimum v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i n i t i a l v a l u e s , t h e optimum v a l u e s
o f t h e d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g optimum w e i g h t o f
the s t r u c t u r e a r e thus o b t a i n e d .
6 C o m p u t e r C o d i n g o f FEM-SLP Technique
The i n t e g r a t e d FEM-SLP p r o c e d u r e f o r m u l a t e d above has been s u i t a b l y

c o d i f i e d as Program RMBPT i n FORTRAN IV language t o f c i l i t a t e Computer
a i d e d o p t i m i z a t i o n o f b o t h c a n t i l e v e r and s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d types
o f b r i d g e s . Manual e f f o r t r e q u i r e d f o r the p r e p a r a t i o n o f i n p u t d a t a
for t h e program has been m i n i m i z e d by w r i t i n g a s u b r o u t i n e f o r
a preliminary design o f the structure including determination of
the p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e r e q u i r e d a t s e l e c t e d s e c t i o n s . The l i v e l o a d s
and p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e s a r e t h e n a u t o m a t i c a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e
r e l e v a n t nodes o f t h e s e c t i o n s , as t h e d e s i r e d e q u i v a l e n t nodal
loads.
The program RMBPT comprises o f one main and seventeen s u b r o u t i n e s .
Besides t h e u s u a l d a t a t o be g i v e n i n a f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s
program, t h e p r e s e n t program RMBPT r e q u i r e s a d d i t i o n a l i n p u t d a t a
c o n s i s t i n g o f the i n i t i a l as w e l l as the maximum and minimum v a l u e s
o f t h e t h i c k n e s s e s o f t h e f o u r components o f t h e box g i r d e r v i z .
the web, t h e s o f f i t s l a b , the deck s l a b between the webs and t h e
c a n t i l e v e r s l a b , p e r m i s s i b l e s t r e s s v a l u e s a t t r a n s f e r and s e r v i c e
s t a g e s , r a t i o o f the p e r m i s s i b l e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h t o the compressive
strength o f concrete, l o a d s and t h e i r p o s i t i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o
the s e c t i o n s a l o n g the span, node numbers o f the s e c t i o n s a t which
the l o a d s and t h e p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e s a r e t o be t r a n s f o r m e d and
the p a t c h / w h e e l l o a d s and x and y c o - o r d i n a t e s o f the c o r n e r s o f
each p a t c h l o a d on the deck.
The o u t p u t f r o m the program c o n s i s t s o f a l l the i n p u t d a t a u n l e s s
s u p p r e s s e d , s t a t i c a l shear f o r c e s and bending moments due t o s e l f
w e i g h t and imposed l i v e l o a d s and r e q u i r e d p r e s t r e s s i n g f o r c e s a t
d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s , the d i s p l a c e m e n t s u, v, w, 0 » 6 and & at
each node and t h e i r d e r i v a t i v e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o each design v a r ^ b l e ,
the s t r e s s r e s u l t a n t s , p r i n c i p l e stresses and r e f e r e n c e stress
a t the s p e c i f i e d c r i t i c a l gauss p o i n t s , the c o n s t r a i n t e q u a t i o n s o f
the l i n e a r programming problem, t h e optimum v a l u e s o f the d e s i g n
256
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v a r i a b l e s v i z . a l l t h e f o u r component t h i c k n e s s e s and thicknesses
o f a l l t h e e l e m e n t s and finally t h e optimum w e i g h t of the s u p e r -
structure.
7 Problems Studied
To e s t a b l i s h t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e FEM-SLP a p p r o a c h . S i x b r i d g e s u p e r -
structures, t h r e e e a c h o f t h e c a n t i l e v e r and the simply supported
t y p e s , a s d e s c r i b e d i n T a b l e 1 below, have been s t u d i e d [ 1 1 ] .
Table 1.
Bridge Span No. of

Type Remarks
identi- (m) lanes
fication
46 Cantilever, two Varying depth

C B
1
no f o o t p a t h s
CB 46 Cantilever, two Varying depth
C with foot paths
CB 75 Cantilever, two Varying depth
with f o o t paths
SSB 1 60 Simply supported, two Constant depth
no f o o t paths
SSB 60 Simply supported, two Constant depth
with f o o t paths
SSB_ 90 S imply suppor ted, two Constant depth
with foot paths
The w h e e l l o a d s and t h e m a t e r i a l s h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a s p e r t h e
I n d i a n R o a d s C o n g r e s s S p e c i f i c a t i o n s [ 1 2 ] . C o n c r e t e o f M40 g r a d e w i t h
p e r m i s s i b l e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s o f 15.20 N/mm a t t r a n s f e r of p r e s t r e s s
s t a g e and 11.85 N/mm a t the s e r v i c e s t a g e have been c o n s i d e r e d .
The p r e s t r e s s i n g c a b l e s , 12T13 of F r e y ^ s i n e t group, w i t h a nominal
u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f 1800 N/mm per c a b l e have been used.
The c a b l e s a r e l o c a t e d i n the deck s l a b i n i n c a s e of c a n t i l e v e r
b r i d g e s and i n t h e two webs i n c a s e o f s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d bridges.
To a r r i v e a t t h e g l o b a l o p t i m a l v a l u e f o r each of the above
problems, the l o c a l optima have been o b t a i n e d by v a r y i n g the shape
v a r i a b l e s i n the f o l l o w i n g range :
B/C ratio : 0. 4 t o 0.55 f o r both types of bridges
D/L ratio : C a n t i l e v e r bridges - 0.08 t o 0.15 a t t h e s u p p o r t ,

and c o n s t a n t d e p t h a t t h e
f r e e end
Simply supported bridges - 0.025 t o 0.10
The i n t e r v a l s i n the above ranges have been chosen a s appropriate

to each p r o b l e m t o l o c a t e t h e optimum v a l u e s .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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8 Resul t s
The optimum v a l u e s o f t h e t h i c k n e s s e s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g optimum

weights obtained and t h e i r i n i t i a l v a l u e s f o r each o f t h e above
b r i d g e s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 2 below :
T a b l e 2.
Identi-
Span Op timum thickness (mm) Op timum Opti-
fication
values of mum
of b r i d g e fc
3 B/C D/L weight
46 155.23 150.0 192.94 150.0 3790.5

C B
1
(250.0) +
(250.0) (250.0) (200.0) 0.5 0.09 (4430.5)
CB 2 46 150.0 150.0 176.41 150.0 OA 0.15 4378.4

(300.0) (250.0) (250.0) (200.0) (5GS0.0)
CB 3 75 200.0 200.0 272.10 150.0 OA 0.15 10075.3

(350.0) (350.0) (350.0) (300.0) (14498.5)
SSB 1 GO 150.0 150.0 226.76 150.0 0.45 0.025 3659.2

(250.0) (250.0) (250.0) (170.0) (4418.3)
SSB 2 60 150.0 150.0 150.0 169.42 0.55 0.04 5242.2

(300.0) (300.0) (250.0) (200.0) (7403.0)
SSB 3 90 150.0 200.16 150.0 251.44 0.5 0.05 10361.2

(350.0) (350.0) (300.0) (200.0) (12509.8)
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
+
( ) F i g u r e s i n the brackets i n d i c a t e the i n i t i a l design values
specified.
The minimum t h i c k n e s s o f 150 mm h a s been specified for

any p l a t e f o r the above s t r u c t u r e s .
G r a p h s w h i c h show t h a t t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e optimum w e i g h t s w i t h
B/C a n d D/L r a t i o s f o r a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e b r i d g e CB a r e g i v e n i n
Fig. 4 and F i g . 5 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The l o c a l optima f o r each v a l u e o f
t h e s e shape v a r i a b l e s c a n be s e e n i n these f i g u r e s .
W i t h t h e l o c a l o p t i m a o b t a i n e d f o r v a r i o u s v a l u e s o f B/C and D/L
ratios, t h e c o n t o u r s o f e q u a l w e i g h t h a v e b e e n d r a w n a s shown i n
Fig. 6. From t h i s f i g u r e , i t c a n be s e e n t h a t t h e g l o b a l optimum
w e i g h t o f 10075 kN i s o b t a i n e d a t B/C and D/L r a t i o o f 0.4 and 0.15
respectively, a s against the i n i t i a l d e s i g n v a l u e o f 14498.5 kN
i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 2. T h e optimum w e i g h t o b t a i n e d by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
o f t h e p r o p o s e d FEM-SLP Process i s about 43-9 p e r c e n t l e s s than
the i n i t i a l design value. I t may be m e n t i o n e d that the i n i t i a l
d e s i g n was b a s e d on s t a t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e b r i d g e .
9 Conclusions
It c a n be c l a i m e d from the r e s u l t s o f the various bridge examples
258
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F I G . A - V A R I A T I O N OF T H E OPTIMUM WEIGHT WITH
B/C R A T I O - C A N T I L E V E R B R I D G E C B 3
(SPAN =75m)
20O00r
flnnnl • i • i . • . i i
0.08 0-10 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18
D/L RATIO
FIG.5-VARIATION OF THE OPTIMUM WEIGHT WITH D/L

R A T I O - C A N T I L E V E R BRIDGE C B 3 ( SPAN =75m)
259
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O - ~ L 0 C A L OPTIMUM W E I G H T S ( k N )
O B T A I N E D BY ANALYSIS
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-J 1 1 1 1 i I
0-3 0-4 0-5 0-6
B/C RATIO
FIG. 6 — LOCAL OPTIMUM SOLUTIONS AND CONTOURS OF EQUAL

WEIGHT FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF SHAPE VARIABLES
-CANTILEVER BRIDGE CB3
(SPAN = 7 5 m )
260
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presented a b o v e t h a t t h e i n t e g r a t e d FEM-SLP a p p r o a c h d e v e l o p e d i n
the p r e s e n t s t u d y o f f e r s a v a l u a b l e t o o l f o r the i n t e r a c t i v e a n a l y s i s
and o p t i m i z a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s o f p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e box g i r d e r b r i d g e s
and results i n considerable saving of the computational effort
i f f i n i t e e l e m e n t a n a l y s i s and o p t i m i z a t i o n w e r e t o p r o c e e d i n d e p e n -
d e n t l y . I t a c h i e v e s s a f e d e s i g n s a t i s f y i n g s e v e r a l c o n s t r a i n t s . The
results obtained f o r the s i x bridge problems c o n s i d e r i n g s e v e r a l
variables like span lengths, nature of supports and p r e s e n c e o r
absence o f f o o t paths indicate that considerable economy c a n be
achieved by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s technique, i n the design of
p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e box g i r d e r b r i d g e s .
10 References
1 L a c e y , G.C. a n d B r e e n , J . E . ( 1 9 7 5 ) D e s i g n and o p t i m i z a t i o n o f segmen-

tally precast box g i r d e r bridges. Research R e p o r t No. 121-3,
Centre f o r Highway R e s e a r c h , The U n i v e r s i t y o f Texas, Austin.
2Datta, A. B. a n d D a y a r a t h a m , P. ( 1978) Optimal s i z e s of segmental
prestressed c o n c r e t e c a n t i l e v e r b r i d g e g i r d e r . The B r i d g e and
S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r , I N G / I A B S E , V o l . 8 , No.3.
3 S i n h a , S.K. ( 1 9 8 5 ) S e g m e n t a l p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e box g i r d e r b r i d g e s .
Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f R o o r k e e , R o o r k e e , I n d i a .
4Ergatoudis, J.G. , I r o n s , B.M. and Z i e n k i e w i c z , 0. C. ( 1968) Curved,
i s o p a r a m e t r i c q u a d r i l a t e r a l elements f o r f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s .
I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l o f S o l i d s a n d S t r u c t u r e s , 4, 31-42.
5 H i n t o n , E . , R a z z a q u e , A. and Z i e n k i e w i c z , 0. C. ( 1 9 7 5 ) A s i m p l e f i n i t e
e l e m e n t s o l u t i o n f o r p l a t e s o f homogeneous, s a n d w i t c h and c e l l u l a r
construction. Proc. Institution of C i v i l Engineers, London,
P a r t 2, 59.
6Ahmad, S. , I r o n s , B.M. a n d Z i e n k i e w i c z , 0.C. ( 1970) A n a l y s i s o f t h i c k
and t h i n s h e l l s t r u c t u r e s by c u r v e d f i n i t e e l e m e n t s . I n t . J o u r .
o f N u m e r i c a l Methods i n Engg. , V o l . 2 , 419-451.
7 Mindlin, R.D. ( 1 9 6 1 ) I n f l u e n c e o f r o t a t o r y i n e r t i a and s h e a r on
f l e x u r a l motions of i s o t r o p i c e l a s t i c p l a t e s . J o u r n a l o f Applied
M e c h a n i c s , 18, 31-38.
8Kupfer, H.B., H i l s d o r f , H.K. a n d R u s c h , H. ( 1 9 6 9 ) B e h a v i o u r o f
concrete under b i a x i a l stresses. ACI Journal Proceedings, 6,
No. 8, 656-666.
9 K u p f e r , H.B. a n d C e r s t l e , R.H. ( 1 9 7 3 ) B e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e u n d e r
b i a x i a l s t r e s s e s . J o u r n a l o f the E n g i n e e r i n g Mechanics D i v i s i o n ,
ACI P r o c e e d i n g s , 9 9 , No. EM4, 852-856.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
10Trikha, D.N., J a i n , P.C., B h a n d a r i , N.M. and Badawe, B.R . ( 1990)

Integrated FEM-SLP technique for optimization of prestressed
concrete box g i r d e r bridges. Sent to I n s t i t u t i o n of C i v i l
E n g i n e e r s London.
11.Badawe, B.R. ( 1989) Cross sectional optimization of prestressed
concrete box g i r d e r bridge superstructures. Ph.D. T h e s i s ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f Roorkee, Roorkee, I n d i a .
12IRC-6-1966. (1985) Standard s p e c i f i c a t i o n s and c o d e o f p r a c t i c e f o r
r o a d b r i d g e s . S e c t i o n I I , I n d i a n Roads C o n g r e s s .
261
Copyright CRC Press

S T U D Y OF C A S T - I N - S I T U CEMENT
C O N C R E T E M U L T I - C I R C U L A R VENTED
H I G H W A Y BRIDGES
K. L A K S H M I N A R A Y A N A , M . K . L . N . S A S T R Y
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Bangalore University, Bangalore, India
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Abstract
C a s t - i n - s i t u cement c o n c r e t e m u l t i - c i r c u l a r vented highway bridges,
under c e r t a i n circumstances, are advantageous and economical in cost.
These bridges are in usage since 1962. Bridges having skew angle upto
35 are not uncommon. These bridges are now being used as " M u l t i -
purpose high level bridges." The main s t r u c t u r e of the existing bridge
is o f c a s t - i n - s i t u mass concrete of 1:3:6 w i t h 20% plums and having
vents upto about f o r t y s i x in a series w i t h o u t an expansion j o i n t . The
p r i m a r y objectives are t o assess the load f a c t o r of the bridge and to
evolve a suitable t y p i c a l design , which forms the design w i t h respect
f 1
to intended f u n c t i o n , economy of s t r u c t u r e and c o n f o r m i t y w i t h appro-

p r i a t e codes, U n d i s t o r t e d s t r u c t u r a l models of concrete M10 are used
w i t h o u t and w i t h nominal r e i n f o r c e m e n t surrounding the v e n t , having
scale f a c t o r of 1/10 of the p r o t o t y p e , are tested to various position
of live load. U l t i m a t e l y each model w i l l be tested for assessing the
u l t i m a t e c a p a c i t y of the model and for locating the absolute c r i t i c a l
section. Salient features regarding model behaviour are observed and
also increase in value of the load f a c t o r of the model for nominal
r e i n f o r c e m e n t is assessed. For designing these bridges the ' t y p i c a l
design evolved by the author based on t r e a t i n g 'half portion of one
1
vent* as sub-components of f i x e d beam having variable moment of i n e r t i a

is found to be s a t i s f a c t o r y and favourable for the Bridge Designer's.
Keywords: Concrete M10, 70R t r a c k load, Standardised n o r m a l d i s t r i -
b u t i o n c u r v e , U n d i s t o r t e d s t r u c t u r a l m o d e l , Absolute c r i t i c a l section,
A u x i l i a r y specimen, E f f e c t i v e w i d t h of deck.
1 Introduction
C a s t - i n - s i t u cement concrete m u l t i - c i r c u l a r vented highway bridges (desig-

nated as C C M V bridges) are provided in places where the r i v e r is shallow
or the bridge site is sandy, a l l u v i a l or c l a y e y soil; hard s t r a t a is not
m e t w i t h even below a reasonable d e p t h . I n such circumstances, by
adopting these bridges as against slab and beam bridges w i t h w e l l
foundation, there w i l l be a substantial saving in cost. These bridges(5)
are also c a l l e d " c a s t - i n - s i t u pipe bridges." R e c e n t l y these bridges are
c o n s t r u c t e d as a " M u l t i - p u r p o s e high level bridges" which help c o m m u n i -
c a t i o n , w a t e r supply and i r r i g a t i o n .
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F i g . 1 is t h e photograph of a t w o lane bridge of this type, having
eight vents o f 2.5m diameter, c o n s t r u c t e d i n Bangalore(India) in t h e
year 1967. The main s t r u c t u r e is mass concrete of 1:3:6 w i t h 20% plums
(Fig. 14) having no r e i n f o r c e m e n t and d i a m e t e r of vents ranging f r o m
1.5m t o 3 . 4 m . I n case o f deep sandy soils, t h e main s t r u c t u r e is
supported on a bed o f 0.3m t h i c k 1:5:10 cement concrete (pad) which
i n t u r n rests on boulder packing in sand of 0.3m t h i c k . I f the bed of
the r i v e r is either a l l u v i a l or clayey, the usual p r a c t i c e is that t h e soil
is excavated t o a depth of 1.2m below t h e boulder packing and f i l l e d
up w i t h sand (Fig. 14). There w i l l be a h o r i z o n t a l construction j o i n t
at a height corresponding t o t h e centre of vents and a v e r t i c a l construc-
t i o n j o i n t in between every t h i r d and f o u r t h vent.
1.1 Review of l i t e r a t u r e
iMost of the i n f o r m a t i o n available f o r these bridges, are linear w a t e r w a y
calculations; no s t r u c t u r a l design has been a t t e m p t e d v/hich satisfies
the appropriate codes of p r a c t i c e .
1.2 Object of investigation

The a i m o f t h e work presented i n this paper is t o assess t h e load f a c t o r
of t h e bridge and t o evolve a suitable ' t y p i c a l design' based on a
s i m p l i f i e d approach w h i c h f o r m s t h e design w i t h respect t o intended
f u n c t i o n , economical s t r u c t u r e , and c o n f o r m i t y w i t h the appropriate codes
(1 t o 4).
It is aimed t o investigate these bridges w i t h i n the scope of c e r t a i n
parameters, t h a t is, (i) t w o lane bridge of 7.5m roadway (ii) end t o end
of parapet o f 8.4m ( i i i ) 76mm t h i c k wearing coat (iv) main s t r u c t u r e
is of c o n c r e t e M 1 0 .
U n d i s t o r t e d c o n c r e t e models of M 1 0 are tested t o check the v a l i d i t y
of t h e ' t y p i c a l design' and t o assess t h e load f a c t o r of t h e model and
in t u r n t h e load f a c t o r of t h e selected P r o t o t y p e (5). Hence undistorted
c o n c r e t e models o f M10 w i t h o u t (5 models namely, L I t o L 5 (Fig.6)
and L 9 , and w i t h nominal r e i n f o r c e m e n t (NR) surrounding the vents
(3 models namely, L 6 R , L 7 R , L 8 R (Fig.7) having a scale f a c t o r of 1/10
of t h e P r o t o t y p e (Fig. 14), are t e s t e d t o various position of l i v e load
(10,1.2) of d i f f e r e n t intensities and upto 12t (service load including i m p a c t
allowance is about 9 t ) . Fig.3 shows t h e live load unit on t h e model
and i t w i l l be t h e corresponding s c a l e d - down load of 70R t r a c k load.
(Fig. 10). Fig.3 i l l u s t r a t e s loading u n i t , instrumentation for vertical
d e f l e c t i o n and surface strains. Thus, t h e loading position is studied
for an e c c e n t r i c position of t h e model (10,11) in order t o obtain m a x i m u m
longitudinal moment at t h e t o p (Fig. 4) and b o t t o m (Fig.7) of c i r c u l a r
vents and i t s transverse moment on t h e top of deck. L i v e load at B
(Figs.3, 9) is one such position. I n i t i a l c r a c k load, f o r m a t i o n and
development o f cracks are studied. F u r t h e r tests w i l l be conducted
on each model t o assess t h e reserve strength of the model by increasing
the loads (Ot, l i t , 13t, 15t) and the loading on t h e model continued
u n t i l the f a i l u r e of t h e model.
Necessary i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n such as D e f l e c t i o n gauges and Demec gauges
are employed t o measure t h e deflections and strains at various points
(Figs.3, 4) of t h e model.
263
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2 Concrete model M10
While designing t h e models, c e r t a i n components l i k e c u t - o f f walls,

railings, parapets which do not a f f e c t the r e s p o n s e ( l 0 , 1 2 ) of the model
are c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e d . However, f o r c l a r i t y d u m m y kerbs and
parapets (Fig.3) are introduced at the t i m e of t a k i n g the photographs
of crack p a t t e r n f o r the models ( F i g . 4 ) . The loading f r a m e (Fig.2)
f a b r i c a t e d f o r the purpose of t e s t i n g the models, provides an elastic
f o u n d a t i o n t o the s t r u c t u r a l model w i t h i n t h e loading f r a m e i t s e l f .
The s i m u l a t e d depth of e l a s t i c f o u n d a t i o n (compacted sand) f o r t h e
model corresponds t o a foundation depth of 4.2m in t h e p r o t o t y p e
(Fig. 14).
The s t r u c t u r a l model a u t o m a t i c a l l y takes i n t o account (6, 11) dead
loads, t h r u s t and shear, the v a r y i n g moment o f i n e r t i a , d i s t r i b u t i o n
of loads on the corners and other secondary stresses which have been
neglected in the t h e o r e t i c a l calculations.
M i x design (8) by combined fineness modulus of combined aggregate
and fineness modulus of cement has been considered to obtain cement
c o n c r e t e of M10; cement concrete of 1:2.82:3.63 by weight and w i t h
w a t e r / c e m e n t of 0.67 is adopted as suitable m i x for the cement (portland
pozzolana) used. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c works cube strength (1) of c o n c r e t e
model M10 at 28 days is found to be 110.11 k g . / s q . c m ; however its
value should not be less than 102 k g . / s q . c m (1).
A n y s t r u c t u r a l model w h i c h lies " w i t h i n acceptance range" of the
standardized n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n curve has t o be t r e a t e d as "under
acceptance"(9). Each model a f t e r t e s t i n g , is investigated whether i t
is w i t h i n the "accepted r e g i o n " of the standardized normal d i s t r i b u t i o n
curve using test results of a u x i l i a r y specimen (Fig. 8 ) .
3 T y p i c a l design
R e c e n t l y the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of vehicles has been revised and the latest
codal provision (2) states t h a t "Class 70R loading should be used on
N a t i o n a l highways". Studies have shown that this loading is compara-
t i v e l y heavier than the loadings in advanced countries (13).
However, 70R t r a c k load (Fig. 10) being the c r i t i c a l load f o r these
bridges, the same loading is considered i n the design. I n the proposed
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , loading aspects such as i) Dead loads i i ) I m p a c t load,
i i i ) Breaking f o r c e iv) E f f e c t of d i s t r i b u t i o n of t r a c k load ( 1 , 7 ) and
e f f e c t i v e w i d t h of slab f o r overlapping e f f e c t i v e w i d t h s ( l ) have also
been g i v e n due consideration ( F i g . 10).
F r o m the p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n , cracks due t o f a i l u r e of these bridges
are supposed t o develop on the top most point of the f i r s t c i r c u l a r
vent f r o m the end of the p r i s m a t i c s t r u c t u r e or the end of an expansion
joint. This aspect has been considered as one of the i m p o r t a n t c r i t e r i a
of f a i l u r e of models and v e r i f i e d (Fig.9) w h i l e t e s t i n g the c o n c r e t e
models (Figs. 5 t o 7) and found to be t r u e .
Sum of dead load bending moment ( s t a t i c a l m o m e n t ) and absolute
l i v e load bending moment (SM) is design longitudinal bending moment
( s t a t i c a l m o m e n t ) , and this diagram is shown in F i g . 11 The f i x e d end
#
moments are assessed by column-analogy method (14). F i g . 12 is the

f i n a l l o n g i t u d i n a l bending moment d i a g r a m f o r t h e longitudinal s t r i p
per m e t r e w i d t h of deck, by w o r k i n g stress m e t h o d . Design code (1)
p e r m i t the support moments c a l c u l a t e d by elastic methods, t o be r e -
264
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d i s t r i b u t e d (6) u p t o 15% provided that the mid-span moment is decreased
by a s i m i l a r amount. F i g . 12 shows the v a r i a t i o n of longitudinal design
bending moment along the deck of the roadway. F i g . 13 shows the
contours of tensile f l e x u r a l stresses t h a t are based on elastic t h e o r y
method and r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of moments at various sections corresponding
to the e x t r e m e fibres of deck and v e n t .
4 Test results
The behaviour o f the c o n c r e t e model M10 w i t h o u t and w i t h nominal
r e i n f o r c e m e n t (0.157% of vented area) around the vents is studied w i t h
respect t o deflections, surface strains, f o r m a t i o n and development of
cracks. Table 1 is the summary of i n i t i a l c r a c k load and u l t i m a t e
resisting c a p a c i t y of c o n c r e t e models M10 w i t h o u t and w i t h nominal
r e i n f o r c e m e n t around the vents. Thus load f a c t o r of p r o t o t y p e is 2.06
and i t s c a p a c i t y is increased to 2.4 by providing nominal r e i n f o r c e m e n t
around the vents.
Fig.9 shows the response of the model towards 70R t r a c k load; loading
position r e f e r s t o section B (Fig.9) and centre of vent number 1 is the
c r i t i c a l section, and stressed to the m a x i m u m value (curve numbers 1
and 6 i n Fig.9). Figs.5 to 7 shows the crack p a t t e r n f o r a models L5
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and L 8 R r e s p e c t i v e l y .
5 Analysis of P r o t o t y p e
The permissible tensile f l e x u r a l stress (1,4) i n 'tension zone for mass 1
c o n c r e t e 1:3:6 w i t h 20% plums and c o n c r e t e M10 is 'zero and 3.4 k g . 1
per s q . c m r e s p e c t i v e l y . Keeping the thickness t o 0.6m above, below

and i n between the vents, f o r the C C M V bridge of concrete M10 (Fig. 14) f
the ' t y p i c a l design' was c a r r i e d out f o r d i f f e r e n t vent diameters; i t

is observed t h a t 3.4m diameter vent is the ' o p t i m u m v e n t ' and the
c r i t i c a l sections are checked f o r the p r i n c i p a l stresses also. Special
a t t e n t i o n has been given to the aesthetic aspects of the s t r u c t u r e .
6 Conclusions
A close observation of F i g . 13; reveals t h a t s u f f i c i e n t area of tensile zone
exist in the s t r u c t u r e . Since 84.35% being the concrete work of M10
for the m a i n s t r u c t u r e , i t should be constructed using c o n t r o l l e d concrete
M10 r a t h e r than mass c o n c r e t e 1:3:6 w i t h or w i t h o u t plums, and the
coarse aggregate f o r concrete work of M10 should be 20mm and down
size only.
In order t o w i t h s t a n d secondary stresses, a nominal t e m p e r a t u r e
reinforcement (8mm T o r rods) of q u a n t i t y about 0.15% o f m i n i m u m
area of cross section of the deck should be provided around the vent
both in c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l and transverse d i r e c t i o n .
For the C C M V bridge c o n s t r u c t e d i n concrete M10 of thickness 0.6m,
i t is n o t i c e d t h a t 3.4m diameter vent is the ' o p t i m u m v e n t ' . For f u r t h e r
increase i n the diameter of the vent f r o m 3.4m t o 3.7m o f the C C M V
bridge c o n s t r u c t e d i n concrete M 1 0 , the thickness i n between the vents,
at the top and the b o t t o m of the vents should be 0.9m instead of 0.6m.
I t is b e t t e r to provide a b e l l - m o u t h e d e n t r y and e x i t f o r the c i r c u l a r
vents and i t refers t o an arc of quadrant of a c i r c l e having a radius
of about 0.044 times the d i a m e t e r of vent (Fig. 14). This m o d i f i c a t i o n
should be t r e a t e d as essential f r o m an aesthetic point of v i e w , reduces
t h e a f f l u x and increases the c o e f f i c i e n t o f discharge, and w i l l relieve
265
Copyright CRC Press

the 'stress c o n c e n t r a t i o n at the corners of the vent.
1
For every q u a r t e r p o r t i o n of the c i r c u l a r vent, for a b e l l - m o u t h e d e n t r y

and e x i t , the f o r m w o r k consists of 3 subunits instead of a single unit .
I f the length of the bridge exceeds 45m (1) i t would be desirable
to provide an expansion j o i n t . Since the embankments may be vulnerable
to a t t a c k by floods, R e i n f o r c e d Cement C o n c r e t e C a n t i l e v e r type wing
walls are economical rather than R e t u r n type w i n g walls. F i g . 14 shows
the cross sectional e l e v a t i o n of C C M V bridge p r o t o t y p e having a vent
d i a m e t e r of 3.4m w i t h suggested m o d i f i c a t i o n s . D e t a i l s of wearing coat,
kerbs, parapets, drainage arrangements and expansion j o i n t are similar t o
as other bridges.
Thus the design of C C M V bridges by the ' t y p i c a l design' using a
s i m p l i f i e d approach has i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as, s a f e t y of
s t r u c t u r e w i t h economy, satisfies appropriate codes, f o l l o w s the c u r r e n t
p r a c t i c e o f d e t e r m i n i n g the liveload m o m e n t , the design procedure is
e a s y to f o l l o w , saves the designer's t i m e and moreover, the design is
based on the s t r u c t u r a l model behaviour.
6 Acknowledgement
This i n v e s t i g a t i o n , research w o r k f o r m s a p a r t o f long t e r m research
p r o j e c t leading t o Ph.D degree and c a r r i e d out at the C i v i l Engineering
D e p a r t m e n t (U.V.C.E.) of Bangalore U n i v e r s i t y . The financial support
of the U n i v e r s i t y Grants Commission, New D e l h i , for this research w o r k
is g r a t e f u l l y acknowledged.
Table 1 I n i t i a l crack load and u l t i m a t e load of C C M V models of M10

w i t h o u t and w i t h nominal r e i n f o r c e m e n t around the vents
SI Model Position of Initial Ultimate Average Load f a c t o r
No number* load and i t s crack load ultimate and
parti- designation load (t) load (t) remarks
culars (t)
1 L4 Centre of 12.00 18.00 18.00 18/8.75=2.06

vent
(Section B)
2 L5 ?t 16.50 18.00
3 L6R ?!
no no cracks 21.00 21.00/3.75=2.40
cracks Max.app-
lied load=
22.35t
4 L7R I! 17.27 18.29
5 L8R It 15.00 22.35
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6 LI Section A 20.00 20.00 Section A is
not c r i t i c a l
7 L3 Section C 17.00 21.00 Section C is
not c r i t i c a l
8 L9 Section D 15.00 22.35 Section D is
not c r i t i c a l
266
Copyright CRC Press

A p p e n d i x . - References
1 -,(1979) Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete, 18:456,

Indian Standards I n s t i t u t i o n , New D e l h i , 147 pp.
2 -,(1974) Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road
Bridges, Section-II - Loads and Stresses, I R C : 6 , The Indian Roads
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Congress, N e w D e l h i , 34 pp.
3 -,(1975) Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges,
Section I - General Features o f Design, I R C : 5, The Indian Roads
Congress, New D e l h i , 30 pp.
4 -,(1974) Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges,
Section I I I - Cement Concrete (Plain and Reinforced), I R C : 2 1 , The
Indian Roads Congress, New D e l h i , p p . 3 - 2 1 , , 26-36, 32-34, 52-59.
5 -,(1971) Construction of a cast-in-situ Pipe Bridge across Begur River
at mile 7/8 of Harihara - Ballayanmandur Road, Report, Karnataka
Public Works D e p a r t m e n t , K a r n a t a k a , 26 pp.
6 -,Davies, J.D.(1964) Structural Concrete, The MacMillan Company,
New Y o r k , pp.7-9, 55-66, 99-107, 116-127, 149-159.
7 Johnson V i c t o r , D.(1973) Essentials of Brdlge Engineering, O x f o r d
and I B H Publishing Co., N e w D e l h i , pp. 13-53, 66-97, 102-132, 299-
303.
8 Jaikrishna, and Jain, O.P.(1966) Plain and Reinforced Concrete,
Vol.1, Nemchand and Bros., Roorkee, pp.49, 58-59, 63-65, 79, 121.
9 R i c h a r d B. E l l i s , (1975) Statistical Inference, Basic Concepts, P r e n t i c e -
H a l l , Inc., Englewood C l i f f s , N . J . , pp.48-59.
10 Ricardo P.Pama, and A n t h o n y R. Cusens,(1969), Load distribution
in multibeam concrete bridges, 1st. International Symposium on
Concrete Bridge Design, A C I , D e t r o i t , Sp.Pub.No.23-7.
11 Sterling Kinney,J.( 1962) Indeterminate Structural Analysis, Addision-
Wesley Publishing Company, Inc, Massachusetts, USA, pp.431-441,
584-636.
12 Stevens, L . K . and Gosbell, K.B.(1969), Model studies on a beam and
slab concrete bridge* and concentrated loads, 1st. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Sympo-
sium on C o n c r e t e Bridge Design, A C I , D e t r o i t , Sp.pub.No. 23-5.
13 Thomas, P.K. (1975) A Comparative study of Highway Bridge Loadings
in Different Countries, U . K . Transport and Road Research Laboratory,
Supplementary Report 135 U C , 47 pp.
14 Wang, C.K.(1953) Statically Indeterminate Structures, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc., pp.289-292, 298-303.
Fig.1 CCMV Bridge
Copyright CRC Press

Fig,3 Instrumentation f o r the Concrete Model MIO.
F i g * shows Loading Unit f o r IRC 70R Track
Load and Observation of the S u r f a c e S t r a i n 1 1
Fig,4 Front Face of Model

showing Instrumentation.
F i g . shows the Loading
Unit a t S e c t i o n C
268
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

Fig.5 Crack P a t t e r n f o r Fig.6 Crack P a t t e r n f o r
the Front Face of the End Face and
Model L5 ( P l a i n Rear Face of
concrete MIO) Model L5 ( P l a i n
concrete MIO)
Crack P a t t e r n f o r
the Bottom of Vent
( V I ) and Rear Face
f o r the Model L8R
(Model of MIO with
nominal r e i n f o r c e -
ment around the
vents)
STANDARDIZED
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
(CURVE MEAN.Ot
VARIANCE 1 )
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIG. 8 - COMPRESSIVE WORKS CUBE STRENGTH (BASEO ON STATISTICAL STUDY)

MODELS ° M 1 ( A
32 WEEKS) FOR STRUCTURAI
G E - A V E R A G E
269
Copyright CRC Press

70 R LOADING UNIT (TRACK)
10 57 mm hard rubber sheet
End face r-7 6cm thick wearing coat ^structural
= - o / I model
V T
Construction
/joint face
VB2/ \^VB3^
733 mm hard rubber sheet
^4_5_crjQ ^lain c^ncreJejl^»LTo^fâiipnêo ioLtrie»rnj)<jei
r E l a s t i c foundation (Sand bed) ! -
M7- -Section^designated by section B
-H 12 -34 0 H 6 h — 3 4 0 - -34 0- 9 IM-
135 -
Elevation (Dimensions are in cm •)
POSITION OF 70R TRACK LOADING (Zone-B)
(!)-Strain in VT1 of model L ^ I Q ©-Deflection at AV1 of model L^RMIO
®" " ' L

N R M 1 0 ® - L 5
<3>- L 5
® - » » AV2 » » L 1 0
©- « «VB1" » L M 1 0
® - " "AV3» " L M 1 0
©-Deflection at AV1 of model L^-JQ

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Load in tonnes Load in tonnes
FIG. 9 - F O R THE LOAD AT 'ZONE-B* ON THE MODEL (L ,L

5 M 1 0
and L RM10) EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF STRAIN ( i t VT1,

N
VB1) AND DEFLECTION (AV1, AV2 and AV3) DIAGRAM

(Vent diameter «0-34m,Scale factor « Vjn)
270
Copyright CRC Press

42 7m
13-5m
of IRC 70R tracked vehicle
vent 1 of vent 2 , ÎRC 70R track
-4-57m
f- 4 of vent 3 76 mm th. wearing coat (t^)
2-3 m
(a) Longitudinal section of

upper halt (Huh) of
- CCMV bridge (Kerb
and parapet not shown)
, , 1 . . , r
|2M 1»7 'i21^ I T i e "laic
-l T 1
e ' ****
[Êffective span, L = 4m 4 - — Effective span, L = 4 m- - J — Effective span, L = 4 m -
(b) Assumed support conditions for end vents and interior vents
t of road way _Z2 I R C 70R for tracked vehicle
IRC 70 R tracked vehicle
29 -I 792 m- •I h — 7 - 9 2 m —
dktanct by*1-2m 76 mm th. wearing coat
bc= 450 mm
r-eri Rustication j ^ R o a d level ^
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
' ' 11
4-57 m-
30 m ~
(d)View of IRC 70R track vehicle and spacing of successive vehicle
Width of roadway = 7-5 m-
U - Width of bridge 2b = 8 4 m -
(c)tttacaitifln of IRC 7DR tracked vehicle for minimum
vehicle edge distance of 12 m (b«)
FI6.10-DETAILS OF POSITION OF IRC 70R TRACK VEHICLE ON CCMV BRIDGE ( S c a l e : 10 mm 500 m m )
Copyright CRC Press

^(Rcad levels
' 104*946)
49-8 10-7 ,3-25 1-41, c ,UIc3-25,10-7,498,
4
-jr- - T - -, -> | | -I- | »<
c
Effective s p a n , L = 4m «|
FIG. 11 (a)-ASSUMED BOUNDARY CONDITION

CScale : 10 mm = 400 mm )
FIG. 11 (d)-ANALOGOUS- COLUMN SECTION

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
272
Copyright CRC Press

Live load ( I R C 70R tracked vehicle)
4*57 m j - • j 76 mm thick
t of vent wearing coat
nnHEiiaiiBfi E M U
Huh=2-3 m
CCM ;D
Linear scale; 10 mm = 400 mml

k)-6m-l
-Effective span, L = 4 m
FIG. 12 (a)-SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF LONGI. STRIP FOR
CCMV BRIDGE DECK
l/ Longitudinal BM (M re) after

X
f redistribution of moments in the

deck of CCMV bridge
BMD s c a l e : 10 mm =1000 kgm
FIG. 12 to)-VARIATI0N OF LONGITUDINAL BENDING MOMENT

(M )
x IN CCMV BRIDGE
273
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

Live load ( I R C 7 0 R tracked v e h i c l e )
FIG. 1 3 (a)-T0TAL T E N S I L E F L E X U R A L S T R E S S ( k g / c m )
2
FIG. 13 (b)-TOTAL T E N S I L E F L E X U R A L S T R E S S
C O N T O U R S D E V E L O P E D IN T H E LONGI. S T R I P ( k g / c m ) C O N T O U R S D E V E L O P E D IN
2
OF C C M V B R I D G E B A S E D ON ' E L A S T I C T H E LONGI. S T R I P OF C C M V B R I D G E
THEORV ' METHOD CONSIDERING 'REDISTRIBUTION O F MOMENTS'
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

8-4 m
-7 5 m road way
r =0044 0
- R C C Parapet
r = 150 m m ' -Road level
- R C C Kerb
Afflux high flood level
-7-6 mm thick wearing coat
High floocLJ&yj&L
T
600mm 1:3:6 m a s s concrete
with 2 0 % plums
(^-Concrete mix. with
D= 3-4 m nominal temperature
dia. vent reinforcement around
600 mm y t h c y e n t } 150mm
Deepest bed level
600mm thick-
rough stone bed pitching
Boulder packing in s a n d 300 mm th
i150 mm
300 mm
^-600 mm
300 mm thick 1:5:10 cement concretej£>
1:3:6 m a s s concrete
pad for stabilising the foundation- Sand or soil s t r a t a
er-Cement-concrete 1:4:8) -Rough stone pitching
For sandy beds or alluvial M m to 0-6 m thick
soils cut off walls (1.3:6 cement
concrete) are provided to a depth Note:
-Cut-off wall
of 1 33 the maximum scour depth (#-Modification suggested, after
measured from H F L a detailed investigation a n d
analysis of the bridge structure )
h-600 600— h-
FIG. U - C R O S S SECTIONAL ELEVATION OF ( S E L E C T E D PROTOTYPE) C A S T - I N - SITJ J
CEMENT C O N C R E T E MULTI-CIRCULAR VENTED HIGHWAY BRIDGE

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

THE U S E OF OPEN THIN-WALLED
C O N C R E T E S T R U C T U R E S AS RAIL
BRIDGES
S.A. E L - H A M M A S I
College of Technological Studies, Shuwaikh, Kuwait
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Abstract
The b e h a v i o u r of open t h i n - w a l l e d , r e s t r a i n e d c o n c r e t e
beams o f c h a n n e l c r o s s - s e c t i o n h a v e b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d i n
t h i s paper f o r the p o s t - c r a c k i n g s t a g e s of l o a d i n g . A
m a t h e m a t i c a l model has been developed f o r t h e computation
of t h e d e f o r m a t i o n s and g e o m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a t any s t a g e
of l o a d i n g , t o a n a l y z e any shape of open c r o s s - s e c t i o n
s t r u c t u r e s t h a t a r e s u b j e c t e d to i n t e r a c t i o n of bending and
t o r s i o n o r a n y o f them s e p a r a t e l y . To c o n f i r m t h e m a t h e -
m a t i c a l m e t h o d a p p r o a c h , f i v e i d e n t i c a l c o n c r e t e beams o f
channel c r o s s - s e c t i o n which were r e s t r a i n e d a g a i n s t warping
a t the ends by adequate diaphragms, have been t e s t e d under
d i f f e r e n t r a t i o s of l o a d s . The l o a d i n g t a k e s p l a c e from
z e r o up t o f a i l u r e . The r e s u l t s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l work
and t h e o r y were put i n comparison. They a r e i n v e r y a g r e e -
able sense.
K e y w o r d s : T o r s i o n , B e n d i n g moment, W a r p i n g t o r s i o n ,
B i m o m e n t , S t . V e n a n t ' s t o r s i o n , P o s t - c r a c k i n g , Open c r o s s -
s e c t i o n , T h i n - w a l l e d , Beam, A n g l e of t w i s t , D e f l e c t i o n .
1 Introduction
I n p r a c t i c e i t i s v e r y r a r e to f i n d s t r u c t u r e s subjected to
pure t o r s i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y those designed to r e s i s t g r a v i t y
l o a d s . T o r s i o n i s n e a r l y always accompanied by bending
moment a n d s h e a r . E x a m p l e s o f s t r u c t u r e s s u b j e c t e d t o
c o m b i n e d l o a d i n g a r e c u r v e d b e a m s , s p a n d r e l beams a n d a l l
structures that carrying eccentric loads.
Many e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n
c o n d u c t e d on p u r e t o r s i o n , a s w e l l a s i t s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h
b e n d i n g moment a n d s h e a r , i n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e . T o r s i o n
and i t s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h bending i n t h i c k - w a l l e d c r o s s -
sections i s moderately w e l l understood, since the applied
t o r s i o n i s t o t a l l y r e s i s t e d by pure S t . V e n a n t ' s t o r s i o n .
A l s o , t h e b e h a v i o u r of t h i n - w a l l e d s t r u c t u r e s of open
c r o s s - s e c t i o n under pure t o r s i o n have been w e l l e s t a b -
l i s h e d , i n t h e e l a s t i c r a n g e f o r homogeneous m a t e r i a l s .
Both S t . V e n a n t ' s t o r s i o n and warping t o r s i o n a r e t a k e n i n t o
276
Copyright CRC Press

account f o r t h i s loading. However,torsion i n thin-walled
r e i n f o r c e d concrete s t r u c t u r e s of open r e s t r a i n e d c r o s s -
s e c t i o n , r e s t r a i n e d against warping, has not been developed
yet i n the post-cracking range.
The primary aim of t h i s paper, therefore, i s t o i n v e s t i -
gate the behaviour of such s t r u c t u r e s . A t h e o r e t i c a l method
has been developed and i t s accuracy has been confirmed by
comparing r e s u l t s with those obtained experimentally under
d i f f e r e n t r a t i o s of bending to t o r s i o n . The study includes
the a l l stages of loading from the point of cracking up to
failure.
Secondary warping of the elements that form the c r o s s -
s e c t i o n i s ignored i n these stages of loading due to i t s
l i t t l e e f f e c t a t post-cracking range.
2 Research significance
The behaviour of homogeneous e l a s t i c members with t h i n -
walled open s e c t i o n under the i n t e r a c t i o n of bending and
t o r s i o n has been i n v e s t i g a t e d to a l i m i t e d extent Refs.11,
12. However, i f concrete beams are used , i t i s i n e v i t a b l e
that they w i l l crack under s e r v i c e loading. A f t e r i n i t i a l
cracking a l l the geometrical properties of the c r o s s - s e c -
t i o n change s i g n i f i c a n t l y and become a function of the
various forces a c t i n g on the c r o s s - s e c t i o n and the condi-
t i o n of the end supports. I t i s therefore necessary to
study the behaviour of open thin-walled concrete beams i n
the post-cracking range.
2.1 Experimental programme

F i v e i d e n t i c a l specimens were constructed i n r e i n f o r c e d
concrete and t e s t e d under d i f f e r e n t r a t i o s of bending and
t o r s i o n . The shape of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n was that of a
channel, 0.5m deep and 0.5m wide with a uniform w a l l t h i c k -
ness of 50 mm. The o v e r a l l length of each beam was 5.0m.
D e t a i l e d information of the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l dimensions and
the amount of , l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e reinforcement,
are shown i n F i g . ( l ) . The aim of the experimental work
described here was to i n v e s t i g a t e the behaviour of concrete
thin-walled beams of open c r o s s - s e c t i o n under the i n t e r a c -
t i o n of bending and t o r s i o n . R e s u l t s obtained from t h i s
work have been compared with those obtained t h e o r e t i c a l l y .
1
300.01
1
2.IOO,„
'<\
V
20p 2.100m p<j
5.0 m
I
F i g . l a . General arrangement of t e s t specimen
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
277
Copyright CRC Press

Fig.lb. Details of reinforcement in X-section
A d i a p h r a g m was p r o v i d e d a t e a c h e n d o f t h e beams a n d
were a d e q u a t e l y r e i n f o r c e d t o r e s t r a i n w a r p i n g . A l s o each
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
had a d d i t i o n a l diaphragm a t midspan f o r f i x i n g the loading

r i g a n d f o r p r e v e n t i n g l o c a l damage i n t h i s a r e a , as shown
i n F i g . ( 2 ) and F i g . ( 3 ) respectively.
Botto m v i e w Sectio n A- A
Fig.2. Reinforcement details of middle diaphragm
Botto m vie w
I Sectio n A- A
Fig.3. Reinforcement details of end diaphragms
278
Copyright CRC Press

The test procedure has been t a k e n the following arrange-
ment:
( a ) R i g f o r i n t e r a c t i o n o f b e n d i n g a n d t o r s i o n was composed
as f o l l o w s . A l e v e r - a r m a s s e m b l y w h i c h i s a cantilever
supporting a hydraulic jack for applying pressure,
t h r o u g h a l o a d i n g b a r , w h i c h was r e s t i n g o n a s t e e l b o x .
The l o a d a p p l i e d t h r o u g h t h e l o a d i n g b a r w h i c h passes
t h e l o a d i n g l e v e r - a r m assembly and an o t h e r s i m i l a r
l e v e r w h i c h was f i x e d i n t h e t w o b o t t o m beams o f t h e
t e s t i n g f r a m e . The t e s t i n g f r a m e i s a b i g s t e e l f r a m e
composed o f b i g s t e e l e l e m e n t s ; two t o p beams; two
b o t t o m beams a n d t w o c o l u m n s a t e a c h e n d . t h e beams a n d
columns are connected t o g e t h e r by b i g a d j u s t a b l e bolts,
F i g . ( 4 ) i l l u s t r a t e s t h e mechanism o f l o a d i n g and
supporting.
t e s t i n g Frax
( c ) Loading Assembly
F i g . 4 . L o a d i n g / s u p p o r t i n g mechanism f o r i n t e r a c t i o n o f b e n d i n g / t o r s i o n
(b) Rig f o r pure t o r s i o n consisted of two l o a d i n g jacks

a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y u n d e r t h e same p r e s s u r e , but at
o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f t h e t e s t e d beam a n d a l s o i n o p p o s i t e
d i r e c t i o n f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f c r e a t i o n o f p u r e c o u p l e as
s h o w n i n F i g . ( 5 ) . T h e s u p p o r t s a r e t h e same a s t h o s e
used i n r i g (4).
( c ) R i g f o r p u r e b e n d i n g t h e l o a d was a p p l i e d b y a h y d r a u l i c
j a c k , a t t h e m i d s p a n , w h i c h was f i x e d o n t h e t o p beams
o f t h e t e s t i n g f r a m e . The t e s t beam was s u p p o r t e d o n
rounded s t e e l bars which are welded to s t e e l plates
w h i c h r e s t s on c o n c r e t e b l o c k s . S t r a i n s are measured by
u s i n g a Demec g a u g e . T h e s t r a i n s w e r e r e a d b o t h i n
l o n g i t u d i n a l and t r a n s v e r s e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s . A l s o angle
of t w i s t and d e f l e c t i o n s are recorded f o r each stage of
loading.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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( a ) Loading Rig ( b ) Support Rig
Fig.5. Testing r i g f o r pure torsion
2.2 Mathematical approach

A s e c a n t m o d u l u s method o f e q u i l i b r i u m has been used i n
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
t h i s work t o f o r m u l a t e and c a l c u l a t e t h e d e f o r m a t i o n s ,
s t r e s s e s and g e o m e t r i c a l constants f o r every cross-section
a l o n g t h e beam. A n i t e r a t i o n m e t h o d was u s e d f o r w h i c h t h e
e f f e c t i v e u s e o f a c o m p u t e r w a s e s s e n t i a l . Some a s s u m p t i o n s
h a v e b e e n made f o r t h e s a k e o f s i m p l i c i t y w i t h o u t u n d u l y
a f f e c t i n g the r e s u l t s obtained by the method:
(a) c r o s s - s e c t i o n remains r i g i d , i . e . , does n o t d i s t o r t .

(b) t h e e f f e c t of shear d e f o r m a t i o n i s n e g l i g i b l e and
ignored.
(c) t h e s t e e l i n t h e t e n s i o n and compression zones and
c o n c r e t e i n c o m p r e s s i o n may be t r a n s f e r r e d t o a n e q u i v a -
l e n t a r e a o f c o n c r e t e w h i c h has a modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y
(Ec) i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way:
A c s = n.A s steel i n tension (1)
A c s c = (n-l).A s c steel i n compression (2)
teq = r . t concrete i n compression (3)
where n = E s s e c /E c ; r = E c s e c /E c
The g e o m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e u n c r a c k e d c r o s s
s e c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g r e i n f o r c e m e n t , were c a l c u l a t e d first
b e f o r e e n t e r i n g c r a c k e d s t a g e . S t r a i n s may t h e n b e c a l c u -
l a t e d f o r t h e c r a c k i n g l o a d as g i v e n b y E q . ( 1 5 ) .
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The c r o s s - s e c t i o n i s divided into strips of concrete,
t h e c o o r d i n a t e s x , y and w o f each s t r i p b e i n g c a l c u l a t e d
a t i t s c e n t e r . The c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t bars
are defined by t h e i r centers. A t f i r s t cracking the s t r i p s
o f c o n c r e t e t h a t l i e i n t h e t e n s i o n zone a r e o m i t t e d b y
putting t(i)=0.
I n a l l stages o f l o a d i n g t h e secant modulus i s used f o r
b o t h c o n c r e t e a n d s t e e l . The f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n R e f . 1 2
gives t h e secant modulus o f concrete a t every l e v e l o f
stresses.
Ecsec(e ) c = f £ (— (4)
G
o < )
The e q u i v a l e n t t h i c k n e s s o f each s t r i p i n t h e c o m p r e s -
s i o n zone i s g i v e n b y E q . ( 3 ) . A l s o , f o r s t e e l e i t h e r i n
tension o r i n compression, t h e equivalent concrete is
c a l c u l a t e d according t o Eqns.(l) and (2) r e s p e c t i v e l y .
F i g . ( 6 ) a n d F i g . ( 7 ) show t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e s f o r
c o n c r e t e a n d s t e e l r e s p e c t i v e l y . The c y c l e s o f i t e r a t i o n
take place u n t i l s a t i s f a c t o r y convergence occurs, charac-
terized by
cr cr , ^ cr
^wwtn-l) " W < °- I«m
T n T
0 0 1
w h i c h means t h a t strains i n two successive iterations are

nearly equal.
*Z = ^ ( i j . t f & i , + S A
cseq(3>- s<3> w
X
S =
=t e q (i). A .w.c(ij.y (i) c + 2 A c s e q ( j ) . w ( j ) . y ( j )
s s
*Sx " S t e q ( i ) . A . w c ( i ) . x c ( i ) + Z A c s e q ( j ) . w s ( j ) . x s ( j ) (5)
T
xx - SteqtD.A.*^ ) 1 + E A
sceq(j)- s(3) x
J
yy =
" e q ^ ' ^ c * 1
* + E A
sceq(j)-ys^)
J
xy " 2 t
e q ( ) ' A - y
i
c ( ) - i x
c ( ) i + S A
S c e q ( J > < j
> ' x
s ( J )
S
w - =t e q (i)./ W (i) + SA s c e q (j).w (j) s
S
x = ^ e q ^ J ' A - x ^ i ) + S A s c e q ( j ) . x ( j ) s (6)
S
y = " e q ^ - A - V 1
) + S A
sceq( ^) (J )
281
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Copyright CRC Press

Ox = ( Ixx.Ixy-Ixy.Ixy)/(Ixx.Iyy -Ixy ) (7a)
ay =-( iyy.ixx-Ixy.Ixxy/(Ixx.Iyy -Ixy ) (7b)
Fig.6. Stress-strain curve f o r concrete

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90 100 110 120 x lOôn/m
Fig.7. Idealized stress-strain curve f o r steel
Eqns. (7a) and (7b) g i v e t h e components o f t h e s h i f t o f

t h e s h e a r c e n t r e . As t h e s h e a r c e n t r e changes t h e amount o f
b i m o m e n t w i l l be c h a n g e d as w e l l , a n d be g i v e n b y t h e
following expression
Mww = Mww + M x x . a x + Myy.ay (8)
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Copyright CRC Press

2.3 Mixed torsion
I t i s w e l l known t h a t , a f t e r cracking, the f l e x u r a l and
t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s of concrete decreases and the degree
of t h i s reduction depends s i g n i f i c a n t l y on the l e v e l of
s t r e s s over the c r o s s - s e c t i o n . However, i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
type of s t r u c t u r e , the St.Venant's t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s
which i s the most a f f e c t e d , decreases sharply and i s given
by the following expression Ref.(8)
GCcr = E (Ao) A(l+m)/(u.s)

s
2
(9)
where m=Al t . s / (A. u)
A common measure of the s i g n i f i c a n c e of warping t o r s i o n
i s given by k, the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c length which, a f t e r
c r a c k i n g , may be defined as
kcr = L W^CTTTEII^) (10)
V
C WW' X 7
This term tends to be very small s i n c e the reduction i n

St.Venant's t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s i s r e l a t i v e l y greater than
t h a t of the t o r s i o n a l warping s t i f f n e s s . I f the St.Venant's
t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s i s neglected, then the bimoment, due to
the r e s t r a i n t of the warping deformation a t any c r o s s -
s e c t i o n , i s given by:
M = -T(L-4z)/8 0 < z < L/2 (11a)
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ww
M ww = T(3L-4z)/8 L/2 < z < L (lib)

Making t h i s assumption the equation for bimoment i s
analogous to t h a t for bending moment due to a concentrated
load a t midspan. This analogy may be extended to any type
of loading.
The curvatures due to the bimoment and bending moments
are given by the following expressions:
<t>" = -Mww/(EcI ) cr
(12a)
n
" = -Mxx/(EcI^) (12b)
" = Myy/(EcI^ ) (12c)
These expressions may be numerically integrated by,
Simpson's Rule, to give the angle of t w i s t and d e f l e c t i o n s
a t any c r o s s - s e c t i o n along the beam.
The shear s t r e s s e s are functions of the s e c t i o n s t a t i c a l
moments Swxcr, Sxcr and Sycr and are given by the following
equation:
Tw.S Cr
+ Vy.S Cr
+ Vx.S Cr
q = y *- (13)
^ jCr jCr jCr v
'
ww yy xx
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Copyright CRC Press

where the c o n t r i b u t i o n of St.Venant's t o r s i o n has been
neglected, as mentioned before .
The s t r a i n s i n the s t i r r u p s , concrete s t r u t s and
l o n g i t u d i n a l reinforcement which are mainly due to shear
s t r e s s e s , a r e given by the following expression
E n = q.tana/(Esh.th) (14a)
E c = q/(Ec.tc.sin2a) (14b)
^1 =
q/(Esl.tl.tana) (14c)
3 E v a l u a t i o n and presentation of r e s u l t s
3.1 I n t e r a c t i o n of loading
For a p p l i c a t i o n s of loading w i t h i n the e l a s t i c range of the
s t e e l , the i n t e r a c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p between bending moment
and warping moment i s l i n e a r up to y i e l d i n g of the f i r s t
l o n g i t u d i n a l s t e e l bar, F i g . ( 8 ) . This implies that the
geometrical properties a r e not g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d by the
r e l a t i v e amounts of bending moment and warping moment
during these stages of loading. Since the mechanical
p r o p e r t i e s of the s t e e l a r e everywhere w i t h i n the e l a s t i c
l i m i t , the areas i n the compression and tension zones do
not change considerably. The following expression gives the
value of s t r a i n under any r a t i o of loading:
1*f Experi
Fig.8. I n t e r a c t i o n o f bimoment and bending moment o f y i e l d i n g o f s t e e l
M .w + M (I .ycr -I .xcr) c r c r
ww c r x x xx v
xy '_ /Ec
J
(15)
cr - ^ r ^ c r 2
WW xx yy xy 1
I t i s c l e a r from the above expression t h a t , for a par-

t i c u l a r value of s t r a i n , any increment i n the l e v e l of one
of the forces must r e s u l t i n a corresponding decrement i n
284
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

the other. I f the geometrical properties are constant which
i s nearly t h e case. Experimental results confirms t h i s
p o i n t see F i g . ( 8 ) . I n the f i n a l stages of loading, after
t h e s t e e l has s t a r t e d t o y i e l d , t h e t o r s i o n a l w a r p i n g
s t i f f n e s s and f l e x u r a l s t i f f n e s s of every cross-section of
t h e beam a r e n o t i c e a b l y affected.
The p r e d i c t e d l o a d s a n d a c t u a l l o a d s t h a t c a u s e f a i l u r e
do n o t d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y . This i s apparent f r o m Table 1 .
F o r e x a m p l e , Beam 1 , t h e u l t i m a t e t o r q u e s o b t a i n e d e x p e r i -
m e n t a l l y a n d t h e o r e t i c a l l y d i f f e r b y 8.8%. F o r Beam4, w h i c h
i s u n d e r p u r e t o r s i o n , t h e d i f f e r e n c e was o n l y 3.3%.
Table 1. Failure loads f o r each beam
Experimental results Theoretical prediction
B e P a P+P a T M P T M
m kN kN kN.m kN.m kN kN kN.m
1 2.350 23.00 24.40 57.37 31.24 26.78 62.92 31.46

2 1.560 31.00 33.06 51.60 40.60 40.96 63.90 48.13
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3 1.175 40.00 42.73 50.21 52.38 54.40 63.92 63.68
4 1.000 60.00 60.00 60.00 0.00 62.00 62.00 0.00
5 0.000 222.00 222.00 0.00 260.85 265.00 0.00 311.37
At these stages the r e l a t i o n s h i p between bending and

w a r p i n g moment i s n o l o n g e r l i n e a r , b u t i t t a k e s t h e shape
shown i n F i g . ( 9 ) .
Bimoment
100 .
kN.a»
80
Fig.9. Interaction o f bimoment at failure
From t h i s f i g u r e i t i s n o t i c e d that at ultimate load,

the a p p l i c a t i o n o f b e n d i n g moment enhances t h e t o r s i o n a l
285
Copyright CRC Press

c a p a c i t y by up to 80%in the case of Beam 1 (M/T=1.0). This
enhancement,which extends over a considerable part of the
range, was not apparent before y i e l d . These p r e d i c t i o n s are
confirmed experimentally, as shown i n Table 1 and F i g . ( 9 ) .
The l o n g i t u d i n a l s t r a i n i n the l o n g i t u d i n a l r e i n f o r c e -
ment i s obtained t h e o r e t i c a l l y and recorded experimentally
i n F i g s . ( 1 0 - 1 3 ) . These show s t r a i n s i n two l o n g i t u d i n a l
bars a t d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s around the c r o s s - s e c t i o n over
h a l f the length of the beams. The l o n g i t u d i n a l s t r a i n s are
composed of two components. F i r s t component i s due to
warping moment and bending moment; the second component i s
due the change i n the mechanism of r e s i s t i n g shear i n the
post-cracking stage, given by Eq.(15a). From Figs.(10-13)
the following may be observed:
""A
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
. 16
r
xlO Strain
_ 3
(a) There are two d i s t i n c t regions around any c r o s s - s e c t i o n

two compression and two tension ,and along the beams for
the chosen bars f o r comparison of the experimental and
t h e o r e t i c a l , w h i c h are c o n s i s t e n t i n both.
(b) The maximum values predicted by theory and obtained
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Copyright CRC Press

e x p e r i m e n t a l l y a r e v e r y c l o s e . T h e maximum r a n g e o f
d i f f e r e n c e i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20%.
The g r e a t e s t s t r a i n s a p p e a r a t m i d s p a n and end c r o s s -
s e c t i o n s of t h e beams. The f a i l u r e s a r e c o m p r e s s i v e , i.e.,
E c > G , a n d d o m i n a t e s a l l beams e x c e p t Beam 5 w h e r e f a i l -
0
u r e o c c u r r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n c o n c r e t e and s t e e l . From t h e
a n g l e of t w i s t p o i n t of v i e w , i n the e l a s t i c range, i.e.,
b e f o r e y i e l d i n g of t h e f i r s t b a r of s t e e l , i t was n o t i c e d
t h a t t h e a n g l e of t w i s t c o u l d be a f u n c t i o n of t h e t o r s i o n
o n l y , because the g e o m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s , from the p o i n t of
c r a c k i n g u n t i l f i r s t y i e l d i n g of s t e e l b a r , a r e constant.
The p r e d i c t e d a n g l e o f t w i s t o b t a i n e d by s e c a n t modulus
m e t h o d a r e n e a r l y t h e same a s t h o s e o b t a i n e d b y u s i n g
t h e o r y o f e l a s t i c i t y f o r w a r p i n g o f homogeneous m a t e r i a l s
of t h i n - w a l l e d s t r u c t u r e s of open c r o s s - s e c t i o n s .
F i g s . ( 1 4 ) and (15) r e f e r to t h e o r e t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
r e s u l t s r e s p e c t i v e l y and i l l u s t r a t e the a n g l e of t w i s t a t
m i d s p a n o f t h e beams a t a l l l o a d s u p t o f a i l u r e .
T o r s i o n a t midspan
•Angle o f
Twist (Degree
F i g . 1 4 . T o r q u e - a n q l e o f t w i s t a t midspan f o r each beam up t o f a i l u r e
F i g . 1 4 . Torque-angl e o f twis t a t midspa n fo r th e bea m eac h stat e o f loadin g
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The r e s u l t s a r e q u i t e a g r e e a b l e . F o r e x a m p l e Beam4,
w h i c h i s s u b j e c t e d t o p u r e t o r s i o n . I n t h i s beam t h e d i f -
ference i s approximately 0 . 2 ° . I t also apparent t h a t the
curves are almost coincident u n t i l f i r s t y i e l d i n g takes
p l a c e . This proves t h a t the c o n t r i b u t i o n of shear strains
t o t h e a n g l e o f t w i s t may b e neglected.
A f t e r y i e l d i n g the angle of t w i s t increases r a p i d l y ,
b e c a u s e t h e s t i f f n e s s r e d u c e s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y as w i l l be
o b s e r v e d f r o m t h e F i g s . ( 1 4 ) and ( 1 5 ) . F i g . ( 1 6 ) shows t h e
u l t i m a t e a n g l e o f t w i s t a t m i d s p a n o f t h e beam f o r d i f f e r -
e n t r a t i o s o f b e n d i n g moment t o t o r s i o n , b o t h t h e o r e t i c a l l y
a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y . The shape o f c u r v e s a r e s i m i l a r b u t
t h e i r peaks d i f f e r by a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.5° and o c c u r r e d a t
B e a m l . I n Beam4 w h i c h i s u n d e r p u r e t o r s i o n , t h e difference
is very small, approximately 0.3°.
Twist ,
(Degrees;'
F i g . 1 6 . The e f f e c t o f bending on t h e a n g l e o f t w i s t o f midspan
F i g s . ( 1 7 ) and (18) r e p r e s e n t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y and

e x p e r i m e n t a l l y o b t a i n e d d e f l e c t i o n s of the t e s t specimens
a t midspan a t each stage of l o a d i n g .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig.17. Bending deflection curve at midspan of each beam for each stage of loading
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- 260.0 mm for Beam 5
2 4 6 S 10 !2 14 16 16 20
F i g . 1 8 . Bendin g deflectio n curv e a t th e midspa n o f th e bea m fo r eac h stag e o f loadin g
The d e f l e c t i o n s are g e n e r a l l y small with the exception

of Beam5 which i s under pure bending.
The maximum d e f l e c t i o n s recorded f o r beams subjected to
t o r s i o n and bending simultaneously range from 5-17 mm.
These values are r e l a t i v e l y small f o r proving the v a l i d i t y
of the t h e o r e t i c a l method used. However, Beam 5 which i s
under pure bending, the maximum d e f l e c t i o n s obtained
experimentally and t h e o r e t i c a l l y are 265mm and 280mm
r e s p e c t i v e l y . The d i f f e r e n c e , only 5.3%, confirms the
r e l i a b i l i t y of the method used f o r t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n .
I t i s f u r t h e r evidence that the existence of t o r s i o n with
bending, even i n small amounts, reduces midspan d e f l e c t i o n
to a n e g l i g i b l e degree.
The s t r a i n s i n the s t i r r u p s have been studied c a r e f u l l y
i n t h i s work. The s t r a i n s i n the s t i r r u p s are caused
mainly by shear flow due to the combined loading. The
s t r a i n s i n the s t i r r u p s are given by Eq. (14a).
F i g s . ( 1 9 ) show the experimental and t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s
of s t r a i n s i n the s t i r r u p s a t a p a r t i c u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n
for each beam a t every stage of loading.
At f i r s t y i e l d i n g of the s t e e l , the t h e o r e t i c a l and
experimental r e s u l t s are i n f a i r agreement. Also the e x i s t -
ence of f l e x u r a l shear does not a f f e c t the l e v e l of s t r a i n s
or extent of cracking s i g n i f i c a n t l y . This i s even the case
i n Beam3 which has the highest l e v e l of bending moment i n
the beams subjected to combined loading.
Cracking i n the beams was observed and recorded i n
d e t a i l during the t e s t . I n Beams 1-4, where t o r s i o n e x i s t s ,
the f i r s t cracks were observed to be i n c l i n e d ; t h i s i s due
to the domination of St.Venant's s t r e s s e s around the c r o s s -
s e c t i o n . I n Beam5, which i s under pure bending, they were
vertical.
In Beams 1-4, cracks d i d not appear everywhere on the
surface of the beams a t the e a r l y stages of loading. The
cracks a t these e a r l y stages, before y i e l d i n g of the
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Fig.19a. S t r a i n i n s t i r r u p 2.10m from midspan i n the r i g h t hand web
Strain
ile.iu 4
lie
10 20 30 40 50 kN.m
Fig.19b. S t r a i n i n s t i r r u p 2.10m from midspan in the l e f t hand web
l o n g i t u d i n a l s t e e l , appeared at the quarter p o i n t s . At

l a t e r stages of l o a d i n g t h i s c r a c k i n g extended towards the
s u p p o r t s a n d m i d s p a n . C r a c k i n g i n t h e s e beams was p r i m a r i l y
i n c l i n e d and c o v e r e d most s u r f a c e s by s p i r a l i n g around t h e
a x i s o f t h e beam. T h i s i s shown i n P l a t e s ( 1 - 4 ) w h e r e t h e
a n g l e of i n c l i n a t i o n i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 5 ° . The c r a c k
p a t t e r n i s v e r y s i m i l a r i n a l l t h e s e b e a m s a l t h o u g h some o f
290
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t h e m a r e u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f b e n d i n g moment i n a d d i t i o n t o
torsion.
T h e c r a c k s i n Beam5 a r e t y p i c a l o f t h o s e t h a t o c c u r i n
b e a m s u n d e r p u r e b e n d i n g moment a n d f l e x u r a l s h e a r .
C r a c k s i n diaphragms were observed. U n t i l the l o n g i t u -
d i n a l s t e e l s t a r t e d t o y i e l d , t h e d i a p h r a g m s o f Beams 1 - 4
a t both ends and a t t h e middle were u n c r a c k e d . A f t e r y i e l d -
i n g , c r a c k s s t a r t e d to appear i n t h e end diaphragms. These
may b e c l a s s i f i e d a s e i t h e r m a i n c r a c k s o r s e c o n d a r y
cracks.
The s e c o n d a r y c r a c k s a p p e a r e d on t h e s i d e s and on t h e
top and bottom f a c e s of the end diaphragms and had d i f f e r -
e n t p a t t e r n s and d i r e c t i o n s . The change of d i r e c t i o n
o c c u r r e d l a r g e l y as a r e s u l t of s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n
t h e d i a p h r a g m s due t o t h e mechanism of t h e s u p p o r t s y s t e m .
T h e m a i n c r a c k s p r o p a g a t e d on t h e o u t s i d e and i n s i d e f a c e s
o f t h e d i a p h r a g m s , p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a x i s of t h e beam.
These were b a s i c a l l y s h e a r c r a c k s a r i s i n g from t r a n s v e r s e
t o r q u e s w h i c h a r e e q u a l to the w a r p i n g t o r s i o n i n t h e end
diaphragms.
4 Conclusions
a) The p o r t i o n of a p p l i e d torque r e s i s t e d by S t . V e n a n t ' s

t o r s i o n i s s m a l l f o r beams o f p r a c t i c a l l e n g t h a n d d e
creases sharply after cracking.
b) G e o m e t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s change s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f t e r crack-
i n g but remain c o n s t a n t u n t i l f i r s t y i e l d of the s t e e l
takes p l a c e . A f t e r y i e l d i n g , the geometrical properties
change v e r y r a p i d l y as the load i n c r e a s e s .
c) The e f f e c t of t o r s i o n i s v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t i n comparison
t o b e n d i n g . A c c o r d i n g l y d e s i g n e r s must c o n s i d e r t o r s i o n
s e r i o u s l y at the d e s i g n stage even under s e r v i c e l o a d s .
I n t h e c a s e of moderate r a t i o s of t o r s i o n to b e n d i n g ,
b e n d i n g h a s been found t o be of s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e
with respect to warping t o r s i o n .
d) The a n g l e of t w i s t i s not a f f e c t e d by the e x i s t e n c e of

bending b e f o r e f i r s t y i e l d i n g of the s t e e l . However, i t
i s a f f e c t e d c o n s i d e r a b l y a f t e r y i e l d i n g up t o f a i l u r e .
e) B e f o r e y i e l d i n g , d e f l e c t i o n s a r e f u n c t i o n s of bending
o n l y . Even a f t e r y i e l d i n g , w i t h the e x i s t e n c e of moder-
a t e r a t i o s of t o r s i o n to b e n d i n g , observed d e f l e c t i o n s
a r e v e r y s m a l l . T h i s i s b e c a u s e t o r s i o n i s t h e most
i n f l u e n t i a l a c t i o n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e u l t i m a t e c a p a c i t y of
the structure.
f) T h e e x i s t e n c e o f b e n d i n g moments w i t h t o r s i o n a f t e r
y i e l d i n g of the s t e e l h e l p s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n r a i s i n g the
291
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ultimate warping t o r s i o n a l capacity of the s t r u c t u r e .
g) The c o n t r i b u t i o n of shear flow to the a x i a l s t r a i n s i n
l o n g i t u d i n a l reinforcement i s n e g l i g i b l e .
h) The e f f e c t of f l e x u r a l shear on a x i a l s t r a i n s i n the
s t i r r u p s i s very small i n comparison with that due to
warping t o r s i o n .
5 References
ACI Committee 318. (1983) Building Code Requirements f o r
Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-83)/ American Concrete
I n s t i t u t e , Detroit.
Desayi, P. and Krishnan, S. (1964) Equation f o r the S t r e s s -
S t r a i n Curve of Concrete. J . American Concrete I n s t i -
t u t e . Proc. Vol.61, No.3, 345-350.
El-Hammasi, S.A. (1986) The Behaviour of Open Thin-walled,
Reinforced Concrete Beams Under I n t e r a c t i o n of Bending
and Torsion, Ph.D. T h e s i s , Department of C i v i l Engineer-
ing, U n i v e r s i t y of B r i s t o l , England.
Hsu, T.C. (1973) Post-Cracking T o r s i o n a l R i g i d i t y of Rein-
forced Concrete Sections, J . American Concrete I n s t i -
t u t e , Vol.70, No.5, 352-360.
Hwang, C S . and Hsu, T.T.C. (1983) Mixed Torsion A n a l y s i s
of Reinforced Concrete Channel Beams - A F o u r i e r S e r i e s
Approach, J . American Concrete I n s t i t u t e , No.80-36, 377-
220.
Kollbrunner, C.F. and B a s l e r , K. (1969) Torsion i n S t r u c -
t u r e s : An Engineering Approach. Springer-Verlag, New
York. ( O r i g i n a l l y published i n German, 1966).
Krpan, P. and C o l l i n , M. (1981) P r e d i c t i n g T o r s i o n a l Re-
sponse of Thin-walled Open RC Members, J . S t r u c t u r a l
D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol.107, N 0 . S T 6 . Proc. Paper 1633,
pp.1107-1127.
Lampert, P. (1973) Post-Cracking S t i f f n e s s of Reinforced
Concrete Beams i n Torsion and Bending. A n a l y s i s of
s t r u c t u r a l systems f o r t o r s i o n , SP-35, J . American
Concrete I n s t i t u t e , D e t r o i t . 385-433.
Roberts, T.M. and A z i z i a n , Z.G. (1983) I n s t a b i l i t y of Thin-
walled Bars, J . Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, Vol.109,
No.3, 781-794.
St.Venant. (1855) De l a Torsion de Prismes, Tome XIV de
l'Academie de Science, P a r i s , France, ( i n French).
Timoshenko, S.P. (1945) Theory of Bending, Torsion and
Buckling of Thin-walled Members of Open C r o s s - s e c t i o n , --``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
J . The F r a n k l i n I n s t i t u t e , Vol.239, No.5, 343-361.

Vlassov, V.Z. (1935) Thin-walled E l a s t i c Beams ( i n Russian,
1st Edn.) (The second, r e v i s e d and augmented e d i t i o n
published i n 1958 was t r a n s l a t e d into E n g l i s h by the
National Science Foundation, Washington, USA.)
Yoo, C.H. (1980) Biomoment Contribution to S t a b i l i t y of
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Thin-walled Assemblage, Computers and S t r u c t u r e s , 11,
465-471. , ^
Zbirohowski-Koscia, K.F. (1968) S t r e s s A n a l y s i s of Cracked
Reinforced and P r e - s t r e s s e d Concrete Thin-walled Beams
and S h e l l s , Magazine of Concrete Research, London,
Vol.20, No.65, 213-220.
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PART FIVE
C A B L E BRIDGES
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SOME THOUGHTS ON CABLE BRIDGE
DESIGN
J.M. SCHLAICH
University of Stuttgart, West Germany
Abstract
Nowadays, t h e s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e i s c o n s i d e r e d i n f e r i o r t o
t h e g i r d e r b r i d g e f o r s h o r t spans and t o t h e c a b l e - s t a y e d
b r i d g e up t o spans a r o u n d 1,000 m e t e r s . Thus, v a r i e t y i n
b r i d g e d e s i g n may f u r t h e r d r y o u t , w h a t a p i t y . T h i s p a p e r
w a n t s t o show t h a t t h i s need n o t be a c c e p t e d .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 1: P e d e s t r i a n s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e over t h e Neckar near

S t u t t g a r t , span 114 m, b u i l t 1988
297
Copyright CRC Press

1 The i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f s t r u c t u r e and span i n b r i d g e building
W a t c h - m a k i n g and m o d e l - m a k i n g t e a c h us t h a t t h e more we
r e d u c e t h e s c a l e o f an o b j e c t , t h e more we w i l l b o o s t i t s
c o s t . The f a t e o f t h e d i n o s a u r and t h e p o s t u l a t i o n s o f e a r l y
men l i k e G a l i l e o G a l i l e i w a r n us t h a t e n l a r g i n g a s t r u c t u r e
t r u e t o s i z e o r p r o p o r t i o n w i l l u l t i m a t e l y cause i t t o
c o l l a p s e u n d e r i t s own w e i g h t . T h i s i s t h e p i c t u r e o f t h e
d i l e m m a w h i c h t h e d e s i g n e r and b u i l d e r o f b r i d g e s has f a c e d
f r o m t i m e i m m e m o r i a l , namely t o be t o r n b e t w e e n t h e e c o n o -
m i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and s t r u c t u r a l demands o f c o s t and dead
l o a d , r e s p e c t i v e l y - t h e y b e i n g t h e c r i t e r i a under w h i c h t h e
r e q u i r e d span o f a b r i d g e d i c t a t e s i t s s t r u c t u r a l f o r m . How-
e v e r , t h e f a c t o r s g o v e r n i n g t h e s e c r i t e r i a have n o t a l w a y s
been t h e same. T h e i r r e o r i e n t a t i o n p a r a l l e l s t h e s t e a d y -
sometimes even r a d i c a l - p r o c e s s o f e v o l u t i o n o f t h e a r t o f
building.
The d e v e l o p m e n t o f a d v a n c e d p r o d u c t i o n methods and new
c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s has been i n s t r u m e n t a l , above a l l ,
i n i n f l u e n c i n g t h e f i r s t c r i t e r i o n , namely t h e c o s t - s i z e
r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n t r o d u c i n g e r e c t i o n by f r e e c a n t i l e v e r i n g ,
f o r i n s t a n c e , e n a b l e d t h e l i m i t o f 200 m o f span t o be s u r -
p a s s e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e box
g i r d e r b r i d g e s , an a c h i e v e m e n t t h a t w o u l d o t h e r w i s e , t h a t i s
a p p l y i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l method o f e r e c t i o n f r o m f a l s e w o r k ,
•have been p r o h i b i t i v e l y e x p e n s i v e . I n v e r s e l y , when mass-
p r o d u c t i o n p r o v i d e d us w i t h p r a l l e l w i r e c a b l e a t a r e l a -
t i v e l y low p r i c e , i t opened t h e d o o r f o r t h e c a b l e - s t a y e d
b r i d g e t o s e t f o o t i n t h e s h o r t span r a n g e b e l o w 100 m.
S i m i l a r l y , t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s i n m a t e r i a l q u a l i t y and
d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s have p r o v i d e d ways t o c i r c u m v e n t t h e
s e c o n d c r i t e r i o n , namely l o a d - b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y b e i n g
v o r a c i o u s l y d e v o u r e d by dead l o a d . T h i s can be done i n two
ways: e i t h e r d i r e c t l y by i n c r e a s i n g t h e b r e a k i n g l e n g t h
P/Yf t h a t i s u s i n g m a t e r i a l s o f h i g h e r s t r e n g t h p and lower
d e n s i t y Y r o r i n d i r e c t l y by a b a n d o n i n g r e d u n d a n c y , t h a t i s
a v o i d i n g b e n d i n g i n f a v o u r o f p u r e c o m p r e s s i o n and, above
a l l , t e n s i o n . Thus, t h e f a c t t h a t n a t u r a l s t o n e , by i t s v e r y
n a t u r e , o f f e r s l i t t l e room f o r i t s p r o p e r t i e s b e i n g r e f i n e d
e x p l a i n s why t h e masonry a r c h b r i d g e , a f t e r a n o t a b l y s t e a d y
p r o g r e s s r e a c h e d an e a r l y c l i m a x a t a modest 60 m span. I t
was n o t u n t i l t h e emergence o f c o n c r e t e , an a r t i f i c i a l s t o n e ,
and s t e e l t h a t t h e span o f a r c h b r i d g e s c o u l d be made l o n g e r
t o r e a c h 300 m and more. I t i s n o t a b l e enough t h a t a l t h o u g h
s t e e l and c o n c r e t e a r e w i d e a p a r t i n t e r m s o f t h e i r r e s p e c -
t i v e P / Y r a t i o s , t h e y do s h a r e much t h e same l i m i t i n
l e n g t h o f i n d i v i d u a l s p a n , as a r e s u l t o f t h e c o m p r e s s i v e
action.
298
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The lon g trus s an d cantileve r bridge s ar e formidabl e
example s o f th e successfu l applicatio n o f a ver y skillful ,
tha t i s t o sa y simpl e fabricatio n technique . Devoi d o f an y
abundanc e an d makin g ever y singl e membe r wor k t o maximu m
e f f i c i e n c y , the y ar e stil l a seriou s riva l o f th e cabl e
s t a y e d b r i d g e f o r s p a n s u p t o 50 0 m , p a r t i c u l a r l y s o i n th e
U S A. A s w e l o o k a t t h e s p e c i m e n s t h i s t y p e o f b r i d g e h a s
produced , som e o f the mbeautifu l an d other s s o ver y ugly ,
i t become s eviden t tha t th e applicatio n o f technica l code s
an d r u l e s , perfectl y vali d a s the y ma y b e , doe s no t automa -
ticall y translat e int o aestheti c quality , bu t tha t suc h
qualit y i s somethin g w e mus t wilfull y see k an d striv e fo r
i n ever y instanc e anew . Whil e i n th e p a s t , economi c
consideration s an d th e absenc e o f reliabl e method s o f stres s
analysi s dictate d cros s section s standardize d i n shap e an d
m e m b e rs u n i f o r m i n l e n g t h , m a k i n g f o r d u l l a n d u n i n t e r e s t i n g
shapes , today' s computer-controlle d productio n facilitie s
onc e agai n plac e variet y int o reac h an d inventiv e facult y
i n demand .
The mos t strikin g exampl e fo r a sudde n radica l ste p i n
it s histor y o f evolutio n a s a consequenc e o f on e singl e
technica l innovatio n i s th e suspensio n bridg e a t th e poin t
of t i m e w h e n m a s s - p r o d u c e d d r a w n w i r e b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e an d
Roblin g develope d th e basic s o f cabl e spinnin g i n th e middl e
of t h e l a s t c e n t u r y . B y t h e n , F r e n c h a n d B r i t i s h engineer s
ha d o f cours e alread y demonstrate d tha t eve n mechanizatio n
an d industrializatio n coul d no t shak e th e fac t tha t th e
larges t distance s ca n onl y b e spanne d wit h structure s tha t
w o r k i n t e n s i o n . T h u s , i n 182 6 T e l f o r d use d forge d chai n
link s t o buil d th e suspensio n bridg e ove r Mena i Strai t wit h
a s p a n o f 17 7 m , o u t d i s t a n c i n g al l othe r bridge s i n
existenc e a t tha t t i m e . Paralle l t o thi s development , ther e
w e r e als o plan s fo r buildin g cast-iro n arc h bridge s tha t
woul d spa n simila r d i s t a n c e s . Bu t th e Brookly n cabl e suspen -
s i o n b r i d g e b u i l t b y R o b l i n g s h o r t l y a f t e r ( b e t w e e n 186 9
a n d 1 8 8 3 ) h a d a s p a n o f 48 6 m , w h i c h w a s tljre e time s
superio r t o wha t wa s the n technicall y feasibl e wit h an y
othe r structura l form . An d i n f a c t , th e suspensio n bridg e
ha s los t nothin g o f it s superiorit y a s regard s potentia l
lengt h o f individua l span . Althoug h th e cable-staye d bridg e
i s unde r wa y o f almos t doublin g it s presen t recor d span s
of 45 7 m ( H o o g h l y R i v e r B r i d g e , C a l c u t t a ) a n d 46 2 m
( A n n a c i s B r i d g e , V a n c o u v e r ) , t o r e a c h 85 7 m w i t h t h e
N o r m a n dy B r i d g e , L e H a v r e , i t i s s t i l l f a r f r o m m a t c h i n g t h e
suspensio n bridge . Th e Humbe r Bridge , whic h wa s opene d t o
t r a f f i c i n 1 9 8 1 , f r e e l y s p a n s 1,41 0 m , t h e A k a s h i B r i d g e
an d th e bridg e ove r th e Strait s o f Messin a wil l hav e span s
n e a r 2 , 0 0 0 m a n d 3,00 0 m , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T o d a y , th e potentia l
limi t i s a t abou t 18,00 0 m , thi s bein g th e maximu mdistanc e
ove r whic h w e coul d rel y o n th e self-supportin g capabilit y
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
299
Copyright CRC Press

of h i g h - t e n s i l e s t e e l c a b l e . S y n t h e t i c f i b r e s , l i k e Kevlar
w i t h i t s e x t r e m e l y f a v o u r a b l e f3/y w o u l d p e r m i t e v e n l a r g e r
l e n g t h s t o be s p a n n e d , l a r g e r t h a n n e c e s s a r y . But then, of
course, l e t us not f o r g e t t h a t t h e r e are s t i l l some
c h a l l e n g e s w a i t i n g f o r us, l i k e the S t r a i t s of G i b r a l t a r . . .
Hence, where l a r g e spans are concerned, obviously the
s t r u c t u r a l f o r m i s d i c t a t e d by w h a t i s t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e .
And the b e a u t i f u l suspension bridge i s and r e m a i n s t h e queen.
F o r e v e r y d a y l i f e , h o w e v e r , t h e s m a l l s p a n s a r e of much
more i n t e r e s t . I n v i e w of the f o r m i d a b l e technological
progress over the p a s t decades, p a r t i c u l a r l y so i n the field
of c o n c r e t e construction, including prestressed concrete,
e r e c t i o n by f r e e c a n t i l e v e r i n g , s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g travelling
formwork, incremental launching and s i m i l a r , as w e l l as i n
s t e e l c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n of h i g h - t e n s i l e
s t e e l s , new welding techniques and composite construction
e t c . , one w o u l d e x p e c t a n o b l e b e a u t y c o n t e s t t o be i n full
swing. But, a l a s , t h e r e i s no s u c h t h i n g ! The borderlines
a r e s t a k e d o f f , f a s t and s o u n d : f o r s p a n s u p t o 2 0 0 m, take
a s l a b o r a d e e p beam o r a box girder, distinguishable only
a t c l o s e r a n g e , w h e t h e r you made t h e m o u t o f c o n c r e t e or
s t e e l or composite, beyond t h a t the c a b l e stayed bridge and
that's i t .
2 The small spans
Confining the v a r i e t y of forms to the u n i f o r m i t y of beam

bridges f o r t h e s m a l l s p a n s and t o c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s for
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
t h e l a r g e r s p a n s ( s u r e l y t h e few suspension bridges that

h a v e b e e n b u i l t f o r t h e v e r y l a r g e c r o s s i n g s do n o t really
c o u n t ) c a n n o t be s a t i s f y i n g n e i t h e r f r o m a c u l t u r a l point
of view nor f o r the engineer h i m s e l f and h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l
reputation. This holds true p a r t i c u l a r l y for urban bridge
b u i l d i n g , i n c l u d i n g t h e e l e v a t e d r o a d w a y s and, above a l l ,
the pedestrian bridges. I t would seem j u s t too simple and
paradoxical a t t h e same t i m e t o p u t t h e blame f o r this
i m p o v e r i s h m e n t on w e a l t h alone - i n other words to say that
w h e r e wages a r e h i g h and m a t e r i a l s r e l a t i v e l y c h e a p , the
notions of i m a g i n a t i v e f a c u l t y , of d i v e r s i t y and filigree,
of forms t h a t r e f l e c t t h e f l o w of f o r c e s and of t h e lovingly
elaborated d e t a i l no l o n g e r stand a chance. Holding respon-
s i b l e t h e a u t h o r i t i e s on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e y t e n d t o choose
the cheapest b i d , w o u l d be u n f a i r a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e not
o f f e r e d a t r u e c h o i c e o f a l t e r n a t i v e s : f r o m among s e v e r a l
equivalent designs, i t i s only natural to pick the cheapest.
Much r a t h e r , t h e q u e s t i o n comes up o f w h e t h e r i t i s n o t
o u r s e l v e s who a r e to blame, f o r our keeping to the beaten
t r a c k , whether out of convenience or l a c k of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n ,
i n s t e a d of a v a i l i n g o u r s e l v e s of the a r r a y of technological
and s c i e n t i f i c p o s s i b i l i t i e s of our time.
300
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As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , t h e r e a r e f i r s t s i g n s o f w h a t p r o -
mises a welcome change, c h i e f l y coming from abroad. French
e n g i n e e r s e x c e l i n s h o w i n g u s how t o b u i l d i n t e r e s t i n g
h o l l o w b o x b r i d g e s o u t o f c o n c r e t e , some o f t h e m w i t h p e r -
f o r a t e d s t e e l webs. Swiss e n g i n e e r s have b u i l t cable-stayed
b r i d g e s w i t h s p a n s s h o r t e r t h a n 1 0 0 m, u s i n g t h i n s l a b s
as g i r d s t h u s e n t e r i n g a span r a n g e w h e r e t h e b o x g i r d e r
was t h o u g h t t o be u n b e a t a b l e . I n a p r o j e c t n e a r S t u t t g a r t ,
a c a b l e - s u p p o r t e d s l a b i s t o be b u i l t t h u s e x p a n d i n g t h e
i d e a o f e x t e r n a l p r e s t r e s s . Even t h e a r c h b r i d g e experiences
an o c c a s i o n a l revival.
I t w o u l d be beyond t h e scope o f t h e p r e s e n t paper t o
d i s c u s s a l l these and s i m i l a r e f f o r t s and developments.
Hence, t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s w i l l o n l y be c o n c e r n e d w i t h
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the q u e s t i o n o f whether and i f so, under what circumstances

does t h e s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s t i l l s t a n d a chance t o be
adopted f o rt h e s m a l l e r span range, l i k e f o r i n s t a n c e i n
t h e d e s i g n o f p e d e s t r i a n bridges? I f d i v e r s i t y and l i g h t -
n e s s a r e t o b e v a l i d means t o w a r d s a e s t h e t i c q u a l i t y , this
q u e s t i o n should n o t remain unasked.
3 Comparison o f cable-stayed bridges and suspension bridges
How c a n t h e s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e e v e r come t o b e g e n e r a l l y
a c c e p t e d as a v a l i d s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e c a b l e - s t a y e d bridge
w i t h i n t h e s p a n r a n g e o f u p t o 100 m when t h e l a t t e r i s
g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d e v e n f o r t h e much l a r g e r s p a n s , t h a t
i s u p t o 1 , 0 0 0 m? T h e i d e a t h a t l i e s b e h i n d c o m p a r i n g t h e
s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e t o t h e c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e and no o t h e r
i s t h a t beam b r i d g e s a n d a r c h b r i d g e s a r e s u b j e c t t o e n -
t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f how t h e y b l e n d
and i n t e g r a t e i n t o t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . A t t h e m o s t , we c o u l d
compare t h e c a b l e b r i d g e t o t h e s l a b suspended from an a r c h ,
as i s , f o r i n s t a n c e , . t h e L a n g e r ' s beam, b e c a u s e t h e b r i d g e
w i t h a t h i n deck s l a b o f f e r s t h e immediate advantage o f
a s h o r t ramp l e n g t h ( F i g u r e 2) w h i c h i s o f t e n a d e c i s i v e
f a c t o r i n densely b u i l t areas.
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--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig.2. A slender deck makes for short ramps
I t may come a s a s u r p r i s e - and y e t i t i s p o s t u l a t e d

h e r e i n and w i l l be s u b s t a n t i a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g t h a t there
is, i n p r i n c i p l e , no l e n g t h o f s p a n w h e r e t h e suspension
b r i d g e c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n f e r i o r . T h e r e i s , i n f a c t , just
one "gap" - l e t u s p l a c e i t r o u g h l y b e t w e e n 100 m and
1,000 m - where c e r t a i n drawbacks of the suspension bridge
may become more p r o m i n e n t . But below t h a t range, both a r e
certainly at least equivalent choices.
And s p e a k i n g o f d r a w b a c k s - i t s h o u l d n o t be overlooked
t h a t t h e c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e , t o o , e x h i b i t s a number of i n -
herent disadvantages as against the suspension bridge and
w h i c h r e c e d e i n t o t h e b a c k g r o u n d o n l y when i t s a d v a n t a g e s
as r e g a r d s c o n s t r u c t i o n ( w h i c h w i l l be d e s c r i b e d l a t e r on)
come t o t h e f o r e . The a s s e t o f g r e a t e r s t i f f n e s s attributed
to the cable-stayed bridge, like i t s higher resistance to
c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d s i s , i n r e a l i t y , o f no i n t e r e s t a t a l l ,
e x c e p t maybe t o c a r r y r a i l r o a d l o a d s . What i s more, i t comes
a c c o m p a n i e d by a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s i n t h e s t a y c a b l e s , w h i c h
c a n r e a c h m a g n i t u d e s t h a t by f a r e x c e e d t h o s e o c c u r r i n g i n
the main c a b l e s of the suspension bridge. I t i s t r u e t h a t
the suspenders o f t h e s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e do s u f f e r much t h e
same f a t e a s t h e s t a y c a b l e s of t h e c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e but
t h e n , t h e f o r m e r c a n be e x c h a n g e d e a s i l y enough, e v e n u n d e r
t r a f f i c l o a d . By t h e way, even the main supporting c a b l e s
o f a s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e c o u l d be d e s i g n e d for replacement
under t r a f f i c l o a d i n g , a s had b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d on the
W i l l i a m s b u r g B r i d g e c o m p e t i t i o n d e s i g n i n New York, which
w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r ( F i g u r e s 15 a n d 16).
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Copyright CRC Press

I n thos e c a s e s , wher e th e deformation s o f th e suspensio n
bridg e unde r concentrate d load s d o constitut e a problem , i t
ca n b e effectivel y strengthene d b y providin g additiona l sta y
c a b l e s . T h i s w i l l retai n th e lo w towe r h e i g h t o f th e s u s p e n -
s i o n b r i d g e (h/ 1 a p p r o x . 1/1 0 a s a g a i n s t a p p r o x . 1/ 7 f o r t h e
f a n a n d 1/ 5 f o r t h e h a r p c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e ) . Thi s solutio n
result s int o varyin g pattern s fo r th e sid e span s (Figur e 3) .
^
F i g . 3 . Differen t sid e spa n configuration s
i n a combine d suspension/cable-staye d bridg e
Surprisingl y e n o u g h , th e Brookly n Bridg e a s designe d b y

Roblin g remaine d th e onl y combine d suspension/cable-staye d
bridge . Th e mos t plausibl e explanatio n seem s t o li e i n th e
chang e o f attitud e toward s statica l behaviou r an d th e p r o -
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
gressiv e improvemen t i n analytica l m e t h o d s . I n hi s t i m e ,

Roblin g designe d alon g th e line s o f wha t h e deeme d r i g h t .
The fac t tha t hi s desig n wa s indee d uncalculabl e an d u n p r e -
d i c t a b l e f o r h i m d i d n o t s e e m t o w o r r y h i m- b u t t h e n , h e
ha d n o c o m p e t i t o r . S o , h e regarde d al l load s t o b e carrie d
by th e mai n cable s an d adde d th e sta y c a b l e s . L a t e r , a s
scientifi c method s o f stres s analysi s becam e mor e reliable ,
engineer s woul d onl y buil d wha t the y coul d calculate . Thi s
w as t h e f i r s t s t e p t o w a r d s s i m p l i f y i n g t h e s y s t e m- a n d
makin g i t uninterestingl y dull : wit h vertica l suspender s an d
sid e span s proppe d u p t o kee p th e towe r to p a s rigi d a s
p o s s i b l e . Thi s approac h wa s intende d t o minimiz e th e ris k
of s t r a i n l e s s deformation s o r change s i n th e natura l c u r v a -
tur e o f th e mai n cable s unde r concentrate d loads , whic h wer e
difficul t t o a n a l y z e . Accordingly , th e ne w concep t o f th e
303
Copyright CRC Press

incline d hange r whic h wa s introduce d wit h th e Sever n Bridg e
i n 196 5 B . C . (B.C . m e a n i n g Befor e Computers ) wa s stil l a
chanc y enterprise , thoug h i n th e author' s opinio n throug h
no fla w inheren t t o th e concep t itself , bu t rathe r becaus e
th e desig n underestimate d th e magnitud e o f th e alternatin g
stresse s wit h regar d t o thei r detailing . Anothe r reaso n wh y
Leonhardt' s beautifu l an d brillian t monocabl e bridg e neve r
b e c a me p o p u l a r m a y h a v e b e e n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o n c e p t w a s
carrie d t o th e ver y limit s o f wha t wa s susceptibl eo f
a n a l y s i s a t th e tim e (Figur e 4 ) . I t i s a tru e blessin g tha t
t o d a y , thi s subjec t i s n o longe r a t o p i c , thank s t o th e p r o -
gressiv e improvemen t i n method s o f stres s analysi s an d cabl e
anchorag e techniques .
Fig.4 . Monocabl e bridg e b y F . Leonhardt , 196 1
Als o wit h respec t t o thei r structura l details , th e p e c u -

lia r problem s associate d wit h th e cable-staye d bridg e ar e
quit e a few : Th e fa n a r r a n g e m e n t o f th e cable s presuppose s
a comple x patter n fo r thei r connectio n t o th e t o w e r . O n th e
othe r hand , distributin g th e cabl e anchor s a t equa l d i s t a n -
ce s alon g th e heigh t o f th e towe r wil l caus e th e bendin g
m o m e n ts t o i n c r e a s e w h i c h i n t u r n c a l l s f o r m o r e c a b l e s .
A l s o , a s th e angl e o f inclinatio n o f th e cable s varie s wit h
h e i g h t , anchorin g the malon g th e edge s o f th e dec k turn s
int o a tediou s an d expensiv e job . Y e t , th e alternativ e
c h o i c e , w h i c h i s centra l s u s p e n s i o n , i s al l th e w o r s e .
F i n a l l y , th e builde r face s th e dilemm a o f whethe r h e shoul d
p r o v i d e f o r a v e r t i c a l (an d t h e r e f o r e stiff ) suppor t o f th e
dec k a t th e towe r an d thu s mak e i t subjec t t o hig h bendin g
m o m e n ts o r s u s p e n d i t f r o m t h e c a b l e s w h i c h w i l l g e t h i m i n t o
conflic t wit h th e stee p cabl e connection s a t th e tower .
Of c o u r s e , n o n e o f t h e s e d r a w b a c k s a r e s u c h t h a t t h e y
coul d no t b e overcom e o r mak e cable-staye d bridge s generall y
p r o h i b i t i v e . An d b e s i d e s , th e purpos e o f th e presen t pape r
i s no t t o spea k ou t agains t an y particula r typ e o f b r i d g e ,
b u t rathe r t o spea k u p fo r th e s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e , i n th e
interes t an d nam e o f greate r variety . A l s o , th e shortcoming s
of a g i v e n s t r u c t u r e als o lea d t o enhance d effort s fo r
i m p r o v e m e n t . W e h a v e , fo r i n s t a n c e , develope d a m o d i f i e d
30 4
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

scheme t o o v e r c o m e t h e one p r o b l e m t y p i c a l o f t h e c a b l e -
stayed b r i d g e , namely the c o n n e c t i o n of the cables t o the
d e c k a n d t o t h e t o w e r h e a d . The s o l u t i o n c o n s i s t s i n u s i n g
f i x e d a n c h o r s f o r t h e deck and a d j u s t a b l e ones f o r t h e t o w e r .
The c o n c e p t u s e s s i m p l e d e t a i l s and a p a r t i c u l a r g e o m e t r y
f o r t h e t o w e r h e a d . The s e c o n d p r o b l e m , n a m e l y t h e support
o f t h e d e c k a t t h e t o w e r c a n be s o l v e d w i t h a v e r y slender
and f l e x i b l e deck. P r o v i d e d s u f f i c i e n t l e n g t h o f t h e t o w e r
legs t o permit s a t i s f a c t o r y response t o temperature differ-
e n c e s , t h e d e c k can be m o n o l i t h i c a l l y j o i n e d t o t h e tower,
w i t h o u t c a u s i n g t h e moments t o i n c r e a s e .
The t r u e a s s e t o f t h e c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e l i e s i n t h a t
i t p e r m i t s e r e c t i o n by f r e e c a n t i l e v e r i n g while simulta-
neously r e m a i n i n g s e l f - a n c h o r e d i n r e s p e c t o f t h e h o r i -
z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c a b l e f o r c e s . As a c o n s e q u e n c e , i t
p e r m i t s t h e mass o f t h e a b u t m e n t s t o be k e p t r e l a t i v e l y
low ( F i g u r e 5 ) .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
No Formwork
F i g . 5 . Deck s t r u c t u r e e r e c t i o n
(suspension b r i d g e and c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e compared)
Now, w i t h t h e s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e , i t ' s e i t h e r o r . When

b a c k - a n c h o r e d , i t may b e e r e c t e d w i t h o u t f a l s e w o r k , a s i t s
s u p p o r t i n g c a b l e s w i l l be a n c h o r e d i n t h e a b u t m e n t s , f r e e -
i n g t h e d e c k f r o m a n y b e a r i n g f u n c t i o n . The a b u t m e n t s , how-
ever are o f n e c e s s i t y heavy (and t h e r e f o r e e x p e n s i v e ) i f
t h e i r s l i d i n g i s t o be s a f e l y p r e v e n t e d , i n v i e w o f t h e v e r y
f l a t a n g l e a t w h i c h t h e c a b l e ends meet t h e abutment.
305
Copyright CRC Press

By w a y o f c o n t r a s t , i n a s e l f - a n c h o r e d suspensio n bridge ,
th e cable s ar e connecte d t o th e end s o f th e dec k sla b an d
th e h o r i z o n t a l componen t o f thei r loa d transmitte d t o th e
dec k wil l b e cancele d b y compression , leavin g onl y th e v e r -
tica l component s o f th e cabl e force s t o b e transmitte dt o
th e foundation s - a tas k tha t ca n b e accomplishe d b y slende r
pier s o r t i e s . O n th e othe r h a n d , th e dec k o f th e self -
anchore d suspensio n bridg e mus t b e erecte d entirel y fro m
falsewor k becaus e i t canno t b e suspende d fro mth e mai n cable s
unti l th e constructio n o f th e dec k i s completed .
4 Suspensio n bridge s fo r th e smal l span s
I t henc e follow s t h a t , economicall y speaking , th e suspensio n

bridg e stand s perfectl y u p t o th e cable-staye d bridg e when -
eve r condition s ar e suc h tha t th e conventiona l mod e o f c o n -
structio n fro mfalsewor k i s neithe r prohibitivel y expensiv e
nor unacceptabl e becaus e o f undu e interferenc e wit h traffic .
Thes e condition s ar e typicall y give n i n th e spa n rang e smalle r
10 0 m , a s f o r i n s t a n c e i n p e d e s t r i a n b r i d g e s o v e r s t r e e t s
or railway s wher e falsewor k doe s no t constitut e a seriou s
p r o b l e m . W h e r e l a r g e d i s t a n c e s a r e i n v o l v e d , a s fo r i n s t a n c e
i n th e cas e o f bridge s ove r w a t e r w a y s , river s o r strait s an d
i n w h i c h , b y t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e (o r e l s e s u c h l o n g l e n g t h s
of i n d i v i d u a l spa n woul d no t b e necessary ) i t woul d b e to o
unsaf e an d costl y t o insta l temporar y p i e r s , th e cable -
staye d bridg e ma y full y exhibi t it s inheren t virtue s i n term s
of c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Y e t , an d a s w e al l know , i t i s th e exceptio n tha t prove s
th e rule : I n Osak a (Japan) , a self-anchore d suspensio n bridg e
w i t h a s p a n o f n o l e s s t h a n 30 0 m w a s r e c e n t l y c o m p l e t e d .
To erec t th e d e c k , tw o auxiliar y pier s wer e se t u p i n th e
shallo w waters , temporaril y obstructin g navigation . Fo r th e
smal l span s an d i n particula r i n thos e case s wher e th e dec k
i s narro w an d therefor e light , a s woul d typicall y b e th e
cas e w i t h a p e d e s t r i a n b r i d g e , th e cos t involve d fo r back -
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
stayin g i s no t prohibitive . Th e back-anchore d suspensio n

bridg e wil l therefor e b e th e preferre d choic e wheneve r th e
of n e c e s s i t y s t r a i g h t dec k o f th e self-anchore d suspensio n
b r i d g e , a s dictate d b y compression , woul d leav e to o littl e
a m a r g i n o f freedo mfo r th e d e s i g n e r . Th e back-anchore d s u s -
pensio n bridg e know s nothin g o f suc h geometrica l c o n s t r a i n t s ,
thu s givin g fre e rei n t o th e designer' s inventiv e creativity .
I t i s a t thi s poin t tha t th e structura l analysi s become s
so comple x a proble man d s o formidabl e a tas k tha t i t i s ,
i n f a c t , no t unti l quit e recentl y tha t suc h bridge s ca n b e
buil t wit h a clea r conscienc e an d fre e o f th e preoccupatio n
of n o t b e i n g a b l e t o m a s t e r t h e s t r u c t u r e geometrically ,
staticall y and/o r dynamically . Suspensio n bridge s ar e
essentiall y kinemati c system s whic h ar e stabl e onl y unde r
306
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a s p e c i f i c l o a d c o n d i t i o n . They a r e n o r m a l l y n o t p r e s t r e s s e d ,
meaning t h a t t h e y a r e s t r e s s - l e s s once t h e dead l o a d i s
removed. Given a non-plane b u t t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l geometry
of t h e s u s p e n s i o n system, as a consequence o f a n o n - s t r a i g h t
deck, t h e mere c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l geometry under
load i s already rendered impossible unless g e o m e t r i c a l l y
n o n - l i n e a r methods a r e a p p l i e d t h a t w i l l cover l a r g e and
s t r a i n l e s s d e f o r m a t i o n . To t h i s e n d , t h e g e o m e t r i c stiffness
m a t r i x ( l a r g e s t r a i n l e s s d e f o r m a t i o n s ) must be i n t r o d u c e d
in t h e load displacement equation, i n addition t o t h e
e l a s t i c s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x ( s m a l l s t r a i n s ) , so as t o c o v e r
t h o s e f o r c e s t h a t w i l l be g e n e r a t e d f r o m t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t
of t h e members. I t i s a f e a t u r e p e c u l i a r o f t h e s u s p e n s i o n
system t h a t i t renders n o t a b l y r e a l i s t i c r e s u l t s , which i s
a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e f i n i t e elements represent
the r e a l cable s e c t i o n s between clamps. Apart from t h e
i n i t i a l g e o m e t r y as such, t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s
to calculate the (unstrained) f a b r i c a t i o n lengths of the
components. P r e c i s e c u t t i n g t o s i z e and f a b r i c a t i o n t o t h e
f r a c t i o n o f an i n c h , i s t h e key t o a s u c c e s s f u l c o n s t r u c t i o n
of such b r i d g e s . T h i s h o l d s t r u e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h o s e cases
where they a r e a d d i t i o n a l l y p r e s t r e s s e d by s t a y s . Adjustment
by means o f t u r n b u c k l e s , w h i c h a r e a g a i n a n d a g a i n i n s t a l l e d
out o f lack o f confidence, i s a p a i n f u l l y tedious process.
A l t h o u g h p r i m a r i l y a means o f d e f i n i n g t h e i n i t i a l g e o m e t r y ,
the same m e t h o d s o r p r o g r a m s a r e o f c o u r s e a l s o u s e d a t a
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
l a t e r stage t o c a l c u l a t e l o a d and e r e c t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . A l -
though w i t h t h i s t y p e o f b r i d g e , t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e - even
i f v e r y slender - i s n o t considered c r i t i c a l i n terms o f
b u c k l i n g s t a b i l i t y because o f i t s e l a s t i c bedding, i ti s
n o n e t h e l e s s f e l t t o b e a h u g e p r o g r e s s t h a t t o d a y , the** i n -
s t a b i l i t y p r o b l e m as a w h o l e c a n be t r e a t e d a l o n g t h e l i n e s
of t h e T h e o r y o f Second Order because t h e assumption o f
r e a s o n a b l e i m p e r f e c t i o n s causes no p r o b l e m s .
Hence, i t i s no e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s a y t h a t modern s t r u c -
t u r a l d e s i g n c a n p r i d e i t s e l f t o h a v i n g c l e a r e d t h e way t o -
wards a b s o l u t e freedom i n t h e design o f suspension b r i d g e s ,
i n c l u d i n g any such g e o m e t r i e s w h i c h o n l y a few y e a r s ago
nobody would have dared t o t h i n k o f .
Some p r a c t i c a l e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e a u t h o r h i m s e l f t o g e t h e r
w i t h R. B e r g e r m a n n may r e n d e r e v i d e n c e o f t h i s . T h e i r
d e v e l o p m e n t b a s i c a l l y f o l l o w e d t h e same s c h e m e : f r e e h a n d
sketches, o f t e n a simple w o r k i n g model, f i n a l i z i n g form and
design, d e t a i l i n g , comparison w i t h t h e rough c a l c u l a t i o n ,
d e m o n s t r a t i o n models o r montage photographs.
307
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A secon d purpos e o f thes e example s i s t o demonstrat e
tha t wher e pedestria n bridge s ar e c o n c e r n e d , th e attribute s
of l i g h t o r h e a v y , f i l i g r e e o r awkwar d nee d no t b e a matte r
of m a t e r i a l c h o i c e . W i t h t h e s e b r i d g e s , c o n c r e t e l e n d s i t -
s e l f t o b e u s e d f o r t h e d e c k s a n d o f c o u r s e fo r t h e
f o u n d a t i o n s ; stee l fo r th e cable s an d t o w e r s . Bu t thi s i s
by n o mean s a hard-and-fas t rule : timbe r i s definitel y als o
a choice .
5 Som e example s
F o o t b r i d g e i n th e Rosenstei n Par k i n Stuttgar t (Figur e 6 )

The Rosensteinbriick e i n Stuttgar t (W-Germany ) i s a suspen -
sio n bridg e o f th e a s y m m e t r i c , self-anchore d type . Th e sla b
i s mad e o f reinforce d concret e 3 5 c mthic k an d i s " p r e -
stressed " b y th e horizonta l componen t o f th e cabl e forces .
The incline d hanger s enlive n th e appearanc e an d ar e a t th e
s a me t i m e a h e l p f u l t o o l i n d i s t r i b u t i n g concentrate d loads ,
althoug h the y com e accompanie d b y highe r alternatin g
stresse s tha n th e vertica l hange r d e s i g n . Th e tw o mai n
cable s wit h a diamete r o f 7 5 m mar e passe d ove r a cast-iro n
saddl e a t th e to p o f th e towe r an d tie d togethe r b y mean s
of c l a m p s t o m a k e a l l o w a n c e f o r t h e a c t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n -
tia l f o r c e s . Ther e i s n o materia l contac t betwee n towe r an d
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
dec k s l a b . Th e towe r wa s jacke d u p t o stri p th e dec k an d
tensio n th e c a b l e s . (Buil t i n 1 9 7 7 , i n consultatio n wit h
H. L u z , M . B a c h e r , a r c h i t e c t s . )
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Footbridge i n t h e Rosenstein Park i n Stuttgart ( F i g u r e 7)
The S m a l l R o s e n s t e i n b r i i c k e i s s e p a r a t e d by a h i l l from t h e
bridge j u s t d e s c r i b e d . The footbridge i s designed a s a
back-anchored suspension bridge. The path leads downhill
through t h e s m a l l v a l l e y which i s t o be spanned. T h i s topo-
graphic s i t u a t i o n l e n t i t s e l f t o r e s t t h e deck slabs
d i r e c t l y on t h e two s u p p o r t i n g c a b l e s between two abutments.
The two main c a b l e s a r e c a b l e - s u p p o r t e d t o p r o v i d e f o r
a d d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y . The c a b l e support c o n s i s t s of an up-
ward c u r v e d c a b l e w h i c h i s t i e d t o t h e two main c a b l e s by
diagonal ropes t o form a three-dimensional cable t r u s s i n
which t h e upper f l a n g e i s formed by t h e c o n c r e t e slabs
w h i c h a r e j o i n e d t o t h e s u p p o r t i n g c a b l e s by means o f
clamps. T h e d e c k s l a b s a r e m a d e o f c o n c r e t e 10 cm t h i c k ,
w i t h open expansion joints. ( B u i l t i n 1977, i n c o n s u l t a t i o n
w i t h H. L u z , M. B a c h e r , architects.)
B r i d g e over t h e r i v e r Neckar i n S t u t t g a r t ( F i g u r e s 1 and 8)

The Max-Eyth-Briicke i n Stuttgart i s designed as a back-
anchored s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e w i t h a span o f 114 m b e t w e e n
t o w e r s . The s t r u c t u r e , w i t h i t s two main c a b l e s s p l a y e d o u t
from t h e top of t h e towers, i t s network of i n c l i n e d hangers
and a c o n c r e t e deck s l a b g i v e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f sober
symmetry i n t h e main s e c t i o n a c r o s s t h e r i v e r , w h i l e t h e
side sections are tailored to react perfectly to the very
different topographic conditions p r e v a i l i n g on e i t h e r side
of t h e r i v e r .
One r i v e r b a n k i s p e r f e c t l y f l a t w i t h a b e a u t i f u l stock
of t r e e s i n which t h e bridge ends and branches out, i n i t s
whole l e n g t h up t o t h e abutments s u p p o r t e d from t h e network
of hangers. T h e o t h e r b a n k i s s t e e p a n d t h e p a t h comes down
from behind a v a l l e y . Here, t h e deck takes an outward curve
s h o r t of t h e tower and merges with t h e path. The walker
becomes aware o f t h e s t r u c t u r e before c r o s s i n g i t . The
tower i s s t a y e d by means o f s t r a i g h t ropes.
The u n d e n i a b l e e x t r a c o s t t h a t a c c r u e s from b a c k s t a y i n g
and w h i c h was n e c e s s a r y because sinking auxiliary piers into
the n a v i g a b l e r i v e r bed was n o t a c c e p t a b l e here and t h e r e -
f o r e l e a v i n g no o t h e r c h o i c e b u t s u s p e n d the prefabricated
deck s l a b s d i r e c t l y from t h e c a b l e s , f i n d s a f u r t h e r j u s t i -
fication i n offering the designer perfect geometrical free-
dom i n t h e s h a p i n g o f t h e s l a b - a f r e e d o m t h a t h a s b e e n
f u l l y exhausted here. ( B u i l t 1 9 8 8 , w i t h B. S c h l a i c h - P e t e r -
hans, architect.)
309
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Copyright CRC Press

P e d e s t r i a n bridg e i n Kelhei m(Figur e 9 )
The dec k o f th e pedestria n bridg e ove r th e Rhein-Main-Donau -
Kanal (majo r waterwa y betwee n th e river s Rhin e an d Danube )
i n Kehlhei m(W-Germany ) span s th e channe l i n a nea r s e m i -
circula r p l a n , betwee n tw o straigh t approache s runnin g
paralle l t o th e c h a n n e l . Th e approache s wer e necessar y i n
orde r t o reac h th e require d elevatio n t o sui t th e headroo m
r e q u i r e m e n t s fo r n a v i g a t i o n . I t would , o f course , hav e bee n
p o s s i b l e t o d o i t th e shorte r w a y an d provid e fo r a brea k
a t th e uppe r end s o f th e a p p r o a c h e s , routin g th e bridg e
a t a righ t angl e ove r th e c h a n n e l . Bu t th e continuou s for m
of t h e d e c k n o t o n l y s e e m e d m u c h m o r e b e a u t i f u l b u t i t c o u l d
als o b e use d fo r statica l purpose s i n tha t th e structura l
d e m a n ds o f t h e c i r c u l a r sla b coul d b e satisfie db y
suspendin g th e concret e dec k bu t alon g on e singl e side .
The supportin g cabl e i s bor n b y tw o incline d tower s
an d form s a beautifu l geometri c patter n i n combinatio n wit h
th e h a n g e r s . T h e sla b i s p r e s t r e s s e d t o compensat e fo r
warpin g m o m e n t s . Th e prestressin g stee l i s arrange d i n a
rin g an d ove r th e gravit y cente r o f th e cros s section . Th e
traditiona l classificatio n int o back-anchore d an d self -
anchore d doe s no t wor k wit h thi s bridge : i t i s , i n f a c t ,
bot h a t th e sam e t i m e . Th e leanin g tower s requir e stayin g
whil e th e circula r sla b act s a s a n arc h withi n th e p l a n ,
th e compressiv e force s o f whic h ar e offse t b y th e h o r i z o n -
ta l componen t o f th e supportin g c a b l e s . Th e constructio n
wor k pose d n o proble mbecaus e th e fla t topograph y permitte d
th e erectio n o f th e dec k fro mfalsewor k an d th e excavatio n
wor k fo r th e channe l wa s t o star t onl y afte r th e bridg e
w as c o m p l e t e d . S t r i p p i n g an d cabl e tensionin g wa s don e b y
jackin g u p th e t o w e r s . (Buil t i n 1 9 8 7 , wit h A c k e r m a n n un d
Partner , architects. )
310
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Copyright CRC Press

Pedestria n stree t overpas s ove r th e Neckarstrass e i n
Stuttgar t (Figur e 10 )
The pedestria n bridg e spannin g th e Neckarstrass e i n
Stuttgar t i s a back-anchore d suspensio n bridge , asymmetri -
c a l l y s u s p e n d e d f r o ma n e w h o t e l b u i l d i n g f o r w h i c h i t
serve s a s a canop y ove r th e entranc e an d a s a lin k t o th e
nearb y p a r k . Th e concret e sla b widen s toward s th e buildin g
t o whic h i t i s monolithicall y tied . Th e dec k i s movabl y
supported , firstl y b y th e cable s whic h ar e sockete d t o th e
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
dec k sla b i n a n exactl y opposit e arrangemen t and , secondly ,
on a h i l l . Th e f i t t i n g s , m o u n t i n g s , anchorage s an d socket s
ar e mad e o f stainles s stee l s o a s t o b e abl e t o leav e th e
beautifu l structur e unspoile d fro manti-corrosio n coating .
(Buil t i n 1 9 8 8 , wit h K a m m e r e r , Bel z un d P a r t n e r , a r c h i -
tect s . )
P e d e s t r i a n bridg e i n Ba d W i n d s h e i m(Figur e 11 )
The pedestria n bridg e i n Ba d Windshei m(W-Germany ) ha s a
spa n o f n o m o r e tha n 19. 5 m . I t crosse s th e railwa y an d
link s th e tow n t o a park . Th e approac h i s a timber-planke d
s t e e l g r i d , r e s t i n g o n p i e r s a t a s p a c i n g o f 6. 5 m , w h i c h
ar e arrange d i n p a i r s . Th e desig n o f th e approach , i n -
cludin g th e spacin g patter n wa s als o t o b e use d fo r th e
bridg e itsel f an d therefor e repeat s an d reflect s itsel f
i n th e dec k an d i n th e suspension . Th e resul t i s a self -
anchore d structur e suspende d fro m c h a i n s . Th e ver y smal l
s i z e s , a s fo r instanc e i n th e p r e s e n t d e s i g n , ar e bes t an d
m o st e c o n o m i c a l l y s e r v e d b y m e a n s o f e y e b a r s f o r b o l t i n g
instea d o f rope s an d stee l mounting s o r f i t t i n g s . (Buil t
i n 1988 , wit h Schunc k un d Partner , architects. )
311
Copyright CRC Press

P e d e s t r i a n b r i d g e o v e r a r o a d i n S t u t t g a r t ( F i g u r e 12 )
T h i s b r i d g e , s p a n n i n g t h e m a i n r o a d "A m K o c h e n h o f " u s e s a
concret e sla b whic h i s onl y 1 3 c mthic k an d rest s o n a p r e -
stresse d asymmetri c rop e t r u s s . Th e desig n spran g fro mth e
desir e o f creatin g a structur e tha t woul d combin e an d conve y
bot h th e ide a o f elegan t weightlessnes s an d technica l s o b e r -
nes s t o blen d i n wit h th e nearb y Stuttgar t fai r an d e x -
positio n buildings . Th e bridg e wa s tensione d a t th e tim e
of w r i t i n g ( D e c e m b e r 1 9 8 9 ) .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
P e d e s t r i a n bridg e i n Berchin g (Figur e 13 )
The pedestria n bridg e crossin g th e Rhein-Main-Donau-Kana l
outsid e th e tow n o f Berchin g (W-Germany ) i s designe d a s
a self-anchore d asymmetri c suspensio n bridge . Th e mai n
emphasi s wa s place d o n creatin g a buoyan t an d weightles s
s t r u c t u r e . Th e thi n concret e sla b rest s o n cros s girder s
m a de o f s t e e l t h a t a r e c a n t i l e v e r i n g o n bot h side s an d
featur e undisguise d (metal-to-metal ) s u s p e n s i o n . (T o b e
place d unde r constructio n i n 1990 , wit h Ackerman n un d
Partner , architects. )
P e d e s t r i a n b r i d g e f o r t h e IGA 1993 i n S t u t t g a r t ( F i g u r e 1 4 )
The tw o b r i d g e s a s projecte d fo r th e internationa l horti -
c u l t u r a l sho w (IGA ) i n S t u t t g a r t ar e ver y m u c h alik e an d
w i l l li e c l o s e t o g e t h e r . E a c h b r i d g e ha s t h r e e b r a n c h e s ,
t o provid e fo r a crossin g ove r th e railwa y an d a n acces s
d o wn t o t h e r a i l r o a d platforms . The y ar e partl y self -
anchored , partl y back-anchored . I n th e on e cas e i t wa s
possibl e t o stabiliz e th e towe r b y th e suspensio n syste m
a l o n e , whil e th e othe r cas e require s additiona l backstaying .
(T o b e p l a c e d u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n i n 1990 , wit h H . Lu z an d
H. E g e n h o f e r , a r c h i t e c t s . )
312
Copyright CRC Press

W i l l i a m s b u r g B r i d g e , New Y o r k ( F i g u r e s 1 5 a n d 16 )
F i n a l l y , th e autho r want s t o acquain t th e reade r wit h th e
d e s i g n o f a l a r g e r s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s w i t h a s p a n o f 48 7 m .
H e r e , t o o , th e cable-staye d bridg e woul d hav e bee n th e
obviou s choice , followin g th e conventiona l rules . Bu t wit h
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
th e existin g abutment s bein g wel l preserve d an d takin g int o
accoun t urbanisti c an d aestheti c considerations , i t seeme d
bot h technicall y feasibl e an d desirabl e t o propos e a s u s -
pensio n bridge .
Withi n a n internationa l desig n competition , th e Cit y o f
N ew Y o r k i n v i t e d tender s fo r th e rehabilitatio n o f th e ol d
W i l l i a m s b u r g B r i d g e , includin g it s a p p r o a c h e s . Th e W i l l i a m s -
bur g suspensio n bridg e wa s buil t i n 190 3 an d provide s a
lin k betwee n Manhatta n an d B r o o k l y n . I t handle s a traffi c
loa d o f approximatel y 240,00 0 peopl e a d a y , carrie d o n eigh t
lane s an d tw o streetca r rails . Th e ne w bridg e i s t o hav e
onl y s i x , bu t w i d e r , lane s an d thre e streetca r rails . Th e
tende r specification s calle d fo r a proposa l i n whic h th e
ne w bridg e coul d tak e th e plac e o f th e ol d on e wit h th e
leas t possibl e interferenc e wit h traffi c an d woul d blen d
neatl y int o th e existin g surrounding s withou t requirin g
an y building s t o b e pulle d down .
The proposa l describe d i n th e followin g wa s awarde d th e
f i r s t p r i z e (i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n wit h Prof . R . Walther , Mory ,
M a i e r , e n g i n e e r s , B a s e l , an d M . Goldsmith , Chicago , Acker -
m a nn u n d P a r t n e r , Miinchen , a r c h i t e c t s ) an d containe d a
n u m b er o f d i s t i n c t i o n s :
- i t propose d a suspensio n bridg e instea d o f a cable-staye d
b r i d g e w h i c h woul d hav e bee n th e conventiona l choic e fo r
th e lengt h o f spa n concerned . Th e propose d structur e woul d
thu s harmoniz e wit h th e tw o existin g neighbourin g suspensio n
bridge s unde r th e aspect s o f aestheti c appea l an d scale ;
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- i t p r o v i d e d fo r additiona l sta y cable s i n th e mai n spa n
as a mean s o f preventin g deformations , simila r th e practic e
u s e d f o r t h e o l d B r o o k l y n B r i d g e , n o w 10 5 y e a r s o l d ;
- i t suggeste d a n orthotropi c dec k m a d e o f stee l an d stee l
tower s fille d wit h concrete ;
- i t woul d mak e us e o f th e existing , well-preserve d abut -
m e n t s fo r backstayin g th e mai n cables ;
- i t propose d tha t erectio n b e accomplishe d b y constructin g
th e ne w bridg e i n tw o halve s o n eithe r sid e o f th e ol d
bridg e an d w h i c h , upo n completion , woul d carr y th e traffi c
loa d w h i l e th e ol d bridg e wa s pulle d d o w n , whereupo n th e
tw o halve s woul d b e joine d locatin g th e axi s o f th e ne w
bridg e t o coincid e exactl y wit h th e axi s o f th e ol d o n e .
The b r i d g e w o u l d hav e t o b e close d dow n fo r n o m o r e tha n
approximatel y tw o week s an d n o existin g buildin g woul d b e
touche d i n th e p r o c e s s .
15
I t i s commo n practic e today , t o mak e cable s replaceable .

I n cable-staye d bridges , thi s i s n o problem . Th e presen t
p r o p o s a l s h o w s , fo r th e firs t t i m e , a metho d o f ho w th e
mai n cable s o f a suspensio n bridg e ca n b e replace d unde r
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
traffi c load . T o thi s end , th e mai n cable s woul d no t b e

m a de t o f o r m o n e s i n g l e c a b l e u n i t , a s i s n o r m a l l y t h e c a s e ,
but woul d b e mad e u p o f 1 2 individua l strand s o r rope s t o
be passe d ove r th e cast-iro n saddl e an d tie d togethe r b y
m e a ns o f c l a m p s . W h e n r e q u i r e d , t h e i n d i v i d u a l cable s woul d
be exchange d on e a t a t i m e , thu s makin g th e bridg e loos e
but on e twelvt h o f it s load-bearin g capacit y whil e replacin g
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one s t r a n d . R e d u c i n g t h e mass o f t h e c a b l e i n t o s e v e r a l
s e p a r a t e c a b l e s makes i t t r a n s p a r e n t a n d c o n v e y s t h e i d e a
of weightlessness.
M o r e o v e r , i t e n a b l e s t h e u s e o f t h e same r o p e o r s t r a n d
t y p e f o r t h e main c a b l e s , t h e suspenders and t h e s t a y s .
I n order t o p r o v i d e f o r s a t i s f a c t o r y anchorage t o t h e
s u p e r s t r u c t u r e , each hanger i s a l l o c a t e d two s t a y ropes
on e i t h e r s i d e .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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D E V E L O P M E N T S IN S T E E L S FOR C A B L E -
STAYED STRUCTURES
S.E. WEBSTER, B.M. ARMSTRONG
British Steel Technical, Swinden Laboratories, Rotherham,
England, UK
T.J. PIKE
British Steel, General Steels, Scunthorpe Works, England, UK
Abstract
The historical development of high tensile steel bridge wire is reviewed briefly as a
background to innovations in the metallurgical design of wire rod feedstock and in
steelmaking and casting technology. These developments are set in the context of service
requirements.
The factors influencing the properties of high tensile steel wire are discussed with
particular reference to the effects of composition, microstructure and process route. Recent
developments in the use of steels microalloyed with either chromium or vanadium to
provide higher strength whilst maintaining good ductility are described.
Major developments in steelmaking and casting technology have been introduced to
provide improved standards of quality and consistency. Massive capital investment at
British Steel's Scunthorpe Works underlines the industry's continuing commitment to
provide the bridge designer with the materials he needs.
Keywords: Wire Rope, Bridges, Steel Composition, Steel Properties, Fatigue,
Steelmaking, Casting
1 Introduction
The basic principles underlying the manufacture of bridge wire for suspension cables have
remained unchanged in the Century following construction of the Forth Rail Bridge. The
cables for the Brooklyn bridge built in 1883, were made from galvanised cold drawn
pearlitic high carbon steel wire with a composition and microstructure broadly similar to
those adopted in the 1980s. However, advances in metallurgical design and
manufacturing technology have brought about continuous improvements in steel quality,
consistency and economy over the intervening years and steel maintains its competitive
position over other materials.
The paper briefly reviews the historical trends in property requirements and
manufacturing technology before considering, in more depth, recent developments in both
product metallurgy and processing which provide the standards of integrity required by
modern bridge designers.
2 A c e n t u r y of progress
2.1 W i r e technology
High tensile bridge wire has, for the last hundred years, been made from high carbon steel
by rolling to rod and cold drawing. Fig. 1 shows the trend in tensile strength over the
period. The wires for the Brooklyn Bridge were made from high carbon steel of somewhat
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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variable composition. Analysis of individual wires during refurbishment of the bridge
reported by Carlson (1987) showed carbon to range from 0.55 to 0.91%. The mean strength
of the wires was in the region of 1100 N/mm . 2
TS
N /mm2
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 1. Tensile s t r e n g t h of suspension cable w i r e
Strength levels increased significantly in the first half of the century but have
remained broadly constant from 1930 to the present day. The strength increases achieved
up to 1930 were a consequence of tighter control of steel composition, permitting a closer
approach to the optimum carbon content, coupled with the introduction of the "patenting"
heat treatment designed to provide the optimum pearlitic microstructure for cold drawing.
More recently, the adoption of controlled post-rolling cooling on rod mills has permitted
direct drawing of hot rolled rod, albeit with some shortfall in both strength and
drawability compared to the best lead patenting practice. The implications of this are
considered in detail later in the paper.
2.2 Cable technology

Individual wires with diameters of between 3 and 7 mm are typically used for bridge
cables. Although the majority are round, others shaped to a Z or triangular profile are
used.
There is a wide variety of rope types available and, in theory, they can be made to any
length. However, in practice, the limitations are the capacity of manufacturing
equipment, the weight of the product for transportation and handling and the ability of the
rope to be coiled. Weight per unit length increases rapidly with diameter and the stiffness
increase limits the minimum coil diameters for handling ropes.
The common types of wire rope which are used in bridge construction are:
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Spiral Ropes
These are round ropes manufactured by winding a number of individual wires
around a central core. The successive layers are generally spun with the opposite
direction of helix starting with a straight core i n order to minimise the rotation
characteristics of the rope. This rope type is divided into open, half locked and fully
locked ropes but the former and latter variants are usually used for bridge
construction.
The nominal modulus of elasticity for these multiwire helical strands is
usually 15-25% below that for single wires in the range of 1.5-1.7 x 10 N / m m . A t 5 2
a diameter of 100 mm a 501 reel would provide almost 1000 m of rope with a
breaking load i n excess of 8001.
Parallel Wire Ropes
Parallel wire ropes generally use ungalvanised wires and have an elastic modulus
of 2 x 10 N / m m . The load carrying capacity of such a system is greater than for
5 2
spiral strand so that rope diameters can be reduced by approximately 10%.

However, the parallel ropes must have an external sheathing to contain the wires.
The sheathing also provides the protection from corrosive attack which is required
for the ungalvanised steel wires.
A variant of this approach is the use of parallel wire strand (PWS). This
product consists of bundles of galvanised wires which are bound together with a
plastic tape and are socketed at both ends. I t has been used to build up main cables
i n suspension bridges or as an isolated component for stays. The former has
generally used 5 mm diameter wires and the latter 7 mm diameter wires. The two
most frequently used shapes are regular and modified hexagons.
Main Cables
These cables can be made from spiral strand rope fastened together, either into an
hexagonal shape or occasionally into a circle. The alternative is to use parallel
wires and these can be assembled by the traditional air spinning method or by the
use of PWS.
2.3 Steelmaking and casting

For much of this century, steel was made by the processes of Bessemer and Siemens who
developed their converters and open-hearth processes i n the 1860s/70s. Indeed, i t was not
u n t i l 1952 that commercial use of oxygen was exploited i n experiments at Linz i n Austria,
which eventually led to the 'LD* process whereby oxygen is blown into the steel through a
lance. Subsequent developments established the method (also known as BOS) to its
dominant position today, accounting with its many variants for well over 50% of world
steel output. The early quality range of mainly low carbon strip steels has been extended to
high carbon, alloy and stainless steels.
Since the early 1950s, an increasingly complex and important range of secondary
steelmaking techniques have been developed (Lange 1988). These proceed i n the ladle
after tapping from the BOS vessel and may involve vacuum degassing, injection, or
heating processes separately or i n combination. Many also provide some refining and
alloying capability. Steel quality is thus essentially achieved i n this secondary process.
Today most modern plants employ secondary steelmaking i n some form to improve quality
and productivity.
Casting was exclusively into moulds to produce ingots until the first continuous
casting of steel i n 1948 - (Schrewe 1989). The continuous process has become increasingly
important, with many developments to extend the product quality and shape ranges.
Today steels for wire may be produced from direct continuous casting of billets, but
frequently bloom casting is employed where the advantages of full shrouding are used to
produce steel of high purity.
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Thus a typical modern process route for high quality, high carbon steels for bridge
wires involves primary BOS steelmaking, secondary steelmaking, and continuous casting.
Cast blooms are subsequently rolled to billets which are then inspected and rectified, thus
providing a high quality feedstock for subsequent rod rolling.
3 M e t a l l u r g i c a l developments i n h i g h tensile steel w i r e
3.1 S t r u c t u r e p r o p e r t y relationships
The two most important properties of wire rod for drawing into bridge wire are its tensile
strength and ductility. The steel composition universally adopted has a carbon content
designed to provide a fully pearlitic structure in the control cooled condition. This
structure, illustrated in Fig. 2, comprises alternative laths of iron carbide (Fe3Q and «-
iron (ferrite).
Cementite, Ferrite ,
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
F i g . 2. T h i n f o i l electron m i c r o g r a p h o f pearlitic s t r u c t u r e i n as-rolled r o d .

The spacing of the cementite laths is 0.0001 m m
In order to provide a basis for development, work was undertaken at British Steel's
Swinden Laboratories by Brogan and Mclvor (1980) in the late 1970s to establish the
quantitative dependence of strength and ductility upon composition and microstructure.
Relationships were established for a wide range of commercially available high carbon
steel rod from both U K and foreign sources. The factors examined included steel
composition and the pearlite morphology including both the interlamellar spacing and
cementite lath thickness. The equations relating tensile strength and ductility to the
composition and pearlite morphology were:
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TS (N/mm2) = 780 + 2.67 S + 97(%Si) -12(%«)
0
1/2
+ 7663 (%N ) f (1)
R of A % = 57.5 + 18.8 Logio (%« +1) - 267000t

- 52(%P-0.001)l/2 (2)
Where :-
S0 is the pearlite interlamellar spacing

« is free ferrite
Nf is free nitrogen
t is cementite lath thickness
The roles of carbon and manganese are accounted for i n the microstructural features
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
through their influence on the ferrite and pearlite morphology. These equations indicate
that refining pearlite by reducing interlamellar spacing and lath thickness increases both
strength and ductility. This feature has been appreciated i n general terms for many years
and has been the driving force behind the development of rod patenting and controlled
cooling on rod mills. Both these treatments serve to depress the temperature at which the
austenite transforms to pearlite, thereby producing the desired structural refinement.
Further work undertaken at Swinden Laboratories, using a laboratory simulator to
examine the effects of rod m i l l cooling provided the following relationship defining the
strength of plain carbon steels:-
TS(N/mm ) = (267 (log CR)-293) + 1029(%C) + 152(%Si)

2
+ 210(%Mn) + 442(%P)l/2 + 5244(%N ) f (3)
Where CR is the cooling rate i n °C sec at 700°C.

1
The effect of increasing the cooling rate is to provide the structural refinement
required for increased strength. There are, however, constraints imposed by the need to
develop a fully pearlitic structure. If cooling is too fast, brittle low temperature
transformation products such as martensite can form and these are detrimental to
performance.
On the other hand there is also an upper bound to strength which is defined by the
maximum cooling rate which can be achieved by forced air cooling on the rod m i l l ,
particularly for the thick rods, 10-13 mm diameter, used for drawing into wire for
suspension cables. This upper bound is about 100 N / m m lower than that which can be
2
achieved by lead patenting. There was, therefore, an incentive i n the 1980s to develop
steels which would bridge the gap and this has led to the introduction of microalloyed
grades (Jaiswal and Mclvor 1985; Jaiswal, Kirckaldy and Mclvor 1985; Jaiswal and
Mclvor 1989).
3.2 Development of microalloyed steels

Microalloying elements can be used to strengthen steels in three basic ways - by depressing
the transformation temperature to provide a finer pearlite, by precipitation hardening and
by solid solution strengthening. In principle all three mechanisms can be used, either
singly or i n combination. For high carbon steel rod, an initial study identified chromium
(for depression of transformation temperature), vanadium (for precipitation
strengthening) and silicon (for solid solution strengthening) as the preferred elements for
conferring additional strength. The influence of these elements has been studied
exhaustively in the laboratory, i n full scale trials and i n production, to provide a range of
steels to meet specific product requirements within the constraints imposed by viable rod
mill processing regimes. As both the base levels of strength and the increases associated
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with microalloying additions are critically dependent upon transformation temperature,
and therefore upon the austenite grain size of the rod as i t emerges from the mill and the
subsequent controlled cooling rate, i t was necessary to study these effects i n some detail.
The strengthening coefficients for chromium, ACr, and vanadium, AV, were found to
be non-linear and dependent on both cooling rate and composition. Typical values of
strength increment obtained using these agents in 0.8% C steels are:
ACr N/mm2 AV N/mm2

Cooling Rate
°C
0.15Cr 0.30Cr 0.05V 0.10V
10 35 100 45 120
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
25 75 150 60 90
The magnitude of the effect for vanadium passes through a minimum at an

intermediate value of cooling rate that is composition dependent.
The critical rate of cooling at which martensite first appears decreases, i.e. the risk of
wire drawing problems increases, as the austenite grains become coarser. In order to rank
the microalloying agents in terms of "martensite risk", i t was necessary to select a
standard austenite grain size for the controlled cooling treatments. For a grain size of
ASTM 7-8, which characterises the relationship for tensile strength presented in equation
3 and is commercially relevant, the situation for critical cooling rate, CCR, measured at
7000 C, is as follows - (Clarke and Mclvor 1989).
CCR °C/s = 97 - 19(%Si) - 70(%Mn) - 50(%Cr) - 224(%P) (4)
0 J 5 Cr
Base
.83 C-0.25 Si-0.60 Mn
Cooling rate, °C/s
Fig. 3. Useful range of strength for microalloyed commercial rod
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Vanadium additions at the levels used commercially do not have a significant effect on
the tendency to form martensite. Consequently, of the microalloying agents, chromium
exhibits the greatest potency for causing a brittle microstructure to form.
As a result, vanadium was chosen to enhance the properties of small diameter rod,
chromium being too potent i n forming martensite at relatively fast rates of cooling. The
concentration of vanadium, of 0.07%, represented a compromise between strength
increment and cost. For large diameter rod, which experiences relatively slow rates of
controlled cooling, 0.2-0.3% Cr was preferred on the grounds of economy.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 3 shows the ranges of useful strength that can be achieved i n vanadium and
chromium microalloyed steels compared with strength levels for plain carbon steel. Both
the microalloyed steels provide a rod which matches the strength achieved by lead
patenting. These steels are i n regular production at British Steel Scunthorpe Works.
4 Design a n d performance c r i t e r i a
4.1 Service conditions

There are several loading modes which must be considered for a cable stayed bridge.
'Dead' load is provided by the weight of the suspended structure and this, therefore,
dictates the base load on the cables. 'Live' load arises primarily from traffic loading and
the assumptions which are made regarding the type, frequency and distribution of the
traffic. Vehicular movement, principally stops and starts, can also cause a cable stayed
bridge to sway longitudinally. Obviously the precise value w i l l vary with the design of a
bridge but i t must be remembered that i n calculating fatigue damage, imposed stress
ranges can be additive if they occur simultaneously.
Because cable stayed bridges are usually employed to provide long spans, wind effects
cannot be ignored. Wind loading results i n both a static and dynamic load and i n a
suspended structure the response is governed by the aerodynamic behaviour of the deck.
The failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge was the result of poor aerodynamic properties
and prediction of such properties is not an easy task.
In addition to wind effects on the cables as a result of the deck behaviour, the cables
themselves can be influenced directly. The small mass per unit length i n combination
with the lack of bending stiffness make a single cable sensitive to vibration. The response
of a cable to this 'vortex shedding' depends upon the tension i n the cable, the mass/unit
length, the cable length and the amount of sag i n an inclined cable. Vibration induced i n
this manner can be of a higher frequency than that caused by traffic.
The various loading modes pertinent to cable stayed bridges, therefore, impose two
basic types of load on the cables; axial and bending. The combination of these loading
modes experienced by a particular cable w i l l depend, to a large extent, upon the design and
constructional details of the bridge. The main locations of bending forces are:-
Around the saddles, cable clamps and anchorages of the main cables i n suspension
bridges.
A t the end terminations of the hanger and stay cables. The latter aspect is
obviously accentuated i f the end connection is unable to rotate and the bending is
allowed to localise at the socket neck.
Load Histories
Fatigue damage occurs by the repeated application of stress cycles to a component. The
two aspects which must be quantified are, therefore, the value of the applied stress range
and the number of times i t is applied. Over a wide range, the static load on the component
does not influence fatigue crack growth rate; i t is purely the applied stress range. The
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majority of fatigue tests are carried out using constant amplitude loading but load
application is random. In order to compare the fatigue damage which results from a
random load application with that which occurs as a result of constant amplitude loading
the principle of incremental damage as defined by Miner's Rule is often used. This states
that:-
where N i is the actual repetitions of stress range i

p
Ni is the number of repetitions that can be allowed for 0[ according to the design
curve being used.
In order to apply even this simplified principle the two aspects required are; a reliable
design line and a good evaluation of the stress ranges experienced by the component in
question.
Projected loading cycles can be predicted from the relevant standards (e.g. BS 5400:
Part 2) but actual measurements to relate projected or actual loading cycles to the response
of cables are surprisingly very sparse. Some measurements have been made on the Severn
Bridge (Flint and Neil Partnership 1983) and a more comprehensive set of measurements
has been made on behalf of the Humber Bridge Board. In the latter evaluation two
hangers were instrumented with strain gauges attached to the actual wires of the hangers.
For an average axial strain range of 217 um there is a bending component of 22 um at the
bottom connection of the shorter hanger studied. These correspond to relatively low stress
ranges (45 and 5 N/mm respectively) but during normal use occasional stress ranges of up
2
to 202 N/mm were recorded. Overall there was little evidence of any large number of
2
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cycles at other than the lowest stress levels recorded.

A large programme of work concerned with the monitoring of traffic conditions and
related stress measurements has been carried out under E C S C funding (ECSC Contract
No. 7210.KD). This work was primarily concerned with the evaluation of steel decks, but
it did involve an extensive measurement of traffic types and frequency. Some
measurements were made on the deck of the Forth and Wye cable supported bridges. It is
noted that 2.9% of the axle loads on the Forth and 2.3% on the Wye Bridge exceed the U K
legal load limit of 100 kN. Indeed on the Wye Bridge, 19 vehicles exceeded 150 kN.
The manner in which traffic loads are transferred to the bridge hangers differs for
inclined and vertical hangers. In the former there is a slow build up of load as the vehicle
approaches a hanger, then a rapid fall as it passes the hanger. The cycle is not uniform
about the mean load with the 'compressive' part being less than the increase in tension.
This loading pattern differs from that seen in vertical hangers which tend to show a
steeper fall from the maximum load but little 'compressive' part of a cycle. The load range
experienced by inclined hangers is therefore greater than for vertical hangers. The
terminations used for wire ropes can introduce a number of features which are detrimental
to the fatigue behaviour of the rope. Consequently, end terminations can have a major
influence upon the rope fatigue properties measured and those of an actual installation.
4.2 The fatigue properties of w i r e rope

The majority of fatigue data which are available have been obtained in air although some
tests have been carried out in seawater. In addition, the vast majority of tests have been
completed using constant amplitude fatigue cycling and not the more structurally relevant
variable amplitude cycling. The traditional test methods for wire ropes are axial loading
and bending over sheave (BOS). In the former a suitably terminated rope is cycled under
axial tension to failure, the result being plotted on an S-N graph. The usual variables are
mean load and the fluctuating fatigue load. The ratio of load range to minimum
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guaranteed breaking load of the rope has usually been used to define the load axis. The
definition of failure is more variable and can range from the detection of a small number of
broken wires to complete collapse of the rope. It should be noted that because of the nature
of stranded and spiral wire ropes an individual wire can carry a high load only a short
distance from a complete break. One particular study by Smith et al (1978) showed that
one rope cycled to 70% of its expected life still exceeded the guaranteed breaking load. The
achievement of a high strength level after fatigue testing should not, therefore, be used to
claim that the rope is 'undamaged' as the rate of wire failures can accelerate rapidly.
Bending over sheave testing requires the rope to be passed around a sheave, or
sheaves, whilst sustaining a static load. The relevance of such tests to bridge cables is
slight as they were designed to accommodate the requirements of haulage ropes. They
could, however, provide an indication of rope behaviour for the situation of the rope being
passed over a saddle, either on a tower or a cable clamp on a main cable.
The reliable fatigue data which are available for wire ropes suggest that, in common
with the usual behaviour of metallic materials, the mean load does not have a major effect
upon fatigue life but the load range applied does. The load range can be expressed as a
function of the minimum breaking load of the rope or, more directly, in terms of stress
range. The latter method has been used to compare the available data for large diameter
ropes in Fig. 4 as it allows a more direct comparison with other fatigue data. The results
shown are for axially loaded tests only and all except one were carried out in air. It is
unlikely that the one series of tests in seawater can be considered to show any effect of that
environment because of the test parameters used.
Cycles
F i g . 4. S u m m a r y of fatigue data f o r w i r e ropes u n d e r axial l o a d i n g
It can be seen from Fig. 4 that, in general, stranded ropes show the lowest fatigue lives.
Locked coil, spiral and parallel wire ropes seem to have a similar behaviour but no reliable
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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information is available to demonstrate a fatigue threshold value. I t must also be
remembered that the data presented are essentially for the mean fatigue behaviour.
Design lines are usually for -2a from the mean. Exposure to an aggressive environment
can also reduce the available fatigue life. BS 6235 recommends that design lives be halved
for unprotected steel used i n sea-water. The data i n Fig. 4 suggest threshold stress ranges
of 77 N / m m for stranded ropes and 102 N / m m for the other rope types at 2 x 10 cycles.
2 2 7
The only substantial set of published data - Hobbs (1977) and Hobbs and Ghavami
(1978) - to indicate the effect of bending loads is given i n Fig. 5. This data set suggests a
limiting angular change of ±0.6°. Obviously i n practice hanger ropes w i l l be subjected to a
combination of axial and bending loads. Wire failures w i l l be governed by the local stress
range. Hence the possibility of additive effects should be considered i n the definition of a
realistic design line.
Nominal amplitude
at socket face, degrees
±1.5 r
Unfailed
I----
but 2 wires
broken
Axial Load
41 ton 20. 5 ton
(VaMBL) ( V 6 MBL)
+ ® Batch 1
x
Batch 2
$ Indicates initial failure of individual strands

prior to total rope failure e.g. 6 strands + —
but 7 wires broken
1 1i i i i i II I ' » •
Number of cycles
Fig. 5. Effect o f b e n d i n g u p o n fatigue life of w i r e rope
Under variable amplitude loading, i t is also likely that fatigue crack growth w i l l be
started by the high loads imposed but once started a crack may be propagated by the lower
stress range cycles. Consequently, i t is dangerous to assume that a fatigue crack growth
limit derived from constant amplitude tests is relevant to behaviour under variable
amplitude loading. I n addition the effective fatigue limit is related to the factor (1-R)
where R is the ratio of the minimum:maximum stress level. Because of the high mean load
on hanger cables the R ratio is usually high, 0.6 to 1, and therefore the effective fatigue
limit is substantially lower than the apparent level determined from constant amplitude
tests at a low R value.
Using the derived fatigue data to estimate lives based on the limited amount of actual
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
stress ranges measured shows that the majority of damage is caused by the moderate stress
levels, 35-75 N / m m , as these present the most severe combination of number of cycles and
2
stress range. Damage is still caused by the low stress magnitude cycles because of the R
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ratio effect mentioned earlier. Indeed the greatest amount of damage is caused by the low
stress ranges because of the large number of cycles imposed.
The above observations imply that the total volume of traffic, not just that of
commercial vehicles, can affect the life observed from hanger ropes.
The observations made concerning those stress ranges which can be anticipated to
cause fatigue damage show the necessity for more detailed information concerning the
actual strains (stresses) imposed on bridge cables.
Conventional design methods tend to discount the lower stress ranges as being
undamaging. These observations also emphasise the need to plan very carefully any
fatigue programmes on wire ropes using variable amplitude loading. The use of block
loading and the unstructured removal of low load ranges may have a marked effect on the
results obtained.
For a given structural situation fatigue performance is critically dependent upon steel
quality, which, i n turn is related to manufacturing standards. The production routes
which have been adopted by British Steel to achieve high levels of both internal and
surface quality i n wire rod feedstock are described in the following Section.
5 Steelmaking a n d casting
5.1 P r o d u c t requirements
The specified requirements for bridge wire now generally relate to the chemical
composition and the mechanical properties, tensile strength and ductility, Table 1.
Table 1 Bridge w i r e specification
Typical Chemical ^ ^ ^ n
Composition 0.81/0.85 0.18/0.32 0.50/0.70 < 0.030 < 0.030

Requirements
Stress at 0.7 Tensile Total Wrap Test

ASTMA586-86 % Extension Strength Elongation
ASTMA603-88 N/mm2 N/mm2 on 250 mm %
Wire*, Diameter 0 - — — — ~ - —
>1030 >1520 >2.0 > 2 turns on 3 0
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The properties depend on the class of zinc coating and the wire diameter.
However, to achieve these properties, and to produce the finished rope or cable, there are
further metallurgical requirements which must be considered. These additional
requirements become more important with increasingly demanding drawing and
stranding operations and for higher strength, higher ductility wires. I n fact, wiredrawers
frequently specify limiting levels of tramp residual elements (Cu, Sn, As, etc.), sulphur and
phosphorus, nitrogen, non-metallic inclusions, segregations and surface quality. These are
i n the domain of control of the steel producer.
5.2 Steelmaking
Steel for bridge wire is manufactured i n the U K at British Steel's Scunthorpe Works. This
is an integrated iron and steel plant employing modern processes to manufacture a wide
range of carbon and low alloy steels.
The processes employ hot blast furnace iron of low residual tramp element content.
Control of tramp element content is widely believed to be necessary i n high carbon wire
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steels to promote good drawability, consistent heat-treatment response, and to ensure
adequate final ductility (Leigh and Duckfield 1974). Table 2 shows the typical levels of
tramp elements i n Scunthorpe Works' steels compared to electric arc steels.
Table 2 T y p i c a l residual t r a m p element levels
Cr Mo Ni As Co Cu Sn r
Scunthorpe Works 0.026 0.002 0.024 0.008 0.004 0.025 0.003 0.080
BOS Steel
Typical Electric 0.07 0.02 0.06 0.016 0.015 0.08 0.009 0.239
Arc Steel
Proposed General <0.08 <0.02 <0.12 <0.08 < 0.025 <0.25
Rod Specification
(Leigh and
Duckfield 1974)
E» = Cr + Cu + Mo + N i + Sn
A l l iron is desulphurised before being charged to the BOS vessel, by a two-stage

process of soda ash additions and deep injection of magnesium-based compounds. The
sulphur content can be reduced from about 0.06% i n the hot iron to as low as 0.002%
depending on the steel grade to be manufactured.
Primary steelmaking proceeds i n 300 tonne capacity BOS vessels, employing an
optimum refining path determined by computer models from audiometric and
decarburisation rate measurements. The highly oxidising conditions promote good carbon
and phosphorus removal. Main alloying and deoxidation proceeds at tap i n the ladle prior
to secondary processes. Several secondary processes are available, and are utilised
according to final steel requirements (see Table 3).
Table 3 Scunthorpe w o r k s steelmaking facilities and effects
Process Stage Effects

Primary • Carbon and Phosphorus removal • Nitrogen decrease
Steelmaking • Deoxidation at tap • Alloying: main additions at tap
Secondary Specific Effects Common Effects
Steelmaking
Argon stir • Composition control
Powder • Sulphur removal
injection • Inclusion shape control
Deoxidation
Vacuum • Degassing (H, N)
degassing • Vacuum decarburising Inclusion composition
• Significant alloying control
• Composition adjustment Inclusion removal
Ladle furnace • S and P removal Temperature control
• Inclusion shape control
• Heating
• Significant alloying
• Composition adjustment
A key requirement for successful secondary steelmaking is separation of the

phosphorus-rich primary steelmaking slag from the liquid steel (Pike 1989). Separation is
effected by a combination of features: detailed attention and maintenance of taphole
condition, detection of slag at the taphole for electromagnetic coils together with rapid
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backward t i l t i n g of the vessel, and by the use of slag dart stoppers which float at the slag-
metal interface and block the taphole before issue of slag during ladle filling. Re-ladling is
an extremely effective form of separation, and this is now one of the standard process
routes employed at Scunthorpe Works since commissioning i n 1989 of a modern ladle
furnace unit.
Injection into the melt of argon gas or of powdered calcium-rich particles (carried by
argon gas) are the simplest secondary steelmaking processes available prior to casting.
Both cause intense stirring and mixing actions, promoting temperature and composition
homogenisation and flotation of the non-metallic inclusions formed during steel
deoxidation. The use of powdered calcium-rich particles allows desulphurisation to
proceed to very low levels, e.g. 0.002% S.
Vacuum degassing is now an integral part of the secondary steelmaking processes at
Scunthorpe Works, particularly for the production of high carbon steels. Melt circulation
in the RH system encourages inclusion agglomeration, flotation, and removal to produce
high quality clean steel. Moreover, during the degassing cycle, sampling and chemical
analysis are conducted, followed by secondary alloying and composition adjustment for
precise control to target chemical specifications. The foregoing secondary steelmaking
processes generally require elevated tapping temperatures to accommodate the heat losses
which arise during processing. This results i n cost penalties, and encourages refractory
wear and higher nitrogen and phosphorus contents. The ladle furnace installed recently at
Scunthorpe Works provides a heating capability which overcomes these problems to a
large degree by allowing reduced tapping temperatures. The unit is a multifunction
vessel. Heat is provided by an arc struck between carbon electrodes and the steel;
electromagnetic stirring causes metal circulation to promote homogenisation and
inclusion removal; gas and powder injection facilities are included; and substantial
alloying facilities are employed. A tight cover and argon atmosphere minimise absorption
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of oxygen and nitrogen during processing, and synthetic slags rich i n lime are formed to
promote deoxidation, desulphurisation and inclusion removal. Alloy steels up to more than
5% alloys can be produced employing the ladle furnace.
5.3 Continuous casting

Perhaps the most notable advantage of continuous casting is the inherent homogeneity of
chemical composition conferred by the continuous and rapid mode of solidification.
A n indication of the chemical uniformity of the bloom caster products is shown i n Fig.
6.
Carbon
sgregation
index
S c a t t e r band
f o r 10$
weu i n g o t s
Range f o r
t y p i c a l CC
cast
Segregation C % (C)
index * C % (M)
20 40 60 80 100 %
Ingot/strand height
Fig. 6 I m p r o v e m e n t s i n segregation levels i n continuously cast feedstock
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In the wire rod market sectors, this advantage has been progressively exploited as
other developments have become available to improve quality, such that now most of the
high carbon steel for wire rod is cast on a four-strand bloom caster.
The important features which promote excellent quality, above that obtainable i n
ingot steels, concern segregation control and steel cleanness. Both of these are affected
partly by the preceding process stages, particularly those of secondary steelmaking.
Segregation control begins with very careful attention to casting temperature. Most of
the secondary steelmaking processes include temperature control and homogenisation as
part of their operations. This is particularly the case with the ladle furnace which allows
relatively easy adjustment of temperatures. Once the target temperature has been
achieved, casting under controlled conditions of speed and cooling can promote excellent
segregation control characteristics, resulting i n levels better than those which can be
achieved by ingot casting (Fig. 7), particularly since the machine was converted to 4-
strand casting i n 1986.
Control of steel cleanness is a second key feature for high quality high carbon wire rod.
The cleanness of molten steel i n the ladle is promoted by the secondary steelmaking
operations, by careful control of the deoxidation process and of the refractory regime, by
flotation of inclusions by melt circulation during stirring and vacuum degassing, and by
the use of refining slags i n the ladle furnace.
C u m u l a t i v e frequency
%
20
01 I I I I II I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
S e g r e g a t i o n index
Fig. 7 I m p r o v e m e n t s i n segregation levels i n r o d f r o m continuously cast

feedstock
A t the continuous casting machine, the major concern is to prevent reoxidation of the
steel, and this is accomplished to the highest degree in large section bloom casters such as
the Scunthorpe Works machine, where full shrouding employing submerged nozzles is
possible. The total shroud system is also vital to prevent nitrogen absorption during
casting, enabling the production of low nitrogen, high carbon steels.
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The surface quality of bloom cast steels is inherently superior to ingot steels. W i t h
good rolling practice, this superiority is carried through to the finished billets.
5.4 Billet production

After heating to rolling temperature, the large continuously cast blooms (750 x 355 mm)
are rolled to billets i n a modern bloom and billet m i l l , involving two reversing breakdown
stands and a continuous finishing train of up to 10 stands i n alternate vertical-horizontal
configuration. The finished billet sizes for rod mills are typically 115 mm and 140 mm
square, and up to 2 tonnes i n mass.
The m i l l process routes are designed to build-in quality at all stages, but increasingly
rod rollers demand final inspection and rectification of their billets. This demand is now
being met by a major new inspection and rectification line, which includes shot blasting,
surface inspection (Elkem Therm-o-matic'), internal inspection by an ultrasonic system
('Sonomatic'), and machine grinders.
The Therm-o-matic' device detects heat emission peaks from any defects when the
billet is excited by an induced H F current. Four IR cameras scan the full billet surface,
sending detection results to the machine computer which supervises paint sprays to mark
any defects which exceed specified depth and length thresholds. The marks are used to
direct grinding operations to rectify billets as necessary at one of four machine grinders.
The ultrasonic machine by 'Sonomatic' is an immersion system based on the pulse-echo
technique. A n array of up to 32 probes send ultrasonic pulses into the billet and
subsequently detect the reflected signals which are sorted electronically into 'good' and
'defect' echoes. Again the results are passed to a machine computer which controls paint
sprays to mark any defective parts of billets for removal.
A process control computer supervises the whole conditioning line, and records very
detailed quality information for product development purposes.
A n example of the inspection results, which demonstrates the superior and more
consistent surface quality of the bloom derived material is given i n Fig. 8.
115 mm r o l l e d bllleta
Blooat c a s t
270 2.5 3 . 0 3.5 470^

: of d e f e c t s / • of b i l l e t
Fig. 8. Surface quality on high carbon billets rolled from ingot and bloom cast
steel (Therm-o-matic results)
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5.5 Bridge W i r e Steels
The foregoing has indicated the major features of the process routes for steels for bridge
wires. These are shown i n summary form, together with the conferred product features, i n
Table 4.
These facilities integrate into a system of world-rank standards for the provision of
carbon steels, carbon-chromium steels, and low alloy steels for use as bridge wire.
Table 4 Q u a l i t y aspects of scunthorpe p r o d u c t i o n route
Process Process Feature Product Feature

Ladle • Lower tap temperatures • Lower N , H , P
Furnace • Lower refractory wear • Cleaner steel
• Slag separation/Synthetic • Cleaner steel
slag
• Precise'T Control • Improved segregation
characteristics
• Precise composition control • Improved composition
consistency
• Major alloying • Extended alloy steel range
Bloom • Large cast size • Chemical uniformity
Caster • Clean steel
(4 Strand)
• Temperature control • Minimum superheat
(ladle pre-heat, lid) • Minimum segregation
• Large section size • Short casting time, slow
(750 mm X 355 mm) speed
• Excellent internal quality
• Diverse products
• High reductions
• Submerged nozzles • Aluminium-treated steels
• Fully shrouded casting • Clean steel

• Low nitrogen
• A i r mist cooling • Excellent surface quality
Automated Surface Inspection
Billet (Therm-O-Matic)
Conditioning • Defect depth detection: • High grade surface
Line 0.3 mm - 2.5 mm • Consistent surface quality
• High detection confidence
Internal Ultrasonic Inspection

(Sonomatic)
• Defect size detection: 3.5 mm • Freedom from smallest
• Full length 2-D testing defects
• Assured internal quality
Automated Inspection Line

• Continuous operation • Increased availability of high
• High productivity grade billets
• Computer QC information • Product developments
system
Grinder
• Additional capacity • Improved presentation
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6 Summary a n d conclusions
The factors influencing the properties of high tensile steel cables have been discussed with
particular reference to the effects of steel composition, microstructure and production
technology. Properties of the finished wire are shown to be critically dependent upon both
composition and processing history. Modern rod mills have controlled cooling facilities
designed to provide the wire drawer with the optimum microstructure i n the rod and this
has largely eliminated the need for lead patenting.
Recent developments i n the use of steels micro-alloyed with either chromium or
vanadium to provide higher strength levels whilst maintaining good drawability and
ductility have been described and the potential for further improvements i n this area
discussed.
Major developments i n steelmaking technology have been introduced in recent years.
BOS steelmaking provides the benefits of high purity, low residual steel i n large batches to
give improved consistency. Secondary steelmaking permits further refinement and
control of both composition and steel purity. Continuous casting with fully shrouded
pouring to maintain high levels of purity ensures high levels of cleanness and both
internal and surface quality. Massive capital investment i n modern steelmaking and
inspection equipment at British Steel's Scunthorpe Works underlines the industry's
continuing commitment to provide the bridge designer with the materials he needs.
7 Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Dr. M.J. Pettifor, Chief Metallurgist and Mr. J.J. Gorman,
Director, Scunthorpe Works and Dr. R. Baker, Director of Research and Development,
British Steel pic for permission to publish this paper.
8 References
BS5400, Part 2:1978, Specification for loads.

Brogan, J and Mclvor, I.D., 1980, Quantitative relationships between the structure and
properties of high carbon pearlitic rod. BISPA wire product group technical
Conference, Stratford upon Avon pp 1-7.
Carlson, D.P., 1987, Roping the Brooklyn Bridge - The second centenary conference
proceedings. Interwire '87, Atlanta pp 33-38.
Clarke, B.D. and Mclvor, I.D., 1989, Effect of phosphorus on microstructure and strength
of high carbon steel rod. Ironmaking and steelmaking 16(5), pp 335-344.
ECSC Contract No. 7210.KD. Measurement and Interpretation of Dynamic Wheel Loads
and Bridges. Phases 1 and 2 European Commission, Brussels.
Flint and Neil Partnership, 1983, M4 Severn Crossing - Structural Feasibility Study.
Hobbs, R.E., 1977, Fatigue of Socketed Cables - Tests on 16 mm specimens, CESLIC Report
50.
Hobbs, R.E. and Ghavami, K., 1978, Fatigue of socketed cables - in-line and transverse
tests on 38 mm specimens. CESLIC Report SC2.
Jaiswal, S. and Mclvor, I.D., 1985, Metallurgy of vanadium microalloyed high-carbon steel
rod, Material Sci. Technol. (4), pp 276-284.
Jaiswal, S., Kirckaldy, A. and Mclvor, I.D., 1985, Microalloyed high carbon wire rod,
Wire Industry, 52, pp 779-782.
Jaiswal, S. and Mclvor, I.D., 1989, Microalloyed high carbon steel rod, Ironmaking and
Steelmaking, 16 (1), pp 45-54.
Lange, K.W., 1988, Thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of secondary steelmaking
332
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processes. International Material Review, 33(2), pp 53-89.
Leigh, C.T. and Duckfield, B.J., 1974, proceedings BISPA Technical Conference W i r e
Rods', Harrogate, p 51.
Pike, T.J., 1989 Improved steels for the rod and wire industry. Ironmaking and
Steelmaking 16(3), pp 168-173.
Schrewe, H.F., 1989, continuous casting of steel. Fundamental priciples and practice,
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English Edition. Stahl u Eisen.
Smith, H.L. et al., 1978, Increased fatigue life of wire ropes through periodic overloads
OTC 3256, Houston.
333
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DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF C A B L E -
S T A Y E D BRIDGES UNDER MOVING
LOADING
F. VENANCIO-FILHO
Dept Civil Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway,
New Jersey, USA
A. EL DEBS
Engineering School, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Carlos, Brazil
Abstract
I n t h i s p a p e r t h e d y n a m i c e f f e c t s o f a m o v i n g l o a d on t h e
s t r u c t u r e of a c a b l e - s t a y e d bridge are analyzed. The
b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e i s m a t h e m a t i c a l l y m o d e l l e d w i t h two t y p e s
of f i n i t e elements: b a r a n d beam e l e m e n t s . Special bar
e l e m e n t s a r e u s e d t o model t h e c a b l e s . Beam e l e m e n t s a r e
u s e d t o model t h e b r i d g e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e and t h e t o w e r s .
The model f o r t h e v e h i c l e i s a mass i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
s t r u c t u r e - s p r i n g and damper-suspended mass. The motion
e q u a t i o n s o f t h e s y s t e m formed by t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l model
o f t h e s t r u c t u r e and t h e v e h i c l e model a r e d e r i v e d t h r o u g h
s t a n d a r d methods of s t r u c t u r a l d y n a m i c s . These equations
a r e n o n l i n e a r , due t o c a b l e b e h a v i o r and t h e moving l o a d ,
and a r e s o l v e d by an i t e r a t i v e s t e p - b y - s t e p integration
method b a s e d on a c u b i c i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f t h e i n e r t i a
forces. T h e i r s o l u t i o n provides time h i s t o r i e s of
d i s p l a c e m e n t s and i n t e r n a l f o r c e s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e .
I m p a c t c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d by comparing t h e
maximum d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e s w i t h t h e s t a t i c o n e s . Example
of a t y p i c a l s t r u c t u r e of a c a b l e - s t a y e d bridge under
moving l o a d i s p r e s e n t e d .
Keywords: C a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s , Moving L o a d i n g , N o n l i n e a r
S t r u c t u r e s , S t r u c t u r a l Dynamics, Impact C o e f f i c i e n t s .
1 Introduction
The a n a l y s i s o f t h e dynamic b e h a v i o r o f b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e s
under moving l o a d s has a t t r a c t e d the a t t e n t i o n of
s t r u c t u r a l engineers s i n c e the l a s t decades of the l a s t
century. E a r l y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were concerned w i t h the
behavior of r a i l w a y bridges and, subsequently, with
highway b r i d g e s . Dynamic e f f e c t s were not important i n
f a c e of t h e r e l a t i v e l y low speed of t h e v e h i c l e s . High
speed t r a n s p o r t a t i o n v e h i c l e s have i n c r e a s e d the
importance of dynamic a n a l y s i s however.
The f i r s t dynamic a n a l y s i s o f s t r u c t u r e s u n d e r moving
l o a d s i n v o l v e d a s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d beam w i t h t h e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f two l i m i t i n g c a s e s : 1) a l o a d w i t h m a s s
334
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t r a v e r s i n g o n a m a s s l e s s beam; 2) a m a s s l e s s l o a d
t r a v e r s i n g o n a beam w i t h u n i f o r m m a s s . Limiting case 1
a p p l i e s t o r a i l w a y b r i d g e s and h a s been a n a l y z e d by S t o k e s
(1883). C a s e 2 w h i c h a p p l i e s t o highway b r i d g e s was
s t u d i e d by K r y l o v (1905), Timoshenko (1911), and I n g l i s
(1934). The second author solved the d i f f e r e n t i a l
equation of the forced v i b r a t i o n s of a simply supported
beam t r a v e r s e d b y a l o a d w i t h c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y b y modal
superposition. A maximum d y n a m i c d e f l e c t i o n o f 1 . 5 t i m e s
t h e s t a t i c d e f l e c t i o n w a s f o u n d when t h e t r a v e r s i n g t i m e
i s h a l f t h e f i r s t n a t u r a l p e r i o d o f t h e beam. L a t e r on i t
was r e c o g n i z e d by Eichmann (1953) and Warburton (1964)
t h a t t h e dynamic e f f e c t i s l e s s c o n s e r v a t i v e . T h e maximum
dynamic d e f l e c t i o n c a l c u l a t e d by t h e s e a u t h o r s was 1.743
the s t a t i c d e f l e c t i o n f o r a t r a v e r s i n g time equal to 0.81
the f i r s t natural period. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n was
s u b s e q u e n t l y supported w i t h t h e u s e of m a t r i x and f i n i t e
element methods
M a t r i x and f i n i t e element methods were f i r s t employed
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in the s i x t i e s . The b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e s were modelled as an

a s s e m b l a g e o f beam f i n i t e e l e m e n t s w i t h l u m p e d m a s s e s .
F l e m i n g and Romualdi (1961) u s e d a s t i f f n e s s f o r m u l a t i o n
f o r t h e m o t i o n e q u a t i o n s o f a t h r e e - s p a n c o n t i n u o u s beam
t r a v e r s e d by a l o a d w i t h i t s mass s p l i t i n a s p r u n g and an
unsprung one. A n u m e r i c a l s t e p - b y - s t e p i n t e g r a t i o n method
was u s e d t o s o l v e t h e e q u a t i o n s . V e l e t s o s a n d Huang
( 1 9 7 0 ) a n a l y z e d t h e p r o b l e m o f a c a n t i l e v e r beam u n d e r a
m a s s l e s s moving l o a d through a f l e x i b i l i t y f o r m u l a t i o n of
t h e m o t i o n e q u a t i o n s w h i c h were i n t e g r a t e d by t h e modal
s u p e r p o s i t i o n method. S i n g l e and t h r e e - s p a n continuous
b e a m s w e r e a n a l y z e d t h r o u g h a f l e x i b i l i t y a p p r o a c h b y Wen
and T o r i d i s ( 1 9 6 2 ) . V e n a n c i o - F i l h o (1966) a n a l y z e d s i n g l e ,
c a n t i l e v e r and c o n t i n u o u s beams, and frames u s i n g a
s t i f f n e s s f o r m u l a t i o n and t h e modal s u p e r p o s i t i o n method.
M u n i r u d r a p p a ( 1 9 6 9 ) u s e d t h e same a p p r o a c h t o t a c k l e t h e
case of g r i d s . Y o s h i d a a n d Weaver ( 1 9 7 1 ) a n a l y z e d beams
and p l a t e s t r a v e r s e d by a m a s s l e s s l o a d and by a l o a d w i t h
mass. F a l l a b e l a (1975) c o n s i d e r e d t h e c a s e o f beams
t r a v e r s e d by an i d e a l i z e d v e h i c l e c o n s i s t i n g o f a mass
s u s p e n d e d t h r o u g h a s p r i n g a n d damper upon a mass i n
contact with the structure. I n t h i s case the motion
e q u a t i o n s a r e n o n l i n e a r and were s o l v e d by a s t e p - b y - s t e p
i n t e g r a t i o n method. O l s o n ( 1 9 8 7 ) c o n s i d e r e d beams a n d
f r a m e s t r a v e r s e d b y t h e same i d e a l i z e d v e h i c l e a n d s o l v e d
t h e m o t i o n e q u a t i o n s by a m o d i f i e d modal s u p e r p o s i t i o n
method i n o r d e r t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e problem
nonlinearity.
C a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e s t r a v e r s e d by t h e
i d e a l i z e d v e h i c l e p r e s e n t two k i n d s o f n o n l i n e a r i t i e s :
one due t o t h e n o n l i n e a r s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o r o f t h e c a b l e s
and t h e o t h e r due t o t h e i d e a l i z e d v e h i c l e i t s e l f . In
t h i s paper t h e problem of c a b l e - s t a y e d bridge s t r u c t u r e s
t r a v e r s e d by t h e i d e a l i z e d v e h i c l e i s a d d r e s s e d . A
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m a t h e m a t i c a l model of t h e b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e i s c o n s i d e r e d
w h i c h i s c o n s t i t u t e d by s p e c i a l b a r f i n i t e e l e m e n t s w h i c h
m o d e l t h e c a b l e s a n d b y beam f i n i t e e l e m e n t s w h i c h m o d e l
t h e tower and t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e . The n o n l i n e a r motion
equations of the integrated system, i d e a l i z e d
v e h i c l e - m a t h e m a t i c a l model o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , are
f o r m u l a t e d u s i n g s t a n d a r d methods o f s t r u c t u r a l dynamics
and a r e s o l v e d by a h i g h - o r d e r s t e p - b y - s t e p integration
method s p e c i a l l y s u i t a b l e f o r t h e n o n l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s .
An e x a m p l e o f a n a c t u a l c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e i s
p r e s e n t e d i n which the dynamic e f f e c t s are g i v e n i n terms
of impact c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r d i s p l a c e m e n t s and f o r c e s .
2 The Mathematical Model

2.1 Structure
The m a t h e m a t i c a l model o f t h e s t r u c t u r e c o n s i s t s of an
a s s e m b l a g e o f beam a n d s p e c i a l b a r f i n i t e e l e m e n t s . The
s p e c i a l b a r e l e m e n t i s u s e d t o model t h e c a b l e s t a k i n g
i n t o a c c o u n t i t s n o n l i n e a r b e h a v i o r a n d t h e beam e l e m e n t
i s u s e d t o model t h e b r i d g e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e and t h e t o w e r s .
A t y p i c a l m a t h e m a t i c a l model i s d e p i c t e d i n F i g . 1 . The
s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x o f t h e beam e l e m e n t i s c o m p o s e d b y t h e
c o n v e n t i o n a l and t h e g e o m e t r i c s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x which
t a k e s i n t o account the i n f l u e n c e of normal f o r c e s .
The s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x of t h e s p e c i a l b a r element i s
determined through an a x i a l s t i f f n e s s g i v e n , a c c o r d i n g to
F l e m i n g and E g e s e l l i ( 1 9 8 0 ) , by fEA whereQ A i s the Q
cable cross-sectional area, E is the modulus of

e l a s t i c i t y and
f =
3 2 2 * '
12N + E A G COS a
o
In E q . l f i s a f a c t o r which takes into account the

i n f l u e n c e of the cable curvature i n i t s e f f e c t i v e a x i a l
stiffness, N i s the cable force i n the chord d i r e c t i o n ,
d i s t h e a n g l e between t h e c h o r d and t h e h o r i z o n t a l , and
G i s the cable t o t a l weight.
2.2 V e h i c l e
The idealized vehicle is formed by a s p r u n g mass n^, a
s u s p e n s i o n c o n s t i t u t e d by a s p r i n g w i t h s t i f f n e s s k and
a damper w i t h c o e f f i c i e n t o f v i s c o u s damping c, and an
unsprung mass iru i n contact with the structure, F i g 2a.
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3 Motion Equations
C o n s i d e r t h e i d e a l i z e d v e h i c l e a c t i n g upon a g e n e r i c a l
beam f i n i t e e l e m e n t o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l , F i g . 2 a .
T h i s element i s the loaded element. The f o l l o w i n g
equations are formulated, Fig.2b:
• relative deflection of and m 2
A = y-w (2)
• spring force
f s = kA = k ( y - w ) (3)
• damper force
f D = cA = c(y-w) (4)
• dynamic e q u i l i b r i u m of mass m^
it^y + c(y-w) + k(y-w) =0 (5)
• dynamic e q u i l i b r i u m of mass m 2 and structure
m D + c D +k D = N f t
(6)
_ o v
'
In Eq.19 m is the mass m a t r i x of the structure, c, the
damping m a t r i x , k, the s t i f f n e s s matrix, and D, D, and
D, the vectors of nodal displacements, velocities, and
accelerations, respectively; is a vector with zero
e n t r i e s but those corresponding to the nodal displacements

of the loaded element. The n o n - z e r o e n t r i e s a r e t h e
v a l u e s o f t h e beam i n t e r p o l a t i o n f u n c t i o n s c o m p u t e d i n t h e
s e c t i o n where the load i s a c t i n g .
The f o r c e f a c t i n g i n the loaded element i s given
by, Fig.2b,
f Q = (» x + m )g 2 - + f s + f D (7)
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where f^ = m^w i s t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e o f mass m^.
Introducing i n Eq.7 t h i s v a l u e of f T and f c and f n from
Eqs.3 and 4 r e s p e c t i v e l y , and the r e s u l t i n Eq.6 g i v e s
•« • t
m D+cD+kD=N [ ( m + m ) g - m w + k ( y - w ) + c ( y - w ) ]
1 9 9 (8)
The time d e r i v a t i v e s of w(x,t) a r e g i v e n by
= §x- x
+
if ( 9 )
w(x.t) = - 2 x + 2 + + - j (10)
dx dt
The f u n c t i o n w(x,t) i s i n t e r p o l a t e d from t h e n o d a l

d i s p l a c e m e n t s of the loaded element through the
i n t e r p o l a t i o n f u n c t i o n s of t h i s element a s
w(x,t) = N(x).D(t) (11)
The p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e s of w ( x , t ) which appear i n Eq.9

10 a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m E q . l l a s
^ = N D;^-4=N D (12a,b)
dx ^,x ^ 2 ^,xx ^ v 1
ox
a
The p o s i t i o n o f t h e v e h i c l e , moving w i t h c o n s t a n t
acceleration a , i n the loaded element i s g i v e n by
Q
1 2
x = v t + ~ a t (13)
o 2 o v
'
where V q i s t h e v e l o c i t y when i t e n t e r s i n the element.
The time d e r i v a t i v e s of x from Eq.13 a r e
x = v + a t ; x = a (14a,b)
o o o v 7
S u b s t i t u t i n g E q s . 1 2 a n d 14 i n t o E q s . 9 a n d 10 t h e f o l l o w i n g
equations a r e respectively obtained:
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w = ( v +a t ) N D + N D (15)
v
o o ' ^
w = ( v +a t ) ^ D + 2 ( v +a t ) N D +
v
o o ' ~,xx ^ o o ^
a N D+ N D (16)
O /V/ »X /v, /v» /v»
The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f w , w , and w f r o m E q s . 1 1 , 1 5 , and 16

r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e terms o f E q s . 5 and 8
r e s u l t s f i n a l l y i n the m a t r i x equation
M u + C u + Ku = F (17)
where
' D" ' D"

•
u = ; u = M (18a,b,c)
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
y y
(m+m ) o
M = (19a)
0 m 1
(c+c*) - c N *
C = (19b)
-cN
(k+k*) -kN 1
[ - c ( v +a t ) N - k N ] k (19c)
L v
o o ^.x J
(m +m )g N *
1 2 (19d)
0
m* = m^ N*' N (19e)
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c* = 2iru ( v +a t ) ^ N + cN 1
N (19f)
_ 2 O O ^, X _ _
+ kl^N + c(v +a t ^ N (19g)
Eq.17 i s a n o n l i n e a r second order matrix d i f f e r e n t i a l

equation. The n o n l i n e a r i t i e s stem from t h e c a b l e
n o n l i n e a r b e h a v i o r and t h e moving mass w h i c h a f f e c t t h e
mass, damping, and s t i f f n e s s m a t r i c e s .
4 S o l u t i o n of the Motion Equations
The m o t i o n e q u a t i o n s e x p r e s s e d by E q . 1 7 a r e s o l v e d by a
s t e p - b y - s t e p i n t e g r a t i o n method. Consider i n i t i a l l y t h i s
equation w r i t t e n as
R = M u = F - C u - K u (20)
in which R is the vector of inertia forces and R_, the
one of restoring forces
The method o f s o l u t i o n c o n s i d e r e d i s b a s e d upon a c u b i c

i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f i n e r t i a f o r c e s [ A r g y r i s , Dunne, and
Angelopoulos (1973)] which i s very s u i t a b l e for nonlinear
problems.
The t o t a l time i n t e r v a l i n which the s t r u c t u r a l
r e s p o n s e i s t o be c a l c u l a t e d , i s d i v i d e d i n t o i n t e r v a l s
T. The v e c t o r of i n e r t i a f o r c e s i n each i n t e r v a l i s
i n t e r p o l a t e d through cubic Hermitian i n t e r p o l a t i o n
f u n c t i o n s from t h e v e c t o r s of i n e r t i a f o r c e s and i t s
d e r i v a t i v e s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g and t h e end of t h e i n t e r v a l ,
respectively, R Q and R , Q and R 1 and R - 1 In this way the
velocities and d i s p l a c e m e n t s at the interval end a r e given

by
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
M u
l = M u
o +
12 ( 6 R
o + T R
o + 6 R
1 " T R
1 } ( 2 1 a )
M U. = M u + TM u + ^ (21R + 3TR +R. - 2TR) (21b)

1 O O 12 O O 1
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In Eqs.21 U q and U q and and are the displacements
and v e l o c i t i e s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g and t h e end of the

interval, respectively.
The d e r i v a t i v e w i t h respect to time of R from Eq.20
is
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
R = F - C u - R £ (22)
where
d R .
R
E ~cHr K (u) u
= u
=
(23)
I f the time i n t e r v a l T is s u f f i c i e n t l y small Eq.23 can
be l i n e a r i z e d p r o v i d i n g
R
-
E 1
= R
E
~ o
+ K
0 < ~1 - o>
~ ~
U u
< 24a
>
\ =
-° -1 ( 2 4 b )
where K Q is the s t i f f n e s s matrix at the beginning of the
interval.
I n order to a c c e l e r a t e the convergence of the iterative
p r o c e s s e x p r e s s e d by E q s . 2 1 t h e s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x K , Q
Eqs.24, is p e r i o d i c a l l y updated as
!o - i <*o +
^ ( 2 5 )
where K 1 is a s t i f f n e s s matrix calculated at the
interval end.
5 Example
The c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e of F i g . 1 i s a n a l y z e d as
a n e x a m p l e o f t h e p r o p o s e d method of a n a l y s i s . The
s t r u c t u r e o v e r a l l dimensions, the divisions into
s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s , and t h e node and element d e s i g n a t i o n s
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are shown i n t h i s figure. The s u p e r s t r u c t u r e elements a r e
2 3
of r e i n f o r c e d concrete with E = 45 kN/mm , nr = 2 2 . 8 k N / m
a n d h a v e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a a n d moment o f i n e r t i a A =
2 4
2.10m and I = 0.044m , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The tower elements
2 3
are of s t e e l with E = 2 0 5 kN/mm , T = 77 k N / m and have
2 4
A =0.50m and I = 0.177m . The c a b l e s have
2
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a s v a r y i n g between 0.09 and 0.14m .
S t r u c t i o n a l damping i s c o n s i d e r e d t h r o u g h a R a y l e i g h
damping m a t r i x ( c = dm + 0k) w h e r e d and p are
d e t e r m i n e d from t y p i c a l v a l u e s of t h e f i r s t and second
n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s o f c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s a s 0.0139 and
0.063, respectively. T h e v e h i c l e w e i g h t i s 250 kN w i t h
80% i n t h e s p r u n g p a r t a n d 20% i n t h e u n s p r u n g o n e . The
spring stiffness i s k = 87kN/m and t h e damping
coefficient is c = 6kNs/m. Some r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s
f o r a v e h i c l e w i t h constant v e l o c i t y of 28m/s (lOOkm/h)
a r e d i s p l a y e d i n F i g s . 3 , 4 , and 5. I n these f i g u r e s time
h i s t o r i e s o f s e l e c t e d node d i s p l a c e m e n t and f o r c e s (dashed
l i n e ) are presented j o i n t l y with the " s t a t i c a l "
t i m e - h i s t o r i e s ( s o l i d l i n e ) w h i c h a r e c a l c u l a t e d by
n e g l e c t i n g t h e i n e r t i a and damping f o r c e s . Impact
c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e c a l c u l a t e d as the r e l a t i o n between
maximum d y n a m i c a n d s t a t i c v a l u e s . From F i g s . 3 , 4 , and 5
the f o l l o w i n g c o e f f i c i e n t s are found: displacement of
node 1 0 : 1 . 3 5 ; f o r c e i n c a b l e element 2 0 : 1 . 0 4 ; normal f o r c e
i n beam e l e m e n t 4 : 1 . 0 1 . F o r a v e l o c i t y o f 60km/h t h e
corresponding c o e f f i c i e n t s are 1.17, 1.03, and 1.01
respectively.
6 Conclusion
A s t r u c t u r a l d y n a m i c s method f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f
c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s under moving l o a d i n g i s d e v e l o p e d .
N o n l i n e a r e f f e c t s due t o c a b l e b e h a v i o r and t h e moving
l o a d i n g mass a r e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . An e x a m p l e o f a
t y p i c a l cable-stayed bridge structure i s presented i n
w h i c h impact c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r j o i n t d i s p l a c e m e n t s and
f o r c e s i n t h e c a b l e s and i n t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e are
calculated. These c o e f f i c i e n t s are of the order of 1.17
t o 1.35 f o r d i s p l a c e m e n t s and of t h e o r d e r of 1.01 t o 1.04
for forces.
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Disp.
(mm)
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig.3 Displacement of node 10
91m
Fig.4 Force i n cable element 20
F (kN)
n
Fig.5 Normal force i n beam e l e m e n t 4
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7 References
A n g y r i s , J . H . , Dunne, P . C . , and A n g e l o p o l o u s (1973)

Nonlinear o s c i l l a t i o n s u s i n g the f i n i t e element
t e c h n i q u e , Computer Methods i n A p p l i e d M e c h a n i c s and
Engineering, 2.
E i c h m a n , E . S . ( 1 9 5 3 ) N o t e o n t h e maximum e f f e c t o f a
m o v i n g f o r c e on a s i m p l e beam, J . A p p l . M e c h . , T r a n s .
ASME, 5 6 2 .
F a l l a b e l a , J . E . (1975) Dynamics of framed s t r u c t u r e s under
moving l o a d s , M . S c . T h e s i s , COPPE, F e d e r a l U n i v . o f R i o
de J a n e i r o .
F l e m i n g , J . F . and E g e s e l l i , E . (1980) Dynamic b e h a v i o r o f
a c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e , Earthquake E n g i n e e r i n g and
S t r u c t u r a l Dynamics, 8, 1-16.
F l e m i n g , J . F . and R o m u a l d i , J . P . (1961) Dynamic r e s p o n s e
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o f h i g h w a y b r i d g e s , ASCE J . S t r u c . D i v . , 8 7 ( S T 7 ) ,
31-61.
I n g l i s , C . E . (1934) A m a t h e m a t i c a l t r e a t i s e on v i b r a t i o n
i n r a i l w a y b r i d g e s , Univ. P r e s s , Cambridge.
K r y l o v , A . N . (1905) Uber d i e , erzwungenen schwingungen von
gleichformigen elastischen staben, Mathematische
Annalen, 61.
M u n n i r u d r a p p a , N. (1969) Dynamic r e s p o n s e o f o r t h o g o n a l
b r i d g e g r i d u n d e r m o v i n g f o r c e , M. T e c h . D i s s e r t a t i o n ,
I.I.T. Bombay.
O l s o n , M. ( 1 9 8 7 ) A n a l y s i s o f s t r u c t u r e s s u b j e c t e d t o
moving l o a d s , P h . D . T h e s i s , Lund I n s t i t u t e o f
Technology.
S t o k e s , G . G . (1883) D i s c u s s i o n o f a d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n
r e l a t i n g to the breaking of railway bridges,
Mathematical and P h y s i c a l Papers, 2, 69-86.
Timoshenko, S . P . (1911) Erzwungene schwingungen
p r i s m a t i s c h e r s t a b e , Z . Math. P h y s . , 59(2163), 203.
V e l e t s o s , A . S . and Huang, T . (1970) A n a l y s i s o f dynamic
r e s p o n s e o f h i g h w a y b r i d g e s , ASCE J . E n g r . Mech. D i v ,
96(EM5), 593-620.
V e n a n c i o - F i l h o , F . ( 1 9 6 6 ) D y n a m i c i n f l u e n c e l i n e s o f beams
and f r a m e s , ASCE J . S t r u c . D i v . , 9 2 ( S T 2 ) , 371-385.
Wen, R . K . a n d T o r i d i s , T . ( 1 9 6 2 ) D y n a m i c b e h a v i o r o f
c a n t i l e v e r b r i d g e s , ASCE J . E n g g . Mech. D i v . , 8 8 ( E M 4 ) ,
27-43.
Warburton, G . B . (1964) The d y n a m i c a l b e h a v i o r o f
s t r u c t u r e s , Pergamon P r e s s .
Y o s h i d a , D . M . a n d W e a v e r , W. F i n i t e - e l e m e n t a n a l y s i s o f
beams a n d p l a t e s w i t h moving l o a d s , I n t l . A s s o c B r i d g e
S t r u c . Engr. 3 1 ( 1 ) , 179-195.
345
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PART SIX
R A I L W A Y BRIDGES
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S T E E L R A I L W A Y BRIDGES: RECENT
DEVELOPMENTS
A.C.G. HAYWARD
Cass Hay ward and Partners, Chepstow, UK
P.J.G. WIGLEY
British Railways Board, London, UK
Abstract
The paper describes s t e e l r a i l bridges o f s h o r t a n d medium
span. Developments a r i s i n g from a v a i l a b i l i t y of b e t t e r
s t e e l s , e r e c t i o n b y l a r g e c r a n e a g e a n d p u b l i c a t i o n o f new
codes a r e covered. Evolvement of s t e e l r a i l bridges since
the 1950's i s outlined. The legacy o f nineteenth century
bridges having trough girders with track directly fixed i s
shown t o i n f l u e n c e modern b r i d g e s using ballasted track,
n e c e s s i t a t i n g f l o o r s of minimal depth. Development i s
d e s c r i b e d o f t h e t r a p e z o i d a l box g i r d e r type with steel
floor. A 1989 redesign o f t h e box g i r d e r range i s d e s c r i b e d
for s i n g l e o r d o u b l e t r a c k s w i t h s k e w s u p t o 55° a n d m a x i m u m
s p a n o f 39m« Developments t o improve maintenance include
b e t t e r access i n s i d e permanently v e n t i l a t e d boxes and
movement b e a r i n g s . Plans f o r future development allow f o r
f a c t o r s s u c h a s it'he E u r o p e a n l o a d i n g , deformation criteria
under h i g h s p e e d t r a f f i c and a w i d e r s t r u c t u r e gauge. The
p a p e r i n c l u d e s some e x a m p l e s o f r e c e n t bridges.
Keywords: Bridges, R a i l w a y , S t e e l , Box G i r d e r s , Fatigue.
1 Introduction
1.1 E a r l y c a s t and wrought i r o n bridges

Building of the railways i n the f i r s t half of last century
c o i n c i d e d with t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c a s t and wrought i r o n i n
bridges. B r i l l i a n t engineers such as Brunei and Robert
Stephenson e x p l o i t e d these m a t e r i a l s t o produce economic and
adventurous bridges, examples of which survive today.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 1. Bridge over River Dee, C h e s t e r 1847
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F a i l u r e s a l s o o c c u r r e d , o n e b e i n g a new c a s t i r o n girder
o v e r t h e R i v e r Dee n e a r C h e s t e r by S t e p h e n s o n in 1847
(ref.l) T h e t h r e e s p a n s o f 33m h a d g i r d e r s each formed i n
t h r e e l e n g t h s t r u s s e d t o g e t h e r by i n c l i n e d t e n s i o n r o d s .
F a i l u r e probably r e s u l t e d from lack of understanding of t h e
details. The c o l l a p s e drew a t t e n t i o n t o s h o r t c o m i n g s i n the
common p r a c t i c e o f m e r e l y r e s t i n g t r a n s v e r s e m e m b e r s o n m a i n
g i r d e r bottom f l a n g e s without p o s i t i v e connections ( s e e
fig.1). I n 1882 a c a s t i r o n b r i d g e 25 y e a r s o l d c o l l a p s e d
under a t r a i n i n Inverythan k i l l i n g four people. The c a u s e
was a h i d d e n b l o w h o l e near t h e bottom f l a n g e c l o s e t o a
flange bolted splice. This l e d to cast iron being pro-
h i b i t e d f o r u n d e r l i n e b r i d g e s on new l i n e s . In 1891,
a n o t h e r c a s t i r o n g i r d e r o f 8.15m span whose deck dated from
i860 f a i l e d a t Norwood J u n c t i o n w i t h f i v e passengers
injured. T h e r a i l c h a i r s w e r e s p i k e d d i r e c t t o 100mm t i m b e r
f l o o r i n g w i t h c r o s s g i r d e r s r e s t i n g on t h e b o t t o m f l a n g e s o f
the main g i r d e r s . A programme o f c a s t - i r o n replacements
f o l l o w e d a f t e r I 8 9 I , although t h e events had been over-
shadowed by t h e m a j o r Tay B r i d g e d i s a s t e r i n 1879, h e r a l d i n g
the use of s t e e l as the leading s t r u c t u r a l material i n the
F o r t h Railway Bridge i n I89O. Wrought i r o n , which had
gradually r e p l a c e d cast iron remained i n use having similar
q u a l i t i e s of high s t r e n g t h and d u c t i l i t y t o s t e e l .
M a n y e a r l y U.K. r a i l w a y b r i d g e s u s e d c a s t o r w r o u g h t iron
trough s e c t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g l o n g i t u d i n a l timbers t o which the
t r a c k was f i x e d d i r e c t l y without u s e of b a l l a s t (see fig.2).
T h i s form of c o n s t r u c t i o n had maintenance d i f f i c u l t i e s and
did not permit track adjustment. Other bridges had h a l f
through girders with shallow timber or trough floors which
had inadequate c o n n e c t i o n s f o r b u c k l i n g r e s t r a i n t of t h e t o p
f l a n g e by U-frame r i g i d i t y . Both t y p e s a c h i e v e d very
s h a l l o w c o n s t r u c t i o n depth, seemingly an a t t r i b u t e , but
which h a s s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d l a t e r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s and t h e
use of b a l l a s t e d t r a c k . T h i s c o n t r a s t s with North America
w h e r e e a r l y b r i d g e s t e n d e d t o u s e waybeam t y p e d e c k s having
g i r d e r s l o c a t e d d i r e c t l y b e n e a t h t h e r a i l s a c h i e v i n g more
generous c o n s t r u c t i o n depth. T h i s meant t h a t more
f l e x i b i l i t y was p o s s i b l e i n r e p l a c e m e n t s u s i n g t h e more
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d and economic deck type of bridge.
Figure 2. Trough girders and longitudinal timbers

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The u s e of r i v e t i n g a s a r e l i a b l e means of c o n n e c t i n g
e l e m e n t s i n w r o u g h t i r o n and s t e e l h a d many attributes.
P o t e n t i a l l y i t p r o v i d e d c o n n e c t i o n s r i g i d enough t o a c h i e v e
U-frame s t a b i l i t y of the main g i r d e r top f l a n g e y e t
p o s s e s s i n g some f l e x i b i l i t y t o a b s o r b u n d e s i g n e d strains.
However d e c k i n g t o h a l f through b r i d g e s o f t e n c o n s i s t e d of
t r a n s v e r s e t r o u g h i n g w i t h o u t c r o s s g i r d e r s a n d b e a r i n g on
the g i r d e r bottom f l a n g e . Where t h e y were p r o v i d e d then
such c r o s s g i r d e r s were o f t e n r i v e t e d to the main g i r d e r
f l a n g e , b u t n o t c o n n e c t e d t o t h e web such that eccentricity
occurred which caused the girders to t i l t inwards and this
led to long term problems at bearing areas. Main girders
t h e m s e l v e s were not designed to t a k e account of i n h e r e n t 'U 1
f r a m e a c t i o n , s t a b i l i t y b e i n g a c h i e v e d by t h e u s e o f low
working s t r e s s e s and t h e l i m i t e d r i g i d i t y of t h e con-
nections. 'U' f r a m e a c t i o n a s f i r s t i n t r o d u c e d i n t o BS153
( r e f s . 2 & 3) i n 1953 was n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . At b r i d g e
e n d s t h e f l o o r o f t e n m e r e l y r e s t e d upon t h e abutment. On
skew b r i d g e s t h i s r e s u l t e d i n q u i t e l a r g e a r e a s of deck
b e i n g supported independently of the main g i r d e r s . Proper
e x p a n s i o n and a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e b r i d g e was t h e r e b y p r e -
v e n t e d and deck ends c o r r o d e d b e c a u s e maintenance was not
posssible. Various problems occurred with half through
b r i d g e s w i t h i n a d e q u a t e c o n n e c t i o n s between deck and main
g i r d e r where c o n d i t i o n s of f i x i t y i n a d v e r t e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d
by t h e f o r m of c o n n e c t i o n c a u s e d f a i l u r e s , e s p e c i a l l y pre-
v a l e n t on t h e c e n t r e g i r d e r on d o u b l e t r a c k 3 g i r d e r
bridges. R o t a t i o n of c e n t r e g i r d e r connections caused
r e p e a t e d f l e x u r e o f t h e g i r d e r web when t r a f f i c alternately
u s e d one t r a c k o r t h e o t h e r . Web c o r r o s i o n was exacerbated
by t h e i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e s e a r e a s w h e r e c o n c e a l e d by
b a l l a s t or boarding (ref.4)- Such methods of c o n s t r u c t i o n
t e n d e d t o be u s e d up t o t h e t i m e t h a t w e l d i n g was introduced
in railway bridgework. (see fig.3)-
t n i -.z--r-^jte
"ÎNADEQUATE
CONNECTIONS
Fig.3« Early half through double track 3 girder bridges
1.2 I n t r o d u c t i o n of Welding
W e l d i n g had been a c c e p t e d as a means of b r i d g e r e p a i r before
1939., a n d t h e f i r s t r o a d b r i d g e u s i n g w e l d e d g i r d e r s had
b e e n b u i l t a t B i l l i n g h a m i n 1931* T h e f i r s t m a j o r U.K. use
for r a i l w a y b r i d g e s was i n 1948 when s e v e n b r i d g e s were
w a s h e d away on t h e S c o t t i s h B o r d e r a n d w e r e r e p l a c e d by
welded girder structures. S i x were of deck c o n s t r u c t i o n .
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The seventh was of h a l f through double t r a c k three g i r d e r
t y p e h a v i n g t w o 18m s p a n s w i t h f l o o r o f e n c a s e d s t e e l c r o s s
girders (ref.5)» I f was t h e p r e c u r s o r of t h e standard half
through plate girder designs (types A to E) with insitu
concrete f l o o r s and cross girders. Proper design of
c o n n e c t i o n s w a s now o f i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e because of t h e
r i g i d i t y inherent with welded f a b r i c a t i o n or i n employing
high strength f r i c t i o n grip (h.s.f.g.) bolts f o r site joints
which had been pioneered i n t h e U.K. b y B r i t i s h Rail
engineers. I n 1955 i twas reported ( r e f . 6 ) a s being t h e
p r a c t i c e t o design main g i r d e r s assuming an e f f e c t i v e length
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for b u c k l i n g i n s t a b i l i t y o f t h r e e times t h e d i s t a n c e between
stiffeners. T h u s 'U' f r a m e a c t i o n w a s a p p r e c i a t e d , b u t n o t
taken into account rationally. However, s a f e d e s i g n s
r e s u l t e d b e c a u s e t h e e f f e c t s o f e n d f i x i t y w e r e now b e i n g
t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t when d e s i g n i n g t h e f l o o r t o main g i r d e r
connections. Favoured p r a c t i c e was t o u s e r i v e t e d g i r d e r s
for spans exceeding 27.4m b u t w e l d e d f o r s h o r t e r s p a n s .
This period represents t h e gradual changeover t o welded
f a b r i c a t i o n which was f i r s t u s e d f o r t r u s s g i r d e r s i n 1961
a t W h e a t l e y f o r a h a l f t h r o u g h 32m s p a n . T h i s was followed
by t h e m a j o r C h e p s t o w B r i d g e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w h e r e B r u n e i ' s
91m t h r o u g h s p a n w a s r e p l a c e d b y d e c k c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h
underslung t r u s s e s and i n t e g r a l floor c a r r y i n g b a l l a s t e d
track (ref.1)
1.3 Standard bridges

As m e n t i o n e d many e a r l y r a i l b r i d g e s h a d m i n i m a l c o n -
s t r u c t i o n depth often with t r a c k d i r e c t l y fastened so that
when r e p l a c e m e n t was r e q u i r e d and b a l l a s t e d t r a c k introduced
( d e s i r a b l e 300mm b a l l a s t u n d e r s l e e p e r p l u s 368mm f o r t r a c k
u s i n g concrete s l e e p e r s ) then h a l f through decks were
usually dictated. E x c e p t i o n a l l y a r e d u c t i o n i n headroom
c o u l d be allowed. Thus t h e legacy of n i n e t e e n t h century
b r i d g e s h a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e d modern forms. I n U.K.
c o n d i t i o n s t h i s i n c l u d e s new b r i d g e s b e c a u s e m o s t o f t h e s e
h a v e b e e n t o c r o s s new h i g h w a y s w h e r e d e p t h s o f a p p r o a c h
c u t t i n g must be minimised to limit land-take.
A s e r i e s of simply supported half through plate girder
b r i d g e s u p t o 34m s p a n ( t h e t y p e s 'A' t o ' E ' ) w e r e developed
from t h e 1950 s. f
These had concrete f l o o r s with rolled
section cross g i r d e r s connected by s h e a r p l a t e connections
f a c e b o l t e d t o t h e main g i r d e r webs. T y p e 'A' s i n g l e t r a c k
d e c k s f o r s p a n s u p t o 15•2m h a d c l o s e l y s p a c e d s h a l l o w I -
section g i r d e r s topped flush with r a i l level, being suitable
for multiple track situations involving piecemeal replace-
ment o f e x i s t i n g d e c k s . A close girder spacing allowed use
o f 200mm d e p t h c r o s s g i r d e r s w i t h c o n c r e t e e n c a s e m e n t flush
with the flanges (see fig.4)- The i n a c c e s s i b l e spaces
between g i r d e r f l a n g e s were f i l l e d with a s i n g l e s k i n of
engineering brickwork. T h i s d e s i g n was l a t e r r e p l a c e d by
the type 'Z' ( s e e f i g . 5 ) and t h i s minimises t h e inaccessible
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areas which had s t a r t e d t o cause maintenance problems.
F l o o r c o n c r e t e i n t h e t y p e 'A' w a s a l s o f o u n d t o h a v e poor
d u r a b i l i t y and d e t a i l s were improved. Types B and C used
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
d e e p e r main g i r d e r s ( f o rs i n g l e a n d d o u b l e tracks
r e s p e c t i v e l y ) which t e r m i n a t e d below t h e p l a t f o r m clearance
and have been s u p e r s e d e d by t h e box g i r d e r t y p e .
Fig.4 Former type 'A' bridge
Fig. 5 Type ' Z' bridge
Types D and E ( s e e f i g . 6 ) ( s i n g l e t r a c k and double t r a c k 3

g i r d e r r e s p e c t i v e l y ) p r o v i d e f o r l o n g e r spans by g i r d e r s o f
s t i l l g r e a t e r depth p o s i t i o n e d o u t s i d e t h e s t r u c t u r e gauge
width. A l l t h e s t a n d a r d s o r i g i n a l l y u s e d g r a d e 43 mild
s t e e l s b u t g r a d e 50 h i g h t e n s i l e s t e e l w a s l a t e r introduced
f o r t h e f l a n g e s and webs o f t h e l o n g e r span type E' main 1
g i r d e r s where f a t i g u e d i d not govern t h e working stresses.

Later innovations included t h e use of g.r.p. permanent
formwork f o r f l o o r s o f f i t s ( r e f . 7 ) . I n 1973 the standards
w e r e a f f e c t e d b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n ( r e f . 8 ) o f RU l o a d i n g f o r
B r i t i s h R a i l m a i n l i n e s a s now p u b l i s h e d i n B . s . 5 4 0 0
( r e f . 9 ) , t h a t i n B.s.153 b e i n g a p p r o p r i a t e t o steam
traction. More e m p h a s i s was p l a c e d on i n d i v i d u a l l y d e s i g n e d
main g i r d e r s b a s e d on a minimum w e i g h t o f s t e e l . This
p h i l o s o p h y i s now c h a n g i n g b a c k t o w a r d s t h e u s e o f a
s t a n d a r d d e s i g n , f i r s t b e c a u s e t h e c o s t o f s t e e l i s a much
s m a l l e r p a r t o f t h e w h o l e , s e c o n d l y t h e r e i s much w i d e r
range of craneage a v a i l a b l e and l a s t l y d e s i g n r e s o u r c e s a r e
currently i n short supply.
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Fig.6 Type 'E' bridge
1.4 Erection constraints

A majority of bridges are necessarily constructed under
s e v e r e w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t h a t r a i l t r a f f i c must be
maintained d u r i n g t h e work. ( r e f . 1 0 , 1 1 ) . This particularly
affects the construction of foundations where temporary
w o r k s a r e o f t e n e x t e n s i v e . F o r e x a m p l e new a b u t m e n t s a r e
usually built i n restricted conditions within steel sheet
p i l e d c o f f e r d a m s spanned by temporary waybeams. Depending
upon s i t e r e s t r a i n t s t h e n d e c k s a r e u s u a l l y e r e c t e d by one
of t h e f o l l o w i n g methods.
(a) ' R o l l i n g - i n ' t r a n s v e r s e l y from pre-assembly area

during track occupation.
(b) E r e c t i o n by r o a d o r r a i l mounted c r a n e s during
track occupation.
(c) Construction insitu whilst tracks are temporarily
diverted.
A v a i l a b i l i t y o f l a r g e mobile l o r r y mounted or t r a c k e d cranes

within the last 10 t o 15 y e a r s h a s m a d e m e t h o d ( b )
increasingly viable. This encourages t h e complete prefab-
r i c a t i o n of decks which avoid use of i n s i t u concrete. The
t r a p e z o i d a l box g i r d e r w i t h s t e e l f l o o r f u l f i l l s these
requirements and t h i s type was t h e r e f o r e developed a s a
standard.
2 Standard steel box g i r d e r s and transverse ribbed floors
2.1 Background
S t e e l h a l f through t r a p e z o i d a l box g i r d e r underbridges
o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e 1950's. Various f l o o r types were used
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i n c l u d i n g p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e and s t e e l . I n 1975 the Western
R e g i o n of B r i t i s h R a i l w a y s had p r e p a r e d standard designs to
B . S . 1 5 3 f o r s p a n s u p t o 2 5m u s i n g g r a d e 43 steel through-
out. The t y p e i s u s e d p r i n c i p a l l y w h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n d e p t h
i s a t a premium a l t h o u g h i t i s a l s o u s e d on b u s y l i n e s w h e r e
the time a v a i l a b l e f o r e r e c t i o n i s very l i m i t e d because main
g i r d e r s a n d f l o o r s may be l i f t e d a s one. A more economic
s o l u t i o n w h e r e t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s do n o t a p p l y i s t h e half
through types 'Z' o r ' E' p l a t e g i r d e r b r i d g e s m e n t i o n e d
previously.
2.2 1989 Standard s t e e l box g i r d e r s

The I989 S t a n d a r d c o v e r s double t r a c k 2 g i r d e r , double t r a c k
3 g i r d e r and s i n g l e t r a c k s d e s i g n t o B.S.5400 as shown i n
f i g u r e 7« T h e b r i d g e s p r o v i d e new or replacement decks from
12m t o 39m span i n 3 metre increments and a r e d e s i g n e d for
e a s e of e r e c t i o n , minimum m a i n t e n a n c e and low dead weight.
They a r e e s p e c i a l l y s u i t a b l e where minimum c o n s t r u c t i o n
depth i s e s s e n t i a l . E r e c t i o n may be by p l a c i n g o f g i r d e r s
and f l o o r u n i t s s e p a r a t e l y , by l i f t i n g o f c o m p l e t e s p a n s or
by r o l l i n g - i n . A s e t of Standard Drawings provides f u l l
d a t a on d i m e n s i o n s and s i z e s f o r a f u l l range of spans,
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
skews, w i d t h s and t r a f f i c i n t e n s i t i e s . For each individual

bridge the designer w i l l issue a general arrangement drawing
s p e c i f y i n g t h e span and o t h e r s a l i e n t d i m e n s i o n s and refer
to the Standard Drawings. From t h e s e t h e C o n t r a c t o r w i l l
prepare h i s workshop drawings for submission to the
Engineer.
The c o n c e p t c o n s i s t s o f h a l f t h r o u g h t r a p e z o i d a l box
girders, the inner sloping face r e t a i n i n g the t r a c k b a l l a s t ,
and p r o p o r t i o n e d t o a c h i e v e the s h o r t e s t p o s s i b l e f l o o r span
w h i l s t l o c a t e d w i t h i n the p l a t f o r m c l e a r a n c e of the
s t r u c t u r e gauge. F l o o r s are of minimal depth comprising
s t e e l p l a t e p r o t e c t e d by a w a t e r p r o o f i n g membrane and
s t i f f e n e d with t r a n s v e r s e r i b s which span between the main
girders through v i r t u a l l y p i n - j o i n t e d shear plate
connections. The f l o o r s a r e f a b r i c a t e d i n t r a n s v e r s e l y
j o i n t e d u n i t s b o l t e d t o g e t h e r u s i n g "Huck" f a s t e n e r s .
N o n - s t r u c t u r a l b a l l a s t p l a t e s p r o t e c t the f l o o r to main
girder connections. P a r a p e t s are c a n t i l e v e r e d from the main
g i r d e r o u t e r webs i n c o r p o r a t i n g a walkway and s e r v i c e duct.
A c c e s s f o r i n s p e c t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e i s p r o v i d e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e l e n g t h of t h e g i r d e r s and v e n t i l a t i o n i s
p r o v i d e d t h r o u g h l o u v r e d o p e n i n g s i n t h e end diaphragm. A
minimum number of i n t e r m e d i a t e d i a p h r a g m s a r e provided
w i t h i n the g i r d e r s c o n s i s t e n t with the need to c o n t r o l
d i s t o r t i o n a l w a r p i n g s t r e s s e s and t o f a c i l i t a t e fabrication.
A c c e s s man h o l e s t h r o u g h t h e d i a p h r a g m s a r e made f l u s h with
the bottom f l a n g e to a l l o w removal of i n j u r e d personnel.
Other than t h i s the design seeks to avoid t r a n s v e r s e welds
or attachments welded to the main g i r d e r s for f a t i g u e
reasons. F l a n g e t h i c k n e s s e s a r e l i m i t e d t o XOmm m a x i m u m i n
355
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DOUBLE TRACK-2 GIRDER
DOUBLE TRACK-3 GIRDER
L J
i •T!
1
1
L It \\
SINGLE TRACK
Fig.7 1989 Standard steel box girders

and t r a n s v e r s e r i b b e d floors
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compression a n d 60mm i n t e n s i o n . Doubler flanges are
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e longer spans where opportunity i s a l s o
t a k e n t o employ grade 50 s t e e l s b e c a u s e f a t i g u e t e n d s n o t t o
control t h e working stresses. Box c o r n e r welds a r e f u l l
penetration butt welds. Two d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s i z e s a r e
p o s s i b l e f o r main g i r d e r s , f l o o r p l a t e s and other
f a t i g u e - c r i t i c a l elements t o cater f o r different traffic
intensities as specified. Skew a n g l e s up t o 55° a r e c a t e r e d
for. F o r t h e double t r a c k 2 g i r d e r t y p e , two f l o o r widths
" N a r r o w " ( 6 7 5 0 m m ) a n d "Wide'' ( u p t o 8600mm) a r e a v a i l a b l e .
Main g i r d e r b e a r i n g s a r e o f k n u c k l e t y p e f o r s p a n s up t o
l8m. F o r longer spans then r o l l e r bearings a r e provided a t
the free end with knuckles a t t h e fxed end. A l l bearings
are of fabricated s t e e l rather than being of proprietary
form. F o r trimmer g i r d e r s of longer span ( i . e . f o r skews
e x c e e d i n g 30° on double t r a c k 2 g i r d e r b r i d g e s ) an
intermediate trimmer bearing i s used t o r e s t r i c t l i v e load
d e f l e c t i o n w i t h i n r e c e n t l y imposed l i m i t s f o r high speed
trains (ref.12). Main g i r d e r s a r e s u i t a b l y s t i f f e n e d and
incorporate a j a c k i n g p l a t e i n front of each bearing t o
permit removal f o r inspection or replacement.
P a r a p e t s i n c o r p o r a t i n g walkway f l u s h w i t h main g i r d e r t o p
and s e r v i c e duct beneath, a r e p r o v i d e d e x c e p t f o r t h e 30m,
33m, 36m a n d 39m s p a n s w h e r e g i r d e r s a r e l o c a t e d o u t s i d e t h e
platform clearance. P a r a p e t s may b e o f e i t h e r s t e e l 3 r a i l ,
2 r a i l / m e t a l b a r i n f i l l o r s o l i d GRC p a n e l s , d e p e n d i n g o n
site requirements. Steel c a n t i l e v e r s support t h e parapet
a n d a r e b o l t e d t o t h e m a i n g i r d e r o u t e r web u s i n g g r a d e 4*6
b o l t s which a r e designed i n t e n t i o n a l l y t o f a i l f i r s t i n case
of a d e r a i l e d v e h i c l e mounting t h e walkway and t h r e a t e n i n g
i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e main g i r d e r . A steel plate fascia i s
provided t o give a clean e x t e r n a l appearance and allows
removal of t h e walkway and duct i f r e q u i r e d during
maintenance. Generally floors using t e e transverse ribs are
used. E x c e p t i o n a l l y t r o u g h s e c t i o n r i b s may b e p r o v i d e d f o r
d e c k s up t o 20° skew o n l y . Fatigue i s a particular limiting
f a c t o r i n t h e f l o o r design and t h e r e s u l t s of recent B r i t i s h
Railway r e s e a r c h have been used i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e
requirements of B.S.5400.
3 Non-standard bridges
3.1 Deck type

Where t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n depth a l l o w s , a n d f o r spans where
s i m p l e beam c o n s t r u c t i o n i s n o t f e a s i b l e (above about 20m),
f u l l y welded deck type c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s been used. The
b r i d g e i n t h i s c a s e c a n be e r e c t e d i n a s i n g l e l i f t , thus
e l i m i n a t i n g any waterproofing or p a i n t i n g a t s i t e . Extra
c a r e h a s t o be t a k e n w i t h t h e weld d e t a i l i n g because fatigue
i s l i k e l y t o b e a g o v e r n i n g f a c t o r i n many a r e a s o f t h e
design. At l o c a t i o n s where extended t r a c k p o s s e s s i o n times
are a v a i l a b l e and where piece-meal e r e c t i o n i s economic,
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composite c o n s t r u c t i o n h a s been used s u c c e s s f u l l y from 1964
(ref.13), t h e deck being formed from i n s i t u concrete with
permanent formwork or from p r e c a s t u n i t s with i n s i t u joints
(see fig. 8).
Fig.8 Composite deck construction
3.2 Through t r u s s e s
Recently a few l a r g e r b r i d g e s ( u p t o 120m span) have been
r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o c a r r y e x i s t i n g l i n e s o v e r new m o t o r w a y s
and h e r e w a r r e n t r u s s t y p e b r i d g e s have been u s e d . (Ref.14)
One o f t h e s e i s d e s c r i b e d i n the paper. The main
considerations are the i n c l i n a t i o n of the diagonals of the
t r u s s , t h e t y p e o f c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e members, t h e
p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e s i t e j o i n t s and t r a n s f e r e n c e of
l o n g i t u d i n a l t r a c t i o n and braking f o r c e s from t h e t r a c k into
the substructures. Generally the diagonals of these bridges
a r e i n c l i n e d a t b e t w e e n 50° a n d 65°; a b a l a n c e b e i n g struck
b e t w e e n t h e d e p t h o f t h e g i r d e r , t h e number o f b a y s a n d
aesthetics. The c h o r d s have g e n e r a l l y been box s e c t i o n s
( t y p i c a l l y 1000 x 1000mm) w i t h i n t e r n a l a c c e s s throughout
the length of the structure, w h i l s t the diagonals and c r o s s
g i r d e r s h a v e b e e n f o r m e d f r o m b u i l t u p 'H ' sections. A gap
o f a b o u t 5mm i s l e f t b e t w e e n m e m b e r s s u c h t h a t a l l a x i a l
l o a d s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d by s h e a r t h r o u g h t h e j o i n t s b o l t s . I n
t h e c a s e o f box s e c t i o n s t h e gap i s s e a l e d by a c o m p r e s s i b l e
w a t e r p r o o f m a t e r i a l b u t i s l e f t o p e n b e t w e e n 'H ' type
members b e c a u s e w a t e r c a n n o t c o l l e c t and n a t u r a l v e n t i l a t i o n
w i l l tend t o keep t h e surfaces dry.
These s t r u c t u r e s are always t r i a l erected before leaving
t h e w o r k s h o p a n d s i t e j o i n t i n g i s k e p t t o a minimum. Where
c o n s t r u t i o n depth allows i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o have a
c o n t i n u o u s d e c k s u p p o r t e d on l o n g i t u d i n a l r a i l b e a r e r s which
oversail the cross girders. T h i s u n d o u b t e d l y l e a d s t o more
e f f e c t i v e w a t e r p r o o f i n g b e c a u s e t h e deck j o i n t s c a n be
r e d u c e d i n number a n d c a n be p o s i t i o n e d a t p o i n t s o f
contraflexure. I n a d d i t i o n , by p l a c i n g t h e r a i l b e a r e r s on
sliding bearings (except a t t h e f i x e d end of t h e s t r u c t u r e )
i t a l l o w s t h e d e c k t o move f r e e l y r e l a t i v e t o t h e m a i n
g i r d e r s s o t h a t b u i l t i n s t r e s s e s due t o t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e g i r d e r s , which a r e exposed t o the
sun, and t h e deck which i s not, a r e kept minimal.
Disadvantages a r e that greater c o n s t r u c t i o n depth i s
r e q u i r e d a n d t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l f o r c e s a r e t a k e n on a s i n g l e
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cross girder. The l a t t e r e f f e c t can however be over-come
without impairing long term maintenance.
3.3 Future developments

I n t e r m s o f f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t s , i t m u s t be a l w a y s be borne
i n m i n d t h a t t h e m a i n p r i n c i p l e s on w h i c h r a i l w a y bridges
a r e b a s e d do n o t c h a n g e . Thus e a s e of e r e c t i o n , maintenance
and d u r a b i l i t y are the most important f a c t o r s because of the
h i g h c o s t of c a r r y i n g out r e m e d i a l work. I n a d d i t i o n the
c o n s e q u e n c e o f any m i s j u d g e m e n t c a n be p o t e n t i a l l y very
s e r i o u s so t h a t c h a n g e s g e n e r a l l y o n l y t a k e p l a c e gradually.
W i t h r e g a r d t o m a t e r i a l s , u s e i s b e i n g made o f higher
grade s t e e l s sometimes i n combination with normal grades
where c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of f a t i g u e and b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e allow.
T h e r e h a s a l s o b e e n a g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e maximum p e r -
m i t t e d t h i c k n e s s o f p l a t e ( c u r r e n t l y u p t o 70mm i n c o m -
p r e s s i o n f l a n g e s ) as the q u a l i t y of s t e e l has improved.
T h e r e h a v e been enormous d e v e l o p m e n t s i n c r a n e a g e so that
i t i s now n o t u n c o m m o n f o r w h o l e s p a n s w e i g h i n g 60 t o n s or
more t o be l i f t e d i n a s a s i n g l e u n i t . Not only does t h i s
reduce the e r e c t i o n time, but a l s o m i n i m i s e s s i t e j o i n t i n g .
The l a t t e r c a n be a s o u r c e o f p o t e n t i a l w e a k n e s s e s p e c i a l l y
a s many b r i d g e s a r e e r e c t e d d u r i n g c o l d and wet February
mornings i n order to keep the d i s r u p t i o n of B r i t i s h Rail-
w a y s ' c u s t o m e r s t o a minimum. The r e q u i r e m e n t s of the
H e a l t h and S a f e t y a t Work A c t and more r e c e n t l y t h e Control
of S u b s t a n c e s Hazardous to H e a l t h have a l s o a f f e c t e d the
d e s i g n of b r i d g e s . Access during construction and mainten-
a n c e i s now much more c a r e f u l l y r e g u l a t e d (the Forth Bridge
i t s e l f i s a good e x a m p l e ) and p r o c e s s e s such as the
a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r o t e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t now have to be
systematically assessed.
The introduction of BS.5400 has l e d to d e s i g n s which
have a more c o n s i s t e n t l e v e l of r e l i a b i l i t y , but as the
s p e e d s of t r a i n i n c r e a s e , the d e f o r m a t i o n of the structure
under l i v e load i s becoming as c r i t i c a l as i t s a b i l i t y to
withstand the loads. T h u s t h e r e a r e now specific require-
m e n t s f o r l i m i t i n g b o t h t h e t w i s t of t h e deck and the
d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e b r i d g e due to passing t r a f f i c . The latter
l i m i t s d e p e n d on t h e b r i d g e s p a n , t h e t r a i n s p e e d a n d the
l e v e l of passenger comfort r e q u i r e d (ref.12)
The a s s e s s m e n t of f a t i g u e damage i s a l s o b e i n g investi-
gated. This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y important for railway bridges
where the l i v e load often represents a large proportion (up
t o 90% f o r c r o s s g i r d e r s ) o f t h e t o t a l l o a d . The e f f e c t of
p l a t e t h i c k n e s s and t h e t y p e of v a r i a b l e a m p l i t u d e loading
on f a t i g u e l i f e a r e b o t h b e i n g s t u d i e d a t p r e s e n t . In the
f u t u r e t h e r e w i l l be a c o n t i n u i n g emphasis to design out
w e l d s w i t h a low d e t a i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and t o s p e c i f y w e l d
quality consistent with "fitness for purpose".
Much o f t h e c u r r e n t w o r k i s b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n u n d e r the
a e g i s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l U n i o n of R a i l w a y s ( U I C ) and i t i s
t h i s body w h i c h has been the f o c u s f o r s e t t i n g European and
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I n t e r n a t i o n a l R a i l w a y s t a n d a r d s s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1960's. As
the i n t r o d u c t i o n of Eurocodes approaches, together with the
g r e a t e r E u r o p e a n h a r m o n i s a t i o n p l a n n e d f o r 1992 ( a i d e d by
t h e Channel Tunnel) t h e work o f t h e U I C p r e s e n t l y h a s added
s i g n i f i c a n c e , and B r i t i s h Railways i s f u l l y involved i n t h i s
work. There i s a danger however t h a t i n t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h
s t a n d a r d s t h a t a r e a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l com-
munity, t h e envelope o f s a f e t y w i l l become s o l a r g e a s t o
l e a d t o unecomomic d e s i g n s . T h i s w i l l need careful
watching!
4. Some e x a m p l e s of recent bridges
4.1 Box g i r d e r example. A t l a n t i c Road Bridge

T h i s b r i d g e c a r r i e s t h e South London l i n e s over both t h e
Chatham Main L i n e s and A t l a n t i c and Popes Road a t B r i x t o n
S t a t i o n i n South London. C o n s t r u c t i o n depth was c r i t i c a l
and t h e d e s i g n was f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e t r a c k
geometry. T h e l i n e s a r e o n a h o r i z o n t a l c u r v e o f 408m a n d
a r e a t t h e summit o f a v e r t i c a l curve.
A h a l f t h r o u g h t y p e b r i d g e was c h o s e n b a s e d on t h e
s t a n d a r d box g i r d e r type d e s c r i b e d above. However, t h e
g i r d e r s a r e f u l l y continuous and curved i n plan not only t o
minimise t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n depth o f t h e deck but a l s o t o
m i n i m i s e t h e o v e r a l l w i d t h o f t h e b r i d g e which h a d t o be
accommodated on e x i s t i n g abutments. Even so, a s p e c i a l l y
designed deck was need t o a c h i e v e t h e r e q u i r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n
d e p t h o f 905mm b e t w e e n r a i l l e v e l a n d b r i d g e soffit.
Fatigue was t h e c r i t i c a l f a c t o r p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e design
of t h e f l o o r p l a t e s t o r e s i s t l o c a l bending.
The b r i d g e was f u l l y t r i a l erected at the fabricator's
w o r k s , a n d t h e n e r e c t e d d u r i n g a t h r e e week b l o c k a d e o f t h e
South London l i n e s and a weekend c l o s u r e o f t h e Chatham Main
Lines f o rthe erection of the steelwork. Guidance was
sought from both t h e L o c a l A u t h o r i t i e s and E n g l i s h Heritage
t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e new s t r u c t u r e h a r m o n i s e d with i t s
Victorian surroundings.
S T E E L FLOOR PLATE
SECTION
Fig.9 Atlantic Road Bridge
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4.2 Warren t r u s s example. Lingard Lane Bridge N0.7OA
T h i s b r i d g e c a r r i e s t h e R o m l e y - R e d d i t c h l i n e s on a skew
a l i g n m e n t o v e r t h e new M a n c h e s t e r o u t e r r i n g r o a d w h i c h i s
constructed t o motorway standards. The span r e q u i r e d was
120m a n d t h i s i s o n e o f t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e s p a n s constructed
on B r i t i s h R a i l w a y s f o r some t i m e . I t s steel floor i s
s u p p o r t e d o n c r o s s g i r d e r s a t 12m c e n t r e s . Continuous
longitudinal steel r a i l bearers c a r r y t h e f l o o r between
cross girders.
Having been f a b r i c a t e d and t r i a l erected a t the steel
f a b r i c a t o r ' s yard, t h e b r i d g e was e r e c t e d p i e c e m e a l by t h e
side of t h e tracks and then s l i d i n during a weekend closure
of t h e r a i l w a y l i n e s . The bridge contains 1900 t o n n e s o f
s t e e l and weighed 2,500 t o n n e s i n t o t a l (including ballast
and track). Because o f t h e l a r g e cost of renewal an
a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l f a c t o r o f 1.05 was used i n t h e design,
p r i n c i p a l l y a s a hedge a g a i n s t c o r r o s i o n , nonetheless a l l
e x t e r n a l s u r f a c e s were t r e a t e d with a f u l l protective
treatment consisting of Chlorinated Rubber paint and metal
spray t o t h e external surfaces and Micaceous Iron Oxide
p a i n t t o t h e i n t e r n a l s u r f a c e s o f t h e c h o r d members
aSHE SPLICES
LINK SPAN
LINK SPAN
-FABRICATED
I-SECTI0N
DIAGONALS
STRUCTURE. -QAJJG^
O
Z)
cr-
8Q
10000 PLAN
BRACING
CROSS SECTION
Fig 10. Lingard Lane Bridge N0.7OA
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4-3 C o m p o s i t e e x a m p l e - I n t e g r a l R a i l & R o a d B r i d g e a t Ebbw
Vale. (ref.15)
T h i s b r i d g e h a s two 2 5m s p a n s a n d c a r r i e s a s i n g l e track
r a i l w a y owned by B r i t i s h S t e e l and r o a d w a y a c r o s s rail
sidings in a reclaimed industrial area. T r a c k and r o a d a r e
c a r r i e d on an i n t e g r a l d e c k w i t h r u n n i n g r a i l s s e t f l u s h
w i t h t h e roadway pavement. C o m p o s i t e s t e e l and p r e c a s t u n i t
c o n s t r u c t i o n was used to achieve rapid implementation.
L o a d i n g s p e c i f i c a t i o n w a s RU r a i l w a y l o a d i n g . The structure
was a l s o c h e c k e d f o r HA l o a d i n g but t h i s d i d not govern.
The f l o o r u s e s p r e c a s t u n i t s of f u l l w i d t h and d e p t h w i t h
p o c k e t s l e f t open f o r s h e a r c o n n e c t o r s welded t o the top of
the twin steel plate girders. P r e c a s t u n i t s u s e g r a d e 50/20
c o n c r e t e and i n c o r p o r a t e holding-down b o l t s f o r p a r a p e t s and
r a i l fixings. P o c k e t s t o accommodate t h e s h e a r s t u d s a r e
p r o v i d e d a t 490mm i n t e r v a l s a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f t h e m a i n
g i r d e r s , and t h e s e were f i l l e d w i t h c o n c r e t e a f t e r final
adjustment of l i n e and l e v e l of t h e u n i t s . A l l units are
i d e n t i c a l except f o r those at the ends which are
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o c a s t i n s i t u t r a n s v e r s e trimmer beams.
Girders are simply supported with a 'half-joint' where
s u p p o r t e d on t h e m i d d l e p i e r . Plan b r a c i n g between the top
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
f l a n g e s of the g i r d e r s p r o v i d e s l a t e r a l r i g i d i t y while
r e t a i n i n g the advantage of a t o r s i o n a l l y f l e x i b l e super-
s t r u c t u r e i n accommodating r e l a t i v e r o t a t i o n of the supports
due t o any f u t u r e d i f f e r e n t i a l settlement.
The d i r e c t t r a c k f i x i n g and f l u s h i n f i l l meant t h a t , at
the ends of the bridge, a t r a n s i t i o n onto b a l l a s t e d track
h a d t o be i n c o r p o r a t e d and r u n - o n s l a b s w e r e provided.
F a b r i c a t e d s t e e l trackway channels are used to i s o l a t e the
f i x i n g s f o r t h e 113A f l a t bottom r a i l s from the roadway
pavement to f a c i l i t a t e f u t u r e r a i l replacement.
Fig.11 Elevation & Cross Section. Bridge at Ebbw Vale
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480 0
BOTTOM CLEA T
BOLTED T O MAI N GIRDE R
Fig.12a London Docklands Light Railway
Universal b e a m s u p t o 26m spans
1500 DIA . R.C. COLUMN
Fig.12b London Docklands Light Railway

Box g i r d e r s , f o r c u r v e d s k e w s p a n s on s i n g l e columns
CONTINUOUS
TRACK PLINT H
•PRECAST CONCRET E
PARAPET UNI T
(300 0 LONG )
.CONSTRUCTION JOIN T
PERMANEN
T FORMWORK
POSSIBLE LOCATIO N FO R
FUTURE PLA N BRACIN G
SYSTEM
LINEAR ROCKE R
BEARING
Fig.12c London Docklands Light Railway

P l a t e g i r d e r s u p t o 65m span
363
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Copyright CRC Press

4*4 Composite example - V i a d u c t s f o r London Docklands L i g h t
Railway (ref. )
W h e n o p e n e d i n J u l y 1987 the London Docklands L i g h t R a i l w a y
was t h e f i r s t of i t s k i n d i n B r i t a i n . T h e r a i l w a y 12km long
h a s 3 • 8 k m o f new viaducts. Even p r i o r to the opening
c e r e m o n y p l a n n i n g was w e l l u n d e r way towards upgrading and
extending the railway. The C a n a r y Wharf complex and other
developments r e q u i r e d immediate upgrading. Doubling of the
l e n g t h of t h e t r a i n s and i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r f r e q u e n c y has
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
meant t h a t v i a d u c t s have needed s t r e n g t h i n g e s p e c i a l l y f o r
fatigue effect, despite comparatively light loading.
V i a d u c t s are of continuous c o m p o s i t e c o n s t r u c t i o n on
p i l e d f o u n d a t i o n s u s i n g t w i n s t e e l members of either;
U n i v e r s a l beams ( f i g . 1 2 a ) - u p t o 26m spans and curved
d o w n t o 60m radius
curvature.
Box g i r d e r s ( f i g . 1 2 b ) - u p t o 26m spans for curved
s k e w c r o s s i n g on single
columns.
Plate girders (fig.12c) - u p t o 65m spans with curved
s o f f i t , over water.
Strengthening, mainly i n order to reduce f a t i g u e s t r e s s e s
has c o n s i s t e d of adding f l a n g e m a t e r i a l at i n t e r m e d i a t e
s u p p o r t s , t h e p l a c i n g o f e x t r a s h e a r c o n n e c t o r s u s i n g 20mm
f o r c e f i t t e d s p r i n g s t e e l f a s t e n e r s through top f l a n g e s , and
the p r o v i s i o n of shock t r a n s v e r s i n g u n i t s (STU's) to a l l o w
e x t r a b r a k i n g f o r c e s t o be s h a r e d among more t h a n one
s e c t i o n of v i a d u c t . These works c u r r e n t l y i n hand, are
being performed w h i l s t the railway i s i n operation.
Acknowledgements.
Clients: London Docklands Development Corporation
London Underground L i m i t e d
Designer Contractor: GEC - Mowlem R a i l w a y Group
Consulting Engineers: W.S. Atkins Consultants Limited
Subconsultants for
Superstructures & Strengthening: Cass Hayward & P a r t n e r s
o f some V i a d u c t s
S t e e l Work S u b c o n t r a c t o r s : Cleveland Bridge & Butterley
Engineering
B r i d g e a t Ebbw V a l e
C l i e n t s : W e l s h D e v e l o p m e n t Agency B l a e n e a u Gwent B.C.
P r o j e c t l e a d c o n s u l t a n t s : Ryan K e l t e c s p i c (Cardiff)
B r i d g e D e s i g n e r s : C a s s Hayward & P a r t n e r s , Chepstow, Gwent
M a i n c o n t r a c t o r : DMD Ltd., Cardiff
Steelwork s u b c o n t r a c t o r : F a i r f i e l d - M a b e y Ltd., Chepstow
364
Copyright CRC Press

5 References
1 Berridge, P.S.A., TheGirder Bridge, Robert Maxwell,

1969.
2 B . S . 1 5 3 , S t e e l G i r d e r B r i d g e s , 1953 .
3 Kerensky, O.A., F l i n t , A . R . a n d B r o w n W.C. T h e B a s i s o
D e s i g n o f Beams a n dP l a t e G i r d e r s i n t h e
S t a n d a r d 153, I . C . E . P r o c e e d i n g s P a p e r No. 4 8 ,
February 1956.
4 B e r r i d g e , P.S.A., F a c t o r s G o v e r n i n g t h e C h o i c e Between
R e p a i r i n g , S t r e n g t h e n i n g a n dR e c o n s t r u c t i n g R a i l w a y
G i r d e r B r i d g e s , I . C . E . P r o c e e d i n g s P a p e r No 6 7 0 2 ,
September 1963*
5 M a n n , F.W., R a i l w a y B r i d g e C o n s t r u c t i o n . Some R e c e n t
Developments, Hutchinson E d u c a t i o n a l 1972.
6 B e r r i d g e , P . S . A . a n d E a s t o n , F.M., S o m e N o t e s o n t h e H a l f
Through Type P l a t e G i r d e r Railway Bridge, I.C.E.
P r o c e e d i n g s P a p e r No. 5 8 , May 1955
7 B a s t i n , R.D., S e l b y D i v e r s i o n o f t h e E a s t C o a s t M a i n
L i n e . 3: B r i d g e s , I . C . E . P r o c e e d i n g s P a r t 1 , N o v . 1 9 8 3
8 T e c h n i c a l N o t e , No. 2 7 D e s i g n L o a d i n g a n d L o a d F a c t o r s
f o r Railway B r i d g e s , B r i t i s h Railways Board, June 1973
9 B.S.5400, S t e e l Concrete andComposite Bridges, Part 3
Code o f P r a c t i c e f o r D e s i g n o f S t e e l B r i d g e s , I982
10 A t k i n s , F.E.and Wigley, P.J.G., R a i l w a y Underline
Bridges: Developments Within C o n s t r a i n t s o f Limited
Possession, I.C.E. Proceedings, P a r t 1, 1988, 84, O c t ,
9 8 9 - 1 0 0 7 ( O r d i n a r y M e e t i n g 22 N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 8 ) .
11 B a n a s i a k , M.K. a n d L e e s F . I . , S o m e R e c e n t B r i d g e s f o r
B r i t i s h R a i l , P r o c e e d i n g s o f B.C.S.A. C o n f e r e n c e on
S t e e l B r i d g e s , 1968, I . C . E .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
12 D r a f t U I CL e a f l e t o n D e f o r m a t i o n o f Bridges, British
R a i l w a y s B o a r d , D e c e m b e r 1987 -
13 B o n n e t , C. F., Two R a i l w a y B r i d g e s o f C o m p o s i t e
C o n s t r u c t i o n , T h e S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r , November 1964.
14 C l a r k , D.J., a n dWatermann, B . J . , London R e g i o n a l
T r a n s p o r t R a i l w a y B r i d g e D29 a t H a n g e r L a n e J u n c t i o n ,
I.C.E. Proceedings, P a r t 1 , D e c e m b e r 19 8 6 .
15 S a d l e r N.L. a n dMatthews S . J . , An I n t e g r a l R a i l a n d Road
B r i d g e a t t h e N a t i o n a l G a r d e n F e s t i v a l S i t e , Ebbw
Vale,
The S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r , A p r i l 1989.
16 P r i t c h a r d B.P. a n d H a y w a r d A.C.G., L o n d o n D o c k l a n d s Light
R a i l w a y New V i a d u c t s , S e c o n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference
on S h o r t a n d M e d i u m S p a n B r i d g e s , O t t a w a , 1986.
17 H a y w a r d A.C.G. a n d P r i t c h a r d B.P., L o n d o n Docklands
Light Railway. Upgrading f o r Heavier Traffic,
Symposium on S t r e n g t h e n i n g andRepair o f Bridges,
Leamington Spa
June I988, C o n s t r u c t i o n Marketing Limited.
365
Copyright CRC Press

ON F A T I G U E E V A L U A T I O N OF RIVETED
CONNNECTIONS IN R A I L W A Y TRUSS
BRIDGES
A. EBRAHIMPOUR, E.A. MARAGAKIS, D.N. O'CONNOR
Dept Civil Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, Nevado, USA
Abstract
A r i v e t e d s t e e l r a i l w a y b r i d g e on t h e U n i o n P a c i f i c
R a i l r o a d i n Nevada was c o n s i d e r e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g
remaining fatigue l i f e . T h i s b r i d g e i s on a p r o p o s e d
route for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of hazardous m a t e r i a l s through
t h e s t a t e o f N e v a d a ; upon a p p r o v a l t h e normal t r a i n
t r a f f i c i s expected to increase. A modified bridge
s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s p r o g r a m w a s u s e d t o s a v e member l o a d
h i s t o r i e s c a u s e d by t h e p a s s a g e o f b o t h s t e a m and modern
diesel trains. A f a t i g u e model b a s e d on M i n e r s r u l e f
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and s t r e s s c a t e g o r y D f o r r i v e t e d c o n n e c t i o n s was c h o s e n
to estimate the remaining fatigue l i f e . Stress values
i n f i v e members o f t h e b r i d g e e x c e e d e d t h e e n d u r a n c e
l i m i t of category D under t r a i n l o a d i n g . Fatigue l i f e
o f t h e c r i t i c a l members w i l l be r e d u c e d due t o t h e
proposed increase i n the t r a i n t r a f f i c .
Keywords: Railway Bridges, Fatigue L i f e , S t e e l Bridges,
Train Loads.
1 Introduction
Railway b r i d g e s are p a r t of the United S t a t e s aging 1
infrastructure. The o l d e r b r i d g e s , most o f them s t e e l

s t r u c t u r e s , were b u i l t around the t u r n of the c e n t u r y ;
the s a f e t y of these bridges for t r a n s p o r t i n g both
f r e i g h t and p a s s e n g e r s i s c r u c i a l . Today t h e r e i s a
renewed i n t e r e s t i n the s a f e t y of r a i l r o a d b r i d g e s ,
Foutch (1988). S a f e t y i s o f p r i m e c o n c e r n when
r a i l r o a d s are used to transport high l e v e l nuclear waste
such as spent reactor f u e l . This i s important for
h e a l t h and e n v i r o n m e n t a l r e a s o n s , and i s a major p u b l i c
concern.
A r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t was u n d e r t a k e n t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t
o f t h e i n c r e a s e i n r a i l t r a f f i c due t o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e
proposed n u c l e a r waste r e p o s i t o r y at Yucca Mountain,
Nevada. The p r o j e c t c o n s i s t e d of a s u r v e y of the
b r i d g e s a l o n g t h e U n i o n P a c i f i c R a i l r o a d from North of
366
Copyright CRC Press

L a s Vegas t o t h e b o r d e r of Nevada and U t a h , m o d i f i c a t i o n
of an e x i s t i n g computer program f o r r a t i n g r a i l w a y
b r i d g e s u n d e r modern d i e s e l l o a d i n g , and e v a l u a t i o n of
r e m a i n i n g f a t i g u e l i f e i n s t e e l b r i d g e members. This
p a p e r f o c u s e s on t h e l a t t e r a s p e c t o f t h e r e s e a r c h
program, namely the f a t i g u e i n r i v e t e d connections of a
t y p i c a l s t e e l b r i d g e on t h e p r o p o s e d r a i l w a y r o u t e . A
d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e b r i d g e s u r v e y and m o d i f i c a t i o n of the
e x i s t i n g t r u s s b r i d g e a n a l y s i s computer program w i l l be
presented b r i e f l y .
2 Survey of e x i s t i n g r a i l w a y bridges
An i n v e n t o r y o f t h e r a i l w a y b r i d g e s w a s c o n d u c t e d o n t h e
proposed r a i l r o a d l i n e . T h e r e a r e 135 r a i l w a y b r i d g e s
on t h i s s e g m e n t o f t h e r a i l r o a d w i t h a t o t a l o f 259
spans. T h e s e b r i d g e s range from s h o r t t r e s t l e s to
medium s i z e s t e e l p l a t e g i r d e r s a n d t r u s s e s . T h e b r i d g e
d a t a were s a v e d i n A S C I I computer f i l e s f o r f u t u r e data
manipulation. The d a t a i n d i c a t e m i l e p o s t l o c a t i o n of
t h e b r i d g e s , number o f s p a n s f o r e a c h b r i d g e , t y p e o f
t h e s t r u c t u r e , y e a r of c o n s t r u c t i o n , d e s i g n Cooper E -
r a t i n g , and a u t h o r i z e d t r a c k s p e e d .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d from t h e Union
P a c i f i c , t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s t r a v e l l e d t o s o u t h e r n Nevada
f o r s i t e i n s p e c t i o n of s e v e r a l b r i d g e s and a d e t a i l e d
i n s p e c t i o n of the bridge located at m i l e post 409.16,
w h i c h was c h o s e n f o r i n depth s t u d y . The b r i d g e was
m a i n t a i n e d p r o p e r l y and had o n l y minor v i s i b l e c o r r o s i o n
on v a r i o u s p a r t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e l o w e r b r a c i n g s y s t e m .
I n a d d i t i o n t h e b r i d g e was measured a c c u r a t e l y t o v e r i f y
the o r i g i n a l dimensions as given i n the Union P a c i f i c
structural plans.
T h e b r i d g e ( s e e F i g . 1) i s a 1 5 0 - f o o t ( 4 6 - m e t e r )
s p a n , s i n g l e t r a c k , r i v e t e d , t h r o u g h t r u s s made w i t h
open h e a r t h s t e e l . The c e n t e r to c e n t e r s p a c i n g of the
two t r u s s e s i s 1 7 . 5 f e e t ( 5 . 3 m ) . D a t a o n t h e member
c r o s s - s e c t i o n s and c o n n e c t i o n d e t a i l s a r e not g i v e n h e r e
for brevity.
3 M o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e e x i s t i n g b r i d g e r a t i n g program
T h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m e r i c a n R a i l r o a d s (AAR) p r o g r a m 4
(1975) p e r f o r m s m a t r i x s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s and u s e s t h e
c u r r e n t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s t o compute t h e Cooper r a t i n g o f
i n d i v i d u a l members o f a s t e e l t r u s s r a i l w a y b r i d g e .
T r u s s members c a n be r i v e t e d o r h a v e p i n n e d c o n n e c t i o n s
and c a n be c o n s t r u c t e d o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s t e e l .
One o f "the s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h e AAR p r o g r a m 4 i s t h a t
i t w a s w r i t t e n t o e v a l u a t e t h e b r i d g e r a t i n g b a s e d on
367
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Fig. 1. Union P a c i f i c s t e e l t r u s s bridge at M.P.
4 0 9 . 1 6 , C a l i e n t e S u b d i v i s i o n ( 1 f t = 0 . 3 0 4 8 m) .
t h e Cooper E - 8 0 t r a i n . The Cooper E - 8 0 l o a d i n g , which

c o n s i s t s o f two steam l o c o m o t i v e s and a u n i f o r m t r a i l i n g
l o a d o f 8 , 0 0 0 pounds p e r f o o t (117 k N / m ) , i s g e n e r a l l y
a c c e p t e d t o be t h e most s e v e r e t y p e o f l i v e l o a d t h a t a
bridge experiences. We m o d i f i e d t h i s l a t t e r computer
program t o a n a l y z e and r a t e t r u s s e s under s p e c i a l t r a i n
l o a d i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l Cooper E - s e r i e s .
The m o d i f i e d program u s e s a r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e b a s e d on
t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f l i v e l o a d c a p a c i t y o f t h e members.
D e t a i l s o f t h e computer m o d i f i c a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d
elsewhere, Ebrahimpour, et a l . (1989).
The m o d i f i e d computer program c a n be u s e d t o
d e t e r m i n e e x a c t member f o r c e s u n d e r a n y a r b i t r a r y t r a i n
l o a d i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n d e f i n e d by t h e u s e r . As c a n be
seen i n the following sections of t h i s paper, t h i s i s of
s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t when p r e d i c t i n g f a t i g u e l i f e u n d e r
repeated loading.
4 Bridge fatigue rating
One o f t h e m a j o r c o n c e r n s o f r a i l w a y b r i d g e e n g i n e e r s
today i s t h e s a f e t y of o l d r i v e t e d s t r u c t u r e s and t h e
p o t e n t i a l f a t i g u e damage t h a t h a s a c c u m u l a t e d , F i s h e r
(1984, 1987). Many o f t h e s e b r i d g e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e o n e
s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s study, were f a b r i c a t e d and p l a c e d i n t o
s e r v i c e a t the turn of the century. The u n c e r t a i n t i e s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e x a c t t r a f f i c l o a d i n g i n t h e p a s t and
w i t h t h e e m p i r i c a l n a t u r e o f f a t i g u e t h e o r y make
estimating fatigue l i f e d i f f i c u l t .
368
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4.1 Recommended p r a c t i c e f o r bridge fatigue rating
Both t h e A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n of S t a t e Highway and
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n O f f i c i a l s (AASHTO, 1 9 8 3 ) a n d t h e A m e r i c a n
R a i l w a y E n g i n e e r i n g A s s o c i a t i o n (AREA, 1989) use
e s t i m a t e s f o r f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h of d i f f e r e n t s t e e l
c o n n e c t i o n d e t a i l s b a s e d on e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . The
m a j o r f a c t o r s g o v e r n i n g f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h a r e t h e number
of s t r e s s c y c l e s , the magnitude of s t r e s s range, the
t y p e of s t r e s s r a n g e , and t h e t y p e of c o n s t r u c t i o n
details.
The s t r e s s r a n g e , S , i s d e f i n e d a s t h e a l g e b r a i c
R
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e maximum a n d minimum c a l c u l a t e d
stress values. T h e AREA s p e c i f i c a t i o n s t a t e s t h a t i f
both t h e l i v e l o a d and t h e dead l o a d r e s u l t i n
c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s i n a member, f a t i g u e n e e d n o t b e
considered.
The t y p e o f s t r e s s i s d e f i n e d by t h e R - r a t i o w h i c h i s
t h e r a t i o o f t h e m i n i m u m s t r e s s t o t h e maximum s t r e s s i n
e a c h l o a d i n g c y c l e , Salmon and Johnson ( 1 9 8 0 ) . For
example, an R - r a t i o of zero i n d i c a t e s s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n
f r o m z e r o t o a maximum t e n s i o n v a l u e . On t h e o t h e r
extreme, R=-l i n d i c a t e s f u l l s t r e s s r e v e r s a l ; that i s ,
e q u a l v a l u e s f o r both c o m p r e s s i o n and t e n s i o n i n each
cycle. T y p i c a l l y t h e more n e g a t i v e R v a l u e r e s u l t s i n
lower fatigue l i f e ; thus the R value has a d i r e c t effect
on t h e s t r e s s v s . n u m b e r o f c y c l e s ( S - N ) f a t i g u e c u r v e
a s shown i n F i g . 2. A l t h o u g h a r a n g e o f R=0 t o R = - l c a n
b e a s s i g n e d t o t h e t y p e o f s t r e s s r a n g e , t h e AREA
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s u s e s o n l y two k i n d s o f s t r e s s r a n g e s ;
t e n s i o n (T) o r s t r e s s r e v e r s a l ( R e v ) .
I n a r e c e n t r e p o r t , F i s h e r (1987) v e r i f i e d t h a t f o r
r i v e t e d bridges a simple check for category D provides a
good e s t i m a t e f o r t h e number o f c y c l e s r e q u i r e d t o
develop fatigue cracks. Although category D c o n s t i t u t e s
a r e a s o n a b l e l o w e r bound f o r f a t i g u e c r a c k d e v e l o p m e n t ,
one c a n u s e t h i s c a t e g o r y t o c o n s e r v a t i v e l y e s t i m a t e t h e
remaining fatigue l i f e ( i . e . , u n t i l f a i l u r e ) i n such
members. F i g . 3 shows a p l o t of S-N c u r v e f o r c a t e g o r y
D.
4.2 F a t i g u e r a t i n g f o r Union P a c i f i c bridge

F a t i g u e c a t e g o r y D was c h o s e n t o e s t i m a t e t h e r e m a i n i n g
f a t i g u e l i f e of the Union P a c i f i c bridge located at mile
post 409.16. O n l y t h e p r i m a r y l o a d - c a r r y i n g members a n d
the c o r r e s p o n d i n g r i v e t e d connections were c o n s i d e r e d
f o r t h i s p a r t o f t h e s t u d y , t h u s a s e p a r a t e a n a l y s i s may
be r e q u i r e d i n f u t u r e t o e v a l u a t e f a t i g u e l i f e f o r t h e
f l o o r beams and t h e s e c o n d a r y b r a c i n g s y s t e m .
369
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Fig. 2. Typical S-N f a t i g u e curves.
30
20
co
CO i o
0 h
io e 10° 10'
Cycles, N
Fig. 3. F a t i g u e c u r v e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m AREA
S p e c i f i c a t i o n s (1 k s i = 6 . 8 9 M P a ) .
4.2.1 Estimate of r a i l traffic

D a t a on t h e a v e r a g e number o f t r a i n s p e r d a y on t h e
C a l i e n t e S u b d i v i s i o n f o r t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n 1978 a n d
1988 w a s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e U n i o n P a c i f i c R a i l r o a d . As
shown i n T a b l e 1, t h e a v e r a g e t r a f f i c i s 1 7 . 0 9 trains
p e r d a y o r a t o t a l o f 6238 t r a i n s p e r y e a r . As shown i n
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
370
Copyright CRC Press

t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s , member s t r e s s h i s t o r i e s p r o d u c e d
as a r e s u l t of f u l l y loaded f r e i g h t c a r s are lower than
the corresponding stresses for the locomotives. The
f r e i g h t c a r s t r e s s e s are a l s o below the endurance l i m i t
f o r c a t e g o r y D ( 7 . 0 k s i o r 4 8 . 3 M P a ) , a n d t h e r e f o r e do
n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o w a r d c u m u l a t i v e f a t i g u e damage o f
members. For the reasons mentioned, I t i s important to
p r o p e r l y e s t i m a t e t h e number o f l o c o m o t i v e s , b o t h s t e a m
and d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c , d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m e o f t h e b r i d g e .
B r i d g e 4 0 9 . 1 6 was b u i l t i n 1911. I t i s assumed t h a t
t h e r e p o s i t o r y w i l l b e o p e n i n 2 0 0 3 a n d o p e r a t e f o r 25
y e a r s , U . S . Department of Energy (1988). As e s t i m a t e d ,
an i n c r e a s e i n t r a f f i c o f two t r a i n s p e r day was assumed
u n t i l t h e y e a r 2 0 2 8 , when n o r m a l t r a f f i c w i l l r e s u m e .
T a b l e 2 shows t h e y e a r l y number o f d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c and
s t e a m l o c o m o t i v e s u s e d i n t h e w e s t e r n U n i t e d S t a t e s , AAR
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(1988). I t i s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e a v e r a g e number o f t r a i n s
on t h e C a l i e n t e l i n e w i t h o u t t h e r e p o s i t o r y w i l l stay
c o n s t a n t a t 6238 t r a i n s p e r y e a r f o r t h e r e m a i n i n g l i f e
of the bridge. From T a b l e 2 , t h e y e a r l y number o f s t e a m
and d i e s e l l o c o m o t i v e s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d a s shown i n
T a b l e 3.
Cooper E - 5 5 was u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t steam l o c o m o t i v e s ,
as t h i s i s the design r a t i n g of the bridge. For the
d i e s e l l o a d i n g , we a s s u m e d t h r e e S D - 6 0 l o c o m o t i v e s p e r
train. T h e S D - 6 0 i s among t h e h e a v i e s t d i e s e l
l o c o m o t i v e commonly u s e d t o d a y .
4.2.2 Computer g e n e r a t i o n o f member l o a d histories

I n order to perform fatigue r a t i n g for i n d i v i d u a l
m e m b e r s o f a t r u s s b r i d g e , we h a d t o a s s e m b l e t h e l o a d
h i s t o r y e x p e r i e n c e d b y e a c h member d u e t o p a s s a g e o f
each t r a i n . T h i s i s necessary to determine which
members e x p e r i e n c e d t e n s i l e f o r c e s a s w e l l a s t h e number
of c y c l e s w i t h i n each s t r e s s l e v e l . The s t r u c t u r a l
a n a l y s i s r o u t i n e o f t h e AAR b r i d g e r a t i n g p r o g r a m w a s
m o d i f i e d t o s a v e f o r c e v a l u e s f o r a l l members a s t h e
t r a i n moves a c r o s s t h e b r i d g e . Previously the t r u s s
r a t i n g program saved o n l y the h i g h e s t f o r c e v a l u e s f o r
e a c h member a n d d i s c a r d e d t h e r e m a i n i n g v a l u e s .
F o r e a c h j o i n t o n t h e l o w e r c h o r d t h e t r a i n i s moved
f r o m l e f t t o r i g h t , p l a c i n g e a c h a x l e i n t u r n on t h a t
joint. For each axle placement, loads are c a l c u l a t e d
f o r a l l members. I n many c a s e s , t h e l e n g t h o f t h e
locomotive c o n s i s t i s longer than the panel lengths;
therefore, segments of the l o a d h i s t o r y w i l l o v e r l a p .
To a c c o u n t f o r t h i s o v e r l a p , t h e x - c o o r d i n a t e o f t h e
l e a d i n g a x l e was a l s o w r i t t e n t o t h e output d a t a f i l e .
T h e d a t a w a s t h e n i m p o r t e d i n t o LOTUS 1 - 2 - 3 a n d s o r t e d
according to the p o s i t i o n of the l e a d a x l e . Typical
s o r t e d l o a d h i s t o r i e s a r e p l o t t e d i n F i g s . 4 and 5.
F i g u r e 4 s h o w s t h e l o a d h i s t o r i e s f o r t h e b r i d g e members
371
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Table 1. D a i l y number o f t r a i n s on t h e U n i o n Pacific,
Caliente Subdivision
Year Average Number o f T r a i n s p e r D a y
1978 17
79 19
80 20
81 21
82 17
83 15
84 15
85 14
86 15
87 16
88 19
Mean 17.09
Standard Deviation 2.34
Table 2. Locomotives in Service (AAR, 1988)
Diesel-- E l e c t r i c Steam
Year Number Percentage Number Percentage
1929 22 0 56,936 100

39 510 1 41,117 99
44 3,049 7 39,681 93
47 5,772 14 35,108 86
51 17,493 45 21,747 55
55 24,786 81 5,982 19
60 28,278 99 261 1
65 27,389 100 29 0
70 26,796 100 13 0
75 27,985 100 12 0
80 28,243 100 12 0
85 22,869 100 0 0
87 19,956 100 0 0
372
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Table 3. Steam and d i e s e l - e l e c t r i c t r a i n s on t h e U n i o n
Pacific, Caliente Subdivision
Number o f Trains
Period No. of Years Diesel-Electric Steam
1911-1929 18 0 112,284
1929-1939 10 0 62,380
1939-1944 5 312 30,380
1944-1947 3 1,310 17,404
1947-1951 4 3,493 21,459
1951-1955 4 11,228 13,724
1955-1960 5 25,264 5,926
1960-1965 5 30,878 312
1965-2003 38 237,044 0
2003-2028 25 155^950 (174,200*) 0
Total 117 465,479 (639,679*) 264,367
* Numbers i n p a r e n t h e s e s i n d i c a t e t h e p r o j e c t e d number
of t r a i n s w i t h the r e p o s i t o r y being i n operation.
under Cooper E - 5 5 l o a d i n g ; F i g . 5 p r e s e n t s load

h i s t o r i e s r e s u l t i n g from t h r e e SD-60s and a t r a i n of
100-ton c a r s . Many m e m b e r s e x p e r i e n c e s e c o n d a r y c y c l e s
under d i e s e l l o a d i n g because d i e s e l locomotives have
o n l y a few a x l e s w i t h wide a x l e s p a c i n g . Table 4 l i s t s
the primary s t r e s s range v a l u e s , S , and secondary
R 1
s t r e s s range v a l u e s , S , f o r a l l members u n d e r t e n s i o n
R 2
or s t r e s s r e v e r s a l .
4.2.3 Evaluating f a t i g u e u s i n g Miner's r u l e

M i n e r s r u l e assumes t h a t f a t i g u e occurs as a r e s u l t of
f
c u m u l a t i v e damage d u e t o l o a d c y c l e s a t v a r i o u s s t r e s s
levels. T h i s c a n be m a t h e m a t i c a l l y e x p r e s s e d a s :
P
D = 2 (n-/^) = n /^1 1 + n /N
2 2 + ... + n /N
p p
(1)
where
D = f r a c t i o n of fatigue l i f e used;
n^ = number o f a c t u a l c y c l e s a t s t r e s s r a n g e S ^ ; a n d R
N. = number o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e a t s t r e s s r a n g e S - . p
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320
LEADING AXLE POSITION. FEET
Fig. 4. Member l o a d h i s t o r i e s f o r Cooper E-55 loading

(1 k i p = 4 . 4 5 k P a ; 1 f t = 0.3048 m).
374
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300
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LEADING AXLE POSITION. FEET
Fig. 5. Member l o a d h i s t o r i e s f o r SD-60 l o a d i n g

(1 k i p = 4 . 4 5 k P a ; 1 f t = 0 . 3 0 4 8 m) .
375
Copyright CRC Press

Table 4. S t r e s s range v a l u e s f o r p r i m a r y and secondary
l o a d i n g under Cooper E - 5 5 and SD-60 loads
(1 k s i = 6 . 8 9 M P a ) .
Cooper E-55 SD-60
£>R1 ^R2 ^Rl ^R2

Member (ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi)
1-2 6.57 — 6.84 1.19 (4)

2-3 6.57 — 6.84 1.19 (4)
3-4 8.69 — 7.81 0.41 (3)
4-5 8.69 — 7.81 0.41 (3)
5-6 8.25 — 7.79 1.21 (3)
6-7 6.11 — 5.71 0.89 (3)
1-8 — —
8-9 — —
9-10 — —
10-11 — —
11-12 — —
12-13 —
13-7 — —
8-2 4.18 1.64 (2) 4.30 3.01 (4)

8-3 7.36 — 6.92 1.38 (4)
9-3 — —
3-10 5.71 — 1.09

10-4 5.11 1.64 (2) 5.16 3.15 (4)
10-5 8.67 — 4.34 3.10 (4)
11-5 — —
5-12 8.67 2.08 (2) 7.69 2.57 (4)

12-6 — —
6-13 7.58 — 7.10 1.07 (3)
Numbers i n t h e p a r e n t h e s e s d e n o t e t h e number o f
s e c o n d a r y c y c l e s f o r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g member.
By c o m p a r i n g v a l u e s o f T a b l e 4 w i t h t h e 7 . 0 k s i (48.3
MPa) e n d u r a n c e l i m i t f o r c a t e g o r y D , t h e s t r e s s e s i n
f i v e members o f t h i s b r i d g e e x c e e d t h e e n d u r a n c e l i m i t
u n d e r b o t h C o o p e r E - 5 5 and S D - 6 0 l o a d i n g i f more t h a n 2
m i l l i o n c y c l e s were to o c c u r . T h e s e members a r e 3 - 4 , 4-
5, 5-6, 5-12, and 6-13. F a i l u r e i n any one o f t h e s e
members c o u l d r e s u l t i n c o l l a p s e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . Note
t h a t s t r e s s e s i n members 8-3 a n d 1 0 - 5 e x c e e d t h e
endurance l i m i t v a l u e o n l y under steam l o c o m o t i v e s and
have accumulated a t o t a l of 264,367 c y c l e s ( i . e . , less
t h a n 2 m i l l i o n c y c l e s ) and a r e t h u s not prone t o fatigue
problems.
376
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4.2.4 Fatigue l i f e without therepository
U s i n g M i n e r ' s r u l e t h e f a t i g u e l i f e o f t h e f i v e members
mentioned were found u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g formula (see
T a b l e 3 f o r t h e number o f c y c l e s u s e d ) .
465,479 + 264,369 + n x
2,000,000 = 1
n 1 = 1,270,154 cycles
Where n i s t h e number o f r e m a i n i n g c y c l e s i n t h e
1
c r i t i c a l member a f t e r t h e y e a r 2 0 2 8 . Knowing t h a t t h e
b r i d g e w i l l b e 117 y e a r s o l d i n 2 0 2 8 , t h e t o t a l fatigue
l i f e o f t h e c r i t i c a l members becomes
1 270 154
Fatigue life = 117 + ±l
't'"' = 321 years
4.2.5 Fatigue l i f e with repository i n operation

A s s u m i n g a r e p o s i t o r y l i f e o f 25 y e a r s , t h e a d d i t i o n a l
number o f c y c l e s f o r d i e s e l t r a i n s w i l l b e 6 3 9 , 6 7 9 ( s e e
Table 3 ) . T h e new f a t i g u e l i f e w a s c a l c u l a t e d a s
follows:
639,679 + 264,369 + n~
: — = i
2,000,000
n 2 = 1,095,954 cycles
Where n i s t h e number o f r e m a i n i n g c y c l e s a f t e r t h e
2
year 2028. The t o t a l f a t i g u e l i f e of the c r i t i c a l

members becomes
1 095 954
Fatigue life = 117 + $ 2 3 8 — = 2 9 3
^ e a r s
Therefore the difference i n fatigue life for the

c r i t i c a l m e m b e r s i s 28 y e a r s .
5 Summary and c o n c l u s i o n s
T h i s paper d e a l t with the a n a l y t i c a l aspect of r a i l w a y

bridge s a f e t y a s s o c i a t e d with the proposed
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of n u c l e a r waste t o t h e Yucca Mountain
r e p o s i t o r y i n Nevada. I n p a r t i c u l a r the paper addressed
t h e r e d u c t i o n i n f a t i g u e l i f e o f t h e c r i t i c a l members o f
a t y p i c a l s t e e l r a i l w a y b r i d g e due t o proposed i n c r e a s e
in t r a f f i c . T h e AAR r a t i n g c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m n u m b e r 4
was m o d i f i e d t o r a t e s t e e l t r u s s b r i d g e s u n d e r a n y t y p e
377
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of s p e c i a l l o a d i n g d i r e c t l y , without computing t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g Cooper E - r a t i n g .
A s i m p l i f i e d f a t i g u e r a t i n g was performed u s i n g
M i n e r ' s r u l e a n d f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h c a t e g o r y D o f t h e AREA
specification. T h e s t r e s s e s i n f i v e members o f t h e
Union P a c i f i c s t e e l bridge M.P. 409.16 exceeded the
e n d u r a n c e l i m i t s t r e s s v a l u e o f c a t e g o r y D, t h u s a r e
limited to only 2 m i l l i o n load cycles. The f a t i g u e l i f e
f o r t h e s e c r i t i c a l m e m b e r s w i l l b e r e d u c e d b y 28 y e a r s
as a r e s u l t of the operation of the nuclear waste
repository.
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F r a c t u r e E v a l u a t i o n F o r R a t i n g R i v e t e d B r i d g e s . NCHRP
Report 302, T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Research Board, N a t i o n a l
R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l , Washington D . C .
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H a r p e r a n d R o w , New Y o r k , N . Y .
U . S . D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y ( 1 9 8 8 ) S e c t i o n 175 R e p o r t :
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t o S e c t i o n 175 o f t h e N u c l e a r Waste P o l i c y A c t , As
Amended. O f f i c e o f C i v i l i a n R a d i o a c t i v e W a s t e
Management, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .
378
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PARTSEVEN
MASONRYARCH
BRIDGES
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A N A L Y S I S OF MASONRY ARCH
BRIDGES BY A FINITE ELEMENT
METHOD
B.S. CHOO, M.G. COUTIE, N.G. GONG
Dept Civil Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Abstract
The behaviour of a masonry arch bridge under loading is analysed in this paper using a
non-linear straight tapered beam element computer program. Collapse solutions are
obtained resulting from the 'effective arch ring' that excludes cracking and yielding
portions in the arch ring. The load distribution on the arch ring and the lateral passive fill
pressure are discussed. Comparisons between the numerical results and the results of load
tests show reasonable agreement. The effects of different arch shapes and the properties of
the materials are assessed.
Keywords: Masonry Arch Bridges, Finite Element Method, Tapered Beam Element.
1 Introduction
The arch bridge is one of the oldest forms of bridge in the world. It has proved to be
durable and reliable with limited maintenance. There are presently over 30,000 masonry
arches in service with British Railways alone. Most of those were built in the last century.
However, over the years, these bridges deteriorate, resulting in some structural damage
(for example ring separation, loss of some bricks and cracking). It is difficult and
unnecessary to replace all the masonry arch bridges on the railway system with modern
bridges. But the question is - can these old bridges still carry heavier and heavier modern
traffic? To answer this, it would be necessary to assess the actual strength of the arch
bridge in its present deteriorated condition. The mechanism and ' M E X F (Military
Engineering Experimental Establishment) methods are in common use in the UK, but their
usefulness is limited. With the development of computer based numerical methods, the
finite element method has been used to simulate the complex behaviour of masonry arch
bridges ' * . The arch ring has been represented by a string of short beam elements.The
1 2 3
fill material above the arch is treated simply as dead load on the arch ring.
The one dimensional finite element program developed by the authors is fully described
in Ref. 3, this gives details of the method used and characteristics of the tapered beam
element employed. In this paper, the effects of varying the material properties of arch and
fill material, and load distribution assumptions are discussed. Their influence on collapse
loads is examined. However, the method is described briefly as follows.
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2 Analysis method
2.1 Tapered beam element and effective arch ring
In this paper, afiniteelement method based on the straight tapered beam element, of unit
thickness, is used. The arch ring is simulated by a string of tapered beams. As nodal cracks
develop, die tension zone of each element is assumed to be ineffective and is neglected. In
addition, when the compressive stress reaches the crushing (ie yielding) value of the
material, it also results in ineffective zones. The rest of the structure, the so called 'effective
arch ring', is the uncracked and uncrushed portion of the arch ring. The stiffness of an
element is therefore dependent on only the effective region in compression as shown in
Fig. 1.
Detail A
Fig. 1. Tapered beam elements.and the effective arch ring.
2.2 Solution procedure

The arch ring is divided into a series of elements, each corresponds to several bricks, or
stone blocks, typically 50 elements in total. When the archringis under the j * load
increment {AP}j, the stiffness of the arch ring, [K(d)], which is a function of the
effective depth d, is reduced because of the development of cross section cracks. The
depths can be calculated at each nodal cross section by satisfying equilibrium for the axial
forces and the moments respectively. Therefore, the solution procedure at each load
increment is to seek a set of global displacements {8}i which satisfies both equilibrium
conditions at all nodal points. At each load increment, an iteration is performed to take
account of the changing depth d and the changingringgeometry.
The iterative procedure used in this program may be summarized as,
[K(d)li{8h ={AP}j (1)
{ d } i = S {8}i
i+ (2)
where S is an operator which calculates the depths of the effective arch ring.
The convergence criterion is based on the changes of the effective depth. This iterative
procedure continues until the convergence criterion
ll{d} i - {dJill <e

i+ (3)
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is satisfied, where e is a small positive number, say 0.1 (mm).
The iteration procedure adopted converges quickly. For example, for an arch ring of
depth 711 mm, the convergence tolerance e was specified as 0.1 mm and convergence
was attained with only 12 iterations for thefirstload increment. Usually, the number of
iterations is inversely proportional to the number of load increments.
2.3 Load on the arch ring

The load on the bridge is increased incrementally. Initially, the magnitudes of the load
increments are kept fairly constant. However, as the total load P on the bridge approaches
its collapse value, the magnitude of the load increment AP is reduced automatically using
a procedure which has been included in the program. This is based on the desirability of
limiting the consequent increases of displacement. Only the first load increment need be
specified.
The total loading on an arch bridge comprises its self weight and imposed loading.
The self weight includes the weight of the arch ring and the weight of the fill above the
arch. The magnitude of the self weight can be calculated from the geometry of the bridge.
The imposed loading is applied above the fill and it is not easy to determine its exact
distribution on to the arch ring through the fill. In this paper the spread of the imposed
loading is limited by the angle 0 which may vary from 0° to 45°, that is, the imposed
loading on the arch ring is confined to the arc AB in Fig. 2. The distribution of load on
the arc AB is assumed to be the vertical pressure Gy due to the patch load on the edge of a
semi-infinite elastic plane of unit thickness, representing the fill and the arch. For a
uniform patch load p per unit area applied on the fill as shown in Fig. 2, the vertical
pressure on the arc is 5
ay = - 2- [ p - Pi + T ( sin 2jJ - sin 2pi)]

2 2 (4)
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As the load width w in Fig. 2 approaches zero the angle Pi tends towards the angle p2.
In the limit of a point load P, the vertical pressure on the arc AB is given by 4
2P
Gy = - — sin4p! (5)
ny
In addition, the load distribution on the arch ring may be specified directly rather than
using the above method. It has been shown that the collapse load is not sensitive to the
9
way load is distributed on to the arc AB, provided the loaded arc length is constant.
However, higher collapse loads may be obtained as the angle 0 increases, especially in
arch bridges of small span/rise ratio. In such cases, the arc length AB should be reduced
to allow for sliding which may occur near the springing along the interface of the arch ring
and fill material. Thus all the load is applied on to the arch ring and is not dispersed into
the abutment through the fill. For example, in a semi-circular arch bridge, the loaded arc
length obtained by this method is similar to that obtained experimentally by Smith as 6
shown in Fig. 3.
Computed load distribution with sliding

between fill and arch ring
Computed load distribution T e s t e d ,oad r a n g e
Fig. 3. Range of the load distribution on the arch ring.
2.4 Fill element

The effect of lateral soil pressures on the collapse load is significant in masonry arch
bridges, especially for small span/rise ratios. Due to the deformation of the arch ring,
passive lateral fill pressure provides some resistance to the arch ring against collapse. The
ratio of lateral to vertical pressure in the passive state is termed the coefficient of lateral
passive fill pressure Kp. To simulate the lateral resistance of the fill, one dimensional fill
elements as shown in Fig. 4(a) are used. These elements come into effect only when the
arch ring moves horizontally into the fill. The stress/strain relationship of the fill element
is bi-linear as shown in Fig. 4(b). An elastic linear relationship is maintained until the
stress in the fill reaches the failure value K o . However, the contribution of the fill
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element is neglected in the region of the crown due to sliding failure along the interface of
the fill and the arch ring resulting from the effects of passive pressure.
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(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Fill element and its stress/strain relationship.
2.5 Movement of arch ring centre line

Load tests on masonry bridges » > have shown that both the maximum vertical and
6 7 8
horizontal displacements are unlikely to exceed the half of the arch ring depth. At each
load increment, the deformation of the arch ring is so small compared with the dimensions
of the arch ring that a linear calculation could be carried out. Nevertheless, the co-ordinate
of the arch centre line is modified at each load increment as shown in Fig. 5(a). This
change in the arch ring centre line is in addition to that resulting from cracked zones and
yielded portions of the arch as shown in Fig. 5(b). The modified position based on the
previous load increment is used as the datum for the computations of the next load
increment.
Fig. 5. Changing of arch ring geometry.
3 Numerical results
The program was used to assess the behaviour of a model masonry arch and redundant
bridges which were loaded to collapse, namely, a) Towler's model, b) Bridgemill bridge,
a shallow parabolic arch bridge, and c) Bargower bridge, which was semi-circular in
shape. Their dimensions and loadings are shown in Fig. 6
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1170 mm
4000 mm
(a) Towler's test model
18290 mm
(b) Bridgernill bridge
1/3 span
1202 mm
10450 mm
(c) Bargower bridge
Fig. 6. Dimensions and loadings.

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Initially, comparison is made with the test results obtained by Towler as this avoids
the effects of fill material. The model arch was a 3-course brick arch ring of 4 metre span
and 1 metre rise. A line load across the bridge width was applied at approximately one-
third point of the span. The load due to fill was simulated by weights applied to small
concrete steps which were cast in-situ on to the arch ring. The experimental E value of the
brickwork is 9,400 N/mm and the compressive strength is 16 N/mm . It should be noted
2 2
that an artificially lower E value of 3,000 N/mm was adopted by Towler and Crisfield for
2
their finite element analyses because of the softer experimental load deformation
characteristics. A comparison of these results is shown in Fig. 7. The test collapse load
was 117 kN and the computed collapse loads by the present method are 120.3 kN and
119.5 kN using E values of 9,400 N/mm and 3,000 N/mm respectively. 2 2
L o a d (KN)
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 7. Load/deflection relationship under loading for Towler's model arch,

E values: (N/mm ). 2
Bridgemill bridge was a parabolic stone voussoir arch bridge. It was loaded to failure
(3,000kN), using a line load at a quarter point of the span. The bridge was built one
hundred years ago in red sandstone. Specimens from the arch ring tested in the laboratory
indicated that the elastic modulus and compressive strength of red sandstone were 15,000
N/mm and 43.8 N/mm . However, the elastic modulus and compressive strength for the
2 2
combined stone and mortar material were estimated as 5,000 N/mm and 5 to 8 N/mm 2 2
respectively.
Results by the present method for E values ranging between 5,000 N/mm and 2
15,000 N/mm , and for compressive strength o values of 5 N/mm and upwards are
2
c
2
shown in Fig. 8 and 9 respectively. For the fill material, the coefficient of the lateral
pressure K and E value were assumed to be 3 and 100 N/mm respectively. It is shown
p
2
in Fig. 8 that the magnitude of elastic modulus of the arch ring significantly affects the
predicted initial stiffness but not the collapse load. In Fig. 9, it can be seen that the load-
deflection curve is sensitive to the compressive strength of the arch material. Clearly,
using the compressive strength of the masonry 43.8 N/mm provides an upper bound 2
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solution whilst the estimated value of 7 N/mm for the composite arch material (mortar
2
and stone) provides a more realistic collapse load.
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3000
2000
"O
(0 E=15,000
o
E=10,000
1000 E= 5,000
Test data
0 O-t 1 « 1 i 1 ' 1 i 1 «— | i 1 i 1 i 1 r
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 8. Effect of the E-value (N/mm ) for Bridgemill Bridge (o = 7 N/mm ).
2
c
2
4000
3000 -
z
CQ 2000 -
o
1000 -
T"
100 150 200
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 9. Effect of o (N/mm ) for Bridgemill bridge (E = 10,000 N/mm ).

c
2 2
Bargower bridge was a semi-circular stone voussoir arch bridge with a 1.2m thick fill
at the crown. The collapse load for the structure was 5,600kN. Specimens from the arch
ring tested in the laboratory indicated that the elastic modulus and compressive strength
were 14,100 N/mm and 33.3 N/mm respectively. The analytical load/deflection curves
2 2
obtained for Bargower bridge are shown in Figs. 10 and 1 Lit can be seen that they are
not sensitive to variation in E values and are generally closer to the test curve than those
obtained for Bridgemill Bridge. However, the initial predicted stiffness is softer than that
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obtained experimentally. This may be because the initial deformation due to the imposed
load takes place in the relatively softer fill material rather than the arch ring.
6000 -i 1
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 10. Effect of E (N/mm ) for Bargower bridge (a =5 N/mm ).

2
c
2
8000
0 P> 1 1 11 • 1 «
0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 11. Effect of a (N/mm ) for Bargower bridge (E=10,000 N/mm ).

c
2 2
The effect of the coefficient of lateral fill pressure K for both Bridgemill (E = 10,000 p
N/mm , o = 7 N/mm ) and Bargower bridges (E = 10,000 N/mm , o = 5 N/mm ) can

2
c
2 2
c
2
be seen in Fig. 12. For Bridgemill bridge, a shallow arch bridge, the influence of Kp on
the ratio of predicted to test collapse load is insignificant for values of K beyond 2. The p
load ratio varies by only 10% for a wide range of K . However, for the semi-circular archp
Bargower bridge, the effect of K is very significant. p
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(calculated collapse load)/(test collapse load)
1.2 T
0.0 H .1 • r > 1 > 1 > 1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Kp
Fig. 12. Effect of the lateral fill pressure.
The effect of the position of imposed load as a ratio of the span is presented in Fig.
13. For a shallow arch (Bridgemill), the lowest collapse load is obtained when the load is
applied around 0.2 and 0.3 of the span. For a semi-circular arch (Bargower), the worst
position for applying a line load is at about 0.3 of the span. Results for load positions less
than 0.3 of the span are considered to be unreliable because it is difficult to estimate the
proportion of the imposed load which is dispersed into the abutment. For Towler s model 1
test, the lowest collapse loads are obtained for load positions which are less than the third
point of the span.
Load (N/mm bridge width)
1500
o H1 « 1 . 1 . 1 •
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

x span
Fig. 13. Effect of imposed load positions.
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The development of four cracks in the critical zones of Bridgemill arch during
analysis are shown in Fig. 14. Due to only the dead load, cracks 1 and 4 of depth of 328
mm, developed at the springings. As the imposed load is applied, crack 4 which is at the
extrados of the archringclosed gradually until the load reached approximately half the
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magnitude of the collapse load. The crack started to open up again at the intrados when
the imposed load exceeded about 1,300 k N . It is clear that a four hinge mechanism was
formed when the arch approached its load carrying capacity. Note that cracks 1 and 2
closed a little at higher load levels. This was because of load redistribution due to yielding
of the arch material in the uncracked compression region.
Crack 1 rack 4
Crack 1
Live loading
Crack 4
Load (KN) J e s t c o | | a p s e | o a d 3 0 0 0 K N
3000 •
-•— Crack 1
-* Crack 2
2000 - -• Crack 3
Crack 4
Ex. - Crack at extrados
In. - Crack at intrados
1000 ^
J"lEx.
T* C r a c k length (mm)
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6 160 2do 3do 4do 5do 6do 7do
h H
Arch ring depth 711 mm
Fig. 14. Crack Development in Bridgemill bridge analysis.

4 Conclusions
The finite element program based on the tapered beam element can be used to obtain
reasonably accurate load-deformation and cracking characteristics of brick and stone arch
bridges. It has been shown that the elastic modulus value of the arch material does not
affect the ultimate collapse load predicted by the program even though it can significantly
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affect the elastic stiffness of the structure. The compressive strength of the arch material is
an important parameter in the computation. It has been shown that taking the actual
compressive strength of the bricks or stones and neglecting the mortar strength results in
the highest predicted collapse load. However, more realistic collapse loads may be
obtained if a lower level of compressive strength which more closely represents the
brick/mortar composite is used.
The effect of the coefficient of lateral fill pressure Kp is much more significant for
deep arch bridges than for shallow arch bridges, particularly for low values of K .This is p
only to be expected as the mobilisation of the lateral fill pressures is dependent on the
horizontal deformations of the arch ring. Using values of K greater than 2 will result in
p
predicted collapse loads which are within 10% of the upper bound value for this
parameter.
Load tests on arch bridges are frequently conducted by applying line loads at either the
quarter or one third points of the span. This analysis shows that the load position for
achieving the lowest collapse load for the arch bridge is between the 0.2 to 0.35 points of
span, depending on its shape. Applying the line load at the crown position results in a
relatively higher collapse load.
A four hinge mechanism is required for collapse of an arch. A distribution of cracks in
the four positions corresponding to the four hinge mechanism can be obtained using this
program and the development of any of these cracks in the arch ring with increases in
applied load can also be traced.
5 Acknowledgment
The work described in this paper is supported by the British Railways Board as part of a
larger study into the behaviour and deterioration of masonry arches. The authors are
grateful to Mr C Lemmon of British Rail Research for his help.
6 References
[1] Towler, K. and Sawko, F. Limit state behaviour of brickwork arches, 6th Int.
brick masonry conference, Rome, May 1982
[2] Crisfield, M.A., Afiniteelement computer program for the analysis of masonry
arches, T R R L laboratory report 1115
[3] Choo, B.S., Coutie, M.G. and Gong, N.G., Finite element analysis of masonry
arch bridges using tapered elements, to be published
[4] Timoshenko, S. and Goodier, J.N., Theory of elasticity, Second edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951
[5] Flugge, W., Handbook of engineering mechanics, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1962
[6] Smith, F.W. and Harvey, W.J., Full-scale test of a masonry arch, Proc. of
SERC-R.M.O. conference, June, 1989.
[7] Hendry, A.W., Davies, S.R. and Royles, R., Test on stone masonry arch at
Bridgemill-Girvan, TRRL contractor report 7,1985
[8] Hendry, A.W., Davies, S.R. and Royles R., Load test to collapse on a masonry
arch bridge at Bargower, Strathclyde, TRRL contractor report 26,1986
[9] Coutie, M.G., Choo, B.S. and Gong, N.G., One dimensional finite element
analysis of masonry arch bridges, Contract Report 1, NUCE/ST/22,
University of Nottingham, 1989
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THE BEHAVIOUR OF MASONRY ARCH
BRIDGES - THE E F F E C T S OF DEFECTS
C. MELBOURNE
Dept Civil Engineering and Building, Bolton Institute of
Technology, Bolton, England, UK
Abstract
There are in excess of 40 000 arch bridges in the U K , many of which were
constructed using brickwork barrels. All carry loads well in excess of those
envisaged by their designers. There is currently a nationwide research
programme aimed at enhancing our understanding of the behaviour of these
complex structures with a view to improving our assessment methods.
The paper discusses the general areas of uncertainty with regard to
establishing a theoretical physical model which can be used to assess the load
carrying capacity of masonry arch bridges.
An integral part of any assessment is an appraisal of the significance of
defects which exist within the structure. Two such problems are spandrel wall
separation and ring separation. The former occurs when the spandrel walls
separate from and cease to give direct support to the arch barrel. The latter
occurs in multi-ring brickwork arches when separation between successive
brick rings disrupts structural homogeneity of the arch barrel.
The paper describes tests that have been conducted in the Institute's Large
Scale Testing Facility on both model and large scale segmental brickwork
arches. The results are discussed with regard to understanding the behaviour
of arch bridges in general and the significance of defects in particular.
Comparison with a proposed theoretical physical model is made and
conclusions are drawn regarding the model's validity and limitations.
Keywords: Masonry, Arch Bridges, Defects.
1 Introduction
The principles of arch construction were understood by the Mesopotamian and

Egyptian builders some five thousand years ago ; but the arch was probably
(1)
only used in buildings. It was likely that the Chinese first employed the arch
in bridge construction; the earliest being constructed about 2900BC.
The Romans were the first to make wide use of the arch in Europe. The
earliest examples date back to about 600BC and were in sewer construction.
By 100BC, bridges of 15m to 21m span were being built using stone.
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Some arch bridges were built in Britain during the Middle Ages; but the
great era of arch bridge building began with the construction of the canals in
the second half of the eighteenth century and ended when the railway network
was substantially complete at the beginning of the twentieth century. Very few
masonry arch bridges have been built since the First World War. There are in
excess of 40 000 masonry arch bridges in the U K , many are over 120 years old
and all carry loads well in excess of those envisaged by their designers.
Design of the ancient arches was probably based upon empirical rules relating
proportion and shape. It was not until the work of L a Hire and Couplet in (2) (3)
the eighteenth century that theories to explain arch behaviour were

propounded. The work of Couplet was particularly significant and is
essentially the same as the mechanism method which has re-emerged from the
twentieth century work of Pippard and Heyman . This followed a century of
(4) (5)
preoccupation with elastic methods of analysis. Recently, both approaches

have been refined using computers* " * but they all disregard the three
6 9
dimensional nature of the problem.

A physical theory for the behaviour of masonry arch bridges must describe
adequately all the relevant aspects of the mechanical behaviour and it must be
arranged in such a way that real engineering problems may be solved. The
two main materials found in such bridges are masonry and soil; since both
materials do not behave in a simple way, it is usually fruitless to attempt to
obtain a physical theory that is, at the same time, simple and exact. An
attainable goal, therefore, is the development of a physical theory which
enables engineering calculations which are reasonably straightforward and the
results sufficiently accurate, for the particular purpose of a bridge assessment.
An integral part of any assessment is an appraisal of the significance of
defects which exist within the structure. Common problems associated with
the arch barrel relate to deterioration of the masonry and mortar, longitudinal
cracking and spandrel wall separation, transverse and diagonal cracking, ring
separation, transverse and diagonal cracking, ring separation in multi-ring
brick arches and arch distortion. The causes of these defects primarily relate
to environmental and changing loading conditions. The purpose of this paper
is to consider two types of defect : ring separation in multi-ring brick arches
and spandrel wall separation. Both types of defect have been identified by the
industry as being commonplace and significant, although to date, engineers
have only been able to take account of them in the form of a subjective
condition factor.
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Ring separation occurs in multi-ring brick arches and is associated with the
loss of bond between successive rings caused by weathering and/or stress
cycling of the mortar.
2 Model Tests
The models were of a parabolic profile with a span of 1000mm, span/rise ratio
of 3:1 and a width of 500mm. The arch ring comprised two rings or courses
of brickwork either bonded or unbonded around the full or part arc of the
arch. In total the ring thickness was approximately 100mm. The models were
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constructed using half scale bricks (Fletton or Raewell). The arches were
constructed without spandrel walls.
Because there were no spandrel walls, the fill was contained by the perspex
and wooden sides of the test rig. Prior to laying the bed face, each brick was
coated with oil in order to minimise the effects of the bond strength on the
model behaviour. A 1:1:6 (cement, lime, sand) mortar was used; it was mixed
by volume and achieved an average 28 day compressive strength of 4 N/mm . 2
Sand was used as backfill and was compacted by vibration to a depth 100mm
over the crown.
A knife edge load ( K E L ) was applied incrementally and monotonically upto
failure at either the V4 or crown point.
Table 1 presents the results of the tests. Arches 1 - 4 were built such that
the two rings of brickwork were fully bonded together using a mortar (by
bonding it is meant adhesion rather than brick bonding using "headers").
Arches 5 - 8 were built with the mortar between the rings being replaced by
damp sand to simulate loss of adhesion.
Arch 9 was built with ring separation over the central half of the span.
All of the models which were loaded at the A span failed due to the l
formation of a four hinge mechanism.

For those models loaded at the crown, failure was due to the development
of a "classical" five hinge mechanism. At failure in the "bonded" arches no or
little ring separation occurred and formation of the hinges was as a monolithic
"single" ring. In the "unbonded" arches separation increased with load as
measured by embedment strain gauges. Development of the hinges in the
models with initial ring separation was such that two thrust lines developed,
one in each of the inner and outer rings. Hinges in the two rings were
coincident and developed simultaneously. Collapse was sudden and caused by
almost total physical separation of the two rings and full development of the
hinges.
Table 1 Model Test Results

Arch Inter-ring Brick Loading Experimental
No Bedjoint Type position Ultimate load
Material (kN)
1 mortar Fletton h 3.2

i
2 mortar Fletton 'A 18.6
3 mortar Fletton Crown 31.0
\
4 mortar Raewell \ 16.5
i
5 sand Fletton K 6.9
1
6 sand Fletton K 8.1
7 sand Fletton Crown 8.8
i
8 sand Raewell 6.8
9 mortar/sand Raewell h 9.8
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3 3 Metre Span Bridge Tests
Two 3 metre span bridges were built and loaded to failure in the Bolton
Institute's Large Scale Testing facility. The segmental arch barrel (radius
1875mm) had a span to rise ratio of 4:1 and consisted of two rings of
brickwork using Class A solid engineering bricks. The brickwork was built in
a "stretcher" bond with no bonding between the rings other than through the
mortar i n the "bonded" case and the damp sand in the "ring separation" case.
The spandrel, wing and retaining walls were built in English bond using
concrete commons. The spandrel walls were not attached to the arch ring.
A n average gap of 10mm was provided between the spandrel walls and the
arch ring. This ensured that the effects of both ring separation and spandrel
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wall separation could be studied.
Compaction of the "graded" 50mm limestone backfill was achieved using
100mm layers and a vibrating compacting "wacker" plate. The bridges were
filled to 300mm above the crown.
Both bridges were subjected to three loading conditions. Firstly, a 25.7kN
K E L was applied at 250mm centres across the span to simulate a rolling load.
Secondly, a 50kN K E L was incrementally applied at the north quarter point,
crown and south third point. Finally, a K E L was applied incrementally at the
quarter point through to collapse. The elastic tests confirmed that the
structure responded to the loading as a local effect, with soil pressure and
brickwork strain changes being confined to the vicinity of the loading. This
has been observed i n field studies and other fullscale tests .
(10) (11)
Both arches failed by the formation of four hinge mechanisms. I n each case
the spandrel walls cracked and rotated about the abutment remote from the
K E L , figure 1. The sequence of hinge formation is given in Table 2.
Fig. 1 3m span arch barrel - ring separation
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Table 2 Sequence of hinge formation
Load, kN
H i n g e No. Position
Bonded A r c h Unbonded A r c h
1 Under l o a d p o i n t , 240 220

north quarter point
2 South quarter point 300 240
3 South abutment 400 320
4 North abutment 480 320

(540 Max.) (360 Max.)
In the bonded arch some ring separation occurred at the crown but the
hinges formed at intrados and extrados. On the other hand, the unbonded
arch produced extensive ring separation shortly after the formation of the
second hinge. It is significant to note that the first hinge formed at
approximately the same load in each test. As no ring separation cracking had
occurred at this stage, it confirmed that the two arches were comparable. The
unbonded arch deteriorated more rapidly after the formation of the first hinge
and carried an ultimate load of 360kN - a 33% reduction in carrying capacity
compared with the bonded arch.
As with the model tests, once ring separation occurred each ring formed its
own pattern of hinges which interacted with each other.
An assessment of the bridge using the presently accepted ' M E X E '
method gave an equivalent K E L of 200kN. This represents a load which is
(12,13)
85% of that required to cause the formation of the first hinge.

The soil/structure interaction was monitored using pressure cells not only in
the extrados but also in the spandrel walls and the backfill. The overall
picture which emerged was one of a compacted backfill exerting pressure
greater than earth pressures at rest and which restrained the arch and
dispersed the applied K E L . Additionally, there was a frictional/cohesive
resistance between the backfill and the spandrel walls and the extrados which
397
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restrained the arch initially and which increased as the arch swayed into the
backfill as hinges formed. This movement into the backfill not only increased
the longitudinal horizontal soil pressure but also the stress on the back of the
spandrel walls and hence the resistance to movement.
4 A Theoretical Physical Model
To date the theoretical modelling of arch bridges has only considered a 2-

dimensional idealisation of the arch barrel interacting with the backfill " . (6 9)
Over sophistication of this model is misplaced considering the 3-dimensional

nature of the problem. It would be better to develop a cruder but more
realistic 3-dimensional theoretical physical model which allowed an
engineering assessment of the relative significance of each of the parameters.
Figure 2 shows a suggested theoretical physical model. The pre-requisite for
any discussion is to recognise that the arch will always respond in the most
efficient way to resist the applied loading. Generally, compaction of the
backfill induces soil pressures which are in excess of those calculated using
earth pressure at rest coefficients* *. With time there will be some relaxation
14
of these pressures at depth; however, this level of "pre-compression" can be

expected in a bridge in good condition at shallow depths due to the constant
compaction by the traffic. The resultant longitudinal soil stress will act upon
the extrados.
Additionally, similar pressures will exist on the back of the spandrel walls
and will provide a restraint to longitudinal movement and thus enhance the
potential restraint offered by the spandrel wall and soil mass. As the load is
applied and the arch sways, it will try to lift the spandrel wall. The lower
bound restraint offered by the wall will be due to its welf weight; appropriate
allowance may be made for the effects of pilasters and wing walls. It is
important to consider the magnitude of each of these effects to determine
which of them is critical. The width of the bridge will influence this.
Under load the bridge will respond if the pressure is greater than the "pre-
compressed" stress levels in the backfill. Above these levels the fill is further
compressed resulting in an increase in the longitudinal and transverse soil
stresses. The first hinge forms under the load. The load at which this occurs
is dependent upon the "effective" arch which supports it. This in turn will
depend upon the extent of the local restraint the spandrel wall and backfill
give the arch. Formation of further hinges and the onset of mechanism
behaviour depends upon the general resistance of the spandrel wall and
backfill. If spandrel wall separation is present then only the friction on the
back of the walls or the self weight effects whichever is the lesser should be
used in addition to the main self weight and longitudinal soil pressure
restraints.
Using the above theoretical physical model an ultimate load of 470kN was
calculated for the 3m span arches which compared well with the bonded arch
test, Table 2.
398
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Dead load spandrel walls plus
cohesive/frictional interac tion
on the back of the walls
LIVE
LOAD
4 soil pressure - \ soil pressure «\
<\
flsoil properties and /(soil properties and
condition) condition) I
4 '
abut men abutment

movement movement
ELEVATION
dead load spandrel wall
T t T T ] | ,
verse
transverse Ii i
soil pressure longitudinal
soil pressure
cohesive/frictiona*
'frictional \ I <
1 L
1 ^ resistance
2l_ i
PLAN
Figure 2 Theoretical Physical Model --``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
399
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5 Conclusions
1) If free to do so, an arch bridge will fail due to the formation of a 4 hinge
mechanism.
2) Using a modified mechanism analysis, incorporating the longitudinal

backfill pressures, spandrel wall stiffening and the backfill
cohesion/friction structural interaction with the spandrel wall and arch,
the onset of mechanism behaviour and the collapse load can be
predicted. The prediction of the onset of mechanism behaviour could be
used to set a serviceability limit state.
3) At all stages of loading, consideration must be given to the possibility of

local failure (eg punching shear, ring separation, snap-through, spandrel
wall instability) and adequate factors of safety applied.
4) The presence of total or partial ring separation caused a reduction in the

ultimate load carry capacity of up to 56% for the models and 33% for
the 3m span bridges
5) Passive soil pressures were not observed in any of the tests even at gross
deformation
6) Where spandrel wall separation existed the cohesion/friction resistance

on the back of the wall made a significant contribution to the stiffening
of the arch.
6 References
1 Van Beck, G.W. "arches and Vaults in the Ancient Near East" Scientific
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
American July 1987
2 L a Hire, P. de "Sur la construction des voutes dans le edifices"
Memoires de L'Academie Royale des Sciences, 1712.
3 Couplet "De la poussee des voutes" Histoire de L'Academie Royale des
Science, 1730.
4 Pippard, A.J.S. and Baker, J.F. "The Analysis of Engineering Structures,
London, 1962, Arnold.
5 Heyman, J. "The Masonry Arch" First Edition London 1982
Ellis Horwood.
6 Crisfield, M.A. and Packham, A.J. "A Mechanism Program for
Computing the Strength of Masonry Arches" Transport and Road
Research laboratory Research Report 124, 1987.
7 Harvey, W.J. "Application of the Mechanism Analysis to Masonry
Arches "The Structural Engineer Vol.66 No.5/1 March 1988.
400
Copyright CRC Press

8 Hughes, T . G . and Vilnay, O. "The Analysis of Masonry Arches" Proc. of
the 8th IBMAC, Dublin 1988.
9 Coutie, M. and Choo "Assessment of the load carrying capacity of
Masonry Arch Bridges using Tapered Finite Elements" To be published
Proc. I C E 1900.
10 Melbourne, C . "The Construction of Mass Concrete Arch Bridges"
Structural Faults and Repairs Conf., London June 1989.
11 Melbourne, C. and Walker, P.J. "Load Test to Collapse of a Full Scale
Brickwork Masonry Arch Bridge" T R R L contractors Report to be
published 1990.
12 "The Assessment of Highway Bridges and Structures" Department of
Transport Roads and Local Transport Directorate, Departmental
Standard B D 21/84, Department of Transport March 1984.
13 "The Assessment of Highway Bridges and Structures" Department of
Transport Roads and Local Transport Directorate, Advice Note B A
16/84, Department of Transport, March '84.
14 Clayton, C.R.I, and Milititsky, J. "Earth Pressure and Earth Retaining
Structures" Surrey Univ. Press 1987.
7 Acknowledgements
The Author wishes to acknowledge the financial support of S E R C , British

Rail, T R R L and NAB and also the encouragement and support from the
staff of the School of Civil Engineering and Building at Bolton Institute of
Higher Education.
401
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PART EIGHT
STRUCTURAL
A N A L Y S I S OF
BRIDGES
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THE T A Y BRIDGE DISASTER - A STUDY
IN S T R U C T U R A L P A T H O L O G Y
T.J. MARTIN
British Steel Corporation, Ravenscraig, Scotland, UK
L A . MACLEOD
Dept Civil Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow,
Scotland, UK
Abstract
T h i s p a p e r p r e s e n t s new i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e 1879 collapse
o f t h e T a y R a i l B r i d g e b a s e d on modern w i n d l o a d i n g a n d
analysis techniques. The l i k e l i h o o d of n e a r s i m u l t a n e o u s
t o p p l i n g and b r a c i n g f a i l u r e i s demonstrated and the e f f e c t
o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e t r a i n on t h e b r i d g e i s d i s c u s s e d .
Keywords: B r i d g e , Tay Bridge D i s a s t e r , S t r u c t u r a l
E n g i n e e r i n g , C o l l a p s e , Wind L o a d i n g , C a s t I r o n , Wrought
I r o n , S t r u c t u r a l A n a l y s i s , H o l d i n g Down B o l t s , B r a c i n g .
1 Background
T h e f i r s t T a y r a i l b r i d g e w a s c o m p l e t e d i n F e b r u a r y 1878 to
t h e d e s i g n o f Thomas B o u c h . A t t h a t t i m e i t was t h e
l o n g e s t b r i d g e i n t h e w o r l d c o n s i s t i n g o f 85 s p a n s o v e r a
d i s t a n c e o f a l m o s t two m i l e s .
B o u c h made h i s r e p u t a t i o n a s a r a i l w a y e n g i n e e r b y b u i l -
d i n g b r i d g e s q u i c k l y a n d on a t i g h t b u d g e t . Because h i s
s t r u c t u r e s were b u i l t e c o n o m i c a l l y the r a i l w a y companies
were a l w a y s w i l l i n g to engage h i s s e r v i c e s . His bridges
t e n d e d t o be l a t t i c e g i r d e r s s u p p o r t e d on s l e n d e r c a s t i r o n
columns which were braced t o g e t h e r w i t h wrought i r o n t i e s
and s t r u t s - F i g u r e 1. T h e c o n t r a c t o r who b u i l t h i s
b i g g e s t b r i d g e s d e s c r i b e d them a s ' f l e s h w i t h o u t m u s c l e ' ,
Thomas ( 1 9 7 0 ) .
The d i s a s t e r o c c u r r e d o n t h e s t o r m y n i g h t o f 28 Decern
b e r 1879. A t r a i n of one e n g i n e and s i x c a r r i a g e s c r o s s i n g
t h e b r i d g e f r o m s o u t h t o n o r t h was l o s t when t h e structure
of the n a v i g a t i o n span section collapsed. T h e r e w e r e no
s u r v i v o r s o f t h e 75 p e o p l e a b o a r d t h e t r a i n .
2 The Bridge
Of t h e t h i r t e e n n a v i g a t i o n s p a n s e l e v e n w e r e o f 74.7 metres
(245 f e e t ) a n d two w e r e 6 9 . 2 m e t r e s (227 f e e t ) . These were
through g i r d e r s (the 'High G i r d e r s ' ) 8.2 metres (27 f e e t )
h i g h w i t h 2 6 . 8 m e t r e s (88 f e e t ) c l e a r a n c e a b o v e high water
level. A l l the n a v i g a t i o n spans c o l l a p s e d .
405
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Fig.1. E l e v a t i o n of pier.
T h e s p a n s w e r e s u p p o r t e d on p i e r s c o n s i s t i n g o f s i x
c r o s s e d b r a c e d c a s t i r o n columns - F i g u r e 2. E a c h column
was f a b r i c a t e d i n s e v e n s e c t i o n s ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e
s e v e n t i e r s of b r a c i n g ) connected v i a f l a n g e s each w i t h
e i g h t 2 8 . 5 mm ( 1 - 1 / 8 i n c h ) b o l t s . The columns e a c h have a
r a k e o f 305 mm ( 1 . 0 f e e t ) o v e r t h e i r h e i g h t o f 2 5 . 1 6 5 m
(76.0 f e e t ) . The o u t e r c o l u m n s ( T y p e A - s e e F i g 2) w e r e
457 mm ( 1 8 . 0 i n c h e s ) o u t s i d e d i a m e t e r , t h e o t h e r c o l u m n s
( T y p e B ) b e i n g 381 mm ( 1 5 . 0 i n c h e s ) d i a m e t e r . The w a l l
t h i c k n e s s i n e a c h c a s e w a s 2 5 . 4 mm ( 1 . 0 i n c h e s ) . The
columns were f i l l e d w i t h concrete.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
T h e b r a c i n g members w e r e c o n n e c t e d t o p a i r s o f i n t e g -
r a l l y c a s t l u g s on t h e c o l u m n s .
The ' v e r t i c a l ' b r a c i n g c o n s i s t e d o f :
(a) h o r i z o n t a l members o f two b a c k t o b a c k w r o u g h t i r o n

channels 6x2-1/2x1/2 inches connected to the lugs
b y t w o 2 8 . 5 mm b o l t s .
(b) d i a g o n a l c r o s s b r a c i n g members o f 114 x 12 mm
(4-1/2x1/2 inches) cross section. These were
c o n n e c t e d a t o n e e n d b y a s i n g l e 2 8 . 5 mm b o l t a n d
a t t h e o t h e r t o p a i r s o f 114 x 9 . 5 mm ( 4 - 1 / 2 x 3 / 8
i n c h e s ) s l i n g p l a t e s v i a a c o t t e r arrangement. The
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I'-O % 5-0" fc m 9-10" , ,5-0" fc 1-0"
( 0 - 3 0 5 m] (1- 5 2 A m ) '1
(2- 9 9 7 m ) ( r 524m) ''(O-SOSm)
Fig.2. S e c t i o n AA p l a n o f pier
c o t t e r s w e r e d r i v e n i n on e r e c t i o n t o t i g h t e n t h e
braces. Tne s l i n g p l a t e s were connected to l u g s by
a s i n g l e 2 8 . 5 mm d i a b o l t .
A t t h e l e v e l of e a c h column c o n n e c t i o n t h e r e was a h o r i z o n -
t a l c r o s s b r a c i n g a r r a n g e m e n t a s shown i n F i g u r e 2 . The
d i a g o n a l s a t t h e s e l e v e l s w e r e 3 8 . 1 mm ( 1 - 1 / 2 i n c h e s ) d i a
r o d s , s i n g l e b o l t e d t o l u g s on t h e c o l u m n s . The t i e s were
back to back c h a n n e l s .
The columns were f i x e d a t t h e i r bases t o base p i e c e s
w h i c h w e r e i n t u r n f i x e d t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n b y f o u r 4 4 . 5 mm
( 1 - 3 / 4 i n c h ) d i a b o l t s w h i c h p a s s e d t h r o u g h two c o u r s e s o f
stone of the foundation.
A wrought i r o n g i r d e r L-shaped ( i n p l a n ) t r a n s f e r r e d the
deck loads to the p i e r s - F i g u r e 2. A wrought i r o n c e l l u -
l a r g i r d e r r u n n i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e t r a c k was p l a c e d above
each of the L-shaped g i r d e r s . I m m e d i a t e l y above t h e c e l l u -
l a r g i r d e r s were the l o n g i t u d i n a l l a t t i c e g i r d e r s forming
the s i d e s of the b r i d g e . The c e l l u l a r g i r d e r s were p l a c e d
e q u i d i s t a n t b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r and two i n n e r c o l u m n s . This
arrangement l e d to a q u a r t e r of the t o t a l g i r d e r weight
b e i n g borne by t h e o u t e r columns and an e i g h t h of t h e
weight b e i n g borne by each of t h e four i n n e r columns. The
main g i r d e r s were e i t h e r b o l t e d to the tops of the c e l l u l a r
g i r d e r s o r s u p p o r t e d on r o l l e r s . Main g i r d e r spans were
connected t o each o t h e r by c o v e r p l a t e s top and bottom
e x c e p t a t expansion j o i n t s which were provided e v e r y 4th or
5th span.
The f o u n d a t i o n s f o r t h e p i e r s s u p p o r t i n g t h e n a v i g a t i o n
spans c o n s i s t e d of wrought i r o n c a i s s o n s 9.449 m (31.0
407
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feet) d i a m e t e r l i n e d w i t h 4 5 7 mm ( 1 8 . 0 i n c h e s ) o f b r i c k -
work and f i l l e d w i t h concrete. Upon t h e c a i s s o n s w e r e
c o n s t r u c t e d hexagonal shaped c o n c r e t e f o u n d a t i o n b l o c k s .
The u p p e r p a r t was f a c e d w i t h f o u r c o u r s e s o f s t o n e w o r k ,
t h e t o p b e i n g 1.524 m ( 5 . 0 f e e t ) above s p r i n g h i g h t i d e
level.
3 The A n a l y t i c a l Model
Since t h e main t h r u s t of evidence i n the past p o i n t s t o the

c o l l a p s e being caused by inadequate s t r e n g t h of t h e p i e r s
o f t h e b r i d g e , d e t a i l e d a t t e n t i o n was f o c u s s e d o n t h e i r
behaviour.
A s p a c e f r a m e m o d e l o f a s i n g l e p i e r s t r u c t u r e was c r e a -
ted. T h e members w e r e t r e a t e d as beam e l e m e n t s w i t h b e n -
ding and a x i a l d e f o r m a t i o n . No s e c o n d o r d e r e f f e c t s w e r e
considered except t h a t t h e compression diagonals were
removed. The columns were t r e a t e d as b e i n g c o n t i n u o u s and
a l l o t h e r members w e r e p i n - c o n n e c t e d . The f i n i t e s i z e s o f
t h e columns were n e g l e c t e d . The c o l u m n bases were t r e a t e d
a s b e i n g f i x e d e x c e p t t h a t a 5 mm u p l i f t w a s i m p o s e d o n t h e
w i n d w a r d c o l u m n i n some l o a d c a s e s .
Table 1. Section properties
Torsion Area of
Const. J Iyy Izz section
(Ft"4) (Ft"4) (Ft*4) (Ft-2)
18" Column 0.363 0.178 0.178 1.132

15" Column 0.181 0.089 0.089 0.808
Horizontal Struts 4.02E-5 2.33E-3 1.94E-3 0.069
Wind Bracing 9.04E-6 1.83E-4 2.27E-6 0.0156
Horizontal Bracing 2.4E-5 1.2E-5 1.2E-5 0.0123
Table 2. Material properties
Modulus of u.T.S. U.C.S Poisson's

Elasticity
Ratio
(Kips/Ft'2) (Tons/in"2) (Tons/in"2)
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Wrought Iron 4.03E6 20 16.71 .28
Cast Iron 1.15E6 9.1 32.5 .25
Concrete 6.27E5 - - .2
SOURCE: Court of Enquiry (1880)
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DL G i r d e r Tr a i n
217.5 lOB . 7 lOB . 7 2 1 7 . 5
I
4- •l
Wind Moment
49.3 24.6 24.6 49.3
20.4 9.9 9.9 19.8

Hon i z o n t a 1
wind s h e a r
4.52 3.31 3.31 • 4.52

1 . 22 DL o f p i e r
(Ty p i c a 1 a t
all levels)
01 X
c 1. 19/1
•H
u
(D
o
(—•
•0 1 ."15^
C
•rl
t- \
5 1 .TP"
1 . 05
O . 97
F i g . 3 . T y p i c a l l o a d i n g ( K i p s ) on a p i e r w i t h t r a i n and wind g u s t
v e l o c i t y V = 60.9 M i l e s / h r .
The member p r o p e r t i e s used were a s shown i n T a b l e 1.

M a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 2. F i g u r e 3 shows
t h e wind, dead and l i v e l o a d s used i n a t y p i c a l r u n ( t r a i n
on b r i d g e , wind v e l o c i t y a t deck l e v e l 60.9 mph). The
e f f e c t o f t h e wind l o a d i n g from t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e above
t h e t o p o f t h e model was s i m u l a t e d by a s h e a r and moment a t
t h e t o p o f t h e model. The moment was t r e a t e d u s i n g p a i r s
of e q u a l and o p p o s i t e v e r t i c a l l o a d s .
The l o a d i n g was i n c r e a s e d i n s t e p s n o t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n
of t h e members.
409
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4 Loading
Wind l o a d i n g . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e f o r c e s on t h e struc-
t u r e d u e t o w i n d w a s b a s e d o n CP3 C h a p t e r 5 , B r i t i s h S t a n -
dards I n s t i t u t i o n (1977). F o r s t r u c t u r e s of h o r i z o n t a l
d i m e n s i o n g r e a t e r t h a n 50 m, t h i s C o d e s p e c i f i e s t h e u s e o f
a 15 s e c g u s t p e r i o d t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e incoherence
e f f e c t s c a u s e d by the t u r b u l e n c e i n the a i r . As t h e h i g h
g i r d e r s w e r e 75 m i n l e n g t h , w i n d l o a d i n g o n t h e m w a s b a s e d
o n a 15 s e c g u s t w h i l e l o a d i n g o n t h e p i e r w a s b a s e d o n a 3
sec gust.
F o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s t h e t r a i n was p o s i t i o n e d centrally
over p i e r 32. The w i n d l o a d i n g code does not a l l o w f o r a
t r a i n i n s i d e the g i r d e r . To a l l o w f o r t h i s , t h e d r a g
c o e f f i c i e n t o v e r t h e p r e s e n t e d a r e a of t h e t r a i n was t a k e n
as 2.2 i n comparison w i t h 3.1 o v e r t h e p r e s e n t e d a r e a of
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
t h e g i r d e r members.
The d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e p i e r was e s t i m a t e d u s i n g
t h e CP3 Code f o r t o w e r s . To a l l o w f o r i n c r e a s e i n w i n d
v e l o c i t y w i t h h e i g h t o v e r t h e p i e r , t h e w i n d l o a d i n g was
c a l c u l a t e d f o r e a c h t i e r of t h e p i e r .
Train load. V a l u e s were o b t a i n e d from d a t a used by the

Court of E n q u i r y , ( 1 8 8 0 ) .
5 Results
F i g u r e 4 s h o w s a p l o t o f maximum l o a d i n a w i n d b r a c i n g
member a g a i n s t g u s t w i n d v e l o c i t y a t d e c k l e v e l . Four
basic v a r i a t i o n s are considered:
(a) with the t r a i n ,

(b) without the t r a i n ,
(c) w i t h t h e windward column f u l l y f i x e d ,
(d) w i t h a f i x e d upward ( a r b i t r a r y ) d e f o r m a t i o n of 5 mm
a t the windward column.
A l s o shown on t h e f o u r c u r v e s of F i g u r e 4 a r e t h e l o a d s a t
w h i c h t h e f i r s t column b o l t would r e a c h y i e l d and u l t i m a t e
load. W i t h f i x e d windward column t h e f a i l u r e i s i n t h e
b o l t s of t h a t column. W i t h 5 mm u p l i f t f a i l u r e i s i n t h e
b o l t s o f t h e 15 i n c h c o l u m n s .
Two p o t e n t i a l modes o f f a i l u r e a r e :
(a) T e n s i l e f a i l u r e of t h e w i n d b r a c i n g members.
A s s e s s m e n t o f t h i s i s b a s e d on t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t
for the o r i g i n a l enquiry. The t e s t specimens were
h e l d i n l u g s t a k e n from t h e o r i g i n a l columns and i n
a l l b u t one c a s e t h e f a i l u r e was i n t h e c a s t i r o n
lugs. F i g u r e 4 shows t h r e e l e v e l s of w i n d b r a c i n g
s t r e n g t h - m i n i m u m , a v e r a g e a n d maximum.
(b) T e n s i l e f a i l u r e of t h e b o l t s c o n n e c t i n g t h e column
sections. These were a l s o t e s t e d f o r the e n q u i r y .
410
Copyright CRC Press

D=5 mm
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Min y i e l d M a x fail
F a i l u r e range for 18in column bolt
Min y i e l d Max fail
F a i l u r e range for 15in column bolt
B e a u f o r t Wind S c a l e a t deck l e v e l
"
7
+ 8 ^ 9 ^, 10 >j< 11
>h
12
N
" 44 '48' ' 52 " 56 ' 60' ' 64' " 68' ' 72 80'
" 76 84 88 ' 92' ' 96' 100
Gust Wind v e l o c i t y ( M i l e s / H r ) a t deck l e v e l
Fig 4 - Maximum b r a c i n g l o a d s i n
r e l a t i o n t o wind speed + no t r a i n
with t r a i n
Copyright CRC Press

From t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e t e s t s a minimum y i e l d
l o a d o f 1 5 . 2 t o n s a n d a maximum f a i l u r e l o a d o f
17.7 tons were used f o r F i g u r e 4.
From F i g u r e 4 the following conclusions are drawn:
(a) The p r e s e n c e o f t h e t r a i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e s
the bracing load for a given wind load. However
the drag coefficients used t o t a k e account of t h e
t r a i n a r e s p e c u l a t i v e and t h e d i f f e r e n c e due t o t h e
t r a i n i n F i g u r e 4 may n o t be q u i t e as g r e a t as
shown.
(b) The u p l i f t o f t h e w i n d w a r d c o l u m n s i g n i f i c a n t l y
i n c r e a s e s t h e b r a c i n g l o a d and a l s o reduces t h e
effective bolt load. The r e a s o n f o r a l l o w i n g u p -
l i f t i s t h a t t h e anchor b o l t s f o r t h e base p i e c e
o n l y p e n e t r a t e d two courses of masonry of t h e t o p
foundation. The r e p o r t o f t h e E n q u i r y , C o u r t o f
E n q u i r y ( 1 8 8 0 ) , s e c t i o n 35, notes:
' . . . b u t the j o i n t s of the masonry of the hexa-
g o n a l p i e r s had i n almost every case been
s e v e r e l y shaken, and i n two i n s t a n c e s t h e two
upper courses of s t o n e on t h e west s i d e had been
wrenched o f f and t i l t e d up on e n d . '
W i t h t h e t r a i n o n t h e b r i d g e a n d 5 mm u p l i f t , t h e m a x i -
mum b r a c i n g l o a d i s r e a c h e d a t a w i n d s p e e d o f a b o u t 7 3
mph. T h i s i s t h e t o p end o f F o r c e 11 on t h e Beaufort
scale. Such a s i t u a t i o n i s realistic.
I t seems l i k e l y t h a t i n a s e v e r e g u s t t h e r e w o u l d h a v e
b e e n some u p l i f t o f t h e w i n d w a r d c o l u m n b a s e . How m u c h , we
c a n n o t t e l l b u t t h e m o d e l r e s u l t s show t h a t s u c h an e f f e c t
increases the p r o b a b i l i t y of bracing f a i l u r e .
A very i n t e r e s t i n g feature of the analysis i s t h a t the
maximum w i n d b r a c i n g l o a d i s n o t a t t h e b a s e o f t h e p i e r s .
F i g u r e 5 shows t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b r a c i n g l o a d i n t h e
b r a c i n g p l a n e s b e t w e e n c o l u m n s B l a n d B2 ( F i g u r e 2 ) a t g u s t
v e l o c i t y o f 6 0 . 9 mph ( a t d e c k l e v e l ) . With u p l i f t the load
a t the second l e v e l i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y the h i g h e s t . Conven-
t i o n a l understanding would p r e d i c t the highest load at the
bottom l e v e l . I n f a c t , t h e moments a t t h e b a s e s o f t h e
columns cause a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of b r a c i n g l o a d .
T h e r e has been s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t b r a c i n g f a i l u r e d i d
occur above t h e base l e v e l . F o r t w o o f t h e p i e r s ( n o s 29
and 30, t h e f i r s t two n a v i g a t i o n span p i e r s on t h e s o u t h
s i d e ) , t h e base l e v e l of b r a c i n g remained i n p l a c e .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The C o u r t o f E n q u i r y ( 1 8 8 0 ) , p a r a g r a p h X I I , says
'The d i s t a n c e a t w h i c h t h e g i r d e r s were found f r o m t h e
p i e r s , and t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e wreckage on t h e p i e r s ,
i s s u c h as w o u l d r e s u l t f r o m a f r a c t u r e a n d s e p a r a t i o n
t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e p i e r s somewhere above t h e b a s e o f
the columns;'.
412
Copyright CRC Press

With t r a i n V=60.9 M/Hr
= 1.5
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3 10 H 2<5 25~ §5 35
LOAD (TONS)
I M S WITH 5MM UPLIFT

irmTm NO U P L I F T
Fig 5 - Maximum b r a c i n g loads over
h e i g h t of p i e r
413
Copyright CRC Press

6 Conclusion
While theories of f a i l u r e i n v o l v i n g the i n i t i a l derailment

o f t h e t r a i n have been p r o p o s e d , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s study-
show t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a p i e r o f t h e b r i d g e c o u l d have
f a i l e d due t o t h e e f f e c t of t h e w i n d . The p r e s e n c e o f t h e
t r a i n w o u l d e x a c e r b a t e t h e s i t u a t i o n and u p l i f t of t h e
w i n d w a r d c o l u m n s w o u l d i n c r e a s e t h e l o a d i n t h e weak
b r a c i n g members t o w a r d s f a i l u r e .
7 References & Bibliography
Blackburn J. ( 1 9 8 0 ) The Tay B r i d g e D i s a s t e r . Foundry Trade

J., Feb 1980.
B r i t i s h Standards I n s t i t u t i o n . ( 1 9 7 2 ) CP3, C h a p t e r 5 , Part
2, Wind L o a d i n g .
Buchan A . ( 1 8 8 0 ) The Tay B r i d g e s t o r m o f 2 8 t h December
1879. J o f S c o t t i s h Met Soc, V o l 5, 355-360.
C o u r t of E n q u i r y (1880) Report upon t h e circumstances
a t t e n d i n g t h e f a l l o f a p o r t i o n o f t h e Tay B r i d g e .
Francis A J. (1980) I n t r o d u c i n g S t r u c t u r e s . Pergamon
P r e s s , p 126.
Hopkins H J. (1970) A span o f b r i d g e s . David & Charles,
Newton A b b o t .
H o u g h t o n E L & C a r r u t h e r s B C. ( 1 9 7 6 ) W i n d f o r c e s o n b u i l -
dings and s t r u c t u r e s . Edward A r n o l d .
N o c k 0 S. (1981) Railway Archaeology. Patrick Stevens,
Cambridge.
Prebble J. ( 1 9 7 9 ) The H i g h G i r d e r s . Penguin.
R o l t L T C. ( 1 9 7 0 ) V i c t o r i a n E n g i n e e r i n g . Penguin Books.
S i b l y P G & W a l k e r A C. ( 1 9 7 7 ) S t r u c t u r a l a c c i d e n t s a n d
t h e i r causes. Proc I n s t n C i v Engrs, 62, 191-208.
S i m p s o n C. ( 1 9 7 9 ) The Tay B r i d g e D i s a s t e r . Engineering,
Dec.
S m i t h C S. (1881) Wind p r e s s u r e on b r i d g e s . Min Proc I n s t n
C i v Engrs, 69, 145.
S m i t h D W. ( 1 9 7 6 ) B r i d g e F a i l u r e s . Proc I n s t n C i v Engrs,
60, 367.
Thomas J . ( 1 9 7 0 ) The Tay B r i d g e D i s a s t e r . David & Charles,
Newton A b b o t .
414
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

SENSITIVITY A N A L Y S I S FOR SHORT-
SPAN S T E E L BRIDGES
M. M A F I
Civil Engineering Dept, Union College, Schenectady, New York, USA
Abstract
The e f f e c t s o f s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s on t h e optimum d e s i g n
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f c o m p o s i t e and noncomposite s t e e l b r i d g e s a r e
studied. I n o t h e r words, the s e n s i t i v i t y o f d e s i g n o f such b r i d g e s
i s i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t to the f o l l o w i n g v a r i a b l e s : spacing
b e t w e e n beams, d i f f e r e n t l o a d i n g t y p e s , u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f
c o n c r e t e , y i e l d s t r e n g t h of s t e e l , degree of i n t e r a c t i o n between
s t e e l and c o n c r e t e , v a r i a t i o n s i n u n i t c o s t s and p r o v i s i o n o f
lateral bracing.
Keywords: S h o r t - s p a n B r i d g e s , V a r i a b l e Study, S e n s i t i v i t y A n a l y s i s ,
Variables i n Bridges.
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The r e s u l t s o f a r e s e a r c h e f f o r t t o s t u d y t h e d e s i g n o f c o m p o s i t e
and n o n c o m p o s i t e s t e e l b r i d g e s and to p r o v i d e e n g i n e e r s w i t h a
s i m p l e t o o l to o b t a i n o p t i m a l d e s i g n of such b r i d g e s were p r e s e n t e d
by t h i s a u t h o r i n a s e p a r a t e paper, M a f i ( 1 9 9 0 ) . The c o m p u t e r
program d e v e l o p e d i n t h a t s t u d y e n a b l e s an e n g i n e e r to o b t a i n the
optimum d e s i g n o f c o m p o s i t e a n d n o n c o m p o s i t e s t e e l b r i d g e s f o r
d i f f e r e n t values of preassigned v a r i a b l e s . These i n c l u d e , but are
not l i m i t e d to:
(a) Span o f b r i d g e
(b) Width of b r i d g e
(c) The y i e l d s t r e s s o f s t e e l t o be u s e d , u s u a l l y 36 o r 50 k s i
(d) Minimum t h i c k n e s s o f s l a b m a n d a t e d b y c e r t a i n a g e n c i e s
(e) The d e g r e e o f i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n s t e e l a n d c o n c r e t e
(f) Ultimate strength of concrete used
(g) Any l i m i t a t i o n on d e p t h o f members
(h) D i f f e r e n t permit loads
1.2 Scope o f t h i s paper

E v e n though the computer program d e v e l o p e d i n the aforementioned
s t u d y p r o v i d e s t h e optimum d e s i g n f o r a n y c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r e a s s i g n e d
v a r i a b l e s i n f i v e to s i x seconds, i t would s t i l l take a s u b s t a n t i a l
amount o f t i m e i f one i s i n t e r e s t e d i n o b t a i n i n g t h e optimum r e s u l t s
for a l l p o s s i b l e permutations of d i f f e r e n t values of s e v e r a l
preassigned variables. Upon c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e n e e d o f some
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
415
Copyright CRC Press

e n g i n e e r s t o r e d u c e t i m e s p e n d on t h e s t u d y o f d e s i g n , i t was
d e c i d e d to use t h i s powerful t o o l to study s y s t e m a t i c a l l y the
i n t e r a c t i o n o f s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s i n t h e hope o f d e v e l o p i n g
some r u l e s t h a t c o u l d be a p p l i e d b y p e o p l e who:
( a ) A r e i n t e r e s t e d i n optimum d e s i g n , b u t w a n t t o c u t down on t h e
number o f c o m p u t e r r u n s
(b) Don't have t h e computing f a c i l i t i e s o r don't have the time
t o u s e them
( c ) A r e c o n t e n t w i t h n e a r optimum d e s i g n s
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I n t h i s p a p e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among some o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t
v a r i a b l e s a n d t h e i r e f f e c t s on t h e c o s t o f s e l e c t e d b r i d g e s w i l l be
examined. S e v e r a l g r a p h s a n d t a b l e s w i l l be p r o v i d e d t o g u i d e t h e
d e s i g n e r s i n t h e i r e f f o r t s t o m i n i m i z e c o s t . A VAX 1 1 / 7 8 5 a t U n i o n
C o l l e g e was u s e d t o o b t a i n d a t a a n d a LOTUS 123 p r o g r a m was u s e d t o
c r e a t e t h e b a r g r a p h s w i t h a n HP p l o t t e r . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
f o l l o w i n g v a r i a b l e s on t h e optimum d e s i g n o f c o m p o s i t e a n d
n o n c o m p o s i t e s h o r t - s p a n s t e e l b r i d g e s w i l l be s t u d i e d h e r e :
(a) S p a c i n g b e t w e e n t h e beams
(b) D i f f e r e n t loading types
(c) Ultimate strength of concrete
(d) Y i e l d strength of s t e e l
(e) The d e g r e e o f i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n s t e e l and concrete
(f) Variation i n unit costs
(g) P r o v i s i o n of l a t e r a l bracing
S p a n s o f up t o 100 feet l o n g and d i f f e r e n t bridge widths were

considered.
2 I n f l u e n c e o f s p a c i n g between s t r i n g e r s on optimum c o s t
G i v e n any w i d t h , t h e aforementioned program d e t e r m i n e s the b e s t

s p a c i n g between s t r i n g e r s so t h a t the l e n g t h o f the overhang
p o r t i o n s on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n r e m a i n s w i t h i n t h e
a l l o w a b l e r a n g e s a s s p e c i f i e d b y AASHTO. S e v e r a l b r i d g e widths were
considered. For the sake of b r e v i t y , only the i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a
b r i d g e w i d t h o f 4 7 . 5 f e e t w i l l be p r e s e n t e d h e r e . The c o n c l u s i o n s
drawn h e r e a r e e q u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e to o t h e r w i d t h s . The i n f l u e n c e o f
d i f f e r e n t s p a c i n g s b e t w e e n s t r i n g e r s on t h e optimum c o s t o f b r i d g e s
i s shown i n F i g . 1 a n d F i g . 2 f o r n o n c o m p o s i t e a n d c o m p o s i t e d e c k s ,
respectively. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t e a c h v a l u e o f s p a c i n g
c o r r e s p o n d s t o a c e r t a i n number o f s t r i n g e r s . I n the legends of
F i g s . 1 a n d 2, e a c h v a l u e f o r s p a c i n g b e t w e e n s t r i n g e r s i s f o l l o w e d
b y t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g number o f beams i n p a r e n t h e s i s . The
i n f o r m a t i o n i n F i g . 1, w h i c h i s f o r n o n c o m p o s i t e d e c k s , shows t h a t
t h e l a r g e s t s p a c i n g among t h e s i x shown, i . e . , t h e s p a c i n g o f 9.75
f e e t , g i v e s t h e minimum c o s t f o r s p a n s o f up t o 50 f e e t . I n spans
o f up t o 50 f e e t , t h e s p a c i n g o f 9.75 f e e t a n d 7.92 f e e t seems t o be
e q u a l l y good. F o r s p a n s o f 60 f e e t a n d 70 f e e t , t h e s p a c i n g o f
7.92 f e e t p r o v i d e s a more e c o n o m i c a l design.
416
Copyright CRC Press

80 0
4.7 5
70 0
R
g*
g^
60 0 -
g*
4.7 5 g^
g^
50 0 g« g^
g« g^
4.7 5 g^
40 0 g^
a« g*
g^
30 0 - -75 9.75
4
g*
s g « x s
20 0 4.7 5 9.7 5 g « * ' g « x s

a^
g^ x s
Si
4.7 5 Stem g^
10 0 - 4.7 5 9.7 5 ^ ^ f f ] g«* '

N
a«
X N
' a« KS g5
§ « x s
g^
4.7 5 9.7 5 a«
mm mwA mm- M i g « x s
4.7 5
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Span (ft)
4.75'(10 ) 5.28'(9 ) 5.94'(8 ) 6.79'(7 ) E l 7.92'(6 ) LZZl 9.75'(5 )

Fig.1 . I n f l u e n c e o f s p a c i n g between s t r i n g e r s on n o n - c o m p o s i t e optimum designs.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

700
600
4.75
500
X S / .
400 - xs/xts
4.75
xs/xs
xs/
. o X S / X S
X S /
300 - 4.75 g.75
B«XS
xs/xs
X S /
X S / X S
x\/
200 - X S / X S
XS/RJ^P
4 .„7 5
X S /
q
ZVxs,
7 5 xs/
xs/
xs/
FhPLT'' 0
xs/xs/ xs/xs xs/
xs/
4.75 8«*s
100 9.75 xs/ xs/ xs/ ,
xs/xs/ xs/xs xs/xK
xs/
4.75 9.75 xs/xs/ xs/xs
xs/
xs/xs/ xs/xs
4.75 9 . 7 t ; 7 5 9
- xx ss // xfs/
7 5
^, ^. X S / X S /
xs/ X S /
xs/xs xs/
xjsk
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Span (ft)
4.75'(10) 5.2B'(9) 5.94'(8) 6.79'(7) 7.92'(6) [ZZ 9.75'(5)
Fig. 2. I n f l u e n c e o f s p a c i n g b e t w e e n s t r i n g e r s on c o m p o s i t e optimum designs.
Copyright CRC Press

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , one c a n s a y t h a t a s s p a n l e n g t h s o f
n o n c o m p o s i t e d e c k s i n c r e a s e s , one s h o u l d d e c r e a s e t h e s p a c i n g
b e t w e e n beams o r i n c r e a s e t h e number o f s t r i n g e r s . But, f o r any
s p a n l e n g t h , t h e l a r g e r s p a c i n g b e t w e e n t h e beams seems t o p r o v i d e
t h e optimum d e s i g n .
F o r c o m p o s i t e d e c k s , h o w e v e r , one c a n n o t make s u c h a s t a t e m e n t .
R e f e r r i n g t o F i g . 2, one c a n s e e t h a t f o r s p a n s o f up t o 90 f e e t a
s p a c i n g o f 7.92 f e e t i s c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g t h e l e a s t e x p e n s i v e
design. I n f a c t , f o r s p a n s o f 70 f e e t i t i s c l e a r t h a t i n c r e a s i n g
s p a c i n g between s t r i n g e r s i n c r e a s e s the c o s t .
3 I n f l u e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t l o a d i n g s on optimum c o s t
O r d i n a r i l y , t h e b r i d g e s on m a i n h i g h w a y s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r HS20 l o a d
a s s p e c i f i e d i n t h e AASHTO m a n u a l . However, some h i g h w a y
departments use higher loads f o r t h e i r designs. F o r example, 125%
o f HS20 i s s o m e t i m e s u s e d a n d may be d e s i g n a t e d a s HS25. Special
loads are a l s o used i n i s s u i n g permits for extra-heavy loads. One
s u c h l o a d i s shown i n F i g . 3, a n d w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o a s " p e r m i t
load" i n t h i s paper. I n order to observe the e f f e c t of d i f f e r e n t
l o a d i n g s , t h e optimum d e s i g n s f o r s p a n s o f up t o 100 f e e t w e r e
o b t a i n e d f o r a l l t h r e e l o a d s , i . e . , HS20, t h e s o - c a l l e d HS25 a n d
the permit load. F i g . 4 shows t h a t u s i n g 2 5 % h i g h e r l o a d t h a n HS20
d o e s c h a n g e t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a n d r e s u l t s i n a more e x p e n s i v e
optimum d e s i g n . However, f o r a l l t h e s p a n s c o n s i d e r e d , t h e r e was no
d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e optimum d e s i g n f o r HS25 a n d t h e p e r m i t l o a d . This
c l e a r l y shows t h a t t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e p e r m i t l o a d i s n o t
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h i s span range.
I5K 27K 27K 27K 27K 27K 27K 27K
Y V YV Y V YV
i r 4" 4- 24* 4'4* 4*
F i g . 3. Permit l o a d .
4 I n f l u e n c e o f c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h on optimum c o s t
The p r i c e one m u s t p a y f o r c o n c r e t e i n c r e a s e s a s t h e s t r e n g t h
r e q u i r e d i n c r e a s e s . B a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d f r o m s e v e r a l
s u p p l i e r s , an i n c r e a s e i n p u r c h a s e p r i c e f o r an i n c r e a s e i n s t r e n g t h
r e q u i r e d was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e p r o g r a m , a n d d i f f e r e n t
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s were s t u d i e d . S e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s p a n l e n g t h s and
w i d t h s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d a n d d e s i g n e d f o r s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t beam
spacings. F i g . 5 shows t h e d i a g r a m f o r t h e n o n c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e
w i t h a s p a n of" 30 f e e t a n d a w i d t h o f 37.5 f e e t . The c o n c l u s i o n s
drawn f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r b r i d g e a r e a p p l i c a b l e to a l l spans o f l e s s
419
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Copyright CRC Press

t h a n 100 f e e t a n d o f o t h e r w i d t h s . T h i s b r i d g e was d e s i g n e d w i t h 3,
4, 5 a n d 6 beams f o r c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h s o f 4 0 0 0 , 4 5 0 0 , 5000, 5500
a n d 6 0 0 0 p s i . As shown i n F i g . 5, r e g a r d l e s s o f s t r e n g t h o f
c o n c r e t e u s e d , t h e optimum c o n f i g u r a t i o n r e m a i n s t h a t o f 4 beams.
As t h e c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h g o e s up, t h e t o t a l c o s t g o e s up s l i g h t l y ,
b u t t h e optimum c o n f i g u r a t i o n d o e s n o t c h a n g e . F i g . 6 c o n t a i n s the
same i n f o r m a t i o n a s F i g . 5, b u t f o r a c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e . For
c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h o f 4 0 0 0 p s i , t h e optimum c o n f i g u r a t i o n h a s 4
beams, b u t f o r c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h o f 6000 p s i , t h e optimum
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s h o u l d h a v e 5 beams. One s h o u l d n o t e , h o w e v e r , t h a t
f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r b r i d g e t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s w i t h 4 a n d 5 beams
a r e r e a l l y v e r y c o m p a r a b l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when one n o t e s t h a t t h e
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e two was m i n i m a l t o b e g i n w i t h . From t h e s e
r e s u l t s , i t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o c o n c l u d e t h a t c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h
w i t h i n t h e s p e c i f i e d r a n g e d o e s n o t p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e when
c o n s i d e r i n g optimum c o s t . T h e r e f o r e , s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e minimum
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e c o n t r o l l i n g a g e n c y s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t .
800 I — — ,
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Span (ft)
ESS! HS20 AND MILITARY HS25 PERMIT
Fig. 4. Influence of d i f f e r e n t loadings
420
Copyright CRC Press

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press
4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Concrete Strength (pel)
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Beam No.=3 Es>^ Beam No.=4 VZ^X Beam No.=5 F>?>?] Beam No.=6
Fig. 6. Influence of concrete s t r e n g t h on c o m p o s i t e optimum d e s i g n configuration.
Copyright CRC Press

5 I n f l u e n c e o f u s i n g d i f f e r e n t types o f s t e e l on optimum
configuration
Two d i f f e r e n t y i e l d s t r e n g t h s o f s t e e l w e r e c o n s i d e r e d : 36 k s i a n d
50 k s i . The p r i c e o f t h e h i g h e r - t r e n g t h s t e e l i s o b v i o u s l y more
than the l o w e r - s t r e n g t h s t e e l . The v a l u e s o f 1.0, 1.3, 1.6 a n d 1.9
were u s e d a s t h e r a t i o o f c o s t o f s t e e l w i t h Fy=50 k s i t o t h e c o s t
o f s t e e l w i t h F y = 3 6 k s i . The optimum c o s t s f o r f i v e d i f f e r e n t
d e s i g n s o f n o n c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e s a r e shown i n F i g . 7 f o r s p a n s o f
10 f e e t t o 100 f e e t . The f i r s t d e s i g n i s f o r s t e e l w i t h y i e l d
s t r e n g t h o f 36 k s i . The o t h e r f o u r d e s i g n s a r e f o r s t e e l w i t h y i e l d
s t r e n g t h o f 50 k s i t h a t c a n be p u r c h a s e d a t p r i c e s t h a t a r e e q u a l
t o , 30% h i g h e r , 60% h i g h e r a n d 90% h i g h e r t h a n F36 s t e e l . As c a n be
s e e n f r o m F i g . 7 f o r s p a n s o f up t o 60 f e e t , u s i n g a h i g h e r - s t r e n g t h
s t e e l a t p r i c e s t h a t a r e up t o 30% h i g h e r t h a n r e g u l a r s t e e l d o e s
not change the t o t a l c o s t . F o r s p a n s o f more t h a n 60 f e e t , u s i n g
t h e 30% more e x p e n s i v e s t e e l w i l l , i n f a c t , p r o v i d e a l e s s c o s t l y
design. S i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s c a n be d r a w n w i t h r e g a r d t o c o m p o s i t e
b r i d g e s f r o m F i g . 8.
6 I n f l u e n c e o f i n t e r a c t i o n between c o n c r e t e and s t e e l on optimum

cost
B r i d g e s o f d i f f e r e n t w i d t h s and d i f f e r e n t spans were c o n s i d e r e d i n

order to study the e f f e c t of degree of i n t e r a c t i o n between c o n c r e t e
and s t e e l . As F i g . 9 s h o w s , t h e c o m p o s i t e d e s i g n i s l e s s c o s t l y
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
than the noncomposite c o u n t e r p a r t f o r e v e r y span. This conclusion

was a l s o t r u e when c o n s i d e r i n g d i f f e r e n t l y p r i c e d s t u d s . Even a f t e r
t r i p l i n g t h e p r i c e o f i n - p l a c e s t u d s , t h e c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e was
d e t e r m i n e d t o be l e s s c o s t l y t h a n t h e n o n c o m p o s i t e i n any span.
T h i s c o n c l u s i o n i s i n disagreement w i t h the w i d e l y h e l d b e l i e f t h a t
c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e s a r e more e c o n o m i c a l t h a n n o n c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e s f o r
spans g r e a t e r than c e r t a i n l e n g t h s .
7 I n f l u e n c e o f v a r i a t i o n i n c o s t s on optimum d e s i g n
The c o s t d a t a a n d u n i t p r i c e s w h i c h w e r e u s e d t o s t u d y t h e
s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e optimum d e s i g n o f b r i d g e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o
d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s w e r e a v e r a g e v a l u e s f r o m d a t a t h a t was obtained
from s e v e r a l h i g h w a y a g e n c i e s and c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t d a t a c a t a l o g u e s .
H o w e v e r , c o s t s f o r d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l do v a r y i n d i f f e r e n t a r e a s a n d
at d i f f e r e n t times. I n o r d e r to e n s u r e t h a t the c o n c l u s i o n s drawn
i n t h i s study a r e not t r u e only f o r the s p e c i f i c c o s t v a l u e s used,
i t was n e c e s s a r y t o s t u d y t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e optimum d e s i g n t o
price fluctuation.
Three s e t s o f u n i t p r i c e s were s e l e c t e d from the spectrum o f
a v a i l a b l e p r i c e data: low, a v e r a g e a n d h i g h . A s e t o f optimum
d e s i g n s f o r s p a n s o f 10 f e e t t o 100 f e e t a n d o f d i f f e r e n t w i d t h s
was o b t a i n e d f o r t h e a v e r a g e u n i t p r i c e s t o be u s e d a s a b a s e s e t
f o r comparison. F o r t h e same g e o m e t r i c c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , a n o t h e r s e t
o f optimum d e s i g n s was o b t a i n e d f o r t h e h i g h u n i t p r i c e s . The two
423
Copyright CRC Press

700
600 -
500
c
a>
400 -
M
II 300 -
o 200
a
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
100 -
Span (ft)
F36 RSSfl F50/F36=1 F50/F36=1.3 FX^sl F50/F36=1.6 [XXI F50/F36=1.9
Fig, 7. Influence of using different types of s t e e l on optimum c o s t o f noncomposite systems.
Copyright CRC Press

C o s t of O p t i m u m D e s t g n ( $ )
(Thousands)
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

1
0.9 -
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Span (ft)
f&%8 Noncomposite k s ^ l Composite
Fig. 9. I n f l u e n c e o f i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n c r e t e a n d s t e e l on
optimum c o s t .
s e t s were compared. The r e s u l t s f o r a b r i d g e w i d t h o f 37.5 f e e t a r e

s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 1. A s shown i n T a b l e 1, a l t h o u g h t h e t o t a l
p r i c e s f o rhigher-priced materials are increased f o r a l l the bridge
s p a n s , t h e optimum d e s i g n c o n f i g u r a t i o n s d o n ' t c h a n g e . I n other
words, t h e 19% i n c r e a s e i n t h e u n i t p r i c e o f c o n c r e t e and 92%
i n c r e a s e i n t h e u n i t p r i c e o f s t e e l d i d n ' t c h a n g e t h e number o f
beams, t h e s t e e l s e c t i o n s a n d t h e t h i c k n e s s o f c o n c r e t e s l a b s f o r
optimum d e s i g n o f a n y o f t h e s p a n s , e x c e p t f o r t h e c o m p o s i t e d e s i g n
w i t h t h e s p a n o f 20 f e e t . T h e l a s t c o l u m n i n T a b l e 1 shows t h a t ,
f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r b r i d g e , i f t h e base c o n f i g u r a t i o n s were u s e d
w i t h t h e h i g h p r i c e s , t h e r e would be a d i f f e r e n c e i n p r i c e o f o n l y
0.35%.
S i n c e s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s w e r e d r a w n f o r o t h e r w i d t h s , one c a n
s a y t h a t t h e optimum d e s i g n s g e n e r a t e d b y t h e p r o g r a m a n d , h e n c e ,
a l l the preceding s e n s i t i v i t y analyses are v a l i d f o r different unit
p r i c e s and a r e n o t s e n s i t i v e to reasonable f l u c t u a t i o n s i n u n i t
prices.
8 I n f l u e n c e o f p r o v i s i o n o f l a t e r a l b r a c i n g on the optimum c o s t
I n order t o e v a l u a t e t h e advantage o f p r o v i d i n g deeper and s t r o n g e r

b r a c i n g i n s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d b r i d g e s , a s t u d y was made w i t h r e g a r d t o
426
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Table 1. Influence of variation i nunit costs on optimum de s i g n s
Base S e t : Average Unit P r i c e s * 2nd S e t : High Concrete and % INCREASE

Steel Unit Prices* IF BASE
CONFIGURATIONS
SPACE SECTION TSLAB COST NUMBM SPACE TSLAB COST WERE USED WITH
SPAN TYPE* ft In. S ft In. $ HIGH PRICES
10 NC 7.50 W18x40 8.0 9517. 7.50 W18x40 8.0 14889. 0

10 C 4.17 W12x14 8.0 7379. 4.17 W12x14 8.0 10984. 0
20 NC 7.50 W24x76 8.0 28430. 7.50 W24x76 8.0 47778. 0

20 C 7.50 W21x44 9.5 20996. 9.67 W24x55 8.5 32806. 0.35
30 NC 9.67 W33x130 8.5 54725, 9.67 W33x130 8.5 93896. 0

30 C 9.67 W27x84 8.5 40639, 9.67 W27x84 8.5 66619. 0
40 NC 7.50 W36x135 8.0 87659, 7.50 W36x135 8.0 154560. 0

40 C 9.67 W33x118 8.5 68355, 9.67 W33x118 8.5 115995. 0
50 NC 9.67 W36x230 8.5 143412, 9.67 W36x230 8.5 256502. 0

50 C 9.67 W36xl50 8.5 102138, 9.67 W36x150 8.5 176986. 0
60 NC 7.50 W36x230 8.0 205877, 7.50 W36x230 8.0 374346. 0

60 C 7.50 W36xl60 8.0 151651, 7.50 W36xl60 8.0 269924. 0
70 NC 6.25 W36x245 8.0 297490, 6.25 W36x24 5 8.0 547573. 0

70 C 6.25 W36x170 8.0 215958 6.25 W36x170 8.0 390756. 0
80 NC 6.25 W36x300 8.0 408887, 6.25 W36x300 8.0 757788. 0

60 c 7.50 W36x245 8.0 290943, 7.50 W36x245 8.0 529908. 0
90 NC 4.17 W36x245 8.0 552824, 4.17 W36x245 8.0 1032460. 0

90 c 6.25 W36x245 8.0 383315, 6.25 W36x245 8.0 704850. 0
100 10 3.75 W36x260 8.0 716857, 3.75 W36x260 8.0 1344191. 0

100 6 6.25 W36x300 8.0 511985, 6.25 W36x300 8.0 948111. 0
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
NC ' noncompos Ite systems Increase In cone. p r i c e = 19*
C compos 1te systems Increase In s t e e l p r i c e = 92*
Copyright CRC Press

b r i d g e s w i t h w i d t h s o f 37.5 f e e t a n d w i t h s p a n s r a n g i n g f r o m 10 f e e t
t o 100 f e e t . B o t h c o m p o s i t e and noncomposite s y s t e m s were
considered. I n one c a s e , t h e beams w e r e a l l o w e d t o d e f l e c t
independently, and i n a n o t h e r c a s e , they were assumed to have e q u a l
deflection.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The p r o v i s i o n o f s u f f i c i e n t b r a c i n g r e s u l t s i n l e s s c o s t l y
d e s i g n s f o r c e r t a i n non-optimum c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . However, f o r t h e
optimum d e s i g n s t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s w e r e t h e same f o r b o t h c a s e s .
The one e x c e p t i o n was f o r a n o n c o m p o s i t e b r i d g e w i t h a s p a n o f 40
feet.
F o r t h i s s i n g l e c a s e , i n w h i c h the c o n f i g u r a t i o n d i d change, the
d e c r e a s e i n c o s t was o n l y 2%. C o n s i d e r a t i o n of the c o s t of
p r o v i d i n g s u f f i c i e n t b r a c i n g , which i s not i n c l u d e d i n the l i s t e d
p r i c e , w i l l r e d u c e t h i s a p p a r e n t s a v i n g t o a n e g l i g i b l e amount, i f
n o t e l i m i n a t e i t . T h u s , when c o n s i d e r i n g d i a p h r a g m s a n d b r a c i n g s i n
t h e d e s i g n o f s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d s h o r t - s p a n b r i d g e s , i t s h o u l d be
s u f f i c i e n t t o s a t i s f y minimum c o d e r e q u i r e m e n t s , due t o t h e f a c t
t h a t v i r t u a l l y no c o s t s a v i n g w o u l d be r e a l i z e d b y p r o v i d i n g d e e p e r
and s t r o n g e r diaphragms and b r a c i n g s .
9 Conversion table
1 inch - 0.0254 m
1 foot - 0.3048 m
1 lb/ft 3
= 1 5 7 . 0 8 6 Newton/m 3
1 ksi = 6.89 x 1 0 6
Newton/m 2
10 References
A m e r i c a n A s s o c i a t i o n o f S t a t e Highway & T r a n s p o r t a t i o n O f f i c i a l s
(AASHTO), S t a n d a r d S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r H i g h w a y B r i d g e s , ( 1 9 8 9 ) .
American I n s t i t u t e of S t e e l C o n s t r u c t i o n . Manual o f S t e e l
C o n s t r u c t i o n , 8 t h ed., 1980.
B e t t e r R o a d , ( 1 9 8 6 ) , Nov., p. 4 2 .
Fox, R.L. ( 1 9 7 1 ) O p t i m i z a t i o n Methods f o r E n g i n e e r i n g D e s i g n ,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Ma.
H e g a r t y , M.J. ( 1 9 8 6 ) , D e s i g n v a r i a b l e s a n d s y s t e m s s c e n a r i o o f low-
volume b r i d g e s , P r o b l e m R e p o r t , West V i r g i n i a U n i v . ,
Morgantown, WV.
M a f i , M. ( 1 9 8 5 ) C o s t - e f f e c t i v e , S h o r t - s p a n B r i d g e S y s t e m . Ph.D.
T h e s i s , P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , S t a t e C o l l e g e , Pa.
M a f i , M. ( 1 9 8 8 ) A b a s i c e x p e r t s y s t e m f o r t y p e s e l e c t i o n o f b r i d g e s
(BEST B r i d g e ) , i n P r o c e e d i n g s o f ASEE Conference, P o r t l a n d ,
Oregon,
N a t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i v e Highway R e s e a r c h Program, B r i d g e s o f S e c o n d a r y
Highways and L o c a l Roads: R e h a b i l i t a t i o n and Replacement. NCHRP
R e p o r t 222, May 1980.
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L I V E LOAD A N A L Y S I S OF BRIDGES
MODELLED AS PLANE FRAMEWORKS
A. FAFITIS
Dept Civil Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe,
Arizona, USA
J.R. McKELLAR
Tudor Engineering Company, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
Abstract
For the purpose of identification in this paper, an in-plane structure modeled only by its
horizontal members is called a continuous beam; and an in-plane structure modeled by its
horizontal and vertical members is called a plane frame.
Truck and lane live load analysis of bridges is most often accomplished by modeling the
bridge superstructure as a continuous beam. The stiffnesses of the piers and abutments
are not taken into account as a simplifying assumption in such analysis.
A plane frame influence line generation computer program and a plane frame box girder
analysis computer program were developed to study the accuracy of the continuous beam
model and for use in design. The programs were written in FORTRAN 77 for IBM PC
and compatible microcomputers.
Several design parameters of bridges were analysed as continuous beams and as plane
frames by use of the programs. It was found that for shorter span bridges, the difference
in bending moments of continuous beams versus plane frames, is greater than for longer
span bridges, and that this difference is significant for shorter spans.
Keywords: Bridge, Box , Prestressed Concrete, Influence Lines
Introduction
Bridge superstructures have traditionally been analysed as continuous beams; such

procedure neglects the stiffness of the piers. Live load analysis of bridges has long been
performed with the aid of influence lines. Books of tables, containing influence lines for
various configurations of continuous beams, have been widely used to aid the bridge
designer in live load analysis. Computer programs are also available that perform live load
analysis of bridges modeled as continuous beams. Depending upon the superstructure and
pier type, and the pier-to-superstructure connection details, the continuous beam model
may be adequate. However, where moment resisting connections are to be modeled
between superstructure and pier, significant differences may occur in comparing bending
moment influence line values of a bridge modeled as continuous beams versus plane frame
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modeling of the same bridge.
This paper presents the results of a parametric study which compares the bending
moment influence lines at pier supports for a 3-span, concrete box girder superstructure,
supported by concrete wall piers. The study was accomplished by the use of two
FORTRAN 77 microcomputer programs compiled on a IBM PC compatable computer [7].
Program INFLU generates bending moment influence lines at specified joints for either
continuous beam or plane frame structures. The influence line value is computed at tenth
points for each structural member. Program BOX generates analysis results for
continuous beam or plane frame prestressed concrete box girder bridges, or degenerate
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cases thereof. Analysis results include axial forces, shearing forces, bending moments,
deflections and concrete stresses at the extreme top and bottom fibers for each structural
member at twentieth points. In tandem, the programs constitute a design aid or a research
tool for the analysis of bridge structures modeled either as continuous beams or plane
frames.
Program Influ
The placement of moving loads poses a question as to where the moving loads shall be
place to achieve the maximum stresses in the bridge. The answer to that question lies in
the investigation of the structure's influence lines.
The stiffness method of matrix structural analysis was used to solve the problem of
statically indeterrninate framed structures which is encountered in influence line generation
[2,3,5,9,11].
Bending moment influence lines at supports are of prime interest for the analysis of
frame structures. Shearing force, reaction force and intermediate span bending moment
influence lines may be derived from the bending moment influence lines at supports by a
matter of simple statics. Progam INFLU calculates the bending moment influence lines at
supports of continuous beams and plane frames. The results are computed at tenth points
for all the members of the structure. Bending moment influence lines can be computed for
several joints by a single run of the program. The program reads a user defined, ASCII
input data file and writes to a user specified, ASCII output file. The output file is so
configured that it can be printed with margins to any standard printer and be immediatly
inserted into a 8 1/2" x 11" sized report.
To calculate joint moment influence lives, program INFLU takes advantage of
Castigliano's theorem, which says that the partial derivative of strain energy oU of a
system with respect to an applied force 8Py or 8M is equal to that component of
displacement 8 or G at the point of application of the force which is in the direction of
the force [10].
8U/8Py = 8 (1)
8U/8M = 6 (2)
For a unit force (cause) equation 1 & 2 give
8M = 8/e (3)
and for 0=1
M = 8 (4)
Eq. (4) states that, for a structure, the moment influence line at a joint is the deflected
shape of the structure where a unit rotation is forced upon the joint.
From Maxwell-Betti's reciprocal theorem, the deflection (translation) of point 1 due to
a unit couple applied at point 2 812 is numerically equal to the rotation at point 2 due to a
unit load applied at point 821 [4], as shown in Fig. [1].
812 =621 (5)
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Therefore, a unit couple must be exerted on the hinged joint of a structure to develop
the deflected shape, to some scale, which is required by Eq. (4). Program INFLU
imposes a scaling factor to the joint rotations caused by a pair of opposite-hand unit
couples on the hinged joint to develop a unit rotation of the hinged joint. The result is the
moment influence line at the joint.
An equation may be written for each member to express the influence line ordinates as
a function of the member joint rotations 8i, 8j , member length L , and variable position
along the member x. The equation is:
INFLU(x) = Ax3 + B x + Cx + D
2
(6)
Where: A = (6j+6.)/(L2)
B = -(ej+20i)/(L)
C = 6i
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D = 0
By differentiating Eq. (6), and solving for the positive root of the resulting quadratic
equation between the limits of 0 and L , the maximum influence value and its position for
each member may be established.
Program Box
Program BOX is a plane frame, stiffness method, structural analysis program which
has been enhanced to treat the analysis of prestressed concrete box girder bridges. The
program box may be used to investigate other superstructure cross-sections such as single
and double-tee girders and rectangular sections. Variable cross-sections for the
superstructure are not possible. Understructure cross sections are not calculated by
program BOX and shall be calculated by the user and input to the data input file. Variable
understructure cross-sections may be approximated through use of incremental sized
member models of the piers. The cable profile designated in program BOX is parabolic,
but other type cable profiles may be investigated by setting the prestressing force to zero
and by imposing equivalent prestressing loadings on the bridge computer model [8].
Figure 2 is a least squares fit of prestressed concrete box girder bridge maximum span to
superstructure depth data from 173 international bridges [6]. The figure shows the data
scattering as well as the the least squares fit described by:
H = (Lm/(22.58888 * Exp (-0.000664799*Lm))

where H = superstructure depth (Ft.), (7)
Lm = bridge maximum span length (Ft.).
Fig. [2], or Eq. (7), is useful in obtaining a first approximation of the depth of a
bridge of a known maximum span.
Comparison of Continuous Beam vs. Plane Frame
The example bridge is a three-span structure with spans of 160 ft., 190 ft., and 170 ft.
from left to center to right, and piers 55 ft. in height as shown in Fig. [3]. The
superstructure is a prestressed concrete box girder of nine cells, top slab 10'", bottom slab
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Fig. 1. Betti-Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem
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of 6", and an overall depth H = 7'-6". The parabolic centroid of the prestressing cable
profile and the points of cable inflection are shown in Fig. [4 A.]. The magnitude of the
prestressing force is chosen at 28,600 Kips and the equivalent prestressing loads are
shown in Fig. [4 B.].
The three loadings cases investigated for a matter of comparison in this example are:
1. Self Weight Dead Load (Dead Load or DL)

2. Dead + Prestressing Load (DL+PS)
3. Dead + Prestressing + Live Load (DL+PS+LL)
The live loading is AASHTO HS 20-44 lane loading for maximum moment [1]. The
live lane loading is a combination of an uniform load and two concentrated loads which
are used depending upon whether the analysis is for shear or moment. The uniform load
is 0.64^ per foot of load lane. The concentrated load is either 18^ for moment or 26^ for
shear. An additional concentrated load is allowed for continuous spans involving land
loading. AASHTO stipulates 12 ft. lane widths across the superstructure. In this case a
76 ft. wide bridge yeilds 6 lanes. Therefore values of 6 times the live lane loads or 3.84
k/ft. uniform and 108^ concentrated respectively are herein used for maximum moment
analysis at the supports. AASHTO uses scaling factors to reduce the stresses caused by
loading three or more lanes with live load simultaniously. This scaling is not important
here since, for comparison sake, both the continuous beam and the plane frame will be
loaded with the same loads.
Continuous Beam Solution

The continuous beam model of this example is the same as Fig [3], neglecting the
columns. Program BOXfirstmust be run to determine the section properties of the
superstructure and analyze the bridge for the first loading case.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Loading cases 2 and 3 may be analized by preparing a second data input file and running
program BOX after obtaining the continuous beam influence lines for moment at the
interior supports. Program UNFLU is employed for obtaining the influence lines. Fig.
[5] shows the moment influence lines for both interior supports of the continuous beam.
The influence line values for moment at the interior supports indicate maximum influence
when spans 2 and 3 are loaded with the live lane loading. The maximum support moment
for this structure is induced at joint 3. An examination of influence line shows that the
concentrated loads should be placed at distances of 117.8 ft. and 71.9 ft. right of joints 2
and 3 to respectively to achieve the maximum moment influence at joint 3.
Plane Frame Solution

A significant advantage in using programs BOX and INFLU in a plane frame analysis of
bridges over a continuous beam analysis is that the piers may be analyzed at the same time
as the superstructure.
Fig. [6] shows the frame influence lines for moment at the interior supports. By
inspection the placement of the live lane loadings is different for the plane frame compared
to the continous beam.
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© © © ©
mm 55'
ru [E
© ©
160' 190' 170'
Fig. 3. Example Bridge Profile
6 - 160/5.5 350/5.5
{j
120/3.92 I \ / I392.5/3.92
9
620/3.75
E 4 0/3.75 207.5/3.5 302.5/3.5
o
LU
I
LU
— 1
2
CD ^
< 58.93/1.5 255/1.5 457.4/1.5
O
-k-
7777777 1777777 7777777 7777777
160' 190' 170'
Fig. 4. A . Prestressing Cable Profile
40' 47.5' 47.5' 42.5'

« »|« » « »l
1
120' r T * 95' 127.5' 1
53.00 K/Ft 50.28 K/Ft

28600 K 28600 K
i l o o u ur \ ,
' 1 1 1 , - I I I
16723.1 K-ft V M^ M t ' ' t i l l^ ) 16723.1 K-1
37.05 K/Ft 50.70 K/Ft 32.82 K/Ft
0 © © ©
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
. 160' . 190' . 170* i
Fig. 4. B . Prestressing Equivalent Loads
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Fig. 5. Beam Example Influence Lines
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Fig. 6. Frame Example Influence Lines
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Fig. 6. Frame Example Influence Lines
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Comparison of Results
Table [1] shows a comparison of the influence values computed for plane frame and
continuous beam analysis discussed above. Differences as great 17.5% exist in this
example betyween influence line magnitudes of the frame and beam analysis. Table [2]
shows a comparison between the program results of the frame and beam analysis.
Differences as great as 2.9% are found in this comparison. The 17.5% difference in the
influence line values indicates that the two methods vary significantly in live load
sensitivity.
Table 1 Comparison: Fram Vs. Beam Max. Influ. Line Values
= = = = =
FRAME BEAM COMPARISON

MAX
INFLU Join t 2 Join t 3 Join t 2 Join t 3 Join t 2 Join t 3

MEM1MEM2 MEM2 MEM 3 MEM 2 MEM 3 MEM 1 MEM2 MEM 1 MEM 2 MEM 2 MEM 3
VALUE
HINGE
16.94 14.01 17.36 15.30 15.16 16.44 15.85 16.64 10.51%-17.34% 8.70% -8.76%
LEFT
HINGE
14.00 17.84 13.49 18.51 15.16 16.44 15.85 16.64 -8.29% 7.85% -17.49% 10.10%
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
RIGHT
Table 2 Comparison: Fram Vs. Beam Maximum Analysis Values
MAX FRAME RESULTS BEAM RESULTS COMPARISON

VALUE EL DL+PS DL+PS+LL DL DL+PS DL+PS+LL DL DL+PS DL+PS+LL
Shear 2361 2473 2963 2625 2467 2980 .23% .24% -.57%
Moment 83720 26875 39805 82783 26624 39210 1.12% .93% 1.49%
Defl. -.1646 .0588 .06933 -.1649 .05836 .07016 -.18% .75% -1.20%
Str. Max 1896 1793 2086 1875 1787 2072 1.11% .33% .67%
Str. Min -1385 628 526 -1369 646 536 1.16% -2.87% -1.90%
For a basis of study, the before mentioned three-span bridge is used with variable span
lengths based upon the constant span lengths of 160 ft., 190 ft, and 170 ft. Proportional
structures are analyzed with the constant of proportionality of the spans being a. The
piers remain constant for the comparison. The section has a variable height H and
variable section properties based upon the span to depth relationship shown in Fig. [2].
Table [3] shows the results of running programs INFLU and BOX for five values of a.
Fig. [7] shows a plot of the results of Table [3]. Part A shows a comparison between a
continuous beam and a plane frame analysis of the maximum moment influence line values
at joint 3. Part B shows a plot of the percent difference between the analyses vs. the
length variable a. It can be seen that by holding the span properties proportional, and
keeping the column properties constant, the percent difference between the two analyses
increases as the relative span lengths decrease. Fig. [8] shows maximum dead load
bending moment at joint 3 plotted versus the length variable a Even though the
differences are not so apparent as those from Fig. [7], the trend is the same in that the
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Copyright CRC Press

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Fig. 7. Variable S p a n : Joint 3 Moment Influ. Line Results
Copyright CRC Press

Fig. 8. Variable Span: J o i n t 3 M o m e n t A n a l y s i s Results
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differences between the values of the two analyses increases with decreasing length
variable a. These two figures show that the differences between a continuous beam
analysis a plane frame analysis increase with decreased span length.
Table 3. Variable Span and Depth Analysis
a H A / INFUL INFLU M3
FT FT**2 F T **4 LT K-FT RT K-FT K-FT
0.5 4.5 137.4 379.4 7.92 8.32 16959
1.0 10 193.3 2678.7 15.85 16.64 95394
1.5 16 254.9 8508.9 23.77 24.96 283135
2.0 23 3227.1 21162 31.69 33.28 645843
2.5 28 378.7 344992.7 39.62 41.6 1168318
A. Continuous Beam Results
a H A / INFUL INFLU MS
FT FT**2 LT K-FT RT K-FT K-FT
0.5 4.5 137.4 379.4 6.09 9.78 17203
1.0 10 193.3 2678.7 14.58 17.63 95774
1.5 16 254.9 8508.9 22.84 25.68 283466
2.0 23 3227.1 21162 31.02 33.79 645694
2.5 28 378.7 344992.7 38.98 42.08 1168113
B. Frame Results
Research Summary
A bridge which is more sensitive to live load influence would be subject to larger analysis
result differences between the two methods as is evident in the large percentage differences
between the influence line values. It follows logically that shorter span bridges, bridges
where the dead loads and prestressing loads comprise a lesser percentage of the total
bridge loading than longer span bridges, have higher differences between joint bending
moment influence line values, and hence, between joint bending moment results.
A plane frame analysis, such as the stiffness method analysis used in programs BOX and
INFLU, has the following major advantages over a continuous beam analysis:
• Simultaneous superstructure-understructure analysis;

• Axial deformation capability which is essential in the development of prestressing
forces;
• Greater sensitivity to live loading influence, especially for short span bridges.
441
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REFERENCES
1. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO),

1977, "Loads", Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 2nd ed.,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington
D . C , pp. 18-42.
2. Fafitis, A. "Non-Linear Analysis of Framed Structures by Computer-1." Indian
Concrete Journal, pp.98-104, April 1982.
3. Forsythe, G.E., M.A. Malcolm, and C B . Moler, 1977, "Linear Systems of
Equations", Computer Methods for Mathematical Computations, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey, pp.48-55.
4. Gaylord, E.H., and C N . Gaylord, 1968, "Structural Analysis", Structural
Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, pp.1-8.
5. Gere, J.M., and W. Weaver, Jr. Analysis of Framed Structures, Princeton,
New Jersey, Van Nostrand, 1965, 475pp.
6. Maisel, B.I., and R.A. Swann, The Design of Concrete Box Spine-Beam
Bridges, CIRIA Report 52, Construction Industry Research and Information
Association, London, 1974, pp.52.
7. McKellar, John R. Computer Analysis of Prestressed Concrete Box
Girder Bridges, Master of Science Project, Arizona State University, 1987,
277pp.
8. Naaman, A.E., 1982, "Continuous Beams and Interminate Structures",
Prestressed Concrete Analysis and Design, McGraw Hill, New York,
pp.349-364.
9. Tuma, J.J., and R.K. Munshi. Schaum's Outline of Theory and
Problems of Advanced Structural Analysis, New York, McGraw-Hill,
1971, 280pp.
10. Ugural, A . C , and S.K. Fenster, 1981, "Energy Methods", Advanced
Strength and Applied Elasticity, The S.I. Version, Elsevier Science
Publishing Co., Inc., New York, pp.288-292.
11. Weaver, Jr., W. Computer Programs for Structural Analysis, Princeton,
New Jersey, Van Nostrand, 1967, 385pp.
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AN IMPROVED NUMERICAL APPROACH
FOR DYNAMIC A N A L Y S I S OF BRIDGES
TO MOVING V E H I C L E S
M.R. TAHERI, M . M . Z A M A N , A. ALVAPPILLAI
School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science, University
of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA
Abstract
A general algorithm i s developed to study the transient
r e s p o n s e o f h i g h w a y b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e s due t o t r a v e r s i n g
heavy v e h i c l e s . The a p p r o a c h i s b a s e d on a c o m b i n e d
s t r u c t u r a l impedance and f i n i t e element methods and
accounts f o r the complete v e h i c l e - b r i d g e dynamic
interaction. Thin p l a t e theory i s assumed f o r the bridge
deck. The p r e d i c t e d r e s p o n s e shows good agreement w i t h t h e
available experimental results. A parametric study over a
wide spectrum o f v e l o c i t i e s and mass r a t i o s i n d i c a t e s that
there are three c r i t i c a l frequency ranges: a sub-critical,
a c r i t i c a l , and a s u p e r - c r i t i c a l r e g i o n . The v e h i c l e mass
i n e r t i a i s more p r o n o u n c e d i n t h e s u p e r - c r i t i c a l region
where the t r a n s i e n t d e f l e c t i o n of the bridge propagates in
a w a v e - l i k e manner.
Keywords: V e h i c l e - B r i d g e I n t e r a c t i o n , Bridge Dynamics,
Structural Impedance Method, Moving Mass, Moving F o r c e .
1 Introduction
The i m p o r t a n c e of dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n s between bridges and
moving heavy v e h i c l e s , such as locomotives, has been
r e c o g n i z e d by b r i d g e e n g i n e e r s s i n c e t h e n i n e t e e n t h
century. A l t h o u g h t h e n e c e s s i t y o f m o d e l i n g b r i d g e s more
a c c u r a t e l y a s p l a t e s h a s b e e n known, a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n s
for p l a t e m o d e l s a r e v e r y cumbersome due t o mathematical
complexities involved. S i m p l i f i c a t i o n s h a v e commonly b e e n
i n t r o d u c e d by a s s u m i n g a s i m p l e beam t h e o r y and n e g l e c t i n g
p a r t of v e h i c l e - b r i d g e dynamic interactions.
In modeling a highway bridge as a p l a t e , the
mathematical d i f f i c u l t i e s a r e compounded by complicated
v e h i c l e - b r i d g e d y n a m i c i n t e r a c t i o n a n d due t o difficulties
in r e p r e s e n t i n g the behavior of the bridge to t r a v e r s i n g
multi vehicles. With the advent of high speed computers
and e f f i c i e n t n u m e r i c a l t e c h n i q u e s , more a c c u r a t e m o d e l i n g
and a n a l y s i s h a v e become f e a s i b l e . By u s i n g n u m e r i c a l
t e c h n i q u e s , b r i d g e s c a n be m o d e l e d a s two-dimensional
p l a t e s , W i l s o n and T s i r k (1967). I n a d d i t i o n , the dynamic
443
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interaction s du e t o movin g load s o n th e bridg e ca n b e
treate d a s component s o f a n integrate d structura l system ,
T i n g e t a l . (1974 ) a n d T a h e r i ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
M a ny a n a l y t i c a l studie s i n th e are a o f bridg e d y n a m i c s ,
Wilso n (1973) , C h u n g ( 1 9 7 7 ) , C h u n g a n d G e n i n (1978 ) a n d
Geni n an d Chun g (1979) , hav e use d a beam-mas s mode l an d th e
solution s hav e bee n obtaine d b y serie s expansio n metho d o r
m o d al e x p a n s i o n t e c h n i q u e s a l o n g w i t h s e r i e s t r u n c a t i o n
procedure s an d a n iterativ e algorith mt o includ e th e
couplin g term s i n th e dynami c equilibriu mequation . Withi n
th e simila r mathematica l framework , Fourie r analysi s ha s
bee n use d t o stud y th e problem , Chi u (1971) , Stanisi c e t
a l . (1974 ) a n d G e n i n e t a l . ( 1 9 7 4 ) . T h e m o d a l e x p a n s i o n
techniqu e appear s t o yiel d satisfactor y result s i f th e
movin g mas s solutio n i s smal l perturbatio n o f th e
correspondin g movin g forc e solution , a s i s th e cas e whe n
t h e m a s s r a t i o i s s m a l l a n d t h e v e h i c l e t r a v e l s a t a lo w
s p e e d . N u m e r i c a l results , Chi u e t a l . (1971) , demonstrate d
t h a t fo r s u c h c a s e s o n l y a fe w m o d e s a r e n e e d e d fo r t h e
a n a l y s i s . H o w e v e r , fo r a l a r g e m a s s r a t i o a n d fo r v e h i c l e s
t r a v e l i n g a t highe r s p e e d s , a larg e numbe r o f mode s ar e
require d an d th e convergenc e o f th e iterativ e proces s
canno t b e guaranteed . T o remov e th e iterativ e process ,
finit e differenc e integratio n technique s hav e bee n
suggested , Geni n e t a l . (1974) . I t usuall y require s
excessiv e c o m p u t a t i o n s , an d thereb y som e o f th e advantage s
of o b t a i n i n g a p p r o x i m a t e s o l u t i o n s ar e l o s t . A differen t
discretizatio n whic h employ s th e finit e elemen t metho d wa s
i n t r o d u c e d b y Y o s h i d a a n d W e a v e r (1971 ) a n d b y D a i l y e t a l .
(1973 ) . T h e m e t h o d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y advantageou s whe n two -
or three-dimensiona l structure s ar e c o n s i d e r e d .
The structura l impedanc e metho d base d o n th e principl e
of superpositio n fo r v e h i c l e a n d s t r u c t u r a l syste mha s bee n
d e v e l o p e d b y T i n g e t a l . (1974 ) a n d e x t e n d e d b y T a h e r i
(1987 ) . T h i s a p p r o a c h i s c a p a b l e o f c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
vehicle-structur e interaction s a n d ca n b e u s e d fo r a n y
prescribe d boundar y condition s becaus e th e effect s o f
b o u n d a r i e s ar e embedde d i n th e influenc e functions . Th e
a l g o r i t h m i s b a s e d o n t w o f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t s : (1 )
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a n i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n , a n d (2 ) u s e o f m a s s
positio n a s th e pseud o tim e variable . Thi s metho d i s
capabl e o f solvin g mult i dimensiona l problem s an d i s
simple r tha n mos t o f th e abov e numerica l m e t h o d s . I n
essence , th e structura l impedanc e metho d allow s on e t o
separat e th e modelin g o f th e movin g vehicle , th e bridg e
dec k an d thei r interactions . T h u s , a chang e i n on e mode l
doe s no t affec t th e basi c modelin g o f th e othe r components .
I n thi s pape r a n algorith m i s p r e s e n t e d fo r a n a l y s i s o f
dynami c interaction s betwee n a movin g vehicl e an d th e
b r i d g e . Th e formulatio n i s base d o n th e structura l
impedanc e approac h an d utilize s influenc e functions , whic h
mathematicall y ar e Green' s functions . Th e tim e variabl e i s
e v a l u a t e d u s i n g N e w m a r k f s (3-method , N e w m a r k ( 1 9 5 9 ) . Th e
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44 4
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a l g o r i t h m p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n ca n b e a p p l i e d t o th e genera l
movin g mas s problem s a s wel l a s simplifie d movin g forc e an d
stati c problems .
2 Mathematical model
T o a c c o u n t fo r t h e c o m p l e t e v e h i c l e - b r i d g e interaction , th e
m o v i n g v e h i c l e an d th e bridg e dec k ar e considere d a s a
singl e syste man d th e transverse.inerti a effec t o f th e
m o v i n g v e h i c l e i s take n int o a c c o u n t . Th e bridg e dec k i s
a s s u m ed t o b e a t h i n r e c t a n g u l a r elasti c orthotropi co r
isotropi c plat e wit h arbitrar y boundar y conditions . Th e
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
v e h i c l e i s m o d e l e d a s a se t o f i n d e p e n d e n t d i s c r e t e
suspensio n unit s movin g a t th e sam e v e l o c i t y . Suc h a n
idealizatio n eliminate s th e inerti a effect s du e t o r o l l ,
pitc h an d yaw n motion s o f th e v e h i c l e . Th e mas s o f th e
vehicl e i s lumpe d o n th e suspensio n s y s t e m s . Th e
suspensio n unit s consist s o f linea r spring s an d d a m p e r s .
Al l movement s o f th e suspensio n units , excep t th e vertica l
m o t i o n s , ar e c o n s t r a i n e d . Th e contac t betwee n th e bridg e
dec k an d th e movin g vehicl e i s assume d t o b e a poin t
c o n t a c t . Th e vehicl e ma y trave l a t a n arbitrar y s p e e d v(t )
an d arbitrar y acceleratio n v ( t ) . Th e vehicle-bridg e mode l
i s depicte d i n F i g . 1. I n thi s figure , a i s th e lengt h o f
th e b r i d g e , b i s th e widt h o f th e bridge , t i s th e
thicknes s o f th e bridg e deck , i represent s th e numbe r o f
suspensio n u n i t s , M i f k i , C i an d u i ar e th e vehicl e lumpe d
m a s s, e l a s t i c s p r i n g , d a m p i n g c o e f f i c i e n t an d displacemen t
of t h e i t h s u s p e n s i o n u n i t , r e s p e c t i v e l y , F i i s interactio n
forc e betwee n th e bridg e an d th e i t h suspensio n system , £ i s
positio n o f th e firs t suspensio n u n i t , an d s i i s distanc e
betwee n th e firs t mas s an d th e i t h suspensio n u n i t .
Fig .1. Vehicle-bridg e model .
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3 Mathematical formulation
The g o v e r n i n g e q u a t i o n f o r t h e b r i d g e i s o b t a i n e d
by c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t t h e dynamic d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e b r i d g e i s
c a u s e d b y t h e w e i g h t and i n e r t i a o f t h e v e h i c l e , and b y t h e
i n e r t i a o f t h e b r i d g e deck. U s i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e functions,
w h i c h m a t h e m a t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t G r e e n s f u n c t i o n s , and
1
e x p a n d i n g t h e b a s i c impedance e q u a t i o n p r o p o s e d b y T i n g , e t
a l . ( 1 9 7 4 ) , t o a c c o u n t f o r a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l b r i d g e deck,
t h e b r i d g e dynamic d e f l e c t i o n c a n be e x p r e s s e d i n an
i n t e g r a l f o r m as
I ab
w(x,y,t) = 2 G ( x , y , £ , n + ) Fi - f f G(x,y,d,e) m(a,€)
S i
i=l P P 0 (T
O^/at ) w(a,e,t) da de (l)
where w(§,e,t) i s t h e dynamic d e f l e c t i o n o f a p o i n t ( x , y ) a t

t i m e t , G(x,y,a,e) i s t h e f l e x i b i l i t y f u n c t i o n , a and e a r e
t h e i n t e g r a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s , m(a,e) i s t h e mass p e r u n i t a r e a
o f t h e b r i d g e deck, a n d I i s t h e t o t a l number o f s u s p e n s i o n
units. A c c o r d i n g t o D ' a l e m b e r t ' s p r i n c i p l e , e q u a t i o n (1)
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e t o t a l dynamic d e f l e c t i o n o f a p o i n t on
the b r i d g e a t time t i s equal t o displacement induced by
t h e i n t e r a c t i o n f o r c e Fi a n d t h e i n e r t i a f o r c e s o f t h e
b r i d g e deck. Note t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f boundaries i s
included i n the influence functions. A comparison o f t h i s
e q u a t i o n w i t h t h e commonly used p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l f o r m ,
T i n g e t a l . ( 1 9 7 4 ) , shows t h a t t h e i n t e g r a l f o r m u l a t i o n
eliminates the higher-order s p a t i a l derivatives, the delta
f u n c t i o n and e x p l i c i t boundary c o n d i t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
n u m e r i c a l advantages o f t h i s e q u a t i o n a r e apparent.
C o n s i d e r i n g t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f t h e spring-damper, t h e
i n t e r a c t i o n f o r c e , F i , c a n be e x p r e s s e d as
Fi = [Mi g - Mi U i ( t ) ] A[x-£, y - ( n + ) ] S i (2)
where Mi i s t h e mass o f t h e i suspension, g i s t h e

t h
g r a v i t a t i o n a l constant, U i ( t ) i s the acceleration o f i t h
suspension u n i t s , A i s the Dirac d e l t a f u n c t i o n which i s

e q u a l t o u n i t y a t x = £ a n d y = Tj +Si and z e r o e l s e w h e r e .
Assuming a l i n e a r s p r i n g a n d damper a n d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t , U i , o f t h e mass and
t h e d e f l e c t i o n , w, o f t h e b r i d g e deck, t h e e q u a t i o n o f
m o t i o n f o r v e h i c l e mass can be o b t a i n e d as
Mi d 2 U|(t)/dt 2 + C i dU|(t)/dt + k i u i ( t ) =
C i 3w(£, n + S i , t ) / 3 t + k i w(£, n + S i , t ) + M± g (3)
Substituting equation (2) i n t o (1) r e s u l t s i n t h e equation
446
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o f m o t i o n fo r t h e b r i d g ea s
w(x,y,t ) +J j G ( x , y , a , e ) m (a,e) © /dt ) w (a,e,t ) da de =

I 0 0
^ G U^ S . n + s i ) M i ( g- d U|(t)/dt ) A [ x - £ , y - ( n + S i ) ] (4 )
2 2
For convenienc e th e bridg e deflectio n a t an y instan t o f

t i m e , t , i s define d i n term s o f th e mas s position , £ , a s a
pseud o tim e variabl ea s
w(a,e,t ) = w ( a , e , § ) (5 )
The tim e derivative s o f equatio n (5 ) ca n b e e v a l u a t e db y

applyin g th e chai n rule , a s
3w«x,e,t )/3t = £ aw(a,e,g)/ag (6 )
a 2 w( a , e , t ) / 3 t 2
= 6 aw(a e,g)/ag f + k2
3 w(a,e,£)/9£2
2
(7 )
Similarly , th e followin g equation s ar e obtaine d fo r th e

vehicl e displacemen t i n term s o f £
ui(t ) = U i (g) (8)
diij(t)/dt = g 3ui(g)/3g (9)
d 2 U|(t)/dt 2 = g 3ui(§)/3g + & 32ui (g)/3g2 (10 )
wher e § =d g / d t , £ = d £/d t ar e th e spee d an d acceleratio n

of t h e f i r s t s u s p e n s i o n u n i t , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
T o o b t a i n t h e g o v e r n i n g d y n a m i c e q u a t i o n s (GDE ) i n t e r m s
of t h e u n k n o w n s , b r i d g e a n d s u s p e n s i o n u n i t s d e f l e c t i o n s ,
th e followin g o p e r a t i o n a r e p e r f o r m e d : (i ) S u b s t i t u t e
e q u a t i o n s (5 ) t h r o u g h (10 ) i n t o e q u a t i o n s (3 ) a n d ( 4 ) ; (ii )
obtai n a n approximat e solutio n o f t h e GD E b y e x p r e s s i n g t h e
integra l expression s i n a finit e differenc e for musin g th e
pseud o tim e variabl e £ ; (iii ) u s e N e w m a r k ' s |3-metho d fo r
tim e integration . Fro mth e operation s performe d i n step s
(i ) t h r o u g h ( i i i ) , t w o e q u a t i o n s a r e r e s u l t e d t h a t ca n b e
a r r a n g e d i n t o a m a t r i x f o r mi n t e r m s o f t h e u n k n o w n s ,
vehicl e deflection , u (£j), an d bridg e deflection , w (£j), a s
{X} = {E} (11 )
[Pll [p ] 5 <Aj>
[A] = (12 )
[z ]
5
[Zi ] +[z ] 9
447
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Copyright CRC Press

{U(|j) }
{X} (13)
{w(£j> }
"[P 2 ] { U i ( S j - l ) } - [p 3 ] { U i ' ( g j - i ) } -
[P«] { U i " ( 5 j - i ) } - [Pel < A ( g j _ 1 ) > {w(6j_i)} +
[p 7 ] < A ( 6 . ) > j 1 { W (gj.i ) } +
[p 8 ] < A ( g . ) > j 1 {W'tgj.!)} + {p9}
{E} = (14)
[z 6 ] { U (gj-i) } - [ Z ] { U i ' t ^ j - l ) } -
± 7
[Z ] { U i "
8 } + [ Z ] (wtSj-!) } - 2
[ Z ] { W (£-,_!)} - [ Z ] { W ^ S j - i ) } + { z 1 0 >
3 4
i n which
[Pil == [ei (£j 8/h P + ( 5 j ) / h 2 p) + ( ( f i gj 8/h p) +1)] (15)

2
[p 2 ] == [ e i (£j 8/h p + ( 5 ) 2 / h 2 P) + j (fi 8/h p)] (16)
[p 3 ] =• [ e i ({jd - 8/p) - ( i j ) 2 / h p) +fi |j (1 - 8 / p ) ] (17)
[Pd == [ e i (gj h ( l - 8 / 2 p ) - ( ( g j ) 2 / P ) ( 1 / 2 - P)) +

f i |j h ( l - 8/2P)] (18)
[Ps] =• [<fi ^ 8/h p> +1] (19)
[Pel == [ f i ii 8/h p] (20)
[p 7 ] == t f i ii (i - 8/p)] (21)
[p 8 ] == [ f i ii h (1 - 8/2p)] (22)
fP 9 ] == { e i g} (23)
N+l M+1
[zi] = k5i?=l
= [ G ] < [ m ]
&i 8/h P + (gj)2/h2P)) f q f k (24)
H+l M+1
[z 2 ] = k ? i ? = i
= [ G ] ( [ m ] 8 / h 13 +
<^ ) 2 / h 2
P>> f
q K f (25)
N+l M+1
[z 3 ] ^ ^ [ G ] ([m] ^ (1 - (8/P))-(|j)2/P)) f q f k (26)
N+l M+1
[z 4 ] = 2 [6] ([m] (£-, h (1 - 8/2P)
X -
((gj)2/P)(1/2 - p))) f f
q
q k
(27)
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[z ]
5 = [G] {A)j [Mi] (gj 8/h (3 + (gj)2/h2 (3) (28)
[z ]6 = [G] {A}j [Mi] (gj 8/h P + (tj)2/h2 p) (29)
[z ] 7 = [G] {A}j [Mi] ((g'-j ( 1 - (8/P)) - (|j)2/h p ) ) (30)
[z ] 8 = [G] {A}j [M ]('g

i j h ( l - 8 / 2 p ) - ( ( g ) 2 / p ) (1/2 - p ) )
j (31)
[z ] 9 = [I] (32)
[Zio] = [G] {A}j [Mi] g (33)
In equations (11) through (33), f and f q k a r e the weighting

c o e f f i c i e n t s whose v a l u e s depend on t h e integration scheme
chosen, d and b a r e t h e parameters used i n Newmark
i n t e g r a t i o n , N + l a n d M+1 a r e d i s c r e t e s t ation points along
the length and the with of the bridge, r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d e±
= Mi/ki, f i= Ci/ki. The other v a r i a b l e s a r e d e f i n e d below:
<Aj> = a row m a t r i x indicating the vehicle position,

{A}j = a column matrix indicating the vehicle position,
[I] = an i d e n t i t y matrix,
{w(£j)} = d e f l e c t i o n of bridge, vehicle at j t h
location,
{u(§j)}= displacement of the suspensions at j t h
location,
[G] = influence coefficient matrix, and
{m} = bridge mass matrix.
4 Numerical results
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4.1 Verification
The v e r s a t i l i t y a n d a c c u r a c y o f t h e a l g o r i t h m a r e v e r i f i e d
by comparing t h e n u m e r i c a l r e s u l t s w i t h t h e e x a c t solutions
Table 1. Dynamic magnification factors f o r moving force on

beam
Ti/T Velocity w /w
f s
(in./sec)
SIM Yoshida & Eichmann
Wear (Exact)
1/8 614 1.042 1.055 1.045

1/4 1228 1.082 1.112 1.108
1/2 2456 1.266 1.252 1.250
1 49i2 1.662 1.700 1.707
2 9824 1.518 1.540 1.550
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Tabl e 2 . Dynami c magnificatio n factor s fo r m o v i n g f o r c eo n
plat e
Tx/ T Velocit y w f /w s
(in./sec )
SI M Yoshid a & Wilso n&
W e ar T s i r k
1/ 8 51 5 1.04 2 1.04 2
1/ 4 103 0 1.03 2 1.08 8 1.11 1
1/ 2 206 0 1.23 4 1.20 0 1.21 6
1 412 0 1.52 5 1.56 8 1.51 0
2 824 0 1.35 9 1.39 0
an d wit h othe r availabl e numerica l an d experimenta l

results .
The dynami c amplificatio n f a c t o r s fo r a 1-l b m o v i n g
forc e o n a simpl y supporte d bea mar e show n i n Tabl e 1 . Th e
b e a m g i v e n b y Y o s h i d a a n d W e a v e r (1971 ) i s u s e d fo r
verification . I n thi s tabl e T i i s th e fundamenta l period ,
T i s t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d fo r t h e m o v i n g v e h i c l e t o t r a v e r s e
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
th e b e a mspa n an d w f / w s i s th e rati o o f th e movin g forc e
deflectio n an d th e stati c deflectio n a t th e cente r o f th e
b e a m. T h e d y n a m i c a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r s fo r a 2-l b m o v i n g
forc e o n a simpl y supporte d squar e plat e ar e als o show n i n
Tabl e 2 . Th e result s obtaine d fro mth e structura l
i m p e d a n c e m e t h o d (SIM ) a n d t h e o t h e r n u m e r i c a l r e s u l t s ,
Yoshid a an d Weave r (1971) , ar e i n excellen t a g r e e m e n t .
Sinc e th e exac t solutio n fo r m o v i n g m a s s i s n o t a v a i l a b l e ,
th e result s ar e compare d wit h experimenta l studies , Aye r
-i.5o I 1 1 1 ;
n 1 1 1 1
•0.00 .125 .250 .375 .500 .625 .750 .825 1.00
X / L
Fi g 2 . Compariso n o f SI M an d experimenta l transvers e

deflectio n o f single-spa n b e a m ; M / M b = 1/2 , TFv/LCO i = 1/4.
45 0
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--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
et a l . (1951). Three v e l o c i t y r a t i o s w i t h a c o n s t a n t mass

r a t i o i s considered f o r t h e comparison. The r e s u l t s o f
comparison a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g s . 2 t h r o u g h 4. I n t h e s e
figures, L i s t h e span length, v i s t h e v e h i c l e v e l o c i t y , M
i s t h e v e h i c l e mass, M b i s t h e m a s s o f t h e b e a m a n d COx i s
the fundamental frequency o f t h e beam. A v e r y good
agreement i s observed between t h e r e s u l t s obtained from t h e
s t r u c t u r a l impedance method (SIM) and t h o s e observed
experimentally.
Fig 4. Comparison o f SIM and experimental transverse

deflection of single-span beam; M/M b = 1 / 2 , TTv/LCOi = 3 / 4 .
451
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4.2 Parametric Study
The a l g o r i t h m p r e s e n t e d h e r e f a c i l i t a t e d t h e s t u d y o f
vehicle-bridge i n t e r a c t i o n problems f o r v e h i c l e s moving a t
high speeds, and equally important, t h e algorithm allowed
for a p a r a m e t r i c study over a wide spectrum o f v e l o c i t i e s
and mass r a t i o s . F i g s 5 t h r o u g h 7 show t h e t i m e history
of t h e displacement o f a simply supported bridge f o r
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
d i f f e r e n t v e l o c i t i e s a n d mass r a t i o s . I n t h e s e f i g u r e s M p
represents t h e b r i d g e mass. T h e r e s u l t s f o ra l o w , medium
X - Stations
L - Span Length
( = Load Position
< a
<\ 5/L-.6
0.00 .125 .250

. 3^5 .50*0 Tell . 75b .87*5 TTo
X/ L
Fig. 5. Time history of deflection of a simply supported

bridge; M/M p = 1 / 2 , TTv/LC0 2 = 1/4.
and r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l o n g i t u d i n a l v e l o c i t i e s , a r e shown i n
F i g s . 5 , 6 a n d 7, r e s p e c t i v e l y . I t i s o b s e r v e d t h a t a st h e
X - Stations
L - Span Length
£ - Load Position
C/ L - . 2
' . .^•©'"^ , /
^ C /Lî- -• ' /
i.... ^ —. SDgLJL ^ /
0.00 .125 .250 .373 .500 .625 .750 .875 1.00
X/ L
Fig. 6. Time history of deflection of a simply supported

bridge; M/M p = 1 / 2 , TTv/LCD 2 = 1.0.
452
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v e l o c i t y i n c r e a s e s , t h e p o i n t o f maximum displacement
s h i f t s more t o t h e r i g h t a n d i t p r o g r e s s e s i n a w a v e - l i k e
manner.
5 Concluding Remarks
An a l g o r i t h m i s d e v e l o p e d f o r dynamic response of bridges

to moving v e h i c l e s . The method c o n s i d e r s complete vehicle-
bridge interaction (moving mass), w i t h t h e moving f o r c e
approximation and the s t a t i c solution as a s p e c i a l case.
The a l g o r i t h m u t i l i z e s t h e i n f l u e n c e f u n c t i o n s w h i c h a r e
calculated for static loadings. I t i s o b s e r v e d t h a t when
t h e v e h i c l e - b r i d g e mass r a t i o i s s m a l l o r t h e v e h i c l e
t r a v e l s a t a low speed, t h e moving f o r c e s o l u t i o n yields
good a p p r o x i m a t i o n s . A p a r a m e t r i c s t u d y shows t h a t t h e r e
are three frequency ranges: a s u b - c r i t i c a l , a c r i t i c a l and
a super c r i t i c a l . The mass i n e r t i a o f t h e v e h i c l e i s more
pronounced i n t h e s u p e r - c r i t i c a l r e g i o n where t h e t r a n s i e n t
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
displacement of bridge propagates i n a wave-like manner.
Such b e h a v i o r c a n o n l y be a c c u r a t e l y p r e d i c t e d by i n c l u d i n g
the complete v e h i c l e - b r i d g e i n t e r a c t i o n s , i . e .t h e moving
mass a l g o r i t h m .
6 References
Ayre, R.S., Jacobson, L . S . and Hsu, C S . (1951a Transverse

V i b r a t i o n o f One and o f Two-Span Beam under t h e
A c t i o n o f a Moving Mass Load, P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e
F i r s t U.S. National Congress of Applied Mechanics, pp.
81-90.
453
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C h i u , W., S m i t h , R. a n d W o r m l e y , W.N. (1971) I n f l u e n c e o f
V e h i c l e a n d D i s t r i b u t e d G u i d e w a y P a r a m e t e r s on High-
Speed, V e h i c l e - G u i d e w a y d y n a m i c I n t e r a c t i o n s . J . Dynam.
Syst. Meas. C o n t r o l , T r a n s . ASME, 9 3 ( 1 ) , 25.
Chung, Y . I . and Genin, J . (1978) S t a b i l i t y o f a Vehicle

on a M u l t i s p a n S i m p l y S u p p o r t e d G u i d e w a y . J . Dynam.
Syst. Meas. C o n t r o l , T r a n s . ASME, 1 0 0 ( 4 ) , 3 2 6.
D a i l y , G., C a y w o o d , W.C. and O'Connor, J . S . (1973) A

G e n e r a l Purpose Computer Program f o r t h e Dynamic
S i m u l a t i o n o f V e h i c l e - G u i d e w a y I n t e r a c t i o n . AIAA J.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
11
(3), 278.
Eichmann, E.S. (1953) N o t e on t h e A u x i l i a r y E f f e c t o f a

M o v i n g F o r c e on a S i m p l e Beam. J . o f Appl. Mech. 5 6 2 .
G e n i n , J . and Chung, Y . I . (1979) Response o f a C o n t i n u o u s

G u i d e w a y on E q u a l l y S p a c e d S u p p o r t s T r a v e r s e d by a
M o v i n g V e h i c l e . J.Sound and V i b r a t i o n 67 ( 1 ) .
G e n i n , J . , G i n s b e r g , J.H. a n d T i n g , E . C . (1974)
L o n g i t u d i n a l T r a c k - T r a i n Dynamics: A New Approach. J.
Dynam. S y s t . Meas. C o n t r o l , T r a n s . ASME, 9 6 (4),
466.
N e w m a r k , N.M. (1959) A Method of Computation for Structural

Dynamics. ASCE, J . o f Eng. Mech. D i v . (85) , 67-94.
S t a n i s i c , M.M., E u l e r , J.A. a n d Montgomery, S.T. ( 1 9 7 4 ) on

a Theory Concerning the Dynamic B e h a v i o r of S t r u c t u r e s
C a r r y i n g Moving Masses. Ing. Arch. 43 ( 5 ) , 2 9 5 .
T a h e r i , M.R.(1987) Dynamic Response of P l a t e s t o Moving

Loads: S t r u c t u r a l Impedance & F i n i t e Element Methods.
Ph.D. Dissertation, Purdue U n i v e r s i t y .
Ting, E . C , G e n i n , J . and G i n s b e r g , J.H. (1974) A G e n e r a l

A l g o r i t h m f o r t h e Moving Mass Problem. Journal of
Sound and V i b r a t i o n , 33 (1), 49.
W i l s o n , E.N. and T s i r k , A. (1967) Dynamic b e h a v i o r of

R e c t a n g u l a r P l a t e s and C y l i n d r i c a l S h e l l . Civil
Engineering Department, New York University Report
No. S-67-7
W i l s o n , J . F . (1973) Response of Simple Spans to Moving Mass

L o a d s . AIAA J . , 11, 4.
Y o s h i d a , D.M. a n d W e a v e r , W. (1971) F i n i t e - E l e m e n t Analysis

o f Beams and P l a t e s w i t h M o v i n g L o a d s . Publ. I n t l .
Assoc. Bridge Struc. Engr., 3 1 ( 1 ) , 1 7 9 - 1 9 5 .
454
Copyright CRC Press

P A R T NINE
BRIDGE DYNAMICS
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Copyright CRC Press

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Copyright CRC Press

THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF
BRIDGES: PREDICTION AND
PERFORMANCE
J.W. SMITH
Dept Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, England, UK
Abstract
The a n a l y s i s of l o n g span b r i d g e s s h o u l d t a k e i n t o account
geometric e f f e c t s w h i c h r e s u l t i n g r a v i t y s t i f f e n i n g of the
c a b l e s i n s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s and s t r e s s s o f t e n i n g of
towers and g i r d e r s of c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s . The linearised
theory for small deflections i s available in current
v e r s i o n s of commercial computer programs. F u l l s c a l e tests
have confirmed t h e e x i s t e n c e o f many m o d e s w i t h closely
spaced f r e q u e n c i e s w e l l w i t h i n the range of e x c i t a t i o n by
t h e dynamic component of the wind. The significance of
m u l t i p l e - s u p p o r t e x c i t a t i o n of b r i d g e s i n e a r t h q u a k e s i s
considered. Experience in real earthquakes has shown
t h a t s h o r t span b r i d g e s a r e the most v u l n e r a b l e .
Keywords: Dynamic, B r i d g e s , Non-linear, V i b r a t i o n s ,
Suspension, Aerodynamic, Earthquake, Performance.
1 Introduction
The n o n - l i n e a r b e h a v i o u r o f s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s due to
l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n s i s k n o w n t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y important
to warrant inclusion in design calculations for static
loads. An e a r l y s t u d y o f t h e d y n a m i c b e h a v i o u r of s u s -
p e n s i o n c h a i n s by P u g s l e y (1949) assumed that the c h a i n
was i n e x t e n s i b l e and was l i m i t e d to s m a l l deflections.
The s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t of the t e n s i o n i n the main c a b l e s
of a s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e was a p p r e c i a t e d as being of
fundamental importance. I n c o n t r a s t , the compressive
f o r c e s i n t h e t o w e r s and deck g i r d e r s of c a b l e - s t a y e d
b r i d g e s r e s u l t i n a l o s s o f s t i f f n e s s w h i c h was taken
into account i n d y n a m i c a n a l y s i s by F l e m i n g and Egeseli
(1980) .
The dynamic response of long span b r i d g e s under wind
l o a d i n g has been s t u d i e d i n t e n s i v e l y s i n c e the collapse
of the Tacoma Narrows B r i d g e i n 1940. Vincent (1962)
measured the o s c i l l a t i o n of the Golden Gate B r i d g e i n the
wind. P r e d i c t i o n of the p e r f o r m a n c e of s u s p e n s i o n bridges
i n the wind has l a r g e l y been based on w i n d t u n n e l tests
457
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on s e c t i o n a l m o d e l s ( S c a n l a n , 1 9 8 3 ) . T h i s form of testing
has proved u s e f u l f o r d e s i g n i n g the p r o f i l e of deck
s t r u c t u r e s to minimise a e r o d y n a m i c i n s t a b i l i t y but i s
n o t r e l i a b l e f o r o b s e r v i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f b u f f e t i n g by
t u r b u l e n t wind which i s t h r e e dimensional by nature.
D a v e n p o r t ( 1 9 8 2 ) h a s c a r r i e d o u t t e s t s on c o m p l e t e models
of b r i d g e s i n a b o u n d a r y l a y e r w i n d t u n n e l and has
developed a method f o r the a n a l y s i s of r e s p o n s e due to
turbulence buffeting.
A number of h i g h w a y b r i d g e s i n C a l i f o r n i a c o l l a p s e d
d u r i n g t h e 1971 San F e r n a n d o e a r t h q u a k e (Lew e t a l , 1 9 7 1 ) .
T h i s was mainly due to f a i l u r e of the p i e r s or supports.
However, t h i s a l a r m i n g e x p e r i e n c e prompted a g r e a t d e a l
of r e s e a r c h i n t o the b e h a v i o u r of a l l t y p e s of b r i d g e s ,
i n c l u d i n g s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s , under the e f f e c t s of e a r t h -
quakes. I n p a r t i c u l a r , c o n s i d e r a t i o n has been given
to the p o s s i b i l i t y of d i f f e r e n t i a l support excitation
o f l o n g s t r u c t u r e s due to t r a v e l l i n g earthquake wave
( A b d e l - G h a f f a r and R u b i n , 1982).
Human r e s p o n s e t o v i b r a t i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t service-
ability c r i t e r i o n i n the d e s i g n of b r i d g e s . There have
been r e p o r t e d c a s e s of c a r d r i v e r s abandoning their
c a r s on l o n g s p a n b r i d g e s a f t e r b e c o m i n g a l a r m e d by
large oscillations, p o s s i b l y a m p l i f i e d by t h e vehicle
s u s p e n s i o n , w i t h consequent d i s r u p t i o n to t r a f f i c . Also
i t i s k n o w n t h a t many p e d e s t r i a n s w i l l n o t u s e certain
bridges i n high winds because of t h e i r f e a r of the l a r g e
oscillations. M u c h r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n d o n e on h u m a n
response to m o t i o n , i n c l u d i n g t h e low f r e q u e n c y range,
and d a t a i s now a v a i l a b l e to e s t a b l i s h l i m i t s to ensure
satisfactory performance.
2 Non-linear behaviour of long span bridges

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The non-linear s t i f f n e s s o f a c a b l e may be a p p r e c i a t e d

by c o n s i d e r i n g the d i f f e r e n t i a l element shown i n F i g . 1 .
T+d T
T+d T
T A ds B T x
Fig.1 Large displacements of a cable
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The e l e m e n t , l e n g t h d s , h a s an i n i t i a l t e n s i o n T due to the
gravity loading of the b r i d g e structure. When live
loading i s superimposed the element d e f l e c t s to a new
position A B . Thef
displacements
T
of t h e e n d s A and B
a r e d e n o t e d by u , v and u+du,v+dv r e s p e c t i v e l y . By
considering the geometrical c h a n g e s i t c a n be s h o w n t h a t
t h e s t r a i n due to l i v e load i s given by
a = A . = du , I f / d u \ , 2
/dv\ ) 2
fc
ds ds 2i>ds/ <ds' J
(1)
where & i s the e l o n g a t i o n of the e l e m e n t . Higher order

terms have been ignored. The first term i s the same
as i n s m a l l d e f l e c t i o n theory while the second term,
which i s non-linear, i s due to the f i n i t e r o t a t i o n of
the element. N o t e a l s o t h a t e v e n i f t h e dT increase
in cable tension i s ignored the r o t a t i o n of the force
T w i l l r e s u l t i n c h a n g e s i n h o r i z o n t a l and vertical
components. The e x i s t e n c e of the i n i t i a l tension T
t h e r e f o r e g i v e s r i s e to a geometric s t i f f n e s s . This
e f f e c t i s o f t e n known a s " s t r e s s stiffening".
Przemieniecki (1968) showed t h a t the m a t r i x equation
for a pre-loaded rod e l e m e n t of l e n g t h L i s g i v e n by
1 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0
1 '1
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 -1
AE
(2)
L
-1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 1
where , S^, F^* ^ a r e t

^ i e and y components of force
at n o d e s 1 and 2; u^ , v^, , V£ are the corresponding
displacements; AE i s the unit stiffness of the rod; T
the preload. This may be written as
F = (K + K )u
e g y (3)
where K i s the u s u a l e l a s t i c s t i f f n e s s matrix and K i s
e g
the g e o m e t r i c component of the s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x associated
w i t h r o t a t i o n of the element as i t i s d i s p l a c e d . A f u r t h e r
component of the s t i f f n e s s matrix K c a n be d e r i v e d to c
take account of second order non-linear terms. This has

been ignored by m o s t a n a l y s t s i n t h e l i n e a r i s e d theory.
H o w e v e r , A b d e l - G h a f f a r and Rubin (1983) i n c l u d e d second
order t e r m s and used perturbation a n a l y s i s to d e a l with
the r e s u l t i n g n o n - l i n e a r equations.
Although special computer programs have been written by
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r e s e a r c h e r s when s t u d y i n g t h e p r o b l e m , commercially
a v a i l a b l e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s now e x i s t which possess the
c a p a b i l i t y of i n c l u d i n g g e o m e t r i c or s t r e s s stiffening
(De S a l v o and S w a n s o n , 1 9 8 8 ) . First, a static analysis
i s r e q u i r e d under dead l o a d . Then the f o r c e s i n the
elements are used to c a l c u l a t e the geometric stiffness
m a t r i c e s which a r e added to the e l a s t i c s t i f f n e s s m a t r i c e s .
F i n a l l y , e i g e n v a l u e s a r e e x t r a c t e d from the resulting
system t o o b t a i n t h e modes and frequencies. Lumped or
c o n s i s t e n t m a s s m a t r i c e s may be used.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3 Suspension Bridges
E a r l y s t u d i e s of s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e v i b r a t i o n adopted
a linearised v e r s i o n of the d e f l e c t i o n theory extended
to i n c l u d e dynamic e q u i l i b r i u m . Continuum methods have
been u s e f u l i n t h e p a s t but a r e i n c o n v e n i e n t when a p p l i e d
to r e a l b r i d g e s with non-simple boundary c o n d i t i o n s .
T h e r e f o r e i t i s n a t u r a l t h a t d i s c r e t e methods of analysis,
and finite elements i n p a r t i c u l a r , s h o u l d be attractive
(Abdel-Ghaffar , 1980).
Three d i m e n s i o n a l a n a l y s i s of the f r e e vibrations
o f s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s was a c h i e v e d by D u m a n o g l u a n d Severn
(1985). T h e i r a n a l y s i s o f t h e Humber B r i d g e , i n w h i c h
t h e y e m p l o y e d o v e r 900 e l e m e n t s and 3500 d e g r e e s of
f r e e d o m , t o o k 100 s e e s o f CPU t i m e on a C R A Y - 1 computer
t o o b t a i n 20 m o d e s o f v i b r a t i o n . The model took into
account g r a v i t y s t r e s s s t i f f e n i n g but was restricted
to s m a l l d e f l e c t i o n l i n e a r i s e d theory. Some o f t h e m o d e s
are i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig.2. Furthermore, by treating
v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l modes s e p a r a t e l y t h e y w e r e a b l e
t o o b t a i n a t o t a l o f 40 m o d e s . The n o r t h e r n sidespan
o f t h e Humber B r i d g e i s s h o r t e r t h a n t h e B a r t o n sidespan
to t h e s o u t h and the l a c k of symmetry has a profound
e f f e c t on t h e v i b r a t i o n m o d e s a s c a n be s e e n i n t h e case
of modes 3 and 17 s h o w n i n t h e f i g u r e . The fundamental
mode i s l a t e r a l m o t i o n o f t h e d e c k . Mode 10 i s i n t e r e s t i n g
i n t h a t i t c o n s i s t s of l a t e r a l motion of the c a b l e s w i t h
the deck remaining relatively motionless. M o d e 14 i s
the f i r s t torsional mode.
Brownjohn et a l (1987) v e r i f i e d the t h e o r e t i c a l analysis
by m e a s u r i n g t h e a m b i e n t v i b r a t i o n o f t h e Humber Bridge
u n d e r w i n d and traffic. The outputs from s e r v o a c c e l e r o -
m e t e r s l o c a t e d a t s u i t a b l e p o i n t s on t h e b r i d g e were
processed by a s p e c t r u m analyser. For example, the
auto-power spectrum o b t a i n e d from the v e r t i c a l motion
o f a r e f e r e n c e a c c e l e r o m e t e r l o c a t e d on t h e m a i n span
of the b r i d g e i s shown i n F i g . 3 . The large number of
resonant peaks i s very s t r i k i n g . H o w e v e r , by careful
a n a l y s i s of the o u t p u t s of a p a i r of m o b i l e accelerometers
i t was p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s and
mode s h a p e s o f a t o t a l o f 2 6 v e r t i c a l m o d e s , 16 lateral
m o d e s , 11 t o r s i o n a l m o d e s a n d s o m e a d d i t i o n a l t o w e r m o d e s
460
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Mode 1 0.062 Hz
Mode 2 0 . 1 0 8 Hz
Mode 3 0 . 1 1 3 Hz
Mode 10 0.242 Hz
Mode 14 0.282 Hz
Mode 17 0.308 Hz
Fig.2 Mode shapes o f t h e Humber Bridge
461
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20-00r
000
000 200 400 600 800
Frequency: Hz
Fig.3 Main span vertical response
w i t h f r e q u e n c i e s up t o 2 . 0 H z .
Very good c o r r e l a t i o n was o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
results. As an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s t h e b e h a v i o u r of the
b e a r i n g c o n n e c t i o n s between t h e deck and t h e towers
was s t u d i e d . They were designed to accommodate free
l o n g i t u d i n a l movement, b e i n g f a b r i c a t e d i n t h e form
of A-frame r o c k e r s . However, the e x p e r i m e n t a l observations
i n d i c a t e d t h a t f r e e movement a t t h e B a r t o n end was being
restricted t o some e x t e n t and t h e r e f o r e an alternative
pinned c o n d i t i o n was assumed i n t h e a n a l y s i s . The
a n a l y s i s was a l s o c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n
and t h e r e s u l t s a r e compared w i t h e x p e r i m e n t i n Table 1.
Table 1. Theoretical vertical modes for different end

conditions
Design condition Hinged Experiment

condition
Mode Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
VI 0. 108 0 115 0.116

V2 0 115 0 155 0.154
V3 0 168 0. 179 0.177
V4 0 207 0 220 0.218
V5 0 240 0 239 0.240
V6 0 307 0 307 0.310
V7 0 313 0 314 0.317
462
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A further important r e s u l t of the e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y of the
Humber B r i d g e was the e f f e c t of wind speed on m o d a l
frequency. N o n - l i n e a r b e h a v i o u r w o u l d b e e x h i b i t e d by
a change of n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y w i t h amplitude and hence
w i t h wind speed. During the c o u r s e of the t e s t s a wide
r a n g e of w i n d s p e e d s was e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h t h e maximum
b e i n g g a l e f o r c e 8 on t h e B e a u f o r t s c a l e . The variation
of frequency with windspeed for the f i r s t and fourth
v e r t i c a l modes a r e shown i n F i g . 4 . Nonlinear behaviour
of the c a b l e s should e x h i b i t i t s e l f as displacement
stiffening. However, the o v e r a l l change i n frequency
was v e r y s m a l l i n b o t h c a s e s , and w e l l w i t h i n t h e scatter
band. I t may t h e r e f o r e be c o n c l u d e d that linear geometric
stiffening i s sufficiently accurate for suspension bridge
analysis .
0-23
£ 0 12
§ 022 X
x & x* Xx ** x
x
X
cr
* 5*
x
o X
Z5
cr
o
£ 0 11 021
000 1000 20-00 000 1000 2000

Wind speed: m/sec" 1
Wind speed: m/sec"
(a) mode VI, 0.116 Hz (b) mode V4, 0.218 Hz
Fig.4 Modal frequency against wind speed.
4 Cable-stayed bridges
S o f a r we h a v e o n l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e e f f e c t o f s t r e s s s t i f f -
ening, which o c c u r s when t h e e l e m e n t f o r c e shown i n F i g . 1
is in tension. However, i f the element force i s in
compression the geometric behaviour of the element leads
to a reduction in stiffness. T h i s may be n o t e d in Equation
(2) when t h e e l e m e n t f o r c e i s changed to -T. A well
known e x a m p l e of g e o m e t r i c s t r e s s s o f t e n i n g i s the reduc-
t i o n i n f r e q u e n c y of t r a n s v e r s e v i b r a t i o n of a beam-
column ( P r z e m i e n i e c k i , 1968). This i s illustrated in
F i g . 5 w h e r e i t may be s e e n t h a t f r e q u e n c y (non-dimensional)
reduces l i n e a r l y with compressive f o r c e and r e a c h e s the
l i m i t at the E u l e r buckling load.
The e s s e n c e of c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s i s t h a t t h e c a b l e
tensions are anchored by t h e d e c k g i r d e r i n s t e a d o f a t
the bridge abutments. Consequently, the g i r d e r i s i n
463
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

I ET
I00 v
s
50
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-5 5 10
Fig.5 Variation in natural frequency of a beam-column
compression o v e r most of i t s l e n g t h and t h i s w i l l have

a n e f f e c t on t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s . Also the towers
will be i n c o m p r e s s i o n , as they are i n suspension bridges,
and w i l l tend to behave l i k e beam-columns. These stress
s o f t e n i n g e f f e c t s s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n t h e
analysis. Furthermore, the i n c l i n e d cables themselves,
a l t h o u g h a p p e a r i n g t o be s t r a i g h t t o t h e n a k e d eye,
may sag s i g n i f i c a n t l y , e s p e c i a l l y i n long span b r i d g e s .
T h e r e f o r e , geometric s t r e s s s t i f f e n i n g a p p l i e s to the
cables .
T h e s e e f f e c t s w e r e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t by Fleming
and E g e s e l i ( 1 9 8 0 ) who u s e d an e q u i v a l e n t m o d u l u s of
elasticity f o r t h e c a b l e s g i v e n by
E e q = E/{1 + [(WH) AE/12T ]}

2 3
(4)
where E i s the s t i f f n e s s modulus of the s t r a i g h t cable,

W i s i t s weight per u n i t l e n g t h , H i s the horizontal
p r o j e c t i o n of the c a b l e , A i s the c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area
and T i s t h e t e n s i o n i n t h e c a b l e due t o e x t e r n a l l o a d i n g .
This procedure i s useful for f i n i t e element analysis
of c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s s i n c e i t p e r m i t s the use of
a s i n g l e s t r a i g h t element for each cable stay (Dumanoglu
et a l , 1988).
464
Copyright CRC Press

5 Dynamic response to turbulent wind
Natural frequencies a n d mode s h a p e s a r e i n t e r e s t i n g b u t

for design purposes i t i s t h e dynamic response to c e r t a i n
forms of e x c i t a t i o n that i s of c r i t i c a l importance.
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t phenomena t h a t g i v e rise
to dynamic r e s p o n s e of s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e wind. These
include buffeting, vortex shedding, galloping and f l u t t e r .
Buffeting by t u r b u l e n t wind i s p r o b a b l y t h e most
significant form of e x c i t a t i o n f o r l a r g e s t r u c t u r e s such
as s u s p e n s i o n bridges. A c r i t i c a l speed g e n e r a l l y exists
a t w h i c h l a r g e d i s p l a c e m e n t s may o c c u r b u t t h e m o t i o n
t e n d s t o be m o d i f i e d by t u r b u l e n c e . Tanaka and D a v e n p o r t
(1983) noticed that the s u b - c r i t i c a l response of the
G o l d e n G a t e B r i d g e was p r e d o m i n a n t l y due t o b u f f e t i n g .
C l e a r evidence of the importance of turbulence buffeting
was p r o v i d e d by B r o w n j o h n e t a l ( 1 9 8 7 ) who s h o w e d that
t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e Humber B r i d g e was p r o p o r t i o n a l to
the s e c o n d power o f t h e wind v e l o c i t y .
Some i n e r a c t i o n w i t h v o r t e x s h e d d i n g e v i d e n t l y occurs
w i t h s o m e c r o s s - s e c t i o n s b u t t h i s may b e m i n i m i s e d b y
a e r o d y n a m i c d e s i g n o f t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n o r by t h e u s e
of t u r n i n g vanes ( T a p p i n and C l a r k e , 1985). Flutter
i s a coupled motion, often being a combination of bending
and t o r s i o n , a n d i t may b e r e d u c e d b y u s i n g a torsionally
s t i f f box g i r d e r d e c k a s p i o n e e r e d i n t h e S e v e r n Bridge.
T u r b u l e n c e o f t h e w i n d may b e t r e a t e d a s a 'stationary
random p r o c e s s * . I t i s random i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e
v e l o c i t y c a n n o t be p r e d i c t e d a t any i n s t a n t of time.
It i s stationary i n the sense that certain s t a t i s t i c a l
properties, s u c h a s t h e mean a n d v a r i a n c e of t h e wind
s p e e d , do n o t d e p e n d v e r y m u c h o n t h e p a r t o f t h e w i n d
velocity record from which they were c a l c u l a t e d . The
dynamic response of a s t r u c t u r e subjected t o random
loading c a n n o t be e x p r e s s e d i n a d e t e r m i n i s t i c f o r m b u t
i n s t e a d h a s t o be e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f s t a t i o n a r y stat-
i s t i c a l properties. T h i s a p p r o a c h w a s a d o p t e d by D a v e n p o r t
( 1 9 6 2 ) who d e v e l o p e d t h e s p e c t r a l r e s p o n s e m e t h o d o f
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
analysis. A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s method and

i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o l o n g s p a n b r i d g e s w a s g i v e n by W y a t t
( 1 9 8 0 ) who d e r i v e d a s e r i e s of design charts f o r analysing
line-like structures.
Davenport took advantage of the f a c t that the dynamic
r e s p o n s e o f a s t r u c t u r e c a n be t r e a t e d a s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n
of u n c o u p l e d modal r e s p o n s e s . E a c h mode o f v i b r a t i o n
b e h a v e s a s a s i n g l e d e g r e e o f f r e e d o m a n d may b e t r e a t e d
independently. The e s s e n c e o f t h e method i s c o n t a i n e d
in the expression for the spectral density of t h e modal
r e s p o n s e o f t h e mth mode. T h i s i s g i v e n by
465
Copyright CRC Press

S (n) = /0 V C> m .X (n)S (n)Jj0 (x)0 (x')V(Ax;n)dxdx'
2 2 2 H 2
ym I d x m m
oo
(5)
w h e r e fO i s t h e d e n s i t y o f a i r , V i s t h e m e a n w i n d velocity
at t h e bridge deck l e v e l , i s t h e drag c o e f f i c i e n t , b i s
the t r a n s v e r s e dimension of the bridge. H (n) i s the 2
2 m v
mechanical admittance and K i s the generalised stiffness

of t h e mth mode. % ( n ) i s the aerodynamic admittance,
being a c o r r e c t i o n to take account of the d i s t o r t i n g
e f f e c t o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s t r u c t u r e on t h e a i r f l o w .
S ( n ) i s the s p e c t r a l density of horizontal gustiness of
x
t h e wind a n d v a r i e s w i t h f r e q u e n c y o f t u r b u l e n c e , n.
0 ( x ) i s t h e shape f u n c t i o n o f t h e m t h mode o f v i b r a t i o n
m
and i s n o r m a l i s e d s u c h t h a t i t h a s a maximum v a l u e o f 1.0.
}f(Ax;n) i s t h e square root of t h e "coherence" f u n c t i o n
and i s a measure of t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between wind velocities
a t two p o i n t s x and x . Hence i t t a k e s i n t o account t h e
f
s p a t i a l nature of turbulence which i s related to the size

of e d d i e s . I t i s t h e s p a t i a l v a r i a t i o n of t u r b u l e n t wind
speed t h a t r e s u l t s i n t h e need f o r t h e double integration.
The g e n e r a l f o r m o f E q u a t i o n ( 5 ) i s s h o w n by t h e s o l i d
line i n Fig.6. T h e b r o a d hump i s g o v e r n e d by t h e s h a p e
of t h e s p e c t r u m f o r h o r i z o n t a l wind v e l o c i t y which i s only
m o d i f i e d s l i g h t l y by t h e a e r o d y n a m i c admittance. However,
the mechanical admittance has t h e e f f e c t of i n t r o d u c i n g
a sharp spike i n the v i c i n i t y of the natural frequency, f ,
i n t h a t mode. The v a r i a n c e of t h e dynamic component of
M 11
SYmin)
An An --``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig.6 Spectral density f o r modal response
466
Copyright CRC Press

modal response i s obtained by integrating Equation (5):
eo
CTUY )
dv
nr
=
J
f S
ym v
(n)dn ~
7
TTrf
b m S
ym v
(f )
nr
(6)
where i s the g e n e r a l i s e d displacement o f t h e mth mode

and ^ i s the c r i t i c a l damping r a t i o . The approximation
i s j u s t i f i e d by s e p a r a t i n g t h e n o n - r e s o n a n t o r broadband
response (B) from the resonant dynamic response (D).
The integral corresponding t o t h e f u n d a m e n t a l mode
i s shown h a t c h e d . The v a r i a n c e of the modal response
for t h e s e c o n d m o d e may be o b t a i n e d i n t h e s a m e way by
i n t e g r a t i n g the a r e a . Finally, t h e m o d e s may be
combined using
tf'Cx) = 0 (x)(T (Y )
2 2
1 + 0 (x)o- (Y )
2 2
2 + (7)
The square r o o t o f t h i s v a l u e i s t h e r o o t mean square

(r.m.s.) response, w h i c h i s a u s e f u l measure of the
dynamic p e r f o r m a n c e of a l a r g e s t r u c t u r e .
The s p e c t r a l response method has been a p p l i e d to tall
buildings with great success. The reason for this i s
t h a t t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s a r e w e l l s e p a r a t e d and only
t h e l o w e s t one o r two m o d e s o f e v e n t h e l a r g e s t buildings
a r e w i t h i n the range of wind e x c i t a t i o n . However, i n
the c a s e of long span b r i d g e s the s i t u a t i o n i s very
different.
F i r s t of a l l , l e t us c o n s i d e r the s p e c t r a l density
of h o r i z o n t a l g u s t i n e s s of the wind. T h i s has been
p u b l i s h e d by E S D U ( 1 9 8 5 ) a s t h e n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l parameter
n S ( n ) / v ^ where v^ i s the s u r f a c e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y
x and
is determined geographically. The v a r i a t i o n of this
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
spectrum with frequency a t a h e i g h t o f 50m i s shown i n

Fig.7 for the c a s e o f a r e f e r e n c e w i n d s p e e d of 25m/s
over open l e v e l country. I t should be n o t e d t h a t the
2.0 -i „(10) = 25 m/s
1.0-
n Sin) 0.5 -
0.2 H
0.1—i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0
Frequency n
Fig.7 Spectrum of horizontal gustiness
467
Copyright CRC Press

s p e c t r u m r e d u c e s r a p i d l y a s t h e f r e q u e n c y a p p r o a c h e s 1.0Hz.
H o w e v e r , i f we r e t u r n t o t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e Humber B r i d g e
s t u d y we s h o u l d be i m p r e s s e d by t h e f a c t t h a t no f e w e r
t h a n 40 modes w e r e f o u n d t o h a v e f r e q u e n c i e s r a n g i n g
b e t w e e n 0 . 0 6 3 Hz a n d 0 . 8 1 6 H z . T h e s e a l l l i e w e l l w i t h i n
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the r a n g e o f e x c i t a t i o n by t h e w i n d .
Of c o u r s e , t h e H u m b e r B r i d g e h a s t h e l o n g e s t s i n g l e
span i n t h e w o r l d b u t l o n g e r b r i d g e s a r e planned o r under
construction. T h e r e f o r e , i ti s very c l e a r t h a t t h e r e
i s an u r g e n t need f o r an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e a v a i l a b l e
s p e c t r a l response method i n o r d e r t o i n c l u d e a l a r g e
n u m b e r o f m o d e s , many o f t h e m b e i n g v e r y c l o s e l y s p a c e d
in terms o f frequency. There a r e obvious difficulties
e s p e c i a l l y i f i ti s d e s i r e d t o perform t h e i n t e g r a l s
i n E q u a t i o n ( 5 ) o v e r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l mode s h a p e s .
A d i s c r e t i z e d v e r s i o n o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n w o u l d be a l o g i c a l
f i r s t step i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n .
An i n t e r e s t i n g p r o b l e m c o n c e r n e d w i t h w i n d excitation
of l a r g e b r i d g e s o c c u r s i n t h e case o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g
work. Two e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e this point. The f i r s t
c o n c e r n s t h e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e Wye B r i d g e connecting
England and Wales. The o r i g i n a l d e s i g n c o m p r i s e d t w o
towers each w i t h a s i n g l e c a b l e passing over t h e t o p
and r a d i a t i n g o u t t o i t s a n c h o r a g e s a t d e c k l e v e l on
b o t h s i d e s o f e a c h t o w e r . T h u s t h e d e c k was d i v i d e d i n t o
seven spans. The s t r e n g t h e n i n g i n v o l v e d e x t e n d i n g t h e
towers and r e p l a c i n g t h e s i n g l e c a b l e s w i t h t w i n c a b l e s .
More a n c h o r a g e p o i n t s on t h e d e c k w e r e r e q u i r e d r e s u l t i n g
i n a s u b d i v i s i o n i n t o eleven spans. Consequently, t h e
b r i d g e i s now much s t i f f e r a n d h a s a h i g h e r fundamental
frequency. The second example c o n c e r n s t h e r e - s u r f a c i n g
o f t h e Rama I X B r i d g e i n B a n g k o k . The o r i g i n a l a s p h a l t
s u r f a c i n g , w h i c h b r o k e up p r e m a t u r e l y u n d e r traffic,
was 80mm i n t h i c k n e s s a n d w e i g h e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 0 t o n s ,
a s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e dead l o a d . A much t h i n n e r
40mm s u r f a c i n g i s b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d t o r e p l a c e t h e o r i g i n a l .
The l i g h t e r w e i g h t w i l l i n c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e
fundamental frequency.
The q u e s t i o n t h a t a r i s e s w i t h b o t h o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s
i s : w h a t w i l l t h e c h a n g e o f f r e q u e n c y do t o t h e a e r o -
dynamic s t a b i l i t y o f these bridges? I tw i l l probably
improve t h e response t o t u r b u l e n c e b u f f e t i n g because
as t h e f u n d a m e n t a l f r e q u e n c y r i s e s , so t h e s p e c t r a l
r e s p o n s e w i l l be c a l c u l a t e d f u r t h e r a l o n g t h e d o w n w a r d
s l o p e o f t h e w i n d s p e c t r u m shown i n F i g . 7 . However,
the c r i t i c a l wind speed would p r o b a b l y change a l s o .
6 Earthquake loading of bridges
E a r t h q u a k e damage t o b r i d g e s i s n o t l i k e l y t o be a m a j o r
p r o b l e m i n t h e UK. H o w e v e r , many UK c o n s u l t i n g e n g i n e e r s
are i n v o l v e d i n design o f bridges f o r overseas c l i e n t s ,
468
Copyright CRC Press

often i n countries with high seismic risk.
The p e r f o r m a n c e o f b r i d g e s i n e a r t h q u a k e s was w e l l
illustrated i n the 17th October 1989 e a r t h q u a k e affecting
the San F r a n c i s c o Bay a r e a . The Golden Gate B r i d g e and
the s u s p e n s i o n s p a n s of t h e Bay B r i d g e were undamaged.
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , a 1 . 3 km l e n g t h o f t h e c o n c r e t e d o u b l e
deck C y p r e s s v i a d u c t c o l l a p s e d and a s h o r t span of t h e
steel frame s e c t i o n of t h e Bay B r i d g e f e l l off i t s
bearings. T h i s b e h a v i o u r w a s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h many y e a r s
p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e o f damage t o b r i d g e s i n e a r t h q u a k e s .
E x p e r i e n c e gained from t h e study of a crop of highway
bridge failures d u r i n g t h e 1971 San F e r n a n d o earthquake
(Lew e t a l , 1 9 7 1 ) r e v e a l e d t h e f o l l o w i n g :
(a) T h e r e was a need f o r m u l t i p l e column p i e r s . Bridges

with s i n g l e column supports proved t o be e x t r e m e l y
vulnerable because of t h e l a c k of an a l t e r n a t i v e
load path i n t h e event of t h a t column failing.
(b) C o n t i n u i t y of r e i n f o r c e m e n t between p i e r s and
f o u n d a t i o n s and a c r o s s j o i n t s i s important. There
were examples of columns being uprooted from t h e
foundation piles.
(c) T h e b e a r i n g a r e a s o f g i r d e r s w e r e i n many c a s e s
unable to cope w i t h e x c e s s i v e l a t e r a l ground
movements and b e a r i n g s were l i t e r a l l y pulled out
from under t h e end s u p p o r t s of b r i d g e s p r e c i p -
itating some c a t a s t r o p h i c collapses.
These e x p e r i e n c e s were repeated i n 1989. O v e r much o f

its l e n g t h t h e upper deck of the Cypress v i a d u c t i n
Oakland was s u p p o r t e d by t w i n c o l u m n p i e r s w i t h t h e
c o l u m n s t a p e r i n g down t o t h e l o w e r d e c k l e v e l . The j o i n t
at l o w e r deck l e v e l was r e l a t i v e l y lightly reinforced
and tended to behave l i k e a p i n during h o r i z o n t a l swaying.
F a i l u r e appeared to have i n i t i a t e d at this joint leading
e v e n t u a l l y to c o l l a p s e of the upper deck. The s h o r t
span of t h e Bay B r i d g e which f a i l e d was a c l a s s i c example
of lack of bearing area. The b e a r i n g s were only 125mm
wide. L o n g i t u d i n a l movement o f t h e s t e e l girder structure
c a u s e d t h e l o c a t i n g b o l t s a t t h e end of t h e span t o s h e a r
and t h e span f e l l o f f i t sb e a r i n g s a t t h a t e n d .
Long span s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s have proved t o be v e r y
robust i n earthquakes because of their inherent f l e x i b i l i t y
w h i c h makes them c a p a b l e o f a c c o m o d a t i n g l a r g e ground
motions. The towers a r e g e n e r a l l y thought t o be t h e
most c r i t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s when s u b j e c t e d t o e a r t h q u a k e
motion i n t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n (Dumanoglu and
Severn, 1987).
Much t h o u g h t has been g i v e n t o t h e problem of m u l t i p l e -
support e x c i t a t i o n or asynchronous support motion which
could a f f e c t long span s t r u c t u r e s . I t i s usually assumed
that a l l p a r t s of the base support of a s t r u c t u r e
469
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

e x p e r i e n c e t h e same g r o u n d m o t i o n . T h i s may be reliable
for t a l l b u i l d i n g s whose base d i m e n s i o n s a r e s m a l l .
However, the w a v e l e n g t h of a t r a v e l l i n g earthquake wave
c o u l d be t y p i c a l l y 500m and t h e r e f o r e long bridges could
e x p e r i e n c e c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n ground motions
at t h e i r supports. Dumanoglu and S e v e r n (1987) have
s t u d i e d t h i s p r o b l e m and shown t h a t , a l t h o u g h dynamic
stresses are g e n e r a l l y l e s s than with synchronous excit-
a t i o n , the p s e u d o - s t a t i c s t r e s s e s due to r e l a t i v e motion
were significant.
A n a l y s i s of the problem i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . A l l that
i s n e c e s s a r y i s to apply ground motion time histories
to the s u p p o r t s a s p r e s c r i b e d boundary c o n d i t i o n s i n
a f i n i t e e l e m e n t m o d e l , w i t h s o l u t i o n by d i r e c t i n t e g r a t i o n .
This procedure i s w i t h i n the c a p a b i l i t i e s of most standard
f i n i t e element programs. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the p r e c i s e
details of i n d e p e n d e n t s u p p o r t m o t i o n s a r e not known i n
advance. One a p p r o a c h i s t o i m p o s e a known earthquake
motion to each support w i t h an a p p r o p r i a t e p h a s e d i f f e r e n c e
i n t r o d u c e d to s i m u l a t e the e f f e c t of a t r a v e l l i n g wave.
This i s called asynchronous support motion. In practice
earthquake m o t i o n s a r e v e r y c o m p l e x and i t has been found
t h a t l a r g e d i f f e r e n t i a l m o v e m e n t s c a n be v e r y localised
and result i n opening of wide c r a c k s i n the ground.
Therefore, i t i s likely that long multispan viaducts
are i n f a c t more v u l n e r a b l e t h a n l o n g s i n g l e span bridges
and h e n c e t h e n e e d f o r l a r g e b e a r i n g a r e a s a t supports.
7 Performance c r i t e r i a
The p r e d i c t e d dynamic response of b r i d g e s s h o u l d be

compared w i t h c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a for judging their per-
formance. The t h r e e most i m p o r t a n t criteria are
- r e s i s t a n c e to o v e r a l l collapse
-satisfactory human r e s p o n s e to motion
-adequate fatigue resistance
7.1 R e s i s t a n c e to c o l l a p s e
The maximum r e s p o n s e of a s t r u c t u r e s u b j e c t e d to random
l o a d i n g such as t u r b u l e n t wind cannot be e v a l u a t e d i n a
deterministic sense. However, the p r o b a b i l i t y of the
response exceeding a certain m a g n i t u d e may be determined
f r o m t h e r o o t mean s q u a r e v a l u e of the r e s p o n s e . A
practical procedure was suggested by D a v e n p o r t (1964)
t o d e r i v e a p e a k f a c t o r by w h i c h t h e r . m . s . c o m p o n e n t
d u r i n g a s t o r m w i n d w o u l d be e x c e e d e d w i t h a 5 0 % prob-
ability. F i r s t the load e f f e c t s s u c h a s b e n d i n g moment
o r s h e a r h a v e t o be o b t a i n e d by i n t e g r a t i n g t h e v i b r a t o r y
i n e r t i a f o r c e s i n e a c h mode o v e r t h e s p a n o f t h e bridge.
The total resonant load effect i s then obtained by summing
modal c o n t r i b u t i o n s . The maximum t o t a l l o a d e f f e c t may
470
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then be obtained from
E
max - 1 +
V[[s VE)]' b
+
[«dV E )
l'i ( 8 )
where E i s the load e f f e c t ( b e n d i n g moment, s h e a r e t c . )

due t o t h e mean w i n d , <^ (E) i s t h e r.m.s. b r o a d
b band
or n o n - r e s o n a n t l o a d e f f e c t due t o g u s t s , <f, ( E ) i s t h e
r.m.s. r e s o n a n t l o a d e f f e c t combined from a l l t h e modes,
g^ i s t h e b r o a d band peak f a c t o r , and g^ i s t h e resonant
peak f a c t o r . D e t a i l s o f how to c a l c u l a t e the peak factors
a r e g i v e n by D a v e n p o r t ( 1 9 6 4 ) . Their values are generally
i n t h e r e g i o n o f 3.0 to 4.0.
S p e c i f i c a t i o n of a d e s i g n e a r t h q u a k e i s a difficult
problem because earthquakes a r e , by t h e i r v e r y nature,
notoriously unpredictable. A r a t i o n a l procedure would
be t o d e t e r m i n e the p r o b a b i l i t y of e x c e e d i n g a specified
i n p u t g r o u n d m o t i o n and d e s i g n t h e s t r u c t u r e so that
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of damage o r c o l l a p s e was acceptable
taking into account the p e n a l t y of f a i l u r e i n terms of
l o s s of l i f e or economic c o s t . Much e f f o r t h a s been
put i n t o d e v e l o p i n g such a procedure for the design of
b u i l d i n g s i n s e i s m i c a l l y a c t i v e r e g i o n s (ATC, 1978).
However, the d e s i g n of l a r g e b r i d g e s to r e s i s t earthquakes
is s t i l l c a r r i e d o u t by r e l a t i v e l y u n r e f i n e d procedures.
For example, the Bosporus Bridge i n the s e i s m i c a l l y active
r e g i o n of Turkey was designed to r e s i s t e q u i v a l e n t q u a s i -
s t a t i c f o r c e s r e s u l t i n g from a ground a c c e l e r a t i o n of
0.125g, i n combination w i t h dead l o a d , temperature and
reduced live load (Davis,1988) . This procedure was
justified by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f l i v e l o a d and
wind were more s e v e r e . I t i s certainly true that long
s p a n b r i d g e s h a v e a good r e c o r d of p e r f o r m a n c e i n e a r t h -
quakes. The p e r f o r m a n c e of s h o r t - s p a n and multi-span
highway b r i d g e s has a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d .
7.2 Human response

Human b e i n g s a r e s u r p r i s i n g l y s e n s i t i v e t o v i b r a t i o n and
a r e o f t e n d i s t u r b e d by i n t e n s i t i e s t h a t a r e w e l l below
those r e q u i r e d to o v e r s t r e s s the s t r u c t u r e s they use.
Psychological f a c t o r s are very important. The sensation
of motion of a l o n g - s p a n bridge tends to undermine con-
f i d e n c e i n the s e c u r i t y of the structure.
Irwin (1978) suggested a base curve f o r a c c e p t a b l e
human r e s p o n s e to v i b r a t i o n of b r i d g e s under frequent
f o r m s of e x c i t a t i o n s u c h a s t r a f f i c and w i n d . The curve
i s f o r v e r t i c a l m o t i o n and i s shown i n F i g . 8 . Bridges
are predominantly s u s c e p t i b l e to v e r t i c a l vibration,
being wide but g e n e r a l l y s h a l l o w i n depth. The curve
compares w e l l with the lower l i m i t for standing persons
obtained by L e o n a r d (1966). He s h o w e d t h a t b o d y m o t i o n
and m u s c u l a r c o o r d i n a t i o n during w a l k i n g tends to i n c r e a s e
t o l e r a n c e to the v i b r a t i o n . There i s o b v i o u s l y an upper
471
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10
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0011 I Mil 1 I 1 I I MM I I I MINI I I I I I 11,1
0.1 1.0 10 100
Frequency (Hz)
Fig.8 Human response to vibration of bridges
l i m i t above which t h e r e i s d i f f i c u l t y i n walking. Irwin

proposed an upper l i m i t curve f o r storm c o n d i t i o n s which
approximates c l o s e l y to t h e recommendation given f o r
footbridges i n BS5400(1978) .
7.3 Fatigue endurance

B r i d g e s o n m a j o r t r u n k r o a d s may b e l o a d e d by a s many as a
m i l l i o n h e a v y l o r r i e s p e r y e a r w h i c h would amount t o
about 5x10 a x l e l o a d s d u r i n g a l i f e o f 120 y e a r s . However,
t h e maximum s t r e s s u n d e r a x l e l o a d i s m a i n l y a static
or p s e u d o - s t a t i c e f f e c t . The dynamic components due
to v i b r a t i o n under t r a f f i c a r e u s u a l l y s m a l l enough t o
be neglected.
W i n d l o a d i n g g i v e s r i s e t o many o s c i l l a t i o n s o f s t r e s s
during the l i f e t i m e of a s t r u c t u r e . Smith (1980) cal-
c u l a t e d t h e e f f e c t o f t h e d y n a m i c c o m p o n e n t o f w i n d on
t h e f a t i g u e e n d u r a n c e o f t h e Wye B r i d g e i n t h e UK. The
numerical data suggested t h a t f a t i g u e was n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t
problem i n that context.
472
Copyright CRC Press

8 Conclusions
C o m m e r c i a l f i n i t e e l e m e n t p r o g r a m s a r e now a v a i l a b l e w h i c h
are capable of taking i n t o account geometric s t i f f e n i n g
i n t h e a n a l y s i s o f l o n g span b r i d g e s . The linearised
t h e o r y h a s b e e n s h o w n , by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t e s t s on f u l l -
s c a l e b r i d g e s , t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r p u r p o s e s o f e n g -
ineering design. T h e o r e t i c a l methods have been d e v e l o p e d
t o i n c l u d e s e c o n d a r y n o n - l i n e a r e f f e c t s due t o l a r g e
displacements. These e f f e c t s a r e g e n e r a l l y s m a l l b u t
can r e s u l t i n c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n v e r t i c a l and t o r s i o n a l
modes when t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s a r e v e r y c l o s e .
I t has been f o u n d t h a t t h e l o n g e s t span s u s p e n s i o n
b r i d g e s h a v e many m o d e s o f v i b r a t i o n w i t h i n t h e r a n g e
o f e x c i t a t i o n by t u r b u l e n t w i n d . The s p e c t r a l a n a l y s i s
m e t h o d n e e d s t o be d e v e l o p e d i n t o a d i s c r e t e f o r m a t so
t h a t m o r e m o d e s , many o f w h i c h h a v e c o m p l i c a t e d s h a p e s ,
c a n be i n c l u d e d .
E a r t h q u a k e l o a d i n g h a s p r o v e d t o be a s e v e r e t e s t o f
the d e s i g n o f s h o r t span b r i d g e s and m u l t i - s p a n v i a d u c t s
in seismically active regions. S u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s and
o t h e r l a r g e b r i d g e s have a good r e c o r d o f p e r f o r m a n c e
i n e a r t h q u a k e s . Wind l o a d i n g , c o m b i n e d w i t h dead and
l i v e l o a d , i s s t i l l probably the c r i t i c a l load case.
Human s e n s i t i v i t y t o v e r t i c a l m o t i o n i s an i m p o r t a n t
consideration i n the design of bridges. Data e x i s t s
to e s t a b l i s h l i m i t s t o ensure s a t i s f a c t o r y performance
over a wide range of f r e q u e n c i e s .
9 References
Abdel-Ghaffar,A.M. (1980) V e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n analysis of

suspension bridges. J.Struct.Div.,ASCE,vl06,ST10,p2053.
A b d e l - G h a f f a r , A . M . and R u b i n , L . I . ( 1 9 8 2 ) S u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e
r e s p o n s e t o m u l t i p l e - s u p p o r t e x c i t a t i o n s . J.Engng.Mech.,
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A b d e l - G h a f f a r , A . M . and R u b i n , L . I . ( 1 9 8 3 ) N o n - l i n e a r f r e e
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ATC ( 1 9 7 8 ) T e n t a t i v e P r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e D e v e l o p m e n t o f
Seismic R e g u l a t i o n s f o r B u i l d i n g s . Applied Technology
C o u n c i l , A T C 3-06, N a t i o n a l B u r e a u o f S t a n d a r d s , USA.
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a c t e r i s t i c s . P r o c . I C E , v 8 3 , p a r t 2,561-600.
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Institution,London.
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t e s t s on b r i d g e s . Wind t u n n e l m o d e l l i n g f o r c i v i l eng-
i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s (Reinhold,TA ed.) Cambridge Press
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Dumanoglu,A . A ., G a r e v s k i , M . and Severn,R.T. (1988). Dynamic
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s e i s m i c behaviour of Jindo bridge,
South Korea. Struct.Eng.Review,vl,n3,141-150.
Dumanoglu,A.A . and S e v e r n , R . T . (1985) Asynchronous seismic
a n a l y s i s o f m o d e r n s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s : P a r t 1: F r e e
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modern s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e s t o a s y n c h r o n o u s vertical
ground motion. Proc.ICE, v83,part 2,701-730.
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the ground. Item 85020, Engng.Sci.Data Unit, London.
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cable-stayed bridges. Earth.Engng.Struct.Dyn,v8,nl,1-16.
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s t r u c t u r e s . The S t r u c t u r a l Engineer,v56A,237-244.
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i n e e r i n g a s p e c t s o f t h e 1971 San Fernando Earthquake.
Nat.Bur.Standards, Ser.no.40, USA.
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P u g s l e y , A . G . ( 1 9 4 9 ) On t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s o f s u s p e n s i o n
c h a i n s . Q u a r t e r l y J.Mech.& App.Mechs,II(4),412-418.
Scanlan,R.H.(1983) A e r o e l a s t i c s i m u l a t i o n of b r i d g e s .
Proc.ASCE,vl09,ST12,p2829.
S m i t h , I . J . ( 1 9 8 0 ) W i n d i n d u c e d d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e o f t h e Wye
B r i d g e . E n g n g . S t r u c t s . ,v2,p202.
T a n a k a , H . a n d D a v e n p o r t , A . G . ( 1 9 8 3 ) Wind i n d u c e d r e s p o n s e o f
the Golden Gate B r i d g e . J.Eng.Mech.,ASCE,v109,EMI,p296.
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CIRIA, London.
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DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF C A B L E -
S T A Y E D BRIDGES
J.C. WILSON, T. L I U , W. GRAVELLE
Dept Civil Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada
Abstract
An e x t e n s i v e program o f f u l l - s c a l e ambient v i b r a t i o n measurements has
been conducted t o e v a l u a t e t h e dynamic response o f a 542 meter c a b l e -
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
s t a y e d b r i d g e . A t o t a l o f 25 modal f r e q u e n c i e s and a s s o c i a t e d mode

shapes were i d e n t i f i e d f o r t h e deck s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n t h e f r e q u e n c y
range o f 0-2 Hz. Of t h e s e 25 modes, 10 were v e r t i c a l modes, 10 were
c o u p l e d t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e modes, 3 were t o r s i o n a l modes, and 2 were
t r a n s v e r s e modes. There was c o n s i d e r a b l e dynamic i n t e r a c t i o n between
t h e deck and tower s t r u c t u r e s . E s t i m a t i o n s were a l s o made f o r damping
r a t i o s f o r t h e f i r s t two modes. I t i s c l e a r l y e v i d e n t from the
r e s u l t s o f t h i s t e s t program t h a t t h e dynamic p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e c a b l e -
s t a y e d b r i d g e a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f many modes h a v i n g
c l o s e l y - s p a c e d f r e q u e n c i e s and d i m e n s i o n a l c o m p l e x i t y i n t h e i r mode
shapes.
Keywords: C a b l e - s t a y e d B r i d g e , Ambient v i b r a t i o n s , Dynamics,
E x p e r i m e n t a l , Modes
1 Introduction
C a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s possess c o m p l i c a t e d dynamic b e h a v i o u r when

e x c i t e d by f o r c e s such as w i n d , t r a f f i c o r e a r t h q u a k e s . T h i s paper
i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e i r dynamic b e h a v i o u r w i t h r e s u l t s o f a f u l l - s c a l e
v i b r a t i o n measurement program conducted on a newly c o n s t r u c t e d c a b l e -
stayed b r i d g e i n the United S t a t e s . The t e s t program was conducted t o
d e t e r m i n e dynamic p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e 542 meter Quincy Bayview B r i d g e
w h i c h c r o s s e s t h e M i s s i s s i p p i R i v e r i n I l l i n o i s ( L i u , 1989). The t e s t
program c o n s i s t e d o f measurement o f t h e v i b r a t i o n response o f t h e
b r i d g e t o a m b i e n t l e v e l s o f wind and t r a f f i c e x c i t a t i o n s . Detailed
i n f o r m a t i o n on e x p e r i m e n t a l l y e v a l u a t e d dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a
f u l l - s c a l e cable-stayed bridge i s o f current value i n providing a
reference f o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f numerical modelling techniques. I t is
o f f u t u r e v a l u e i n l e a d i n g towards a more complete u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h e dynamic response o f c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l f o r c e s .
I n t h i s p a p e r , emphasis i s p l a c e d on e x p e r i m e n t a l a s p e c t s and r e s u l t s
o f t h e r e s e a r c h p r o g r a m . Comparisons o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l measurements
w i t h r e s u l t s o f a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f i n i t e element model a r e a l s o
included.
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2 The bridge
The Quincy Bayview B r i d g e , shown i n F i g u r e 1, (opened i n September

1987), c a r r i e s two l a n e s o f t r a f f i c . The b r i d g e deck c o n s i s t s o f a
c o n c r e t e road s u r f a c e , two main s t e e l g i r d e r s on t h e o u t e r edges o f
t h e deck, and f i v e s t e e l s t r i n g e r s between t h e g i r d e r s . The deck i s
c o n t i n u o u s over s u p p o r t s a t t h e two t o w e r s . The towers a r e s u p p o r t e d
on e n d - b e a r i n g p i l e s d r i v e n t h r o u g h s o f t r i v e r bottom s o i l t o r o c k .
Fig. 1. E l e v a t i o n view o f t h e Quincy Bayview b r i d g e
3 Ambient vibration measurement program
3.1 Test procedures

The s c h e d u l e o f t h e t e s t program was developed a f t e r e x a m i n a t i o n o f
p r e v i o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s o f suspension b r i d g e s ( A b d e l - G h a f f a r and
Scanlan, 1985; BrownJohn e t a l . , 1987). However, t h e dynamic
behaviour o f a cable-stayed b r i d g e i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t than
t h a t o f a c l a s s i c a l s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e . A unique f e a t u r e o f t h e
dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s i s t h a t many o f t h e
modes possess m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l mode shapes and many modal f r e q u e n c i e s
a r e spaced a t c l o s e i n t e r v a l s i n t h e low f r e q u e n c y end o f t h e
spectrum. Thus, s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d t o t h e d e s i g n o f a
v i b r a t i o n measurement t e s t program i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n s u f f i c i e n t
measurements a t p r o p e r l o c a t i o n s on t h e b r i d g e i n o r d e r t o i d e n t i f y
these complex dynamic p r o p e r t i e s .
I n t h i s t e s t program a l l v i b r a t i o n measurements were conducted o n l y
on t h e e a s t e r n ( I l l i n o i s ) s i d e as t h e b r i d g e i s v e r y n e a r l y symmetric
a b o u t t h e mid-span. To i d e n t i f y v e r t i c a l and t o r s i o n a l m o t i o n s o f t h e
deck, a r e f e r e n c e s t a t i o n (R) and a moving s t a t i o n (E) were
e s t a b l i s h e d , as shown i n F i g u r e 2. Each s t a t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f two
v e r t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d t r a n s d u c e r s p l a c e d a t t h e o u t e r edges o f t h e deck.
The r e f e r e n c e s t a t i o n was l o c a t e d a t p o s i t i o n R11 ( 1 1 t h c a b l e anchor
p o i n t f r o m t h e e a s t end) on t h e main span and t h e moving s t a t i o n was
p o s i t i o n e d s u c c e s s i v e l y a t each c a b l e anchor p o i n t a l o n g t h e deck.
I n f o r m a t i o n on v e r t i c a l and t o r s i o n a l components can be o b t a i n e d by
a d d i n g and s u b t r a c t i n g t i m e domain s i g n a l s f r o m t h e two t r a n s d u c e r s
l o c a t e d on t h e o u t e r edges o f t h e deck. The mode shapes can be
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F i g . 2. Measurement o f v e r t i c a l and t o r s i o n a l m o t i o n s
d e t e r m i n e d by comparing t h e s p e c t r a l a m p l i t u d e s a t t h e moving s t a t i o n
w i t h the amplitudes a t the reference s t a t i o n .
F i g u r e 3 shows a t y p i c a l t e s t c o n f i g u r a t i o n f o r measuring t h e
t r a n s v e r s e v i b r a t i o n m o t i o n s u s i n g two h o r i z o n t a l l y o r i e n t e d t r a n s -
d u c e r s . The t h r e e t r a n s d u c e r s a t t h e r e f e r e n c e s t a t i o n measure s i m u l -
taneous m o t i o n s i n t h e v e r t i c a l , t o r s i o n a l , and t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n s
t o p r o v i d e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l a m p l i t u d e and phase i n f o r m a t i o n . Dynamic
i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e deck and t h e tower was examined by
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y measuring h o r i z o n t a l m o t i o n s o f t h e t o p o f t h e tower
and v e r t i c a l and t r a n s v e r s e m o t i o n s o f t h e deck. A t o t a l o f 55
d i f f e r e n t t e s t s e t u p s were used on t h e deck, tower and p i e r .
3.2 Instrumentation and data analysis

A 4-channel microcomputer-based s t r u c t u r a l v i b r a t i o n measurement
system was used t o measure, r e c o r d and a n a l y z e t h e dynamic response o f
t h e b r i d g e . Data were sampled a t 50 p o i n t s per second per channel
w i t h a t o t a l s a m p l i n g t i m e o f 10 m i n u t e s per t e s t c o n f i g u r a t i o n . This
d u r a t i o n was based on t h e t o t a l number o f planned t e s t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s ,
on t h e a v a i l a b l e d a t a s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y o f t h e microcomputer, and on
some p r e l i m i n a r y o n - s i t e s p e c t r a l a n a l y s e s . A few s e t s o f r e c o r d s
were a l s o t a k e n f o r l o n g e r d u r a t i o n s t o a s s i s t i n d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
damping c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A f t e r some p r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i t was
d e c i d e d t h a t p o s t - p r o c e s s i n g s p e c t r a l a n a l y s e s would be l i m i t e d t o t h e
f r e q u e n c y range o f 0-2 Hz u s i n g a s p e c t r a l f r e q u e n c y r e s o l u t i o n o f
0.01 Hz.
4 Experimental modal properties

4.1 Frequencies and mode shapes
A t o t a l o f 25 v i b r a t i o n modes o f t h e deck were i d e n t i f i e d w i t h i n t h e
f r e q u e n c y range o f 0-2 Hz. These i n c l u d e d v e r t i c a l , t o r s i o n a l , t r a n s -
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Fig. 3 Measurement o f t r a n s v e r s e m o t i o n s and phase
v e r s e , and c o u p l e d t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e modes. L o n g i t u d i n a l modes were

not i d e n t i f i e d i n the t e s t s . Table 1 l i s t s the e x p e r i m e n t a l l y
i d e n t i f i e d deck modes and t h e i r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n by mode shape. Of
t h e s e 25 modes, 10 a r e p u r e v e r t i c a l bending modes, 3 a r e p u r e
t o r s i o n a l modes, 2 a r e p u r e t r a n s v e r s e b e n d i n g modes, and 10 a r e
c o u p l e d t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e modes. The f u n d a m e n t a l mode o f t h e b r i d g e
deck i s a p u r e v e r t i c a l b e n d i n g mode w i t h a n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y o f
0.37 Hz. The f i r s t c o u p l e d t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e mode has a f r e q u e n c y o f
0.56 Hz. Data p o i n t s f o r t h e f i r s t f o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d
v e r t i c a l mode shapes a r e i n d i c a t e d by t h e marks i n F i g u r e 4, and
t h e f i r s t two t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e modes a r e shown s i m i l a r l y i n F i g . 5.
E x p e r i m e n t a l modal a m p l i t u d e s a r e n o t shown f o r t h e c e n t r e span o f t h e
t h i r d v e r t i c a l mode because t h e r e f e r e n c e s t a t i o n (R11) was a t a node
o f t h i s mode. The smooth c u r v e s shown i n t h e s e f i g u r e s a r e f r o m a
f i n i t e element s o l u t i o n , t o be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n t h e p a p e r .
I n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , a parameter c a l l e d t h e modal
coupling r a t i o has been d e f i n e d . T h i s r a t i o i s i n t e n d e d t o p r o v i d e a
measure o f t h e degree t o w h i c h d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n a l components o f a
mode c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e c o m p l e t e mode shape. Here, t h e c o u p l i n g r a t i o
f o r a c o u p l e d t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e mode can be expressed by d i v i d i n g t h e
maximum v e r t i c a l a m p l i t u d e o f t h e t o r s i o n a l component ( a t t h e edge o f
t h e deck) by t h e maximum t r a n s v e r s e modal a m p l i t u d e . These r a t i o s a r e
shown i n p a r e n t h e s e s i n T a b l e 1. The maximum a m p l i t u d e s a r e t h e m a x i -
mum a b s o l u t e a m p l i t u d e s o c c u r r i n g a l o n g t h e span f o r each component o f
t h e mode ( i . e . , t o r s i o n , t r a n s v e r s e ) , r e g a r d l e s s o f whether t h e y
o c c u r a t t h e same o r a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s . The modal c o u p l i n g
r a t i o s f o r a l l c o u p l e d t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e modes, except t h e f i r s t mode
(Mode 3, f = 0.56 H z ) , a r e g r e a t e r t h a n 1.0, w h i c h means t h a t t h e
modal responses o f t h e s e c o u p l e d t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e modes a r e
dominated by t o r s i o n a l components. I n many c a s e s , t h e v e r t i c a l
a m p l i t u d e o f t h e t o r s i o n a l component g r e a t l y exceeds t h e t r a n s v e r s e
amplitude.
478
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TABLE 1 . E x p e r i m e n t a l l y i d e n t i f i e d modes o f t h e Quincy Bayview
Bridge (deck)
Mode Modal Frequency Mode C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and

(Hz) Modal C o u p l i n g R a t i o
1 0.37 Vertical
2 0.50 Vertical
3 0.56 Coupled T o r s i o n - T r a n s v e r s e (0.71)
4 0.63 Transverse
6 0.74 Coupled T o r s i o n - T r a n s v e r s e ( 2 . 1 3 )
7 0.80 Vertical
8 0.80 Torsion
9 0.89 Vertical
11 1.06 Vertical
12 1.11 Coupled T o r s i o n - T r a n s v e r s e (—)
14 1.37 Vertical
16 1.43 Vertical
18 1.46 Vertical
19 1.47 Torsion
20 1.48 Vertical
21 1.68 Transverse
23 1.75 Vertical
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25 1.92 Torsion
( ) R11 i s a t a node o f t h e 1,. 11 Hz mode
A l t h o u g h t h e f r e q u e n c y r e s o l u t i o n used i n t h e d a t a a n a l y s i s was
r e a s o n a b l y h i g h ( 0 . 0 1 H z ) , some s p e c t r a l r e s o l u t i o n problems were
e n c o u n t e r e d . Two p a i r s o f v e r y c l o s e l y spaced modes were f o u n d : mode 7
( v e r t i c a l ) and mode 8 ( t o r s i o n ) a t 0.80 Hz, and mode 9 ( v e r t i c a l ) and
mode 10 ( c o u p l e d t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e ) a t 0.89 Hz. Even w i t h an
i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y r e s o l u t i o n o f 0.005 Hz, i t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o
o b t a i n a c l e a r s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f t h e s e modes. However,
o t h e r e v i d e n c e i n t h e f o r m o f phase and coherence v a l u e s made i t
p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h a t s e p a r a t e shapes were i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e
modes.
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THIR D VERTICA L MOD E
0.5 -
-i1 11 1 1 1 11 111 11 1 1 r
0.2 OA 0.6 0.8
CThotMOfKM)1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
DISTANCE ALONG D E C K ( F T ^ ^
MODEL ( f - 0.770 HZ) ( f - 0.6O0 HZ)
FOURT H VERTICA L MOD E
(Thousand*)
DISTANCE ALONG DECK ( FT ) ^ ^
MODEL ( f - 0.854 HZ) + TEST <f- 0.890 HZ)
+
Fig. 4(cont'd) Vertical mode shapes

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SECON D TRANSVERSE/TORSIONA L MOD E
TRANSVERSE
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
(Thou«ond«)
DISTANCE ALONG DECK ( FT )
MODEL ( f - 0.633 HZ) •f TEST ( f - 0. 740 HZ)
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4 . 2 Damping
A l i m i t e d number o f r e c o r d s o f 20 m i n u t e s t i m e d u r a t i o n were processed
t o examine modal damping r a t i o s . The damping r a t i o s f o r t h e f i r s t
deck bending mode and f i r s t coupled t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e mode were
e s t i m a t e d by employing t h e h a l f power bandwidth method. The e s t i m a t e d
ranges o f t h e damping v a l u e s f o r t h e f i r s t v e r t i c a l bending mode and
f i r s t c o u p l e d t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e mode o f t h e deck a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y
2.0-2.6? and 0.9-1.8?, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
5 Comparisons with a f i n i t e element model
The mode shapes and f r e q u e n c i e s e v a l u a t e d i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t

program were compared t o p r e d i c t i o n s o f a l i n e a r e l a s t i c f i n i t e
element model ( G r a v e l l e , 1990). F i g u r e 6 shows a comparison o f t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l and f i n i t e element f r e q u e n c i e s f o r t h e v e r t i c a l and
t r a n s v e r s e / t o r s i o n modes. I n g e n e r a l t h e f i n i t e element model
p r e d i c t s s l i g h t l y l o w e r f r e q u e n c i e s t h a n measured. W i t h i n t h e
b a n d w i d t h o f 0 t o 2 Hz, t h e r e i s v e r y good agreement f o r t h e v e r t i c a l
f r e q u e n c i e s , and r e a s o n a b l y good agreement i n t h e more c o m p l i c a t e d
c o u p l e d t r a n s v e r s e / t o r s i o n f r e q u e n c i e s . A comparison o f e x p e r i m e n t a l
and a n a l y t i c a l shapes o f t h e f i r s t f o u r v e r t i c a l and f i r s t two
t r a n s v e r s e / t o r s i o n modes a r e shown by t h e s o l i d l i n e s i n F i g s . 4 and
5. The agreement i n t h e computed and measured mode shapes i s judged
t o be v e r y good. More complete d e t a i l s a r e p r o v i d e d by G r a v e l l e
(1990).
6 Conclusions
(1) T h i s t e s t program has p r o v i d e d c o n c l u s i v e evidence o f t h e complex

dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f t h e Quincy Bayview B r i d g e , a d e s i g n which i s
t y p i c a l o f many modern c a b l e - s t a y e d b r i d g e s . The dynamic response i s
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by many c l o s e l y spaced coupled modes (25 modes w i t h f r e -
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
quencies l e s s t h a n 2 Hz). The fundamental mode o f t h e b r i d g e

( s y m m e t r i c v e r t i c a l ) i s 0.37 Hz and t h e f i r s t t o r s i o n mode which i s
c o u p l e d w i t h a t r a n s v e r s e response i s 0.56 Hz. I n terms o f t h e t o t a l
number o f modes w i t h i n t h e f r e q u e n c y range o f 0-2 Hz, t h e v i b r a t i o n o f
the Quincy Bayview B r i d g e i s dominated by v e r t i c a l modes and c o u p l e d
t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e modes. No e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence was found t o
s u g g e s t t h a t v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n o f t h e b r i d g e deck i s coupled w i t h
either t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n or transverse v i b r a t i o n w i t h i n the studied
f r e q u e n c y range. For each coupled t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e mode except t h e
f i r s t one (Mode 3, f = 0.56 Hz), t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e t o r s i o n a l
component p r e d o m i n a t e s i n t h e mode.
(2) The range o f damping v a l u e s found f o r t h e f i r s t v e r t i c a l mode was

2.0-2.6? and f o r t h e f i r s t c o u p l e d t o r s i o n - t r a n s v e r s e mode was 0.9-
1.8?. These damping v a l u e s p r o v i d e a g e n e r a l i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e l e v e l
o f damping w h i c h e x i s t e d f o r l o w l e v e l s o f ambient v i b r a t i o n , however
these v a l u e s s h o u l d be used w i t h t h e same c a u t i o n t h a t i s a p p r o p r i a t e
f o r a l l e x p e r i m e n t a l e s t i m a t e s o f f u l l - s c a l e s t r u c t u r a l damping.
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(3) There i s considerable i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e deck and t h e
t o w e r s , and many tower modes were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h deck m o t i o n s w i t h i n
t h e f r e q u e n c y range o f 0-2 Hz. However, t h e measurements were n o t
s u f f i c i e n t l y d e t a i l e d t o d e t e r m i n e complete mode shapes o f t h e t o w e r .
(4) No e v i d e n c e was f o u n d t o suggest n o n l i n e a r dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f

t h e Quincy Bayview B r i d g e a t low l e v e l s o f ambient e x c i t a t i o n . The
c o n s i s t e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e o f modal peaks f o r d i f f e r e n t d a t a r e c o r d s ,
and c o n s i s t e n t phase and coherence i n f o r m a t i o n , i n d i c a t e t h a t the
ambient dynamic response o f t h i s b r i d g e s t r u c t u r e i s l i n e a r .
(5) A t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l l i n e a r e l a s t i c f i n i t e model appears t o be

capable o f r e p r e s e n t i n g a c c u r a t e l y much o f t h e complex dynamic
b e h a v i o u r (modal f r e q u e n c i e s and mode shapes) o f t h e b r i d g e . It
c o n f i r m s t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t t r a n s v e r s e and t o r s i o n a l
m o t i o n s o f t h e deck a r e c o u p l e d , b u t t h a t v e r t i c a l v i b r a t i o n o f t h e
deck i s n o t c o u p l e d w i t h e i t h e r t o r s i o n o r l a t e r a l m o t i o n s o f t h e
deck.
7 Acknowledgements
The a u t h o r s would l i k e t o t h a n k Don Kennedy and Ming Wong f o r t h e i r

valuable assistance i n the f i e l d t e s t . The c o o p e r a t i o n o f F l o y d
Jacobsen and h i s s t a f f f r o m t h e I l l i n o i s Department o f T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
was a g r e a t a s s e t . A p p r e c i a t i o n i s a l s o extended t o t h e N a t u r a l
Sciences and E n g i n e e r i n g Research C o u n c i l o f Canada f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t .
8 References
A b d e l - G h a f f a r , A. M . , and S c a n l a n , R. H . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . "Ambient V i b r a t i o n
S t u d i e s o f Golden Gate B r i d g e : I . Suspended S t r u c t u r e " , J o u r n a l o f
E n g i n e e r i n g Mechanics, ASCE, V o l . 111, No.EM4, p p . 4 6 3 - 4 8 2 .
Brownjohn, J . M . , Dumanoglu, A. A . , S e v e r n , R. T . , and T a y l o r , C.

A. ( 1 9 8 7 ) , "Ambient V i b r a t i o n Measurements o f The Humber
Suspension B r i d g e and Comparison W i t h C a l c u l a t e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s " ,
Proc. I n s t n . C i v . Engrs. p p . 561-600.
G r a v e l l e , W. ( 1 9 9 0 ) , M a s t e r ' s T h e s i s , s u b m i t t e d t o McMaster
U n i v e r s i t y , H a m i l t o n , O n t a r i o , Canada.
L i u , T . ( 1 9 8 9 ) , " F u l l - S c a l e Ambient V i b r a t i o n Measurements on a C a b l e -

Stayed B r i d g e " , M a s t e r ' s T h e s i s , s u b m i t t e d t o McMaster U n i v e r s i t y ,
H a m i l t o n , O n t a r i o , Canada.
486
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N O N S T A T I O N A R Y A N A L Y S I S OF
SUSPENSION BRIDGES FOR MULTIPLE
SUPPORT E X C I T A T I O N S
C-H. H Y U N
Nuclear Safety Center/KAERI, Daejon, Korea
C-B. Y U N
Dept Civil Engineering, Korean Advanced Institute of Science and
Technology, Seoul, Korea
M . SHINOZUKA
Dept Civil Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, USA
Abstract
A method for the nonstationary response analysis of suspension bridges subjected to
earthquake ground excitations at multiple supports is developed. The equation of
motion is formulated for the vertical motion of the bridge girder using a continuous
coordinate system. The nonstationarity of the earthquake excitation is modelled by
utilizing a time varying envelope function. The correlation effects between ground
excitations at different supports are investigated, for various cases of travelling
seismic waves with different wave propagation velocities. The nonstationary
responses are obtained in terms of time dependent variance functions. Expected peak
responses are also evaluated, thereafter. Numerical results from the example analysis
indicate that the correlation effects between different support excitations are very
significant on the response of the suspension bridge.
Keywords: Nonstationarity, Suspension Bridge, Earthquake, Multiple Support
Excitation, Variances.
1 Introduction
For the seismic response analysis of suspension bridges, it is important to consider
the nonstationary characteristics and the correlation effect of the earthquake excita-
tions at multiple supports. The nonstationarity of the bridge response is caused by
the nature of earthquake motion as well as the flexible nature of the structure accom-
panied with relatively long natural periods.
Recently, many studies have been reported on the seismic analysis of suspension
bridges (Abdel-Ghaffar and Rubin 1982; Abdel-Ghaffar and Stringfellow 1984; Baron
et a l 1976; Rubin et al. 1983). However, in most of the cases, the randomness of
the earthquake excitation and structural response, particularly their nonstationary
characteristics, are not properly analyzed. That is, the response analysis is carried out
either by the ordinary spectral analysis which is based on the stationary assumption
or by the time history analysis using a limited number of measured or artificially gen-
erated earthquake records. More rigorous approaches for the nonstationary response
analysis have been reported for several cases of simpler structures (Lin 1965; Shino-
zuka et al. 1967 and 1968). By treating the nonstationary excitation as a sequence
of random pulses, Lin developed a method to compute the response in terms of the
log-characteristic functional. By modelling the earthquake ground motion as a
filtered Poisson process, Shinozuka et al. developed a procedure to obtain the time
dependent variance function of the response.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
In this paper, a method for the nonstationary response analysis of suspension

bridges subjected to multiple support seismic excitations is developed. The equation
487
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of motion is constructed for the vertical motion of the bridge girder using a continu-
ous coordinate system. Effects of the horizontal and vertical ground accelerations at
each support are included in the formulation. The nonstationary ground motion is
represented by a product of a stationary process and a deterministic envelope function
of time. The bridge responses are obtained as time dependent variance functions by
using a similar approach to the one proposed by Shinozuka et al (1968). For the
computational efficiency, the envelope function of the earthquake acceleration and the
correlation function of its stationary component are expressed in terms of exponential
and sinusoidal functions, so that the time dependent variance functions of the
responses can be computed analytically. Expected peak responses are also evaluated.
The correlation effects between ground motions at different supports are investigated
for various cases of travelling earthquake waves without energy dispersion.
Parametric studies are carried out for various shear wave velocities of the soil foun-
dation.
2 Equation of motion
2.1 General equation of motion
Considering the vertical motion only, the linearized equation of motion of a typical
three-span suspension bridge subjected to earthquake excitations at supports can be
obtained as (Timoshenko and Young 1965) (Fig. 1)
+ C •tf„(O = 0 (1)
g ' dt 2 * dt
(2)
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
f (t)
7 fa(t)
fi(t) f (t)
4
f (t)
2
f (t)
3
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of suspension bridge
488
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where r| = t\i(x t) is the total (not relative to the supports) vertical motion of the
t i9
girder of the i-th span from a fixed datum;, w,; is the dead weight of the bridge per
unit span length; and /,• are the Young's modulus and moment of inertia of the
bridge cross section; g is the gravitational acceleration constant; C« is the structural
damping coefficient; H is the sum of the horizontal components of the initial tension
w
in two main cables; H (t) is thefluctuatingcomponent of the horizontal cable tension

n
due to the girder and support motions; x is the longitudinal (i.e., horizontal) coordi-
t
nate of the i-th span; E A and L are the modulus of elasticity, cross-sectional area
C9 c c
and virtual length of the main cables; £- is the horizontal displacement of the main
4
cables at the tower tops or anchorages; /- is the length of the i-th span; and y;(*;) is
(
the initial cable profile of the i-th span from the horizontal line due to the dead load
and is expressed as
?o(*i) + h k
r , for / = 1
M
yo(*2) , for / =2 (3)
yo(*3) + —x
, for /=3
3
h
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
in which y (Xi) is the cable profile of the i-th span measured from its chord as
0
yo(xi) = for i =1,2,3 (4)

2HW
and h is the tower height from the deck level of the bridge. It is to be noted that, in
their previous studies (Abdel-Ghaffar and Rubin 1982; Abdel-Ghaffar and Stringfel-
low 1984; Rubin et al. 1983), Abdel-Ghaffar et al. employed a formulation which is
based on y (*i) instead of y;(x,-) for evaluation of H^t) in Eq. 2, which is inappropri-
0
ate to investigate the seismic response due to nonuniform support movements. The
boundary conditions for the vertical motions of the girder at the supports are
Tl;(0,O=//(O, i f c ( U ) = / , - i ( 0 . + ^'(0,0 = ^ , 0 = 0 , for/= 1,2,3 (5)
where fi(t)'s, 0=1,2,3,4) are the vertical ground displacements at the supports as in
Fig. 1 and the double prime(") denotes differentiation with respect to x.
Using Eqs. 3-5, Eq. 2 can be rearranged as (Hyun 1989)
3
W; W ;l;
#1,(0 = • E
t e t
*=1
+ 7-1/1(0-/2(0] + 7-1/4(0-/3(0] + [/ (0 -/s(0] 6

(6)
where fi(t)'s, 0=5,6) are the horizontal ground displacements along the longitudinal
axis of the bridge at two anchorage points. Eq. 6 implies that the tension variation
and the vertical response of the bridge are not only affected by the vertical ground
motions, but also by two longitudinal ground motions at the end anchorages.
Now, substituting Eq. 6 into Eq. 1, equation of motion of a suspension bridge in
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the vertical direction can be rewritten as
yv,;
-H,
g dt 2 1
dt
E A,
=0
r
(7)
*=1 nw 0 y=l
where
h_
(8.a)
h 2H„
h
A =-J-
2 (8.b)
h 2H W
h_ wl wl
l3 3
(8.c)
l2 2
h 2H W 2H W
h
A =-^-~ (8.d)
2H„
4
h
A-5 -1 (8.e)
A-6 1 (8.f)
2.2 Equation of motion for relative vertical displacement

The response of a bridge subjected to ground excitations may be evaluated as a sum
of the quasi-static response due to the support movements and the additional (vibra-
tional) displacement relative to the quasi-static response as,
iliCM) = I,gjiMfj(t) + v 0Ô t . /=1,2,3 (9)
where g ;0c ) is the static displacement (influence function) of the girder at x due to a
y t t
unit displacement of the j-th component of the support movements while the other
supports are held fixed; and v -(x -,r) is the relative displacement of the girder to the
l l
quasi-static response.
Substituting Eq. 9 into Eq. 7 and eliminating the quasi-static responses of Eq. 7,
the equation of motion for the relative vertical displacement of the girder can be
obtained as
3
-±Vi
8
+ Cî + EAvF -Hv w L
M
+
w
1 j L
L, c
~
*=1 Kl VkdXk
6 . . 6
y=l 8 y=l
where the boundary conditions are
v/(0,f) = VMS) = v/'(0,0 = v"(l t) = 0 , / = 1,2,3 h (11)
In this study, only" the relative vibrational responses are investigated, because it has
been reported that they are much larger than the quasi-static response components
(Baron et al. 1976; Rubin et a l 1983). The numerical results in the present study also
490
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indicated that the quasi-static response component accounts for at most 10% of the
total response.
Utilizing the mode superposition as
v =v -(x ,0= £<t>„(*/)<7„(0

£ l i (12)
where <t>„(jt;) is the n-th mode shape of the bridge and q (t) is the n-th modal coordi- n
nate, and neglecting the terms associated with the ground velocities in the right hand
side of Eq. 10 whose influence is insignificant (Baron et al. 1976; Rubin et al. 1983),
Eq. 10 can be rewritten as
q (t) + 2C„(0 ^(r) + <oh (t) = - £ r

n n n > n /-(0 (13)
in which T is the n-th modal participation factor associated with the j-th support
jn
excitation and given by

3 '< 3 \
T> = [ Z H > J s K * ; ) ^ y . 7=1,2,...,6 (14)
;=i o ;=i o
3 Formulation of nonstationary response

The duration of the strong earthquake ground motion is usually limited to a period in
the order of 10-30 seconds. Hence, for a structure with a relative long fundamental
natural period as in the present case of a suspension bridge, the duration of the earth-
quake excitation may not be long enough to make the structure vibrate upto the
steady state level. Therefore, for the seismic response analysis of such structures, the
nonstationary characteristics of the ground excitation and structural response must be
properly incorporated.
In this study, the nonstationary ground excitation(acceleration) is modelled as
(Shinozuka and Sato 1967)
f 0)
k = a (t)r (t)
k k , *=1,2 6 (15)
where a (t) is the deterministic envelope function that describes the nonstationarity of
k
the ground acceleration at the k-th support; and r (t) is the stationary component. k
Then, the nonstationary seismic response can be evaluate in terms of time

dependent variance functions. The variance functions of the relative vertical dis-
placements, viix^t) and bending moment of the bridge girder, si(x t) can be obtained h
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
as
£[vfo-,0] = £ £^n(^ (Xi)'E[q (t)q (t)] m n m (16)

n=l/n=l
E[ \x t)]
Si h = k / , l £ £(t>n fe)<t)m(^)^fe(0 7 (0]
2 /
< m (17)
^ J n=\m=\
where E [ • ] denotes the expectation. The covariance functions, which are to be used
for estimating maximum responses, can be calculated as
£[V;(*;,OV;(*;,0] = £ £ <t>n(^)^(^)^fe(0^ (0] m (18)

«=lm=l
£[v,to.Ov,-(xi,0] = £ £t.(xi)*«(x,-)-£[«.(t)?«(0] (19)

n=lm=l
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ElsfrMOCi.Ol = feA] £ £*«Vi)<t>m(^)^[^(04m(0]
2
(20)
l> J n=\m=\
E[i Qc ,t)i Qc ,t)]

i i i i = k-/-l£ £<t>«(^)$m(^)^fe(04 (0]
4
2
m (21)
«=lm= l
LJ
The time dependent covariance functions of the modal coordinates and its time-
derivatives in Eqs. 16-21 can be computed using convolution integral as follows:
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6 6 u
E[q (.t)q (t)]

n m = £ ir,„I}„ J[M*-*l)M^^/#*l . ^ M ^ (22)
6 6 1 1
E[q (.t)q (t)}

n m = E Z ^ r ^ Jj* .(»-t,)* a-i2)^//t .T )dT dx 1 m 1 2 1 2 (23)
6 6 "
E[q {t)q (ty\

n m = EEr,>,r |J/i„0-c )'im(^2)^/ (x ,1^x^X2
/m 1 ; 1 (24)
where
*/,// » t A W ( t 2 > ] = ^(XlKCC^r.r/Xj -Cz)
=
X £
(25)
MO = — ^ " " " ' s i n o w (26)
^ = (o (l-C„ ) B
2 1/2
(27)
in which R . (^rî> is the cross-correlation function of the stationary components of
r rj
the support accelerations.
4 Support ground motions for travelling seismic waves
In general, the correlation of the ground motions at different supports is extremely

complicated, particularly when the foundation condition varies along the path of the
seismic wave propagation. Therefore, in this paper, special cases for propagating
earthquake motions without energy dispersion are considered. Then, the cross-
correlation function, Rff(i\>%2), of the ground accelerations at two supports i and j
can be obtained as
«l(Xl-r,iCTs-^y)/? ^Tî-^+r,)C/(X!-^)t/(T2-7y) rir , / J = 1 > 2 ,3,4

/?^'(T ,T )= * 1 2
(28)
where R (t) is the autocorrelation function of the stationary component of the verti-
riKl
cal ground acceleration at the left anchorage; R r (0 is the one for the horizontal rs s
ground acceleration; and T =0 and 7,'s (i=2,3,4) are time lags between the left
x
anchorage and the i-th support(r = r and T =T ); and U(t-Ti) is a unit step func- 5 1 6 4
tion.
For evaluating E[q (t)q (t)] E[q (t)q (t)] and E[q (t)q (t)]
n in Eqs. 22-24, it is
m 9 n m n m
required to perform double integrations. If the envelope function a (t) and the corre- k
lation function R r (t) ° f k support motion can be determined in proper

rk k
t n e _ t n
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analytical expressions, the double integration may be carried out analytically. Con-
sidering the fact that the impulse response function h (t) is given as a product of an n
exponential and a sinusoidal (i.e., complex exponential) functions, in this study, a (t) k
is expressed in terms of exponential functions (Shinozuka et al. 1968) and R r (0 is rk k
in terms of products of exponential and sinusoidal functions as
a (t) = •
k
- e i In P W * > 0 ) (29)
<*'* - P'* P'*
Ixl a
lk
R>r r (l) = ILllke -"Ik
k k
[cos co T + sin CO/^ I x l ] *=1,5 (30)
1=1 /jk
®ik
where a' , P'*, a^, k and y are constants which may be determined based on the
lk
measured earthquake records; n is the number of functions required to express the

t
dynamic characteristics of earthquake excitation appropriately; and index k indicates

the vertical^=1) or horizontal^ =5) components of propagating earthquake motions.
Then, the double integrations can be efficiently carried out and analytical expressions
of the covariance functions can be obtained. The power spectral density(PSD) func-
tion corresponding to the correlation function in Eq. 30 can be obtained as
s
r r (P)
k k = Z—-———:
[aj£ + (co + ® ) ][a£ ik
^rr^—:
2
+ (a) - <o ) ]
— » *=l>
lk
2
5
(31)
/=i
In this paper the constant values in Eq. 31 are evaluated by curve-fitting to the PSD
functions obtained from measured earthquake data.
5 Evaluation of nonstationary response
Substituting Eqs. 26, 29 and 30 into Eqs. 22-24, the time dependent covariance func-
tions of the modal coordinates can be calculated analytically as (Hyun 1989)
*[*.<0*m(0]=/i<0 (32)
E[q (t)q (t)]
n m = -^C0 m /1(0 + GWC(0 (33)
E[q (t)q (t)]
n m = Cn©n[Cm©m/l(0 " ©^7,2,(0]
+ <o«J-Cm<» /,^(0 + (0^/^(0] m (34)
where
6 6 i
n
4 y..H 2 4 r n
, for 8=1,2,3,4 (35)
and Zy =Ti -Tj is the time-lag of the travelling earthquake wave at the i-th support
relative to that at the j-th supports; fc=l (for 1 <ij< 4) or 5(for 5 <ij< 6); and
VnmijipijiiOf înijipijÔ and , are constants which can be obtained explicitly as
functions of structural properties (£„, co , T^) and parameters of earthquake excita- rt
tions (a'*, p'*, a <o , Ti) (Hyun 1989).

lk> lk
Finally, the expected maximum of the nonstationary response is evaluated using

the approach by Shinozuka and Yang (1971) as
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E[v ]=o[K
m + 0.5772/1: (36)
where
K = (ochW) 1/a
, (N =2 |v (0,O^ , v (0,r) =
+ +
(l-p ^)) ' )
2 1 2
(37)
and E[v ] is the asymptotic expected value of the maximum response v as the time
m m
duration(r) increases; v (0,f) is the expected rate of upcrossing of level zero of the
+
response at time t; p(0 is the correlation coefficient between v(t) and v(0; and a and
o are the parameters which can be determined byfittingthe peak distribution of the
response obtained in this study to the Weibull distribution.
6 Numerical examples and discussions
Example analyses have been carried out for the Golden Gate Bridge in the United
States. Structural properties of the bridge are summarized in Table 1. Dynamic
analysis has been performed using the first five symmetric modes. The corresponding
natural periods were obtained as 8.15, 6.45, 3.92, 3.48 and 2.40 seconds. The asym-
metric modes of the bridge are not used, since the response associated with them are
found to be insignificant, as reported in Rubin et al. (1983). Modal damping ratio is
assumed to be 2% for each mode. Dynamic responses are shown only at the mid-
point of the center span for brevity.
Two cases of support earthquake excitations with different dynamic characteris-
tics are considered. The parameters for the envelope and power spectral density
functions are approximately evaluated based on two sets of earthquake records; i.e.,
the 1940 E l Centro earthquake(NS and vertical components in Fig. 2) for Case I and
the 1971 San Fernando earthquake(S16E and vertical components) for Case II. The
power spectral density functions are estimated fairly conservatively during the curve
fitting. The estimated parameters for Case I are summarized in Table 2. Fig. 3
shows the corresponding power spectral density functions of the stationary com-
ponents. In this paper, dynamic responses have been calculated considering the rela-
tive vibrational responses only, since the numerical investigation indicated that the
quasi-static components account for at most 10 % of total responses.
Fig. 4 shows the time-varying variance functions of the nonstationary responses
due to travelling earthquake excitations(Case I) for various shear wave velocities of
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Table 1. Parameters of Golden Gate Bridge Table 2. Parameters of
earthquake excitations
w (kips/ft)
ti i=l,3 23.10
Case I
i=2 22.70 Parameters
Ei (ksi) 29000 k=l k=5
/, (ft in ) 2 2
j=l,3 56000 a' (1/sec)
k 0.1167 0.0834
i=2 86400 P* (1/sec) 4.651 1.166
H (kips)
w 106934 a (1/sec)
lk 1.980 2.973
^ (in ) 2
1663.8 co (rad/sec)
ik 5.975 5.890
E (ksi)
c 29000 Yu (cm /sec )2 3
193.8 4897.
/,• (ft) j=l,3 1125 a 2k (1/sec) 9.265 3.591
0D2* (rad/sec) 28.94 11.05
j=2 4200
L (ft)
c 7534 Y2* (cm /sec )
2 3
4089. 2462.
h (ft) 500
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(J
LU
2
O
-400.0
TIME (SEC)
(a) NS component
400.0-
CO
3
-400.0-1-
TIME (SEC)
(b) Vertical component
Fig. 2. 1940 E l Centro earthquake acceleration records and assumed envelopes
FREQUENCY (Hz) FREQUENCY (Hz)

(a) Horizontal component (b) Vertical component
Fig. 3. PSD's of stationary parts of ground accelerations assumed in Case I
the soil foundation; i.e., V =200, 800, 5000 and 100000 ft/sec. The shear wave velo-
k
city of 5000 ft/sec is considered to be appropriate for the rock formation which is the
case for the Golden Gate Bridge (Baron et al. 1976). Results for two extreme cases
with fully-correlated and uncorrected support excitations are also shown in the
figures for the purpose of comparison. The results indicate that the girder responses
show quite different nonstationary characteristics depending on the shear wave velo-
city of the soil foundation(i.e., the correlation between support excitations). It can be
seen that bridge responses reach their maximum values at about 10-20 seconds after
the earthquake starts, and then the responses die down very gradually. The responses
last significantly longer than the earthquake excitations. It is also interesting to
notice that, in the case of bending moment, variance functions particularly for
V =200 ft/sec show two apparent peaks, which are caused by the time lag of the pro-
k
495
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

pagating earthquake wave from one anchorage point to the other. From the results, it
can be observed that the correlation effects between support excitations are very
significant to the bridge response. In general, the uncorrected assumption gives
overly conservative response, while the fully correlated assumption predicts
significantly unconservative response. The unconservative results for the fully corre-
lated support excitations, are due to the fact that the vertical bridge motion is not
affected by the uniform horizontal movements of the supports. On the other hand, for
the partially correlated cases(i.e., those for travelling earthquake waves), the horizon-
tal support motions contribute very significantly to the bridge response in the vertical
direction as discussed later.
Table 3 shows the expected peak responses obtained in the present study along
with those by the time history analysis method and the Vanmarke's method (Gaspar-
ini and Vanmarke 1976). In the time history analysis, twenty different nonstationary
time histories are simulated based on the power spectral density function (Eq. 31) and
the envelope function (Eq. 29). Then, the maximum responses are calculated for
each case, and the averages of the results are obtained, thereafter. The results in the
20.0-
TIME (SEC)
(a) Displacement
2.0-1
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TIME (SEC)
(b) Bending moment
Fig. 4. Variances of responses at mid-point of center span in Case I
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Copyright CRC Press

Table 3. Expected maximum displacement at mid-point of center span
(a) Case I (unit : feet)
Time Present Vanmarke's method*
Input history method Confidence level(%)
analysis* 50 95
Propagating 200 3.953(18.0)^ 5.033 5.106 8.190
wave 800 3.135(20.0) 3.228 3.006 4.436
velocity 5000 4.794(17.8) 5.118 6.664 11.90
(ft/sec) 10
5
0.775(7.70) 0.703 1.011 1.515
Fully correlated input 0.688(10.0) 0.657 0.880 1.337
Uncorrelated input 7.187 ™
7.499
n A
16.76
(b) Case II (unit : feet)

Time Present Vanmarke's method 0
Input history method Confidence level(%)

analysis* 50 95_
Propagating 200 9.564(23.5)* 12.66 13.44 22.35
wave 800 6.800(25.5) 7.664 7.303 10.90
velocity 5000 9.790(20.4) 11.57 13.64 24.43
(ft/sec) 10
s
2.538(14.6) 2.874 3.402 5.164
Fully correlated input 2.372(15.7) 2.802 3.204 4.923
Uncorrected input 17.09 16.10 36.32
1
Average of maximum responses for 20 different simulated time histories.
b
Coefficients of variation(%) of maximum responses.
Table 4. Expected maximum responses at mid-point of center span due to each com-
ponent of ground motion (V*=5000 ft/sec in Case I)
Support acceleration DisplacementffY) Bending moment(kip-ft)

Horizontal component only 5.076 66110.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Vertical component only 0.642 11980.

All component 5.118 66960.
tables show that the coefficients of variation of the maximum responses obtained by
using different simulated earthquake motions are fairly large. However, the average
values of the peak responses for the twenty simulated earthquakes are found to be
reasonably close to the results by the present method. Unlike to the results of the
present study, the peak values by Vanmarke's approach have been evaluated utilizing
the variances computed by the (stationary) spectral analysis. In this approach, the
power spectral density functions of the earthquake accelerations are obtained approxi-
mately, by utilizing the Fourier transforms of the simulated nonstationary earthquake
records which were used in the time history analysis. It is also found that the the
results by the Vanmarke's method with 50% confidence level are reasonably com-
pared with those by the present approach.
Finally, in Table 4, the contributions of the horizontal and vertical components
of support accelerations are compared for the earthquake load Case I with V =5000 k
ft/sec. From the table, it can be seen that the contributions of the horizontal com-
ponents of ground motions are dominant to the total response of the bridge girder. In
other word, the responses of suspension bridges are more significantly affected by the
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horizontal (longitudinal) earthquake components than by the vertical components.
7 Conclusions
In this paper, an efficient method for the nonstationary response analysis of suspen-
sion bridges subjected to multiple support earthquake excitations is developed. In this
approach, time dependent variance functions of the bridge responses are evaluated.
The correlation effects of the earthquake excitations at different supports are investi-
gated. It has been found that the correlation between support excitations plays a very
important role on response characteristics of suspension bridges. In general, uncorre-
cted support motions give conservative responses. On the other hand, fully correlated
support excitations yield very unconservative responses. It is also found that the
effect of the horizontal (longitudinal) earthquake component on the responses of
suspension bridges is more significant than that of the vertical component.
8 References
Abdel-Ghaffar, A. M. and Rubin, L . I. (1982). "Suspension bridge response to multi-
support excitations." J. of the Eng. Mech. Div., ASCE, 108(2), 419-435.
Abdel-Ghaffar, A. M., and Stringfellow, R. G. (1984). "Response of suspension
bridges to travelling earthquake excitations: PART I. vertical response." Soil
Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 3(2), 62-72.
Baron, F., Arikan, M., and Hamati, E. (1976). "The effects of seismic disturbances on
the Golden Gate Bridge." Report No. E E R C 76-31, Earthquake Engineering
Research Center, University of California, Berkeley, C A .
Gasparini, D. A., and Vanmarke, E. H. (1976). "Simulated earthquake motions com-
patible with prescribed response spectra." MIT, Publication No. R76-4.
Hyun, C. H. (1989). "Stochastic response analysis of suspension bridges for wind and
earthquake loads." thesis presented to KAIST, Seoul, Korea, in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Lin, Y . K. (1965). "Nonstationary excitation and response in linear systems treated as
sequences of random pulses." J. of the Acoust. Soc. of Am., 38(3), 453-460.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Rubin, L. I., Abdel-Ghaffar, A. M., and Scanlan, R. H. (1983). "Earthquake response
of long-span suspension bridges." Report No. 83-SM-13, Dept. of Civil Eng.,
Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.
Shinozuka, M., Itagaki, H., and Hakuno, M. (1968). "Dynamic safety analysis of
multistory buildings." J. of the Struc. Div., ASCE, 94(1), 309-330.
Shinozuka, M., and Sato, Y. (1967). "Simulation of nonstationary random process."
J. of the Eng. Mech. Div., ASCE, 93(1), 11-40.
Shinozuka, M., and Yang, J.-N. (1971). "Peak structural response to nonstationary
random excitations." J. of Sound and Vibration, 16(4), 505-517.
Timoshenko, S. P., and Young, D. H. (1965). Theory of structures. 2nd Ed., Mc-
Graw Hill, Inc., New York, N.Y.
9 Appendix A. Conversion to SI units

1 ft = 0.305 m, 1 in. = 0.0254 m, 1 kip = 4.45 KN, 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa
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MICROCOMPUTER-BASED E X T R A C T I O N
OF C A B L E - S T A Y E D BRIDGE N A T U R A L
MODES
A. N A M I N I
Dept Civil and Architectural Engineering, University of Miami, Coral
Gables, Florida, USA
Abstract
In any design of cable-stayed bridges, dynamic natural modes must be computed
in order to analyze the proposed bridge against dynamic loadings. This paper
presents a computational formulation for the extraction of bending, torsional, and
sway natural modes using the subspace iteration method with starting iteration
vectors generated by the Lanczos method. The formulation is developed for the
IBM-compatible microcomputer environment implemented via an out-of-core
storage scheme, necessitated by the Disk Operating System's memory addressing
limitation of 640 kilobytes for program size. The resulting algorithm is then
applied to the Luling Bridge, a double-plan fan-type cable-stayed bridge located in
New Orleans, USA. Though runtime is slower than commercially available
mainframe programs, the algorithm's accuracy compares extremely well to
previous analyses.
Keywords: Cable-Stayed Bridges, Natural Modes, Microcomputer, Frontal Method.
1 Introduction
Cable-stayed bridge dynamic behavior involves local and global vibration
tendencies. Local behavior pertains to the dynamic properties associated with one
component of the overall bridge. For instance, cables may be excited into violent
oscillations due to resonance or galloping. This paper will not concern itself with
local vibration.
Global behavior pertains to the vibration tendencies associated with the entire
structure, whereby the deck, tower, and cable components unite to offer resistance
to dynamic loads. For instance, the original Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge
was destroyed by divergent oscillations due to aerodynamic flutter during a mild
gale of 68 km/hr. Other wind related dynamic phenomenon are: vortex-shedding,
which occurs when von Karman vortices are shed alternately from the upper and
lower edges of the deck equal to one of the bridge's natural frequencies; and
buffeting, which is the forced response due to random components of the wind,
either produced by natural turbulence or by upwind obstructions such as mountains
or buildings. Though not destructive, vortex-shedding produces a large steady-
state amplitude response which is discomforting to vehicle passengers and prone to
accelerate fatigue damage, while buffeting may induce alarming vibrations.
Other dynamic responses which must be accounted for are earthquakes and
moving vehicles. Earthquakes impart a sharp lateral acceleration at the base of
the bridge, which if strong enough may excite the lower natural modes.
Theoretically moving vehicles, such as many large trucks, if driven at high speeds
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LONGITUDINAL MOOS (ELEVATION) SENDING MOOE (ELEVATION)
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SWAY MOOE (PLAN)
TORSION MOOE
Fig. 1. Cable-Stayed Bridge Natural Mode Types
or with poor shock absorption mechanisms, many induce large vibrations though
its probability is rather minimal.
All of the stated global dynamic tendencies have one common attribute.
Namely, the excitation of a bridge natural mode, either bending, torsional, or
sway. Therefore, any cable-stayed bridge design must at some point,
computationally extract natural modes. In global dynamic behavior, response
motion is dominated by only the lowest few natural modes. As shown in Figure
1, cable-stayed bridges have four predominant types of vibration: longitudinal,
oscillation along the plane of the span; bending, oscillation vertical to the span;
sway, oscillation transverse to the span; and torsional, oscillation pivoting about
the deck's elastic axis. In general, longitudinal vibration is not important for
cable-stayed bridges, because inclined cables provide horizontal stabilizing forces
in the deck. Typically, natural modes are coupled between the different types,
with straight bridges exhibiting a low degree, while horizontally or vertically
curved spans displaying a high degree of coupling.
To extract cable-stayed bridge modes, previous investigators have developed
methods suitable for finite element discretization. Tang (1971), Cheung and Kajita
(1973), and Morris (1974) all determined natural modes using a linear-elastic
lumped mass formulation, though they did not reveal their solution method.
Izyumov, Tschanz, and Davenport (1977) also determined natural modes using a
lumped mass formulation but considered the coupling between torsional and sway
modes caused by the vertical eccentricity between the deck's center of gravity and
elastic axis. Again, their solution method was not explicitly stated. Fleming and
Egeseli (1976) stated that linear elastic lumped-mass formulation offers the best
discretization model with the solution method being any acceptable eigensystem
solution technique. More recently, Kumarasena, Scanlan, and Morris (1989) have
analyzed the Deer-Isle suspension bridge, with a lumped-mass formulation while
using a commercially available software package for the extraction of the lowest
few natural modes.
This paper details a microcomputer-based algorithm for the determination of
uncoupled natural modes using the subspace-iteration method (Bathe and
Ramaswamy, 1980). In order to accelerate convergence, starting iteration vectors
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are generated by the Lanczos method for matrix tridiagonalization. The three-
dimensional cable-stayed bridge's inertial forces are modeled with either a
consistent or lumped mass formulation, while the elastic forces are modeled with
space frame elements for the deck and tower, and the well-known Ernst rod
element for the cables. Computationally, the entire algorithm is implemented via
an out-of-core storage scheme, necessitated by the DOS's memory addressing
limitation of 640 kilobytes. Finally, the resulting algorithm is applied to the
Luling Bridge, a double-plan fan-type cable-stayed bridge which opened to traffic
in 1983.
2 Equations of Motion
For a discretized bridge model with space frame elements used for deck and tower
members, and Ernst (1965) rod elements used for cable members, the assembled
equations of motion for undamped response can be expressed in global matrix
form as,
[M] {q, } + [K] {q} = {Q}

tt (1)
where, [M] is the symmetrical mass matrix of order N, either lumped or

consistent; [K] is the symmetrical stiffness matrix of order N; {Q} is the load
vector of order N; {q} is response deformation vector of order N; and the
subscript, tt, used to represent in tensor form, the second partial derivative of the
deformation vector with respect to time, t, ie. d q/df, the response acceleration
2
vector. The order of matrices, N, is the total number of distinct degrees of

freedom used to discretize the bridge. Natural modes are defined to be response
amplitudes for a null load vector. Therefore, with {Q} having all entries being
zero, the response motion is assumed to be harmonic at all degrees of freedom
and written along the complex plane as,
{q} = m exp(icot) (2)
where, {<E>} is response amplitude vector; and u) is response circular frequency.

Upon substitution of Eq. 2 into Eq. 1, with {Q} being a null vector, valid
solutions exist only if the following set equations are met,
[K] {O} = co [M] m 2

(3)
Eq. 3 represents an eigenvalue problem, in which N unique solution exist, one for
each degree of freedom of the modeled bridge. The eigenvalues are ordered as
follows,
0 < X, < < X 3 < ... < (4)
where, X = (a , eigenvalue corresponding to the i-th lowest natural mode,

t
2
i=l,2,3,...,N. For each eigenvalue, there is an associated eigenvector, {OJj. All

eigenvalues are positive since both the mass and stiffness matrices are positive
definite, physically requiring that no rigid body modes exist.
3 Subspace Iteration Method
For a desired set of P lowest eigensolutions, (^,{0}^, i=l,2,3,...,P, the subspace

iteration method extracts the P eigensolutions with the following algorithm.
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Establish starting iteration vectors [XJ, arranged in a matrix of N rows by S
columns, where S is the subspace size and S > P.
For k = 1,2,3,... until Convergence Do
Perform an inverse iteration, solving for [X s

k+1 ],
[K] [X s
k+1 ] = [M] [XJ (5)
Compute the stiffness and mass matrices projected onto the S-dimensional
subspace,
[K s
k+ J = [X s
k+1 ] [K] [X
T s
k+ J (6)
[M s
k+1 ] = [X s
k+1 ] [M] [X
T s
k+1 ] (7)
Solve for the eigensolutions of the S-dimensional subspace,
[ K J [Q
s
k
s
k+1 ] = [M s
k+1 ] [Q J [£VJ (8
s
k+ )
Calculate improved approximations of the eigenvectors,
[X ] = [X
k+1
s
k+1 ] [Q s
k+1 ] (9)
Check for convergence for all eigenvalues, i=l,2,3,...,P,
I - ( U I/ < e (10)
EndFor
Starting iteration vectors, [XJ, must be linearly independent of each other, so that
convergence will occur to different eigensolutions. Then, providing that the
starting iteration vectors are not orthogonal to any of the desired P eigenvectors,
the i-th diagonal entry of [Q J converges to the eigenvalue, X and the i-th k+ i9
column vector of [X ] converges to the eigenvector, as k approaches <*>.

k+1
Bathe (1977) states the ultimate rate of convergence, y of the i-th iteration vector iy
to the desired i-th eigenvector will be
Yi = ^ i / 5 t i s+ (11)
and the ultimate rate of convergence of the i-th eigenvalue is
Yi = ( 5ii / A™ ) 2
(12)
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According to Eqs. 11 and 12, convergence is best attained when the subspace is
large in comparison to the number of eigensolutions sought, i.e. S » P, while
noting that when S = P, the P-th eigensolution converges extremely slowly. The
computer effort to perform one subspace iteration is considerable for large three-
dimensional idealizations. Bathe (1982) has stated that the subspace size for
optimal runtime convergence is
S = min { 2P, P+8 } (13)
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which is based on a bandwidth stored stiffness and mass matrix, with the inverse
iteration being solved in-core by the Cholesky decomposition method.
4 Lanczos Starting Iteration Vectors
The greatest difficulty in using the subspace iteration method is to choose starting
iteration vectors, [ X J , that are linearly independent to each other and are not
orthogonal to any of the lowest desired eigenvectors. The better the starting
iteration vectors approximate the true eigenvectors, the quicker the method
converges.
There are currently three acceptable methods of generating starting iteration
vectors. The first method consists of choosing random vectors, without regard to
the known attributes of the bridge model discretization. In the second or standard
method, a full unit vector is chosen for the first iteration vector. The elements of
the next (S-2) vectors are set equal to zero, except for an unit entry corresponding
to the next (S-2) degrees of freedom having the largest ratios of mass to stiffness.
The last iteration vector is a random vector. The standard method implies that the
degrees of freedom with the largest mass to stiffness ratios will be excited to the
lowest eigensolutions. This is rarely the case for large three-dimensional
idealizations.
The third, and by far the most powerful, was developed by Lanczos (1950) for
the tridiagonalization of matrices. The Lanczos generated vectors will be used as
starting iteration vectors for the subspace iteration method. The method computes
vectors with the following procedure.
With p! = 0, mass normalize a full unit vector {X<J to obtain the first iteration
vector, ( X i ) , as
{X,} = {X } / ( { X } [M] {Xo} r

0 0
T
(14)
For i = 2,3,4,... until S Do
Perform an inverse iteration, solving for { X J , L
[K] { X J = [M] {X,,}

L
(15)
Solve for major diagonal terms of tridiagonal,
a,, = {X\V [M] {X,,} (16)
Compute the non-Mass-normalized iteration vector,
{ X J = { X J - a,, {X,,} - p
L L
M {X, } 2 (17)
Determine the Mass-normalized scalar, which is tridiagonal off-diagonal term,
ft = ( { X J L T
[M] {X L
U1 } (18)
Mass-normalize the iteration vector,
{XJ = {X J / L
ft (19)
EndFor
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The set of Lanczos generated vectors are linearly independent of each other, and
more importantly, provide a good first approximation of the desired eigenvectors.
5 Computational Solution Techniques

In any natural mode extraction formulation, one of the most difficult tasks is the
execution of the inverse iteration, i.e. Eq. 5 of subspace iteration, and Eq. 15 of
Lanczos method. The difficulty lies in storing the assembled stiffness, [K], and
mass, [M], matrices in memory, and then solving for the equations in a reasonable
amount of time.
The storage difficulty arises from the large number of elements contained
within [K] and [M] which must be retained. For example, a cable-stayed bridge
modeled with 100 distinct joints with six degrees of freedom per joint, yields [K]
and [M] of order 600. The full matrices each contain 360,000 entries, and if
double precision accuracy is used (8 bytes/entry), total storage requirement for [K]
and [M] alone would be 5.76 Megabytes. On an IBM microcomputer
environment, DOS only permits individual programs to be no greater than 640
kilobytes. This limit pertains to all portions of a program, i.e. code, data, heap,
and stack. Obviously, storing [K] and [M] fully in memory is impossible.
Certain attributes of [K] and [M] may be used to reduce storage requirements.
Since linear-elastic assumptions are adhered to in their development, [K] and [M]
are both symmetrical, and in the case of [M] may be lumped. A lumped mass
matrix contains nonzero elements only along the major diagonal. Thus, only the
upper or lower triangular portion of the full matrix need be retained, which
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
effectively reduces the storage requirement to 2.88 Megabytes. This is still too
large. More efficient storage techniques retain only the banded portion of the
matrices. A banded matrix is stored by rows (or columns) from the major
diagonal to the maximum bandwidth (largest number of columns traversing
nonzero elements). The efficiency of the banded matrix depends on the joint
numbering scheme, which must minimize the difference in a member's near and
far joint number. A further refinement of the banded matrix is the skyline matrix.
The skyline matrix is stored by rows (or columns) from the major diagonal to the
last nonzero element on that row (column).
The other difficulty discussed is the solution method, which goes hand-in-hand
with the storage techniques just mentioned. A full matrix is extremely sparse, and
therefore standard inverse matrix operations are unstable. The large number of
computations needed to invert a matrix by standard inverse procedures propagates
roundoff errors, thus producing an ill-conditioned solution. Other methods such as
Gaussian Elimination (Crandall, 1956) can be easily used but, its effectiveness is
reduced since properties of symmetry, positive definiteness, and handedness are
not utilized. This paper adopts the frontal method (Irons, 1970) since it affords
the only solution technique for solving the inverse-iteration on a microcomputer.
6 Frontal Method
The frontal method is in reality a subset of Gaussian Elimination but with the
strategy of reducing storage by assembling and eliminating degrees of freedom at
the same time. As soon as the stiffness coefficients of a particular degree of
freedom are completely assembled from the contributions of all members, this
particular degree of freedom is eliminated by static condensation. The reduced
equation is then stored on peripheral disk. After all degrees of freedom have
been traversed, deformations are obtained in the reverse order of static
condensation by backward substitution.
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An any given moment in the solution algorithm, the computer stores only the
upper triangular portion of a square, symmetric matrix containing the equations of
the degrees of freedom currently being assembled. Therefore, memory
requirements are bound by the constraint of the maximum number of degrees of
freedom permitted to be assembled at any one time, so-called maximum
frontwidth. During the assembly and condensation process, the degrees of
freedom are assembled in a prescribed member-by-member order. Therefore, the
most efficient front numbering scheme is to number members sequentially from
the extreme left to the extreme right of the modeled bridge. Maximum frontwidth
is not affected by the sequence to which joints are numbered. The frontal
method's greatest strength is its stability and reduction of storage. The entire
stiffness matrix, [K], of order N is never completely assembled, only small
portions of it. Its weakness is its increased runtime. Disk input/output (I/O)
during static condensation and backward substitution is notoriously slow in
comparison to in-core data I/O.
7 Extraction of Uncoupled Natural Modes
As previously stated, DOS's memory limitation of 640 kilobytes retards any in-
core solution algorithm. Therefore, in this study, the frontal method with a
predefined constraint of 150 degrees of freedom as the maximum frontwidth has
been adopted. With the memory barrier, it was predetermined that the maximum
subspace size was nine. Theoretically, the first nine natural modes could thereby
be determined via the subspace iteration method. However, the rate of
convergence would be extremely slow for the higher modes (See Eqs. 11 and 12).
Therefore, a predetermined limit of four natural modes and a minimum subspace
size of six were adopted. Realistically, with only four modes determined, it is
rather unlikely to compute the desired bending, sway, and torsional natural modes.
In order to extract desired modes, a physical approach to force convergence to a
particular mode type is formulated. For instance, when extracting bending modes,
the bridge is constrained to only deform in a bending manner. Similarly for sway
and torsion modes, the bridge is permitted to only deform in sway and torsional
manners, respectively. Computationally, there are two techniques which forces
convergence to a particular mode type.
The first technique, so-called Guyan reduction (1965) condenses all undesired
degrees of freedom from the stiffness and mass matrices. It is not utilized here,
because the condensation process adds considerable computer effort to the
formulation. Instead, the second method, so-called forced-restraint (Namini, 1990),
restrains unwanted degrees of freedom by applying a support condition at a
particular degree of freedom. With the six degrees of freedom per joint labeled
as follows: 1st dof = axial displacement, 2nd dof = flexural displacement in the
bending direction; 3rd dof = flexural displacement in the sway direction; 4th dof =
torsional rotation; 5th dof = flexural rotation in the sway direction; and 6th dof =
flexural rotation in the bending direction, one can physically force convergence to
a particular mode type. For example, to obtain bending natural modes, degrees of
freedom associated with nonbending (3, 4, and 5) are restrained at all joints, as
can be seen in Figure 2. Similarly, as illustrated in Figure 3, sway natural modes
are found by restraining all nonsway (2, 4, and 6) degrees of freedom. Finally, in
order to extract torsional modes, all nontorsional (3 and 5) degrees of freedom are
restrained, but with the added restraint of bending displacement (dof 2) at the
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Fig. 2. Bending Mode Restraint Conditions Fig. 3. Sway Mode Restraint Conditions
3") (15-1 im\
£ r
Fig. 4. Torsion Mode Restraint Conditions Fig. 5. Luling Cable-Stayed Bridge
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
elastic axis, which forces the torsional rotation about the elastic axis, as shown in
Figure 4.
8 Example: Luling Cable-Stayed Bridge
In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of the computational methods previously

described, an example cable-stayed bridge is chosen. The example bridge chosen
is the Luling Cable-Stayed Bridge. The 837.6 m long, four-lane bridge on
Interstate 310 spans the Mississippi River between the towns of Luling and
Destrehan in St. Charles Parish, about 20 km west of New Orleans, USA, which
opened to traffic in October, 1983. As shown in Figure 5, the bridge length is
subdivided into five spans consisting of a 372.5 m center span between the
towers, two 154.8 and 150.9 m anchor spans, and two 79.2 m approach spans.
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Table 1. Luling Bridge Natural Modes
Mode Freq with Freq with Natural Mode Previous

Desig Lumped Consistent Shapes Analysis
Formulation Formulation Freq
(Hz) (Hz) (Hz)
Bending
1 0.4281 0.4309 Figure 6 0.3690
2 0.6827 0.6804 Figure 7
3 0.9999 0.9998 Figure 8
4 1.2480 1.2460 Figure 9
Torsion
1 1.2490 1.2640 Figure 10 1.2380
Sway
1 0.6966 0.7011 Figure 11 0.5540
The cables are arranged in a double-plane fan configuration with 12 cables in

each plane.
To investigate the algorithm, the first four bending modes are determined, while
only the fundamental mode for torsion and sway types are extracted. For each
extraction, a lumped and consistent mass formulation is used. Referring to Table
1, natural frequencies from these analyses are shown. As illustrated in Figure 6,
the fundamental bending mode corresponds to the first symmetric case. The
second bending mode corresponds to the first antisymmetric case, as shown in
Figure 7. The third and fourth bending modes correspond to the second and third
symmetric cases as illuminated in Figures 8 and 9, respectively. Finally, the
fundamental torsion and sway modes correspond to their respective first symmetric
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case and are illustrated in Figures 10 and 11.

Also shown in Table 1 are the actual fundamental modes determined by the
design engineers, Frankland and Leinhard - Modjeski and Masters (1974). To
compare this paper's results to the consulting engineers' analysis, certain
differences in modeling exist. They disregarded the modeling of the approach
spans, since originally the bridge was to be only three spans, but eventually was
changed to five spans. They did not revise their dynamic analysis since the
addition of the approach spans would only increase the overall bridge rigidity,
thus their original natural frequencies were conservative. For completeness, the
Luling Bridge was modeled without the approach spans and the fundamental
bending, torsion, and sway natural frequencies were computed to be 0.3641, 1.226,
and 0.5390 Hz, respectively, which correlate closely to that of the consulting
engineers' analysis.
For each of the natural modes found, the lumped mass formulation yielded
lower natural frequencies than did the consistent mass formulation. This is easily
explained since a lumped mass formulation tends to concentrate inertial forces,
while consistent mass formulation tends to distribute inertial forces. Tong, Pian,
and Bucciarelli (1971) offer an analytical explanation by recognizing that a
lumped mass formulation is computationally derived using uncoupled inertial
forces with no rotary inertia. These assumptions are essentially a Guyan reduction
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Table 2. Execution Properties for Luling Bridge Natural Modes
Mode Subspace Number of Execution

Desig Size Iterations to Time
Convergence (min)
Bending
1 9 1 15
2 9 1 15
3 9 1 15
4 9 3 45
Torsion
1 6 3 45
Sway
1 6 1 15
of those rotary degrees of freedom. An analogy to monotonic convergence is

inferred in that a discretized bridge model approaches its true solution from the
stiffer side, i.e., an increase in degrees of freedom yields a more flexible structure.
The runtime expended to extract natural modes was rather considerable, as is
shown in Table 2 with other execution properties. All extractions were performed
on a Compaq 386/20, which is an IBM-compatible system, and was also
configured with a math coprocessor and a virtual disk for enhancing runtime.
As is consistent with the convergence behavior of the subspace iteration
method, the lower modes converge faster than due the higher modes. Also, the
torsion mode, since being the highest frequency encountered exhibits the poorest
convergence behavior. In microcomputer applications, a strategy of small
subspace size which decreases runtime within each iteration but increases the
number of iterations to convergence is adopted as opposed to a large subspace
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
size with a small number of iterations to convergence. The author believes that
Fig. 6. First Bending Mode Corresponding to First Symmetric Case
Fig. 7. Second Bending Mode Corresponding to First Antisymmetric Case
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Fig. 8. Third Bending Mode Corresponding to Second Symmetric Case
Fig. 9. Fourth Bending Mode Corresponding to Third Symmetric Case
Fig. 10. First Torsion Mode Corresponding to First Symmetric Case
Fig. 11. First Sway Mode Corresponding to First Symmetric Case
the range of subspace size being 6 < S < 9, while only permitting up to four
modes of each type is a compromise in order to extract enough modes to
represent response motion, while computationally performing execution within a
reasonable amount of time.
9 Conclusions
The algorithm presented has proved reliable in accuracy, but has a high runtime
for execution. The use of the subspace iteration method with starting iteration
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vectors generated by the Lanczos methods provides the most advanced
computational technique for natural mode extraction of cable-stayed bridges. As
implemented with the frontal method to compensate for DOS's program size
limitation of 640 kilobytes, it is somewhat remarkable that natural modes are
indeed found on a microcomputer environment.
10 References
Bathe, K.J. (1977) Convergence of Subspace Iteration in Formulations and

Numerical Algorithms in Finite Element Analysis (eds K.J. Bathe, J.T. Oden,
and W. Wunderlich), M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Bathe, K.J. (1982) Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis. Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Bathe, K.J. and Ramaswamy, S. (1980) An Accelerated Subspace Iteration
Method. Comput Methods Appl Mech Eng, 23, 313-331.
Cheung, Y . K and Kajita, T. (1973) Finite Element Analysis of Cable-Stayed
Bridges. IABSE, 33-11, 101-112.
Crandall, S.H. (1956) Engineering Analysis. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York.
Ernst, J.H. (1965) Der E-Modul von Seilin unter Berucksichtigung des
Durchanges. Der Bauingenieur, 40(2).
Fleming, J.F. and Egeseli, E.A. (1976) Dynamic Behavior of Cable-Stayed
Bridges, in Proc Int Symposium Earthquake Structural Engng, St. Louis,
Missouri.
Frankland and Leinhard - Modjeski and Masters, Consulting Engineers. (1974)
Section Model Testing - Vibration Analysis - Mississippi River Bridge (Luling).
Guyan, R.J. (1965) Reduction of Stiffness and Mass Matrices. AIAA J, 3(2), 380.
Irons, B.M. (1970) A Frontal Solution Program for Finite Element Analysis. Int J
Numer Methods Eng, 2, 5-32.
Izyumov, N., Tschanz, T. and Davenport, A.G. (1977) A Study of Wind Action
for the Weirton-Steubenville Cable-Stayed Bridge, Boundary Layer Wind
Tunnel Laboratory, The University of Western Ontario.
Kumarasena, T., Scanlan, R.H. and Morris, G.R. (1989) Deer-Isle Bridge: Field
and Computed Vibrations. J Struct Eng ASCE, 115(9), 2313-2328.
Lanczos, C. (1950) An Iteration Method for the Solution of the Eigenvalue
Problem of Linear Differential and Integral Operators. J Res Natl Bur Stand,
45, 255-282.
Morris, N.F. (1974) Dynamic Analysis of Cable-Stiffened Structures. J Struct Div
ASCE, 100, 971-981.
Namini, A.H., (1990), Cable-Stayed Bridge Analysis for Static and Dynamic
Response Behaviors, in preparation to be submitted to Comput Struct.
Tang, M.C. (1971) Analysis of Cable-Stayed Girder Bridges. J Struct Div ASCE,
97(5), 1481-1496.
Tong, P., Pian, T.H.H. and Bucciarelli, L . L . (1971) Mode Shapes and Frequencies
by Finite Element Method Using Consistent and Lumped Masses. Comput
Struct, 1, 623-628.
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PARTTEN
BRIDGE
ASSESSMENT,
M A I N T E N A N C E AND
REPAIR
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LOAD T E S T I N G AS A MEANS OF
A S S E S S I N G THE S T R U C T U R A L
BEHAVIOUR OF BRIDGES
A.E. LONG
Professor of Civil Engineering, Queen's University, Belfast, Northern
Ireland, UK
A. THOMPSON
Senior Research Officer, Queen's University, Belfast, Northern
Ireland, UK
J. KIRKPATRICK
Dept Environment (NI) Roads Service, Northern Ireland, UK
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Abstract
E x p e r i e n c e gained i n the use of load t e s t i n g to a s s e s s the i n - s i t u
performance of t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of bridge decks i s presented i n
t h i s paper. As these t e s t s have been c a r r i e d out on a medium span
s t e e l - c o n c r e t e composite system, a number of s h o r t span p r e c a s t
c o n c r e t e composite decks and a long span s t e e l box g i r d e r bridge
w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g measurement techniques have been u t i l i s e d . The
t e c h n i q u e s range from the r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e , some 20 y e a r s ago, to
extremely s o p h i s t i c a t e d methods which take advantage of r e c e n t
developments i n computer technology. B r i e f d e t a i l s of the monitoring
systems a r e presented along w i t h t y p i c a l t e s t r e s u l t s which have been
found to g i v e a v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t i n t o the behaviour of these
structures. I t i s concluded t h a t i n - s i t u t e s t i n g w i l l be much more
w i d e l y used i n the f u t u r e .
Keywords: Bridge Decks, Composite, C o n c r e t e , Displacements, I n - s i t u ,
L o a d i n g , Monitoring, S t e e l , S t r a i n s , T e s t i n g .
1 Introduction
Proof t e s t i n g has been c a r r i e d out on over 200 b r i d g e s i n O n t a r i o ,
Bakht ( 1 9 8 7 ) , where the main o b j e c t i v e has been to e s t a b l i s h the s a f e
load c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of e x i s t i n g b r i d g e s . I n these t e s t s i t has
been found t h a t t h e r e a r e n e a r l y always a s p e c t s of the behaviour of
b r i d g e s which a r e unexpected and these o f t e n have an i n f l u e n c e on the
load c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y . Thus a p a r t from being a most e f f e c t i v e means
of determining the s a f e l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of b r i d g e s they g i v e a
u s e f u l i n s i g h t i n t o s t r u c t u r a l behaviour. When combined w i t h modern
methods of monitoring s t r a i n s and displacements they can be u t i l i s e d
to v a l i d a t e a n a l y t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s . I n such i n s t a n c e s the f i n d i n g s
have much g r e a t e r c r e d i b i l i t y w i t h p r a c t i s i n g engineers than
v a l i d a t i o n s based on model t e s t s .
For over 20 y e a r s the author has been i n v o l v e d i n the f u l l s c a l e
t e s t i n g of b r i d g e s and during t h i s p e r i o d the r a p i d developments i n
e l e c t r o n i c s have had a profound i n f l u e n c e . I n the l a t e 1960's i n - s i t u
monitoring was d i f f i c u l t , time consuming and r e s u l t s were o f t e n
inaccurate. However w i t h the developments i n i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n ,
e s p e c i a l l y designed f o r s i t e u s e , i n the 1970's and 1980's i t i s now
p o s s i b l e to monitor the behaviour of most bridge s t r u c t u r e s under load
w i t h the e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t u s e f u l r e s u l t s w i l l be obtained. I n order
to i l l u s t r a t e the impact of these developments three c o n t r a s t i n g t e s t
programmes w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d :
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i) A medium span composite plate girder bridge i n Canada (late
1960's).
ii) Tests on M-beam bridge decks (late 1970's/early 1980's).
iii) Remote monitoring of a long span steel box girder bridge i n
N. Ireland (late 1980's).
2 Bay of Quinte t e s t s
I n the late 1960's transverse cracking of the concrete deck slab of

the multi span bridge over the Bay of Quinte i n Ontario, Canada was a
source of concern to the then Department of Highways, Ontario. A
subsequent study of the bridge by staff at the Queen's University,
Kingston, Ontario revealed that the main cause of the cracking i n the
composite slab was the sequence of concrete placements u t i l i s e d during
the construction. This i n turn was accentuated by shrinkage and l i v e
load t e n s i l e stresses. As the bridge was considered by workmen to be
rather l i v e l y , possibly as a r e s u l t of the cracking, i t was decided to
carry out a simple dynamic t e s t to determine whether the displacements
lay within acceptable l i m i t s .
As a significant number of the approach spans of the bridge were
not over water t h i s allowed an extremely simple measuring system to be
used. At mid-span a pointer was fixed to the bridge deck so that
readings could be taken relative to a standard surveying staff which
was firmly placed on the ground. The relative displacement, which
occurred when a f u l l y loaded truck moved across the bridge at around
50 mph, was monitored v i s u a l l y and recorded by using an 8 mm cine
camera. The maximum amplitude monitored was of the order of 10 mm and
was well within the limitations considered safe by the designers.
However i t should be noted that prior to the use of the monitoring
system various engineers, including the author, had estimated that the
r e l a t i v e displacement would be of the order of 50 mm. Striking
evidence that the human body i s very sensitive to movement and that
perceptions of displacements i n structures are often excessive.
3 Tests on precast M-beam bridge decks
3.1 Background
A high proportion of highway bridges l i e within the range of spans of
15 m to 29 m. Precast prestressed concrete beams are widely used as
they offer an economic solution to most railway/river crossings and
busy road intersections where interference must be kept to a minimum.
I n the UK these standard beams have a bottom flange approximately 1 m
wide and are generally referred to as M-beams. They act compositely
with a cast i n - s i t u slab and a grillage analysis i s often used for
analysis. The accuracy of t h i s analysis depends on the idealisation
of the grid mesh and the method u t i l i s e d for the calculation of the
section properties of the grid members. These have been largely based
on the r e s u l t s of model t e s t s and few, i f any, f u l l scale tests have
been carried out to check their v a l i d i t y . ^
I n the 1970 's as t h i s type of beam was being used extensively i n N.
Ireland a number of bridges was tested to establish their load
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d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h the o b j e c t i v e s of improving c u r r e n t
d e s i g n procedures and reducing c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s .
A f u r t h e r improvement i n the perrormance of t h i s type of deck can
be achieved by i n c r e a s i n g the spacing of the beams and i n a d d i t i o n t o
the obvious economic advantages t h i s a l l o w s the range of spans t o be
i n c r e a s e d from 15 t o 29 m t o 8 t o 29 m. T h i s does however introduce
problems r e g a r d i n g the s t r e n g t h of the s l a b spanning between beams and
a o n e - t h i r d s c a l e model bridge was t e s t e d t o e s t a b l i s h the s t r e n g t h or
the s l a b w i t h the beams spaced a t up t o 2 m. These s t r e n g t h t e s t s
were supplemented by i n - s i t u t e s t s on a bridge deck which were c a r r i e d
out t o ensure t h a t s e r v i c e a b i l i t y requirements were not v i o l a t e d .
3.2 Transverse load d i s t r i b u t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The two T-beam ( F i g . 1 ( a ) ) and two pseudo box ( F i g . 1 ( b ) ) bridge decks
t e s t e d had p r e v i o u s l y been designed by the Department of Environment
f o r N. I r e l a n d . The s t r a i n d i s t r i b u t i o n s a c r o s s the decks were
monitored u s i n g T y l e r s u r f a c e mounting recoverable v i b r a t i n g w i r e
gauges of 140 mm gauge l e n g t h which were attached t o the beam s o f f i t s .
I n order t o monitor the v a r i a t i o n i n temperature during the t e s t s -
thermocouples were mounted on the beams a d j a c e n t t o the s t r a i n gauges.
I t should be noted t h a t a l l t e s t s were c a r r i e d out on d u l l , o v e r c a s t
days w i t h l i t t l e wind so a s t o minimise s t r a i n s caused by temperature
variations.
construction
joint
rj-r) permanent
formwork
^-packing
(a) T-beam (b) Pseudo-box
Fig. 1. P r e c a s t concrete composite systems
T e s t procedure
S t a t i c l o a d i n g was a p p l i e d t o each deck by two 6-wheel t r u c k s , loaded
w i t h crushed s t o n e , the t o t a l weight of which has been a c c u r a t e l y
measured p r i o r t o a r r i v a l on s i t e . However a s a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e s of
i n d i v i d u a l wheel load s were r e q u i r e d , f o r use i n a t h e o r e t i c a l
g r i l l a g e a n a l y s i s , these were measured u s i n g a D i g i t a l P o r t a b l e
Weighbridge, S n a i t h (1978). The l o a d i n g a p p l i e d t o a l l decks
c o n s i s t e d of two t r u c k s each weighing about 30 tonnes and t h r e e
l o a d i n g p o s i t i o n s a t mid span were c o n s i d e r e d . P r i o r t o the t e s t s the
v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s f o r the t r u c k s were c a r e f u l l y marked out on the deck
to ensure the l o c a t i o n s of the wheel loads were known p r e c i s e l y . The
t r u c k s were then d r i v e n onto the deck, p o s i t i o n e d a s r e q u i r e d and a
515
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complete s e t of r e a d i n g s t a k e n . The r e s u l t i n g s t r a i n readings from
the v i b r a t i n g w i r e gauges were then converted i n t o concrete s t r e s s e s
and c o r r e c t e d by t a k i n g account of the modulus ot e l a s t i c i t y v a l u e s of
the beams and o v e r a l l e q u i l i b r i u m to give the moment absorbed by each
i n d i v i d u a l beam.
I n o r d e r to e s t a b l i s h the i n i l u e n c e of the concrete edge f e a t u r e on
the performance of the deck t h i s procedure was c a r r i e d out before and
a f t e r the upstand was c a s t .
Theoretical predictions
T h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s of a l l the t e s t b r i d g e s were c a r r i e d out u s i n g a
g r i l l a g e a n a l y s i s which allowed both s e r i e s or t e s t s w i t h and without
the parapet upstand to be c o n s i d e r e d . The bridge decks were i d e a l i s e d
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and s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s c a l c u l a t e d i n accordance w i t h the recommen-
d a t i o n s by West (1973) which suggest t h a t the l o n g i t u d i n a l g r i l l a g e
beams should be formed from about two p h y s i c a l beams and the o v e r a l l
g r i d mesh should correspond approximately to the a s p e c t r a t i o of the
deck. S e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s were proportioned i n a s i m i l a r manner.
The mid span d i s t r i b u t i o n of beam moments f o r one of the b r i d g e s
which u t i l i s e d T-beam c o n s t r u c t i o n i s given i n F i g . 2. The r e s u l t s of
t e s t s w i t h and without the parapet upstand are shown and these are
compared w i t h the t h e o r e t i c a l g r i l l a g e a n a l y s i s . Good o v e r a l l
c o r r e l a t i o n was found to r e s u l t f o r t h i s type of deck i n d i c a t i n g t h a t
the method ot i d e a l i s a t i o n i s r e a l i s t i c .
Load case no.2

torsional _
2 . inertia x7
N/mm 2
span
9 7 11 7 5 1
Beam no. Beam no.
- Grillage no upstand Grillage no upstand
- Grillage with upstand Experimental no upstand
• Grillage fine mesh no upstand
Experimental no upstand
Experimental with upstand
Fig. 2. S o f f e t s t r e s s e s Fig. 3. S o f f e t s t r e s s e s
(T-beam) (Pseudo-box)
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However much poorer c o r r e l a t i o n was found when the t h e o r e t i c a l
p r e d i c t i o n s were compared w i t h the t e s t r e s u l t s f o r the pseudo box
beam d e c k s . From F i g . 3 i t can be seen t h a t i t was n e c e s s a r y to
a d j u s t the t o r s i o n a l s t i f f n e s s , from t h a t recommended by West (1973),
by a f a c t o r of seven to a t t a i n the same degree of accuracy a s had been
a c h i e v e d f o r the Tee-beam decks. The reasons why t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t
change i s n e c e s s a r y , to a c c u r a t e l y model the performance of t h i s type
of bridge deck, have s i n c e been e x p l a i n e d and f u l l d e t a i l s of t h i s
study a r e given i n K i r k p a t r i c k , Long and Thompson (1982). Spaced
M-beam bridge decks a r e a l s o c o n s i d e r e d i n K i r k p a t r i c k , Long and
Thompson (1984).
3.3 Ultimate strength of deck slabs

An important a s p e c t of the development of t h i s type of bridge deck was
the use of the beams a t i n c r e a s e d spacing and i n order to e s t a b l i s h
the s t r e n g t h of the s l a b s spanning between beams a o n e - t h i r d s c a l e
model bridge deck was c o n s t r u c t e d i n the l a b o r a t o r y and t e s t e d . The
model was f u l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a prototype and i n p a r t i c u l a r the
end diaphragms and parapet upstand were i n c l u d e d to ensure the s l a b
c o u l d develop i t s f u l l p o t e n t i a l of i n - p l a n e f o r c e s . D e t a i l s of the
model deck and the n o t a t i o n f o r the t e s t p a n e l s are given i n F i g . 4.
! A1 ] C1 | Dl I B1 i
Plan
3000
Section A-A
Fig. 4. D e t a i l s of model bridge deck

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The d e s i g n s of the prototype s l a b f o r the two No. 112.5 kN wheel
l o a d s u s i n g the equations of Westergaard i n d i c a t e d t h a t s t e e l
reinforcement of the order of 1.7% was r e q u i r e d under the highway
pavement. F o r t e s t purposes a d d i t i o n a l a r e a s of reinforcement
e q u i v a l e n t to approximately 1.2%, 0.5% and 0.25% were provided i n the
model and a r e represented by four a r e a s of s l a b approximately 1200 mm
wide i n the span-wise d i r e c t i o n and the f u l l width of the deck i n the
transverse direction. Therefore w i t h t h i s banding of reinforcement
t h r e e p a n e l s e q u i v a l e n t to 2 m spacing and two panels e q u i v a l e n t to
1.5 m beam spacing a r e a v a i l a b l e p r o v i d i n g a t o t a l of 20 t e s t p a n e l s .
H y d r a u l i c j a c k s were used to load the model w i t h the loading f o r
the h e a v i l y r e i n f o r c e d p a n e l s A and B s i m u l a t i n g a s i n g l e 112.5 kN
wheel load of an HB v e h i c l e . The l i g h t l y r e i n f o r c e d p a n e l s C and D
were s u b j e c t e d to e i t h e r s i n g l e or double wheel loading to check the
i n f l u e n c e ot the l a t t e r on the u l t i m a t e c a p a c i t y .
Model t e s t r e s u l t s
The u l t i m a t e load c a p a c i t y of each t e s t panel was the load which
caused the l o a d i n g shoe s i m u l a t i n g the wheel load to punch through the
s l a b i n the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c manner. I t was found t h a t there was v e r y
l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n i n the u l t i m a t e load c a p a c i t y of a l l the p a n e l s even
though the s l a b reinforcement v a r i e d from approximately 0.25% to
1.68%. I n comparison w i t h United Kingdom, BS5400 (1978), the Ontario
Highway Bridge Design Code (1979) p r e d i c t i o n s ( F i g . 5) the r e s u l t s of
the t e s t s on the o n e - t h i r d s c a l e model showed c o n s i d e r a b l e enhancement
to the d e s i g n c a p a c i t y of the standard s l a b w i t h the M-beams spaced a t
up to 2 m a p a r t . T h i s enhancement has been a t t r i b u t e d to the
c o n s i d e r a b l e i n - p l a n e r e s t r a i n t t h a t i s i n h e r e n t i n bridge s l a b s .
Fig. 5 c l e a r l y shows t h a t the codes do not give a s a t i s f a c t o r y
p r e d i c t i o n of the punching shear c a p a c i t y of t y p i c a l bridge s l a b s and
a more a p p r o p r i a t e method which a l l o w s f o r i n - p l a n e r e s t r a i n t was
developed, K i r k p a t r i c k , Rankin and Long (1984).
average
120 predicted
failure loads
L all spans g
100
z 80 average failure loads

A long s p a n s
•o 60 o short spans
o Q
o ^^^^ric^HBDC
40 ipartial safety factor(^m=1-25)removed
^îgn vyheeMpq^
20
DesigrTwheerTo^ ,1777"
0-25 0-5 1«0 15 20
percentage reinforcement p
Fig. 5. Comparison w i t h bridge codes
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F u l l scale t e s t s for s e r v i c e a b i l i t y
The widths of the c r a c k s induced i n the s l a b s were monitored during
the model t e s t and i t was found t h a t under s e r v i c e load c o n d i t i o n s no
c r a c k s r e s u l t e d . However a s s c a l e e f f e c t s can a f f e c t the accuracy of
these measurements f u l l s c a l e t e s t s , K i r k p a t r i c k , Rankin and Long
(1986), were subsequently c a r r i e d out on a bridge b u i l t by the DOE(MI)
Roads S e r v i c e . T h i s bridge incorporated beams a t 1.5 m and 2 m
spacing and the reinforcement v a r i e d from 0.25% to 1.7% i n the
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standard 160 mm t h i c k deck s l a b .
The t e s t s showed t h a t c u r r e n t c r a c k c o n t r o l formulae are not
a p p l i c a b l e because of the enhanced performance which r e s u l t s from the
development of compressive membrane a c t i o n . I n i t i a l c r a c k i n g occurred
a t loads w e l l i n e x c e s s of the design s e r v i c e loads and even a f t e r
c r a c k s had been induced by severe overloading i t was found t h a t the
s l a b s s t i l l s a t i s f i e d the s e r v i c e a b i l i t y l i m i t s t a t e requirements.
3.4 Comentary
As a r e s u l t of t h i s e x t e n s i v e s e r i e s of f u l l s c a l e and model t e s t s the
DOE(MI) Roads S e r v i c e have incorporated many of the f i n d i n g s i n
b r i d g e s b u i l t subsequently. Reinforcement l e v e l s have been reduced to
0.6% i n the standard 160 mm deck s l a b and c o n s i d e r a b l e f u r t h e r
economies achieved by u s i n g s l i g h t l y l a r g e r M-beams a t 1.5 m and 2.0 m
spacings. Indeed i t has been estimated t h a t the c o s t s a v i n g s
a c h i e v e d , i n the f i r s t bridge i n c o r p o r a t i n g these f e a t u r e s , were
g r e a t e r than the t o t a l c o s t of t h i s study c a r r i e d out i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n
w i t h Queen's U n i v e r s i t y . A f u r t h e r p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t i s t h a t epoxy
coated b a r s c o u l d , a t these low r e i n f o r c i n g l e v e l s , be c o s t -
e f f e c t i v e l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n the deck s l a b s and t h i s could g r e a t l y
enhance the long term d u r a b i l i t y of these s t r u c t u r e s .
I t i s of i n t e r e s t to note t h a t p r i o r to the commencement of the
load d i s t r i b u t i o n t e s t s the advice of l e a d i n g e x p e r t s i n the f i e l d was
sought. Grave doubts were expressed as to whether any u s e f u l r e s u l t s
would be o b t a i n e d . However a s can be seen from t h i s b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n
of these l o a d i n g t e s t s many v a l u a b l e f i n d i n g s have been obtained. The
s u c c e s s of the t e s t s can be a t t r i b u t e d to a t e s t programme which was
implemented w i t h g r e a t c a r e and the a v a i l a b i l i t y of equipment which
allowed r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l concrete s t r a i n s to be measured a c c u r a t e l y on
site.
4 T e s t s on a major s t e e l box g i r d e r bridge
4.1 Background
I n 1985 the Department of the Environment (NI) asked the C i v i l
E n g i n e e r i n g Department of the Queen's U n i v e r s i t y of B e l f a s t f o r
a s s i s t a n c e i n monitoring the r e c e n t l y completed Box G i r d e r Bridge over
the r i v e r F o y l e , near Londonderry.
The F o y l e Bridge i s a high l e v e l c r o s s i n g a t Madam's Bank, some 3kM
downstream from the Craigavon Bridge i n the c i t y c e n t r e . The b r i d g e ,
designed by Freeman Fox and P a r t n e r s , London and b u i l t by RDL-Graham
J o i n t V e n t u r e , i s 866 m long and comprises three main spans t o t a l l i n g
522 m c o n s t r u c t e d i n s t e e l together w i t h a 344 m long approach v i a d u c t
which i s of p r e s t r e s s e d concrete box c o n s t r u c t i o n . Each carriageway
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i s supported independently, so t h a t the bridge c o n s i s t s , i n e f f e c t , of
two p a r a l l e l s t r u c t u r e s supported on common concrete p i e r s and
abutments. The g e n e r a l arrangement i s shown i n F i g . 6.
The main s t e e l s e c t i o n s were f a b r i c a t e d by Harland and Wolff i n
Belfast. Each 522 m long g i r d e r was b u i l t i n t h r e e s e c t i o n s w i t h the
two s i t e s p l i c e s being l o c a t e d a t the s i x t h p o i n t s of the c e n t r e span.
Each s i d e span u n i t i s 180 m long and v a r i e s i n depth from 3 m to 9 m
and weights 950 tonnes. The c e n t r e span u n i t s are 161.5 m long and
weigh 700 tonnes. The u n i t s were t r a n s p o r t e d to the s i t e by barge and
j o i n e d on s i t e a f t e r being l i f t e d i n t o t h e i r f i n a l p o s i t i o n , Hunter
and McKeown ( 1 9 8 4 ) .
With a deck a t 30 m above water l e v e l , the s t r u c t u r e i s v e r y
exposed, being completely open to both North and South and w i t h almost
no s h e l t e r from any other d i r e c t i o n . The b a s i c design wind speed
g i v e n i n CP3: c h a p t e r 5 f o r the a r e a i s 53 m/s, compared w i t h 50 m/s
f o r the F o r t h Bridge and 43 m/s f o r the S e v e r n . Occupying, a s i t
does, the most exposed s i t e of any major bridge i n the B r i t i s h I s l e s ,
the F o y l e Bridge o f f e r s an e x c e l l e n t opportunity to monitor the
i n - s e r v i c e performance of a b o x - g i r d e r s t r u c t u r e .
The p r o j e c t i s concerned o n l y w i t h the s t e e l s e c t i o n of the b r i d g e .
The o b j e c t i v e s a r e :
* To i n v e s t i g a t e methods of c o n t i n u o u s l y monitoring long-span b r i d g e s

w i t h the aim of developing a c o s t e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n which could
have a p p l i c a t i o n i n s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s elsewhere.
* To e s t a b l i s h a " f o o t p r i n t " of the s t r u c t u r a l response to a range of
t e s t l o a d s when the s t r u c t u r e i s i n the new c o n d i t i o n so t h a t any
f u t u r e d e t e r i o r a t i o n can be d e l e t e d .
* To monitor the behaviour of the s t r u c t u r e under a v a r i e t y of wind
and t r a f f i c l o a d i n g s .
* To compare the measured and p r e d i c t e d behaviour of the s t r u c t u r e .
4.2 Monitoring system

P r e l i m i n a r y s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t , a s an i n i t i a l requirement, data
would be needed on:
D e f l e c t i o n a t the mid-span p o i n t of the c e n t r e span.

S t r a i n s a t mid-span and a t the intermediate supports.
Temperature changes i n the s t r u c t u r e s .
Wind speed and d i r e c t i o n .
Movement of the expansion j o i n t .
S e v e r a l other requirements of a more g e n e r a l nature soon became
apparent.
The bridge s i t e i s remote both from the U n i v e r s i t y (120 km) and the
DOE base i n C o i e r a i n e (50 km). F o r s e c u r i t y and s a f e t y r e a s o n s ,
a c c e s s to the i n t e r i o r of the s t r u c t u r e must be r e s t r i c t e d . Since, in
a d d i t i o n , s t u d i e s of response to wind, temperature and t r a f f i c have to
be made on a continuous b a s i s , the system had to be capable of
o p e r a t i n g unattended f o r long p e r i o d s and of s t o r i n g the r e s u l t i n g
d a t a f o r subsequent a n a l y s i s . S i n c e automatic data c o l l e c t i o n
g e n e r a t e s v e r y l a r g e volumes of data i t q u i c k l y became apparent t h a t
i t would be e s s e n t i a l to have s i g n i f i c a n t p r o c e s s i n g c a p a c i t y on s i t e .
520
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22600
mam pier
a) Cross-sections of steel girders
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865700m.on bridge centre line
steel box superstructure prestressed concrete box^
r
superstructure
4 ^ - - - ^ _ I ! I . i
48*6 517 51 7 M 55 a Northbox
• 551
1U287m 233626 m 7n 8n
West pier 1 47-5 503 503 55 55 35 Southbox
abutment 2 U 5 6 7s 8s 9 East
abutment
Elevation
b) General arrangement
F i g . 6. D e t a i l s or the F o y l e Bridge
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T h i s would a l l o w a p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s of the raw data to be done
immediately so t h a t o n l y the s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t s would be r e t a i n e d t o r
t r a n s m i s s i o n to the U n i v e r s i t y t o r f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s .
A schematic diagram of the monitoring system i s shown i n F i g . 7.
The core of the system i s a DEC PDP-11/S3 minicomputer which runs
under a m u l t i - t a s k i n g o p e r a t i o n system. T h i s system can be accessed
e i t h e r l o c a l l y from a t e r m i n a l to the b r i d g e , or remotely, v i a a modem
and d i a l - u p telephone l i n e from e i t h e r the U n i v e r s i t y or the DOE
offices.
expansion temperature weather I [temperature strain relative slave

gauges station gauges gauges motion rig -[POTT nera
joint CPU 1
CPUI
6 channel A/D 16 channel A/b slave
—lc l
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q m e n a
scanner, at ^ scanner at
support pter 2 midspan CPU U
local main computer

user MODEM
PDP11 /53
telephone
H
remote user
Fig. 7. Schematic of F o y l e Bridge monitoring system
Measuring the d e f l e c t i o n s of such a l a r g e and i n a c c e s s i b l e

s t r u c t u r e p r e s e n t s c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t y ; the fundamental problem
l i e s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a frame ot r e f e r e n c e from which to make
measurements. Conventional methods, such a s l e v e l l i n g or the use of
displacement t r a n s d u c e r s were c l e a r l y i m p r a c t i c a l due both to the
d i s t a n c e to the n e a r e s t f i x e d p o i n t and to the need to record the
response to dynamic l o a d i n g s .
I n i t i a l l y , c o n s i d e r a t i o n was g i v e n to the use of accelerometers but
t h e s e were r e j e c t e d a s they c o u l d not measure the v e r y s m a l l
a c c e l e r a t i o n s experienced during the slow moving d e f l e c t i o n s caused by
heavy v e h i c l e s . The s o l u t i o n adopted i s shown diagrammatically i n
F i g . 8. L a s e r s , f i t t e d w i t h beam expander and f o c u s i n g o p t i c s , are
mounted i n s i d e the box g i r d e r s a t mid-span so a s to p r o j e c t a spot of
l i g h t of approximately 3 mm diameter on to t a r g e t s which are f i x e d
over the main p i e r s . Any movement ( e i t h e r l i n e a r or r o t a t i o n a l ) of
the l a s e r s w i l l thus cause the p o s i t i o n of the l i g h t spot on the
t a r g e t to vary.
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Fig. 8. Laser deflection system
The movement of each spot i s tracked using a solid state camera

linked to a BBC microcomputer which stores the resulting co-ordinates
of the l i g h t spot i n memory for l a t e r transmission to the central
computer.
A l l the other data i s collected using transducers which generate
e l e c t r i c a l analogue signals. These are connected to a pair of free-
standing 16-channel analogue to d i g i t a l converters, which are located
as close as possible to the transducers so as to minimise the length
of the cables carrying the analogue signals. The alternative, which
was to incorporate the A/D converter i n the main computer, would have
involved cable runs of up to 150 m with a l l the attendant problems of
signal attenuation and noise pickup. More detailed information on the
monitoring system i s given i n Sloan, Kirkpatrick and Thompson (1990).
4.3 Typical test results

Since the system was i n s t a l l e d i n 1989 an enormous amount of data has
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
been collected and a representative sample i s shown i n Figs. 9-12.
Fig. 9 shows the influence line for s t a t i c mid-span deflections
induced when a 75 tonne load was moved across the bridge. This t e s t
was carried out on a calm day when the bridge was closed to t r a f f i c .
Bach reading i s the mean of 1024 camera scans, to remove the effect of
vibrations induced i n the structure when the load was moved from one
position to the next. The position of the load i s measured from the
Bast end of the s t e e l structure.
Fig. 10 shows the dynamic deflections recorded as a t e s t load of
100 tonnes was driven over the bridge from East to West at
approximately 43 km/hour. I n i t i a l l y , the structure was almost
motionless, what small movement there was being caused, probably, by a
l i g h t breeze. As the load passed over the bridge, the mid-span point
f i r s t rose and then, as the load reached the centre span, deflected
downwards by 220 mm before r i s i n g again as the load moved to the
second side span. At the right hand side of the trace, the structure
can be seen vibrating at i t s natural frequency of 0.4 Hz; the
amplitude reducing after the source of the disturbance was removed.
Fig. 11 shows the movement recorded during storm conditions. I t
can be seen that these were significant wind induced displacements
with peak to peak amplitudes of the order of 110 mm.
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524
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0 25 50 75 100 125
time (seconds J
Fig. 1 1 . Wind induced displacements
F i g . 12 i s a p l o t produced from d a t a c o l l e c t e d on the movement of

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the expansion j o i n t caused by temperature changes i n the s t r u c t u r e . A

c l e a r t r e n d can be s e e n , w i t h the " b e s t f i t " s t r a i g h t l i n e having a
g r a d i e n t of 7.9 mm p e r degree change i n s t e e l temperature. This
f i g u r e s i s about 2.0 mm l a r g e r than t h a t t o be expected from the
expansion of the s t e e l a l o n e ; the d i f f e r e n c e can be accounted f o r by
the expansion of the concrete s e c t i o n of the b r i d g e .
500-0
100 150 200

temperature ( ° C )
Fig. 1 2 . Thermal movement a t expansion j o i n t
4.4 Commentary
The h i g h q u a l i t y of the r e s u l t s presented c l e a r l y demonstrates t h a t an
extremely v e r s a t i l e and a c c u r a t e monitoring system has been developed
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f o r a major s t r u c t u r e . I t i s f u l l y a u t o m a t i c and can be r u n e q u a l l y
w e l l u n d e r l o c a l o r remote c o n t r o l . I n a d d i t i o n as t h e system has
been d e s i g n e d t o r u n u n a t t e n d e d o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
s u i t a b l e t o r continuous m o n i t o r i n g .
Over t h e n e x t few y e a r s much u s e f u l d a t a w i l l be c o l l e c t e d w h i c h
w i l l a l l o w t h e DOE(NI) t o check t h e i n s e r v i c e b e h a v i o u r o f t h i s m a j o r
bridge. F u r t h e r m o r e t h e i m p a c t o f any d e t e r i o r a t i o n o r damage can be
q u i c k l y assessed. I t i s a l s o a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t h e d a t a w i l l be o f
v a l u e t o d e s i g n e r s o f b r i d g e s o f t h i s t y p e i n t h a t comparisons can
r e a d i l y be made w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s . Any d i s c r e p a n c i e s can
t h e n be i n v e s t i g a t e d so t h a t m o d e l l i n g i n a c c u r a c i e s can be i d e n t i f i e d
and f u t u r e d e s i g n s i m p r o v e d .
5 C o n c l u d i n g remarks
The l o a d i n g t e s t s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s paper have been u t i l i s e d v e r y

e f f e c t i v e l y t o assess t h e s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o u r o f d i f f e r e n t b r i d g e
types. Depending o f t h e t y p e o f b r i d g e i n q u e s t i o n and t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e d i t i s now p o s s i b l e t o s t a t e w i t h c o n f i d e n c e t h a t
most a s p e c t s o f s t r u c t u r a l b e h a v i o u r can now be m o n i t o r e d s u c c e s s f u l l y
using loading t e s t s . T h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s has been g r e a t l y a s s i s t e d
by improvements i n e l e c t r o n i c i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and t h e w i d e s p r e a d
a v a i l a b i l i t y of microcomputers. Now t h a t s o p h i s t i c a t e d m o n i t o r i n g
systems a r e a v a i l a b l e o r can be developed i t i s l i k e l y t h a n t h e 1 9 9 0 ' s
w i l l be a p e r i o d when f u l l s c a l e t e s t i n g w i l l be used much more w i d e l y
than a t present. Thus as we l o o k back i n awe a t t h e achievements o f
t h e e n g i n e e r s who c r e a t e d t h e F o r t h R a i l B r i d g e we can a l s o l o o k
f o r w a r d t o an e x c i t i n g new e r a when e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e can r e a d i l y be
assessed u s i n g l o a d i n g t e s t s .
6 Acknowledgements
The Department o f t h e E n v i r o n m e n t f o r N . I r e l a n d (Roads S e r v i c e ) and

t h e S c i e n c e and E n g i n e e r i n g Research C o u n c i l have j o i n t l y funded much
o f t h e w o r k d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s paper and t h i s s u p p o r t i s g r a t e f u l l y
acknowledged. The i n t e r e s t and s u p p o r t o f Dr Corden S t e v e n s o n , C h i e f
E n g i n e e r DOE(NI) Roads S e r v i c e as w e l l as t h e m a j o r c o n t r i b u t i o n s made
b y B a r r y R a n k i n and D a v i d S l o a n i s a l s o acknowledged w i t h g r a t i t u d e .
526
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7 References
B a k h t , B . (1987) Bridge e v a l u a t i o n by proof t e s t i n g . Proceedings of

I S t r u c t E / B R E Seminar on S t r u c t u r a l Assessments, Watford, Paper Mo.
2b, 7 pages.
BS5400 (1978) S t e e l and c o n c r e t e composite b r i d g e s . B r i t i s h Standards
I n s t i t u t i o n , London.
Hunter, I . E . and McKeown, M . E . (1984) F o y l e Bridge f a b r i c a t i o n and
c o n s t r u c t i o n of the main spans. Proceedings of I n s t i t u t i o n of C i v i l
E n g i n e e r s , P a r t 1, May, V o l . 76, pp 411-448.
K i r k p a t r i c k , J . , Long, A . E . and Thompson A. (1982) Load d i s t r i b u t i o n
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c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of M-beam bridge d e c k s . The S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r ,
60B, No. 2, June, pp 34-43.
K i r k p a t r i c k , J . , Long, A . E . and Thompson, A. (1984) Load d i s t r i b u t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of spaced M-beam bridge deck. The S t r u c t u r a l
E n g i n e e r , 62B, No. 4, December, pp 86-88.
K i r k p a t r i c k , J . , R a n k i n , G . I . B . and Long, A . E . (1984) Strength
e v a l u a t i o n of M-beam bridge deck s l a b s . The S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r ,
V o l . 62B, No. 2, September, pp 60-68.
K i r k p a t r i c k , J . , R a n k i n , G . I . B . and Long, A . E . (1986) The i n f l u e n c e of
compressive membrane a c t i o n on the s e r v i c e a b i l i t y of beam and s l a b
bridge d e c k s . The S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r , V o l 64B, No. 1, March,
pp 6 - 1 2 .
O n t a r i o Highway Bridge Design Code (1979) M i n i s t r y ot T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
and Communications, Toronto, O n t a r i o , Canada.
S l o a n , T . D . , K i r k p a t r i c k , J . and Thompson, A. (1990) Remote computer
a i d e d bridge performance monitoring. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on
B r i d g e Management, S u r r e y U n i v e r s i t y , March, 10 pages.
S n a i t h , M . S . (1978) A d i g i t a l p o r t a b l e weighbridge. The J o u r n a l of the
I n s t i t u t i o n o f Highway E n g i n e e r s , London, V o l . XXV, No. 7, pp 9-12.
West, R. (1973) Recommendations on the use ot g r i l l a g e a n a l y s i s f o r
s l a b and pseudo s l a b bridge d e c k s . C&CA/C1RIA T e c h n i c a l Report,
N.46.017.
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THE MANAGEMENT OF INFORMATION
IN BRIDGEWORKS MAINTENANCE
T.OBAIDE, N.J.SMITH
Project Management Group, Dept Civil and Structural Engineering,
UMIST, Manchester, England, UK
Abstract
B r i d g e owners have a s t a t u t o r y duty t o ensure t h e s a f e t y of
t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s i n o p e r a t i o n . When d e f e c t s i n a n u m b e r o f
bridges are discovered, u s u a l l y as a r e s u l t of routine or
special i n s p e c t i o n s or o c c a s i o n a l l y due to accidental
damage, t h e owner h a s t o d e c i d e t h e e x t e n t a n d t h e p r i o r i t y
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of t h e works t o be u n d e r t a k e n . E f f e c t i v e d e c i s i o n s cannot
b e made w i t h o u t d e t a i l e d b r i d g e d a t a a n d a n appropriate
management maintenance strategy. T h i s paper reviews the
problems i n maintaining the bridge stock i n t h e UK a n d
c o n s i d e r s t h e r o l e o f c o m p u t e r b a s e d management m a i n t e n a n c e
systems i n m a n i p u l a t i n g data t o improve t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s
of bridgeworks maintenance.
Keywords: Bridgeworks Maintenance, Bridges, Maintenance
S t r a t e g y , Management I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m .
1 UK B r i d g e w o r k s Stock
T h e UK h a s o n e o f t h e m o s t v a r i e d b r i d g e s t o c k s i n the
world, r a n g i n g from masonry a r c h b r i d g e s , many o f w h i c h
were constructed over a hundred years ago, listed
s t r u c t u r e s i n wrought and c a s t i r o n , t o p r e s e n t day s t e e l
box, p r e s t r e s s e d c o n c r e t e and c a b l e s t a y e d s t r u c t u r e s . The
v a s t majority of these bridges are of small span, probably
l e s s t h a n 15m. T h e t o t a l b r i d g e w o r k s s t o c k i s estimated to
be about 150,000 of which about 8,900 are the
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e Department of T r a n s p o r t , (DTp), [1],
and 129,000 t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e L o c a l A u t h o r i t i e s . I n
g e n e r a l terms t h e s t o c k c o n s i s t s o f about 70,000 Masonry
and B r i c k a r c h and c u l v e r t s t r u c t u r e s mostly constructed
p r i o r to 1922, about 60,000 Concrete and 25,000 Metal
b r i d g e s l a r g e l y c o n s t r u c t e d post 1922.
B r i d g e s have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been designed t o operate f o r

long periods of time without r e q u i r i n g major maintenance.
The c u r r e n t design l i f e f o r road bridges i s 120 years,
however b r i d g e s which were constructed before 1922 a n d
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s e v e r a l which were c o n s t r u c t e d s h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s , were not
designed to standards w h i c h would be acceptable today.
T h e s e o l d e r s t r u c t u r e s a r e now s u b j e c t e d t o much g r e a t e r
l o a d i n g s than c o u l d have been envisaged a t the time of
t h e i r design, which accelerates the need f o r maintenance
work.
The p u b l i c s e c t o r a r e the owners of most of t h e UK

b r i d g e s ; a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e a s m a l l number of private
b r i d g e o w n e r s . The owner h a s a d u t y t o e n s u r e t h e s a f e t y of
these structures in operation. Recent Local Authority
surveys, [ 2 ] , h a v e s h o w n t h a t o n a v e r a g e 5% o f t h e b r i d g e
stock is substandard. Nationally this would i n d i c a t e a
maintenance c o s t of about £24bn. T h i s problem has been
a g g r a v a t e d by t h e r e c e n t i n c r e a s e s i n t h e i n t e n s i t y and t h e
axle weight of road t r a f f i c . Consequently i n addition to
r o u t i n e maintenance and t h e r e p a i r of a c c i d e n t a l damage,
many b r i d g e s require strengthening works to accommodate
these loadings. The m o d i f i c a t i o n of existing structures
requires d e t a i l e d and s p e c i f i c information so that the
b a s i c c h o i c e of e i t h e r refurbishment of e x i s t i n g elements
o r c o m p l e t e r e p l a c e m e n t c a n be made.
2 Bridgeworks Maintenance
Bridgeworks maintenance c a n be d e f i n e d a s ensuring the

s a f e , u n r e s t r i c t e d p a s s a g e of p e o p l e , a n i m a l s and v e h i c l e s
as s p e c i f i e d i n the C o n s t r u c t i o n and Use regulations,
without limitations, [3]. The work i s a combination of
planned maintenance, refurbishment, replacement and the
r e p a i r of accidental damage. The f i r s t three items are
r e g a r d e d a s t r a d i t i o n a l b r i d g e w o r k s maintenance and would
u s u a l l y be funded from t h e a n n u a l budget. However, the
l a s t item i s often regarded as a s p e c i a l case, sometimes
r e q u i r i n g immediate a c t i o n and t h e r e f o r e s p e c i a l funding
arrangements u s u a l l y e x i s t for these c a s e s .
M a i n t e n a n c e work c o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s t h e a c t i o n t a k e n
t o p r o l o n g t h e u s e f u l l i f e o f a b r i d g e a t a minimum c o s t
with l e a s t interference to i t s operational function. This
a p p r o a c h c o n t a i n s c o n t r a d i c t o r y a i m s a s t h e minimum c o s t o f
maintenance i s often only achievable i f the bridge is
c l o s e d . F r e q u e n t l y , the c o s t of d i v e r s i o n s of pedestrians
and v e h i c l e s exceeds the c o s t of the p h y s i c a l bridge
r e p a i r . T h e e x p e r t i s e i n t h e management o f t h e m a i n t e n a n c e
p r o c e s s i s i n d e c i d i n g upon c o s t e f f e c t i v e minimum w o r k s
w h i c h p e r m i t t h e b r i d g e t o be u s e d w i t h o u t r e s t r i c t i o n s .
Although the determination of the bridge c o n d i t i o n is

the prime o b j e c t i v e of bridgeworks i n s p e c t i o n s , i t appears
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t h a t the r a t e of d e t e r i o r a t i o n of b r i d g e s i s not standard
or uniform. Additionally, it is suspected that the
r e l a t i v e l y o l d a n d r e l a t i v e l y new b r i d g e s a c c o u n t for a
h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e m a i n t e n a n c e budget t h a n would be
expected. T h e r e a s o n s f o r e x p e n d i t u r e on p r e - 1 9 2 2 b r i d g e s
h a v e b e e n o u t l i n e d above b u t t h e more r e c e n t b r i d g e s , post
1960, were constructed at a time when t h e material
specification had been r e v i s e d , tenders concentrated on
minimum c a p i t a l c o s t a n d more s o p h i s t i c a t e d d e s i g n s w e r e
being produced.
The i m p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e f a c t o r s i s t h a t more a t t e n t i o n
s h o u l d be g i v e n t o t h e c o l l e c t i o n and a n a l y s i s of a wealth
of information regarding the age, the design type, the
materials, the s i t e constraints, t h e c o n d i t i o n and other
r e l e v a n t f a c t o r s to f a c i l i t a t e maintenance d e c i s i o n making.
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , maintenance has been regarded as an "after-
t h e - f a c t " a c t i v i t y and was s o m e t h i n g done i n r e s p o n s e t o an
unacceptable c o n d i t i o n a r i s i n g . The t r a d e - o f f between
i n i t i a l c a p i t a l c o s t and maintenance e x p e n d i t u r e over the
design l i f e r a i s e s the question of whether the l i f e cycle
cost o f t h e b r i d g e s h o u l d be t h e b a s i s f o r b r i d g e w o r k s
maintenance.
3 Maintenance S t r a t e g y
A bridgeworks maintenance strategy has to meet certain

o b j e c t i v e s , one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t b e i n g t h e statutory
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p u b l i c s a f e t y . T h i s h a s t o be a c h i e v e d by
making t h e most e f f e c t i v e use of limited resources, by
e f f i c i e n t p l a n n i n g and s e l e c t i o n of p r i o r i t i e s , by u s i n g
the most a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t r a c t strategy and a l l within
s t r i c t budgetary c o n s t r a i n t s .
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l r e q u i r e m e n t f o r t h e management o f the
maintenance i n the operation stage i s relevant base data.
T h i s d a t a i s l a r g e l y o b t a i n e d from v i s u a l G e n e r a l and
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Principal I n s p e c t i o n s , and i t i s the frequency of these
i n s p e c t i o n s and hence t h e c o s t of c o l l e c t i n g t h e d a t a , and
the r e l i a b i l i t y and a c c e s s i b i l i t y of the data which
influences the effectiveness of t h e management process.
However i t s h o u l d be noted that a database stores
h i s t o r i c a l d a t a made a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i m e o f i n s p e c t i o n s
o r r e p a i r w o r k s and c a n n o t be c o m p l e t e l y up t o d a t e .
Once a d e f e c t h a s been i d e n t i f i e d one of the key

management decisions is to determine the level of
intervention, w h i c h c a n be d e s c r i b e d a s t h e appropriate
time for p a r t i c u l a r types of maintenance work; repair,
refurbishment or replacement. This aspect is a central
p r o b l e m f o r management and i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f
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decision making under conflicting constraints. Detailed
planning is d i f f i c u l t as, particularly on t h e older
b r i d g e s , the f u l l extent of the maintenance works r e q u i r e d
may n o t b e c o m e k n o w n u n t i l t h e w o r k h a s s t a r t e d o n s i t e .
Many f a u l t s i n d i f f e r e n t b r i d g e s may b e i d e n t i f i e d a t the
same t i m e b u t t h e b u d g e t w i l l n o t a l l o w a l l t h e w o r k s t o be
u n d e r t a k e n a n d h e n c e t h e e x p e n d i t u r e h a s t o b e made i n s u c h
a way a s t o p r o d u c e t h e ' o u t c o m e o f l e a s t r e g r e t ' , [4].
The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e a v a i l a b l e budget and

priority spending, the age and t y p e of the bridgeworks
s t o c k , s t a t u t o r y r e q u i r e m e n t s and t h e v e h i c u l a r f l o w s u s i n g
the bridges is not well defined. These types of
u n c e r t a i n t y mean t h a t management h a s t o b e f l e x i b l e i n t h e
scheduling of routine maintenance work and w i l l need
additional f u n d i n g from t i m e t o time. It is clear that
without detailed bridgeworks information effective
d e c i s i o n s c a n n o t b e made. T h e r e i s no s t a n d a r d i s a t i o n in
p r e c i s e l y what d a t a i s recorded, how t h e s e records are
s t o r e d and i n what form t h e y c a n be r e t r i e v e d t o a s s i s t i n
the d e c i s i o n making process. Many b r i d g e owners and
c o n s u l t i n g e n g i n e e r s employed by owners have d e v e l o p e d
bridgeworks databases; unfortunately there i s at present
l i t t l e c o m p a t i b i l i t y between d i f f e r e n t systems.
4 M a i n t e n a n c e Management Systems
The u s e of d a t a b a s e s to s t o r e maintenance d a t a i s t h e f i r s t
step i n e s t a b l i s h i n g maintenance systems, however the
constraints of budget and t h e priority d e c i s i o n making
r e q u i r e d i n b r i d g e w o r k s m a i n t e n a n c e means t h a t management
expertise i s a l s o needed. To h a n d l e and u p d a t e large
amounts o f d a t a q u i c k l y and e a s i l y n e c e s s i t a t e s t h e u s e of
computer based systems.
In the US a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t h e UK, Management

Maintenance Systems have been developed to consider the
life cycle costing of structures, particularly for
b u i l d i n g s a n d p r o c e s s p l a n t s . T h i s c o n c e p t i s now b e g i n n i n g
t o be a p p l i e d t o a c o n v e n t i o n a l d a t a b a s e f o r t h e management
of information i n bridgeworks maintenance, contrasting the
t r a d i t i o n a l 120 y e a r d e s i g n l i f e a p p r o a c h w i t h a l i f e c y c l e
costing philosophy.
4.1 DTp System

This system i s s t i l l i n the e a r l y stages of development,
i n i t i a l l y as a database but u l t i m a t e l y i t has the p o t e n t i a l
f o r b e c o m i n g a m a n a g e m e n t m a i n t e n a n c e s y s t e m . I t i s known
as the National Structures Database, [5], and s t o r e s data
on DTp b r i d g e s w h i c h a r e t h e m o t o r w a y a n d t r u n k road
b r i d g e s and hence c o n t a i n s a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n of large
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span bridges than the national average.
I t stores data including, the bridge location, as b u i l t

d e t a i l s , h i s t o r y of d e f e c t s , i n s p e c t i o n r e c o r d s and budget
information. There i s a category for p r i o r i t y but t h i s i s a
s u b j e c t i v e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e b r i d g e i n t o h i g h , medium o r
low c a t e g o r i e s . The system i s s i g n i f i c a n t because i t i s the
only n a t i o n a l system to which other bridge owners can
r e l a t e a n d i s t h e r e f o r e l i k e l y t o h a v e a m a j o r i m p a c t on
the f u t u r e development of l o c a l systems.
4 . 2 The 'BRIDGIT' System

S u r r e y County C o u n c i l and Howard Humphreys, C o n s u l t i n g
E n g i n e e r s h a v e b e e n c o l l a b o r a t i n g on t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a
b r i d g e w o r k s management maintenance system. This type of
a c t i v i t y i s b e i n g r e p e a t e d b y many d i f f e r e n t b r i d g e o w n e r s ,
DTp a g e n c i e s and c o n s u l t a n t s i n many p a r t s of t h e UK.
However, ' B R I D G I T ' h a s p r o g r e s s e d f u r t h e r t h a n most of its
competitors.
T h e s y s t e m i s b a s e d on t h r e e s e p a r a t e d a t a b a s e s , storing
details of location, condition and inspection, with an
i n t e r l i n k e d management s y s t e m p e r m i t a c c e s s t o a l l data.
The b a s e d a t a w i l l be updated from a s e r i e s o f i n s p e c t i o n s
a n d t h e s y s t e m i t s e l f c h e c k s new d a t a b e i n g e n t e r e d for
'out of range' records. I n t h i s way t h e c o n d i t i o n o f the
b r i d g e i s r e c o r d e d and m o n i t o r e d and d e c i s i o n s c a n be b a s e d
on a knowledge o f t h e level of investment. The o v e r a l l
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e s y s t e m i s a s s e s s e d by c a l c u l a t i n g an
a s s e t v a l u e f o r t h e i n i t i a l bridgeworks s t o c k and c h e c k i n g
that the investment d e c i s i o n s tend to increase the value
of the stock.
The system i n c l u d e s a p r i o r i t y r a n k i n g f a c i l i t y to
enable the user to determine which r e p a i r s to c a r r y out
when faced with the problems of resource or budget
constraints. The r a n k i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e b a s e d on three
factors; the location factor, the road f a c t o r and the
condition factor. As the system is being developed
c o m m e r c i a l l y t h e d e t a i l s of t h e s e f a c t o r s t o g e t h e r w i t h any
w e i g h t i n g parameters a r e not r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . However, i t
c a n be s e e n t h a t t h e d e c i s i o n m a k i n g p r o c e s s i s b a s e d on a
narrow s e t of c r i t e r i a .
4 . 3 Review o f Systems i n u s e i n t h e US
T h e US F e d e r a l H i g h w a y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s b e e n e n c o u r a g i n g
the development of bridge maintenance and management
systems for s e v e r a l years, [6]. At the national l e v e l a
s y s t e m o f S u f f i c i e n c y R a t i n g s was p r o p o s e d . To calculate
p r i o r i t i e s t h e s y s t e m c o n s i d e r s a number o f f a c t o r s ; the
cost, the e x i s t i n g loading l i m i t , safety, the route, the
r e m a i n i n g l i f e , t h e c l a s s of highway, t h e t r a f f i c and HGV's
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and the p o s s i b l e c o - o r d i n a t i o n w i t h o t h e r construction
w o r k s . Once e s t a b l i s h e d and v a l i d a t e d t h e s y s t e m would have
a major r o l e i n p r e d i c t i n g the future c o n d i t i o n of b r i d g e s .
W h i l s t t h i s s c h e m e h a s b e e n w e l l r e c e i v e d many S t a t e s h a v e
developed i n d i v i d u a l systems.
Pennsylvania State has produced a bridge management

maintenance system, [7], which helps to j u s t i f y expenditure
on b r i d g e w o r k s m a i n t e n a n c e . This is perceived to be
n e c e s s a r y as bridge d e f e c t s are not always obvious to the
public and t h e i r elected members, and t h e 'betterment'
w h i c h r e s u l t s from t h e maintenance work cannot be r e a d i l y
r e c o g n i s e d . The aim o f t h e system i s t o p l a n , d e c i d e and
e f f e c t bridgeworks maintenance works. This system also
incorporates a priority system which is based upon
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of s a f e t y , of the urgency of c a r r y i n g out
t h e r e m e d i a l w o r k s , of t h e importance of t h e r o a d and t h e
effects of its closure and of the bridges rate of
deterioration.
Many o t h e r s t a t e s h a v e commenced w o r k o n s y s t e m s and

some d e t a i l s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e k e y f e a t u r e s o f t h e p r i o r i t y
ranking techniques are described, [6]. In Kansas two
a l g o r i t h m s a r e u s e d t o examine t h e combined c o n d i t i o n of
r o a d s and b r i d g e s and t h e t r a f f i c , s a f e t y and structural
c o n d i t i o n of the bridge. The r e s u l t i n g f i g u r e s a r e then
weighted to give a priority ranking. A C r i t i c a l Bridge
R a t i n g i s c a l c u l a t e d i n M i c h i g a n , b a s e d upon t h e s a f e t y and
p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n of the bridge, the importance of the
r o u t e and the f i n a n c e s . T h i s i s the o n l y system to i n c l u d e
m o n e t a r y v a l u e s d i r e c t l y i n t h e p r i o r i t y s y s t e m . New Y o r k
S t a t e a s s e s s t h e b r i d g e c o n d i t i o n and t h e t r a f f i c f l o w s a s
the two k e y p a r a m e t e r s i n determining p r i o r i t y . A life
c y c l e c o s t i n g a p p r o a c h h a s been u s e d by W i s c o n s i n , amongst
o t h e r s , n o t i n g t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n d i t i o n and
performance i s not l i n e a r .
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4 . 4 D a n i s h S t a t e R a i l w a y System
T h e a i m s o f a management m a i n t e n a n c e s y s t e m a r e t w o f o l d ; i n
t h e s h o r t term c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s a f e t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e and
i n t h e l o n g term c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r a t e of d e t e r i o r a t i o n . The
Danish System, [8], is based on a database with a
management system incorporating priorities to permit
c o n t i n u e d p e r f o r m a n c e and t o e n s u r e t h e optimum economic
s e r v i c e l i f e of the bridge.
The system receives input from the bridgestock

inventory, i n s p e c t i o n s and s p e c i a l i n s p e c t i o n s w h i c h are
s t o r e d i n t h e b r i d g e d a t a b a s e . A management s y s t e m i s t h e n
applied to produce two forms of output. Firstly,
maintenance decisions based on a r a n k i n g scheme and
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secondly bridge element records i n d i c a t i n g the type and
frequency of d e f e c t s . H o w e v e r , t h e comment i s made that
under s t r i c t budgetary constraints only collapses and
s e r i o u s d e f e c t s c a n be t a c k l e d .
5 F u r t h e r Developments
5.1 G u i d e l i n e s
As a result of this general review of management
maintenance systems there are c e r t a i n f a c t o r s which appear
common t o m o s t s y s t e m s a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s w h i c h a r e s e l d o m
i f e v e r i n c l u d e b u t w h i c h might appear t o be i m p o r t a n t . A l l
t h e s y s t e m s u s e d some f o r m o f d a t a b a s e b u t t h e a c t u a l data
recorded under similar headings varies widely. To
facilitate interaction between systems it would seem
d e s i r a b l e t h a t some minimum s t a n d a r d s a n d f o r m a t s for
b r i d g e d a t a need t o be a g r e e d .
The c o r e o f t h e management module i s the priority

c a l c u l a t i o n w h i c h i s b a s e d o n many d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a a n d
weighted i n d i f f e r e n t ways. Some s y s t e m s consider many
p a r a m e t e r s w h i l s t o t h e r s a r e c o n s t r a i n e d t o two o r three;
nevertheless a l l systems include safety and bridge
c o n d i t i o n i n some w a y i n t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f p r i o r i t y .
There are some additional factors not directly

c o n s i d e r e d i n a n y o f t h e s y s t e m s o u t l i n e d a b o v e , w h i c h may
be worthy of f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n . The d e c i s i o n t a k e n about
m a i n t e n a n c e on a p a r t i c u l a r b r i d g e i s a f f e c t e d by t h e c l o s e
p r o x i m i t y o f an a l t e r n a t i v e c r o s s i n g . A l t h o u g h one s y s t e m
mentioned the length of detour, no f o r m a l a s s e s s m e n t of
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a l t e r n a t i v e s h a s been i n c l u d e d . T h e r e a r e a l s o , i n t h e UK,
two more c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w h i c h s h o u l d be n o t e d ; f i r s t l y i s
the bridge short span or narrow deck or likely to be
considered as part of the deck strengthening programme
p r i o r t o 1999 a n d s e c o n d l y i s w o r k t o be e x p e c t e d on t h e
public u t i l i t i e s contained within the bridge deck. The
effectiveness of these factors and others will be
c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h work b e i n g u n d e r t a k e n a t
UMIST.
5.2 C u r r e n t R e s e a r c h
A m a j o r s t u d y i s b e i n g c a r r i e d out by UMIST, funded by t h e
R e p a i r , O p e r a t i o n s a n d M a i n t e n a n c e Programme o f t h e S c i e n c e
and E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l . The r e s e a r c h work at
UMIST i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e management o f t h e maintenance
p r o c e s s f o r b r i d g e w o r k s , and g i v e s p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n to
i n f o r m a t i o n from a s p e c i f i c s u b - d i v i s i o n of t h i s sector,
the bridge maintenance s e c t i o n s of S h e f f i e l d C i t y Council
and M a n c h e s t e r C i t y C o u n c i l .
534
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The principal objectives of the work i n v o l v e s the
investigation of existing management procedures, the
examination of the c r i t e r i a used i n the d e c i s i o n making
process and c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the methods of assessing
p o t e n t i a l m a i n t e n a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s i n t h e a p p r a i s a l o f new
works.
5.3 I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r new b r i d g e s
Maintenance procedures have s i g n i f i c a n t implications for
t h e d e s i g n o f new w o r k s ; design being considered i n its
widest sense, incorporating feasibility, technical
assessment and d e t a i l i n g . T h e r e a r e two main a r e a s of
interest; f i r s t l y design which prolongs the l i f e of the
b r i d g e and p r e v e n t s deterioration and s e c o n d l y design
features which make routine inspections and routine
m a i n t e n a n c e , s u c h a s r e p l a c i n g b r i d g e b e a r i n g s , s i m p l e and
low c o s t o p e r a t i o n s . The main c o n c e p t u a l d e s i g n i s u s u a l l y
w e l l p r e p a r e d a n d c o n s i d e r s t h e 120 year design life,
however i t i s i n poor d e t a i l i n g , u s u a l l y c a r r i e d out by
junior engineers that the source of future maintenance
p r o b l e m s c a n be f o u n d . The c o s t of i n c l u d i n g f e a t u r e s i n a
bridge design to f a c i l i t a t e maintenance are small i f these
requirements are i d e n t i f i e d early i n the design process.
6 Acknowledgements
The authors g r a t e f u l l y acknowledge the a s s i s t a n c e of the
S c i e n c e and E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l , the Bridges
Sections of the City of S h e f f i e l d and the City of
Manchester i n the c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h work.
7 References
1. Jones, C . J . F . P . , Bridgeworks Maintenance, Lecture to

the Y o r k s h i r e A s s o c i a t i o n of the Concrete Society,
November 2 4 t h , 1988.
2. Leadbeater, R . D . , A Local Authority Viewpoint, Concrete

Bridges - Management, Maintenance and Renovation,
Concrete S o c i e t y , 23rd February, 1989.
3. Leadbeater, A.D., The P r a c t i c a l use of Bridge

Assessments, National W o r k s h o p on Bridge
Maintenance Initiatives, Leamington Spa,
I n s t i t u t i o n of Highways and Transportation, 8th
April, 1986.
4. Smith, N . J . , Management o f B r i d g e w o r k s M a i n t e n a n c e ,
Proceedings of an I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on Bridge
Management, U n i v e r s i t y o f S u r r e y , M a r c h , 1990.
535
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Copyright CRC Press

5. DTp, N a t i o n a l Structures Database, 1989.
6. S a i t o , M. a n d S i n h a , K . C . , Review of c u r r e n t practices
of b r i d g e management a t s t a t e l e v e l , Transportation
R e s e a r c h R e c o r d 1113, USA, 1987.
7. Arner, R . C , Kruegler, J.M., McClure, R.M. and P a t e l ,

K.R., The P e n n s y l v a n i a B r i d g e Maintenance Management
System, T r a n s p o r t a t i o n R e s e a r c h R e c o r d , 1083, USA, 1986.
8. Rostam, S., The European Scene ; Assessment and

Strategy for Highways and Road B r i d g e s , Concrete
B r i d g e s - Management, Maintenance and R e n o v a t i o n ,
Concrete Society, 23rd February, 1989.
536
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Copyright CRC Press

THE S T R U C T U R A L ASSESSMENT AND
STRENGTHENING OF K A L E M O U T H
BRIDGE, SCOTLAND
P. JACKSON
E.D.S.-Unilink, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
Abstract
T h i s p a p e r d e s c r i b e s t h e s t r u c t u r a l a s s e s s m e n t and s u b s e q u e n t r e p a i r o f
t h e K a l e m o u t h S u s p e n s i o n B r i d g e , now c a r r y i n g t r a f f i c l o a d s w h i c h a r e
t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t t o t h o s e w h i c h e x i s t e d when i t was b u i l t a r o u n d 1835.
Keywords: S t r u c t u r a l Assessment, Refurbishment, Replacement
Components, C o s t E f f e c t i v e R e p a i r , O l d B r i d g e s .
1 Introduction
The K a l e m o u t h S u s p e n s i o n B r i d g e c r o s s e s t h e R i v e r T e v i o t i n t h e
S c o t t i s h b o r d e r s a l o n g s i d e t h e A698 r o a d and a t a p o i n t a p p r o x i m a t e l y
midway b e t w e e n J e d b u r g h and K e l s o . I t was d e s i g n e d and b u i l t by
C a p t a i n S i r S a m u e l Brown a r o u n d 1835 and h a s u n d e r g o n e l i t t l e m a i n t e -
nance s i n c e then. T h i s s h o r t paper o u t l i n e s the r e c e n t s t r u c t u r a l
a p p r a i s a l and s u b s e q u e n t r e f u r b i s h m e n t .
2 The Designer of the Kalemouth Bridge
C a p t a i n S i r S a m u e l Brown was b o r n i n 1776, j o i n e d t h e r o y a l n a v y i n

1795 and r o s e t o Commander by 1811. I n May 1812 he l e f t t h e n a v y ,
a c c e p t i n g the rank of R e t i r e d C a p t a i n . By 1805, Brown was a l r e a d y
a c t i v e l y engaged i n e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h h i s i d e a s f o r wrought i r o n
chain. T h e s e l e d t o h i s f i r s t a w a r d o f L e t t e r s P a t e n t o f I n v e n t i o n on
F e b r u a r y 4 1808 f o r ' R i g g i n g o f S h i p s o r V e s s e l s ' . The s u p e r i o r i t y o f
c h a i n c a b l e o v e r hemp r o p e was r e c o g n i s e d by t h e Navy and i n 1811 c h a i n
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
g r o u n d t a c k l e was a d o p t e d i n t o t h e S e r v i c e .
B r o w n ' s i n t e r e s t i n s u s p e n s i o n b r i d g e t e c h n i q u e s s t a r t e d i n 1808.
He r e c o r d e d ' . . . a b o u t t h a t p e r i o d I made d r a w i n g s and c a l c u l a t i o n s o f
the s t r e n g t h of b r i d g e s of suspension b u t i t was n o t u n t i l 1813
when I c o n s t r u c t e d a b r i d g e o f s t r a i g h t b a r s f o r t h i s p u r p o s e on my own
p r e m i s e s . . . . t h e s p a n o f t h i s b r i d g e i s one h u n d r e d and f i v e f e e t , and
a l t h o u g h the whole of the ironwork weighs o n l y t h i r t y - seven hundred
w e i g h t , i t h a s s u p p o r t e d l o a d e d c a r t s and c a r r i a g e s o f v a r i o u s d e s c r i p -
t i o n s ' , T h i s e a r l y e x p e r i m e n t a l work was made j u s t two y e a r s b e f o r e
J a m e s F i n l e y ' s p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n t s o f e x p e r i m e n t s i n 1810, and was most
l i k e l y i n i t i a t e d by P a r l i a m e n t a r y A c t s t o i m p r o v e r o a d s and b r i d g e s ,
537
Copyright CRC Press

r a t h e r t h a n h i s p r o b a b l e knowledge o f F i n l e y ' s work.
I n 1806, Brown formed a p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h h i s c o u s i n Samuel Lennox
and t h e f i r m o f Samuel Brown, Lennox & Co. p r o s p e r e d . I n 1817 Brown
o b t a i n e d p a t e n t number 4137 f o r h i s ' I n v e n t i o n o r Improvement i n t h e
C o n s t r u c t i o n o f a B r i d g e by t h e F o r m a t i o n and U n i t i n g , o f i t s Component
P a r t s , i n a Manner n o t H i t h e r t o P r a c t i s e d ' .
3 The Kalemouth Bridge
One o f Brown's many b r i d g e d e s i g n s was t h a t a t Kalemouth (Photographs 1

and 2 ) . The b r i d g e spans a p p r o x i m a t e l y 57m ( 1 8 6 f t ) between suspension
p o i n t s , has a w i d t h between hangers o f 4.6m (15 f e e t ) and t h e suspen-
s i o n p o i n t s a r e 4.9m (16 f t ) above road l e v e l . Each s i d e o f t h e b r i d g e
has a s u s p e n s i o n c h a i n c o n s i s t i n g o f p a i r s o f l i n k s , each 51mm (2 i n c h )
d i a m e t e r and a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3.05m ( 1 0 f t ) l o n g , connected t o g e t h e r by
t h r e e s h o r t c o u p l i n g l i n k s and two n o m i n a l l y 54mm (2.125 i n c h ) d i a m e t e r
common c r o s s p i n s ( P h o t o g r a p h 3 ) . The deck hangers, 25mm ( 1 i n c h )
d i a m e t e r , a r e hung from each p i n n e d c o n n e c t i o n and a t t h e mid l e n g t h o f
each main b a r l i n k . T h i s i n t e r m e d i a t e hanger i n t r o d u c e s b e n d i n g b u t
has worked w e l l f o r 153 y e a r s . A more w o r r y i n g p o i n t i s Brown's known
p o l i c y t o use a b n o r m a l l y low f a c t o r s o f s a f e t y i n h i s d e s i g n s . Further-
more, he a p p l i e d these t o t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f t h e wrought i r o n and
not t o t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h .
The t i m b e r deck has an upward camber w h i c h Brown saw as a means o f
r e s i s t i n g wind i n d u c e d o s c i l l a t i o n s . More i m p o r t a n t l y , he i n c l u d e d
t i m b e r h a n d r a i l s i n t h e form o f 0.76m ( 2 ' 6 " ) h i g h by 1.52m ( 5 f t ) d i a g o -
n a l l y b r a c e d p a n e l s . I n e f f e c t , these p r o v i d e s t i f f e n i n g t r u s s e s t o
both sides o f the b r i d g e .
4 The S t r u c t u r a l C o n d i t i o n of Kalemouth Bridge i n 1985
By 1985 t h e t i m b e r deck had d e t e r i o r a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y and some deck

p l a n k s had been r e p l a c e d . Most o f t h e j o i n t s i n t h e t i m b e r h a n d r a i l s
were loose and were p r o v i d i n g l i t t l e s t i f f n e s s t o t h e b r i d g e . Many o f
t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i a g o n a l wrought i r o n braces beneath t h e deck were l o o s e .
A c a r c r o s s i n g t h e b r i d g e produced a 150mm ( 6 " ) bow wave i n t h e deck.
A s u p e r f i c i a l i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e p i n n e d j o i n t s o f t h e main c h a i n s
suggested t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r o s i o n may e x i s t and t h e r e had t o be
doubts c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e wrought i r o n below ground l e v e l
a t t h e anchorages and encased i n t h e head o f t h e p i e r s .
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The b r i d g e c a r r i e s a w e i g h t r e s t r i c t i o n o f 3 t o n p e r v e h i c l e . A
check c a l c u l a t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e suspension chains on each s i d e o f
t h e b r i d g e were c a r r y i n g around 400kN ( 4 0 t o n s ) . T h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o
a s t r e s s i n t h e wrought i r o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 N/mm ( 6 . 4 t o n / s q . i n ) ,
2
g i v i n g a f a c t o r o f s a f e t y o f around 3.5 on t h e t y p i c a l u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e
s t r e n g t h o f 350 N/mm (22.5 t o n s / s q . i n ) . T h i s i s a low f a c t o r o f s a f e t y
2
compared t o a n o r m a l l y a c c e p t a b l e v a l u e o f 5.0, b u t i s b e t t e r t h a n t h e
2.25 w h i c h r e s u l t s from Brown's n o r m a l l y adopted w o r k i n g s t r e s s o f
155 N/mm ( 1 0 t o n / s q . i n ) . The t h r e e s m a l l l i n k s a t each j o i n t have a
2
t o t a l c r o s s s e c t i o n e q u i v a l e n t t o t h a t o f t h e two main b a r s and a r e
538
Copyright CRC Press

t h u s a t t h e same n o m i n a l t e n s i l e s t r e s s . The s h e a r s t r e s s i n t h e p i n s
i s 4 4 N/mm ( 2 . 8 2 t o n / s q . i n ) . O f c o u r s e , t h i s j u s t a d e q u a t e p e r f o r m a n c e
2
a s s u m e s t h a t t h e w r o u g h t i r o n i s o f r e a s o n a b l e q u a l i t y and t h a t t h e r e
i s no s i g n i f i c a n t l o s s o f c r o s s s e c t i o n due t o c o r r o s i o n . Recently
t h e s e were checked by removing ' s h a v i n g s 1
of metal f o r microscopic
e x a m i n a t i o n , by v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n of the j o i n t s u s i n g a n o p t i c a l probe
and b y x - r a y p h o t o g r a p h y o f t h e j o i n t s u s i n g a p o r t a b l e r a d i o a c t i v e
cobalt source. The m i c r o s c o p i c e x a m i n a t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was
m i n o r s u r f a c e c o r r o s i o n o f t h e w r o u g h t i r o n b u t t h a t t h i s had n o t p r o p o -
g a t e d and t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l was l i k e l y t o h a v e a n u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e
s t r e n g t h o f a r o u n d 350 N/mm ( 2 2 . 5 t o n s / s q . i n ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
2
the
c o n d i t i o n o f t h e j o i n t s was o f c o n c e r n . T h e r e had b e e n i n s i g n i f i c a n t
c o r r o s i o n of the e y e s a t the ends o f each long l i n k , but the s m a l l
l i n k s had l o s t u p t o a r o u n d one t h i r d o f t h e i r c r o s s s e c t i o n and t h e
p i n s had l o s t u p t o one q u a r t e r o f t h e i r c r o s s s e c t i o n a t p o s i t i o n s
w h e r e r a i n w a t e r and d e b r i s had c o l l e c t e d o v e r t h e y e a r s and w h e r e i t
had b e e n i m p r a c t i c a b l e t o p r o t e c t b y p a i n t .
5 General replacement o fj o i n t s i n main chains
It was d e c i d e d t h a t a l l t h e s m a l l l i n k s and p i n s s h o u l d be r e p l a c e d .
A d e s t r e s s i n g r i g was d e s i g n e d , m a n u f a c t u r e d and t e s t e d i n t h e
l a b o r a t o r y t o support the load a c r o s s each j o i n t (Photograph 4 ) . The
t h r e e s m a l l l i n k s and two p i n s w e r e removed and r e p l a c e d b y new compo-
nents. I n t h e a b s e n c e o f modern w r o u g h t i r o n i t was d e c i d e d t o m a n u f a c -
t u r e t h e new c o m p o n e n t s i n s p e r o i d a l g r a p h i t e c a s t i r o n . M e c h a n i c a l
p r o p e r t i e s o f g r e y i r o n s may b e g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d i f t h e g r a p h i t e s h a p e
i s m o d i f i e d to e l i m i n a t e p l a n e s o f w e a k n e s s c a u s e d by c o n t i n u o u s f l a k e s .
Such m o d i f i c a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e i f molten i r o n having a composition i n
t h e r a n g e 3 . 2 - 4 . 5 % c a r b o n and 1 . 8 - 2 . 8 % s i l i c o n i s t r e a t e d w i t h magnesium
or cerium a d d i t i o n s before c a s t i n g . T h i s produces i r o n with graphite i n
s p h e r o i d a l f o r m i n s t e a d o f f l a k e s and t h i s i s known a s n o d u l a r , s p h e r o i -
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
d a l g r a p h i t e (SG) o r d u c t i l e i r o n . Nodular i r o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e w i t h
m a t r i c e s t h a t c o n s i s t o f f e r r i t e , p e a r l i t e , or mixtures o f these, o r
austenite.
The c o m p a c t s h a p e o f t h e c a r b o n d o e s n o t r e d u c e d u c t i l i t y o f t h e
m a t r i x t o t h e same e x t e n t a s g r a p h i t e f l a k e s , s o t h a t u s e f u l d u c t i l i t y
i s obtained. N o d u l a r i r o n s o f f e r a r a n g e o f d u c t i l i t i e s and t e n s i l e
s t r e n g t h s c o n s i d e r a b l y higher than those o fgrey i r o n s .
N o d u l a r i r o n s a r e made w i t h l o w e r s u l p h u r and p h o s p h o r o u s c o n t e n t
than grey i r o n s because these elements tend to r e s t r i c t formation o f
nodular graphite. The g r a d e c h o s e n f o r t h e r e p l a c e m e n t components h a s
an u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h s i m i l a r to wrought i r o n but a s l i g h t l y
smaller elongation. A s t h e name o f t h e m a t e r i a l i m p l i e s , a l l r e p l a c e -
ment c o m p o n e n t s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d b y c a s t i n g . A l l p i n s w e r e t h e n t u r n e d
down t o d i a m e t e r s o f 53, 5 4 and 55mm and s e t s o f t h r e e s m a l l l i n k s w e r e
machined a t t h e i r i n t e r n a l ends t o g i v e a s u n i f o r m as p o s s i b l e c o n t a c t
with each pin diameter. S p e c i m e n s r e p r e s e n t i n g 1 5 % o f t h e t o t a l number
o f j o i n t s w e r e s e l e c t e d a t random and t e s t e d t o f a i l u r e t o e n s u r e t h a t
t h e r e was a 9 5 % s t a t i s t i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y o f a minimum f a c t o r o f s a f e t y o f
3.5. A s a f u r t h e r p r e c a u t i o n a l l s e t s o f t h r e e l i n k s and two p i n s w e r e
p r o o f l o a d e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t o c h e c k t h a t t h e i r y i e l d l o a d was a b o v e
539
Copyright CRC Press

600kN, i . e . 1.5 x l i k e l y maximum w o r k i n g l o a d . I t c o u l d be a r g u e d t h a t
t h e s e l o a d t e s t s w e r e u n n e c e s s a r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t
t h e g u a r a n t e e o f a minimum y i e l d o f 1.5 x w o r k i n g l o a d i s n o t a p a r t i c u -
l a r l y demanding s t a n d a r d . T h e s u p p l i e r o f t h e c a s t i n g s was c h o s e n
b e c a u s e o f t h e f i r m ' s known h i g h s t a n d a r d o f w o r k m a n s h i p a n d q u a l i t y
c o n t r o l , and t h e t e s t i n g o f samples t o d e s t r u c t i o n c o n f i r m e d t h e c h o s e n
f a c t o r o f s a f e t y . Nevertheless, the engineer responsible f o r the
r e f u r b i s h i n g w i s h e d f o r h i s own p e a c e o f m i n d t h a t a l l components
s h o u l d u n d e r g o some p r o o f l o a d i n g . ' E n g i n e e r i n g commonsense l e d h i m 1
t o a r g u e t h a t d e f e c t s c o u l d o c c u r i n some o f t h e c a s t i n g s and i f t h e y
d i d e x i s t t h e y c o u l d p r o b a b l y be i d e n t i f i e d a t r e l a t i v e l y l o w l o a d s .
Hence he implemented t h e p r o o f l o a d i n g o f e a c h j o i n t a s s e m b l y t o
600 kN. I n t h e e v e n t , none f a i l e d . E a c h j o i n t i n t h e b r i d g e was
f i t t e d w i t h t h e l a r g e s t o f t h e t h r e e d i a m e t e r s o f p i n s which would p a s s
through t h e eyes i n t h e ends o f t h e long c h a i n l i n k s . The r e f u r b i s h e d
j o i n t was c o a t e d w i t h a n a n t i - c o r r o s i o n wax.
T e s t s p e c i m e n s w e r e c u t f r o m t h e removed w r o u g h t i r o n l i n k s a n d p i n s
and when t e s t e d g a v e u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s b e t w e e n 3 4 0 a n d 3 8 0
N/mm a n d y i e l d s t r e s s e s f r o m 2 3 0 t o 2 7 0 N/mm . The e l o n g a t i o n s a t
2 2
f a i l u r e were between 26% t o 30%, w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e d u c t i o n s i n a r e a

b e t w e e n 3 3 % a n d 4 6 % . I g n o r i n g l o s s o f m a t e r i a l due t o c o r r o s i o n , t h e
minimum y i e l d s t r e n g t h o f a j o i n t s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a r o u n d 900 kN
( 3 0 t o n s ) , o r 2.25 t i m e s t h e maximum w o r k i n g l o a d . Samples o f t h e
j o i n t s removed f r o m t h e b r i d g e , a n d i n c l u d i n g c o r r o d e d c o m p o n e n t s , w e r e
t e s t e d a n d w e r e f o u n d t o f a i l a t l o a d s a s l o w a s 700kN ( 7 0 t o n s ) . Thus,
b e f o r e t h e r e f u r b i s h i n g o f t h e b r i d g e , some j o i n t s w i t h c o r r o d e d
c o m p o n e n t s h a d f a i l i n g s t r e n g t h s o n l y t w i c e t h e maximum l i k e l y w o r k i n g
l o a d , a n d y i e l d s t r e n g t h s w h i c h w e r e a r o u n d 1.5 t i m e s t h e w o r k i n g l o a d .
V e h i c l e s h e a v i e r than t h e 3 t o n l i m i t would reduce these f a c t o r s o f
safety further.
6 Strengthening of joints i n main c h a i n s a t suspension supports
Where t h e s u s p e n s i o n c h a i n s p a s s o v e r t h e s u p p o r t i n g t o w e r s t h e y c o n s i s t
o f a number o f s h o r t l i n k s , s i m i l a r t o t h e g e o m e t r y o f a c y c l e c h a i n ,
which a r e supported on c a s t s a d d l e s . Despite a t o t a l l a c k of mainte-
n a n c e , t h e i r p r o t e c t e d l o c a t i o n had l e d t o r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e c o r r o s i o n .
R a t h e r t h a n r e p l a c e t h e s e l i n k s i t was d e c i d e d t o p r o v i d e a s y s t e m o f
strenghening. T h i s c o n s i s t e d o f s t a i n l e s s s t e e l b a r s , clamped t o t h e
ends o f t h e a d j a c e n t l o n g l i n k s and b e a r i n g on c u r v e d s t a i n l e s s s t e e l
p l a t e s a t each s i d e o f the c a s t saddle. The s t r e n g t h e n i n g b a r s were
m e r e l y s t r e s s e d t o a nominal l o a d , s o t h a t i n the s h o r t term the
o r i g i n a l wrought i r o n components c o n t i n u e t o p r o v i d e t h e s t r e n g t h . I f
m a j o r c o r r o s i o n o c c u r s i n t h e f u t u r e , t h e h i g h e l o n g a t i o n o f t h e wrought
i r o n w o u l d g r a d u a l l y t r a n s f e r t h e l o a d t o t h e s t a i n l e s s s t e e l compo-
nents. These a r e o f a s u f f i c i e n t s i z e t o c a r r y t h e whole l o a d , i f t h a t
s h o u l d e v e r be n e c e s s a r y .
7 Strengthening o f ground anchorages
The ground anchorages p r e s e n t a problem because, clearly, they can not
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be e x p o s e d f o r i n s p e c t i o n . A t b o t h s i d e s o f t h e b r i d g e t h e w r o u g h t i r o n
was e x p o s e d f o r a d e p t h o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 600mm. A t one s i d e t h i s m e r e l y
exposed m a t e r i a l around t h e mid l e n g t h s o f t h e main l i n k s . The wrought
i r o n w a s i n good c o n d i t i o n . A t t h e o t h e r e n d o f t h e b r i d g e two j o i n t s
w e r e e x p o s e d , one a t e a c h s i d e o f t h e r o a d w a y . Both had s i g n i f i c a n t
l o s s o f m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e s m a l l l i n k s due t o c o r r o s i o n a n d t h e r e was
some c o r r o s i o n a r o u n d t h e e n d ' e y e s ' o f t h e l o n g l i n k s .
The e x a c t f o r m o f t h e a n c h o r a g e i s n o t known a n d i t may be t h a t t h e
c h a i n s a r e a n c h o r e d i n t o t h e r o c k w h i c h e x i s t s on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e
river. On t h e o t h e r h a n d Brown's S p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r a b r i d g e a t
M o n t r o s e ( 1 8 2 5 ) r e f e r s t o '...one o f t h e i r o n p l a t e s w h i c h i s t o be
l a i d under ground, o f s u f f i c i e n t depth t o r e s i s t t h e drag o f t h e back-
s t a y c h a i n s , w h i c h p a s s t h r o u g h t h e p l a t e s , a n d a r e s e c u r e d by means o f
a bolt. T h e p l a t e w i l l be 6 f e e t by 8, a n d a b o u t 4 i n c h e s t h i c k i n
general section . 1
To remove u n c e r t a i n t y , i t was d e c i d e d t h a t t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n w o u l d
be t o recommend new r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e c o m p r e s s i o n a n d t e n s i o n p i l e s
and t o c o n n e c t t o t h e j o i n t s n e a r g r o u n d l e v e l . I n e f f e c t , the e x i s -
t i n g a n c h o r a g e s w o u l d become r e d u n d a n t .
8 Deck
Although t h e timber deck had s u f f e r e d major d e t e r i o r a t i o n , i t s b a s i c
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d e s i g n i s adequate f o r c u r r e n t use. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e was a n a e s t h e -
t i c requirement t o maintain the o r i g i n a l appearance. Therefore the
w h o l e o f t h e d e c k a n d h a n d r a i l s w e r e r e b u i l t t o t h e o r i g i n a l dimen-
sions. C a n a d i a n d o u g l a s f i r was u s e d i n s t e a d o f t h e o r i g i n a l o a k , a n d
g a l v a n i s e d m i l d s t e e l f i x i n g s and below-deck b r a c i n g were used i n s t e a d
of wrought i r o n .
9 Performance Check
For a major s t r u c t u r a l r e p a i r o f t h e type c a r r i e d out a t t h e Kalemouth

B r i d g e , i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o c a r r y o u t a p e r f o r m a n c e c h e c k a t a r o u n d 18
t o 2 4 months a f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e r e p a i r s . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h e c k
i s n o t one o f d e f e c t r e p a i r a s w o u l d o c c u r w i t h i n a m a i n t e n a n c e p e r i o d
but r a t h e r t o c o n f i r m t h a t t h e m o d i f i e d and r e p a i r e d s t r u c t u r e i s
behaving a s intended. T h e c o s t o f t h i s c h e c k s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d i n t h e
original contract price.
T h i s c h e c k w a s c a r r i e d o u t on t h e K a l e m o u t h B r i d g e d u r i n g t h e summer
of 1989.
10 Comments
Work s u c h a s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e c a n be amongst t h e most e n j o y a b l e t h a t a n

e n g i n e e r i s a s k e d t o u n d e r t a k e , b u t must be a p p r o a c h e d i n a somewhat
d i f f e r e n t manner t o new w o r k s . A u s e f u l analogy i s that of the medical
profession. When we t a k e o u r d e t e r i o r a t i n g b o d i e s t o t h e m e d i c a l
p r o f e s s i o n a l s we hope f o r a c o m p l e t e c u r e b u t o f t e n a r e w i l l i n g t o
541
Copyright CRC Press

s e t t l e for a r e p a i r which merely a r r e s t s f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n . We
do n o t e x p e c t t o be r e j u v e n a t e d t o t h e f i t n e s s o f a young p e r s o n and
e v e n t u a l l y t h e s t a g e i s r e a c h e d when we and t h e m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n must
a c c e p t t h a t we h a v e come t o t h e end o f o u r l i v e s . Old b u i l d i n g s or
s t r u c t u r e s a r e v e r y s i m i l a r . We must n o t t r y t o p r e s e r v e a l l s t r u c -
t u r e s , and t h o s e w h i c h we do r e p a i r w i l l h a v e t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e l i m i t e d
by t h e o r i g i n a l c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h a r e a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n . I f t h e r e s u l -
t i n g p e r f o r m a n c e i s s u f f i c i e n t f o r c u r r e n t and a n t i c i p a t e d r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
then the r e p a i r i s w o r t h w h i l e . T h i s has been the s i t u a t i o n a t the
Kalemouth Bridge.
The a s s e s s m e n t o f o l d b u i l d i n g s o r s t r u c t u r e s s h o u l d n o t be l i m i t e d
t o t e s t s and c a l c u l a t i o n s . The c i r c u m s t a n c e s of the o r i g i n a l d e s i g n and
c o n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d and t h e s e o f t e n w i l l c a s t i m p o r t a n t
l i g h t on t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e c u r r e n t p e r f o r m a n c e . Poor c o n s t r u c -
t i o n and ' s h o r t c u t s ' w i l l be f o u n d i n a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n . At K a l e m o u t h ,
t i m b e r p a c k i n g had b e e n u s e d t o accommodate p o o r f i t o f some o f t h e
components i n the s u s p e n s i o n c h a i n s . I n t h i s i n s t a n c e i t was o f no
s t r u c t u r a l importance. I n o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s i t c o u l d be c r i t i c a l .
F o r more r e c e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n i t i s s o m e t i m e s p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e
p e o p l e who w o r k e d on o r w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l d e s i g n a n d / o r
construction. T h e i r r e c o l l e c t i o n s c a n be i n v a l u a b l e .
To t h o s e who own, o r a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r , s u c h c o n s t r u c t i o n and who
c o m m i s s i o n r e p a i r s , t h e w r i t e r w o u l d a s k t h a t t h e y a l l o w ample t i m e f o r
t h e w o r k t o be c a r r i e d o u t . U n l e s s t h e r e i s an o b v i o u s r i s k of s t r u c -
t u r e f a i l u r e , i t i s u n n e c e s s a r y to have the speed which, q u i t e c o r r e c -
t l y , i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h new c o n s t r u c t i o n . The a s s e s s m e n t and r e p a i r o f
o l d c o n s t r u c t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y c h e a p e r and b e t t e r i f i t c a n be c a r r i e d
out a t a s l o w e r pace.
11 Bibliography and sources of information
S o u r c e s 2 and 3 b e l o w c o n t a i n a l a r g e number o f r e f e r e n c e s .
1 C o w i e F . M. Personal F i l e s
2 Day T. ( 1 9 8 5 ) 'Samuel Brown i n N o r t h - E a s t S c o t l a n d ' Industrial
A r c h a e o l o g y R e v i e w , V o l . 7 , No.2, 171-89
3 Day T. ( 1 9 8 3 ) S a m u e l Brown : h i s I n f l u e n c e on t h e D e s i g n o f
Suspension Bridges, H i s t o r y of Technology, 61-90
3 M i l l e r G. Retired Archivist.
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PHOTOGRAPH
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PHOTOGRAPH 3
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PHOTOGRAPH 4
Copyright CRC Press

STEEL TRUSS BRIDGE REHABILITATION
TECHNIQUE USING SUPERIMPOSED
S T E E L ARCHES (THE APPLICATION TO A
MONTANA RAILROAD DECK TRUSS
BRIDGE)
R.H. K I M
BKLB Inc., Consulting Engineers, Pennsylvania, USA
J.B. K I M
Bucknell University, Pennsylvania, USA
Abstract
T h i s paper d e s c r i b e s a p a t e n t e d economical and r e l i a b l e
way t o r e h a b i l i t a t e o l d s t e e l t r u s s b r i d g e s . This
m e t h o d h a s b e e n a p p l i e d t o many h i g h w a y b r i d g e s a n d ,
most r e c e n t l y , a r a i l r o a d t r u s s b r i d g e . The paper a l s o
i n c l u d e s why t h i s m e t h o d o f r e h a b i l i t a t i o n h a s
advantages over conventional t r u s s bridge r e h a b i l i t a t i o n
t e c h n i q u e s and b r i d g e r e p l a c e m e n t .
Highway b r i d g e problems
The U n i t e d S t a t e s government has n e g l e c t e d its

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f o r many y e a r s a n d i s o n l y now s t a r t i n g
t o g i v e i t p r o p e r a t t e n t i o n a s s t r u c t u r e s get o l d e r and
d e t e r i o r a t e at i n c r e a s i n g l y f a s t e r r a t e s . Among a l l
s t r u c t u r e s , b r i d g e s have been t h e most n e g l e c t e d . The
F e d e r a l H i g h w a y A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (FHWA) h a s p u b l i s h e d
r e p o r t s l i s t i n g a s many a s 40%, o r 2 4 0 , 0 0 0 , o f a l l
b r i d g e s as being d e f i c i e n t i n the U n i t e d S t a t e s .
S t e e l t r u s s b r i d g e s are p r e v a l e n t throughout the
U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d many h a v e a g e d t o t h e p o i n t w h e r e
b r i d g e owners must r e p a i r or r e p l a c e them. Many y e a r s
ago e n g i n e e r s d i d n o t d e s i g n b r i d g e s f o r h e a v i e r , modern
loads. T h e many d e t e r i o r a t e d members a n d c o n n e c t i o n s
make t h e s e b r i d g e s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o a n a l y z e w i t h
any a c c u r a c y . F a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g to the d i f f i c u l t i e s
of a n a l y s i s a r e , b u t n o t l i m i t e d t o , t h e f o l l o w i n g :
1. Many m e m b e r s a r e l o o s e u n d e r b o t h d e a d l o a d and
l i v e load c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s shows t h a t other
members a r e t h e o r e t i c a l l y o v e r s t r e s s e d under --``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
design load conditions.
2. C o r r o s i o n f r e e z e s j o i n t s t h a t are intended to act

as f r i c t i o n l e s s p i n s . Among o t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e s ,
t h i s adds c o n s i d e r a b l e bending s t r e s s e s to t r u s s
members t h a t w e r e d e s i g n e d t o r e s i s t o n l y a x i a l
547
Copyright CRC Press

stresses.
3. I n s p e c t o r s can not p o s i t i v e l y determine the extent

o f c o r r o s i o n a n d f a t i g u e damage t o t h e c o n n e c t i o n s
w i t h o u t d i s m a n t l i n g them w h i c h i s dangerous and
expensive.
4. Bridge bearings are corroded and frozen.
5. Many s t a t e s u s e s a l t f o r d e i c i n g r o a d w a y s d u r i n g
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
winter. The s a l t a c c e l e r a t e s c o r r o s i o n along
b o t t o m c h o r d members and c o n n e c t i o n s t o v a r y i n g
d e g r e e s of s e v e r i t y .
I n a c t u a l c o m p a r i s o n s between t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s e s and
f i e l d t e s t i n g of a h i g h w a y t r u s s b r i d g e , r e s u l t s
d i f f e r e d b y a s m u c h a s 800%. Out of a l l t r u s s e l e m e n t s ,
t h e c o n n e c t i o n s a r e by f a r t h e most c r i t i c a l . Bridge
c o l l a p s e s a r e a l m o s t a l w a y s due t o f a i l u r e a t a
c o n n e c t i o n , n o t i n a member.
T y p i c a l t r u s s b r i d g e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n s c o n s i s t of
s t r e n g t h e n i n g i n d i v i d u a l c o n n e c t i o n s a n d members t h a t
appear d e f i c i e n t . T h i s method i s v e r y l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e ,
e x p e n s i v e , and dangerous. The s l i g h t e s t m i s t a k e by t h e
c o n t r a c t o r can e a s i l y c o l l a p s e the b r i d g e . R e p a i r s done
i n t h i s manner a r e a l s o of a d u b i o u s n a t u r e .
U n c e r t a i n t i e s r e m a i n w i t h t h e c o n n e c t i o n s a n d members
t h a t have not been r e h a b i l i t a t e d . Bridge inspectors
m u s t c o n s t a n t l y c h e c k on a n d m a i n t a i n t h e s e r e m a i n i n g
t r u s s e l e m e n t s f o r y e a r s t o come. S i n c e b r i d g e owners
must assume the e x p e n s e s and r i s k s to p u b l i c s a f e t y ,
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n s of t r u s s b r i d g e s i n t h i s manner a r e
undesirable.
Arch reinforcement of highway t r u s s bridges
To meet t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of s a f e l y , e c o n o m i c a l l y , and
r e l i a b l y r e h a b i l i t a t i n g o l d s t e e l t r u s s b r i d g e s , we h a v e
been a p p l y i n g a p a t e n t e d s y s t e m to r e h a b i l i t a t e o l d
steel trusses. S t e e l arches superimposed over the
e x i s t i n g t r u s s e s can s t r u c t u r a l l y upgrade t h e s e b r i d g e s
t o modern t r a f f i c s t a n d a r d s . By t h e m s e l v e s , t h e a r c h e s
s h a r e a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of l i v e l o a d s w i t h t h e
t r u s s e s and g r e a t l y r e d u c e s t r e s s e s i n e x i s t i n g t r u s s
m e m b e r s send j o i n t s . B y p o s t t e n s i o n i n g t h e a r c h e s , we
c a n n e g a t e d e a d l o a d s t r e s s e s i n b o t t o m c h o r d members
and c o n n e c t i o n s , w h i c h a r e t h e most s u s c e p t i b l e to
c o r r o s i o n and f a t i g u e damage. A f t e r mounting the a r c h e s
on t h e t r u s s e s , i t i s e a s y t o make m i n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s
to the f l o o r systems i f n e c e s s a r y . T h e a d d i t i o n o f new
i n t e r m e d i a t e f l o o r beams s u p p o r t e d b y t h e a r c h e s c a n
g r e a t l y r e d u c e t h e s p a n l e n g t h s of t h e s t r i n g e r s . In
548
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some c a s e s w h e r e i t w o u l d h a v e b e e n e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t
t o r e p l a c e e x i s t i n g f l o o r b e a m s , t h e a d d i t i o n o f two new
i n t e r m e d i a t e f l o o r beams p e r t r u s s p a n e l a l l o w e d
e x i s t i n g f l o o r beams t o r e m a i n i n p l a c e . T h i s reduced
c o s t s b y o m i t t i n g l a b o r f o r d i f f i c u l t f l o o r beam
remova1s.
Among a d v a n t a g e s r e a l i z e d b y r e h a b i l i t a t i n g t r u s s
bridges with steel arches are:
1. The e n t i r e b r i d g e i s s t r e n g t h e n e d , not just

individual members a n d c o n n e c t i o n s .
2. I t i s p o s s i b l e to upgrade the l o a d - c a r r y i n g
c a p a c i t y of the b r i d g e to any d e s i r e d l o a d
capacity.
3. T h e b r i d g e owner c a n r e u s e m o s t , i f n o t a l l , of
t h e e x i s t i n g b r i d g e w i t h no m o d i f i c a t i o n s r e q u i r e d
f o r t h e a p p r o a c h e s , r e s u l t i n g i n c o s t s much l e s s
than conventional r e h a b i l i t a t i o n s or replacements.
T y p i c a l l y , a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s i n c u r r e d by b r i d g e
replacement i n c l u d e environmental impact s t u d i e s ,
a c q u i s i t i o n of r i g h t - o f - w a y p r o p e r t i e s , d e m o l i t i o n
and r e m o v a l of t h e e x i s t i n g b r i d g e , m o d i f i c a t i o n
o f b r i d g e a p p r o a c h e s , d i s r u p t i o n o f b u s i n e s s due
t o b r i d g e c l o s i n g s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n , new
s u b s t r u c t u r e s and s u p e r s t r u c t u r e s , d e t o u r s and
t r a f f i c c o n t r o l s , temporary b r i d g e s f o r emergency
v e h i c l e s , and long c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d s .
4. T h e r e i s no a d d i t i o n a l encroachment on clearance
below the b r i d g e .
5. The c o n t r a c t o r can m a i n t a i n t r a f f i c on t h e bridge

during the r e h a b i l i t a t i o n process.
6. T h e p e r i o d o f construction is short.
7. The a r c h e s i n t r o d u c e r e d u n d a n c i e s i n the
s t r u c t u r a l system. I n the u n l i k e l y event that a
member o r c o n n e c t i o n s h o u l d f a i l , t h e b r i d g e w i l l
s t i l l be a b l e t o s u s t a i n t r a f f i c l o a d s .
8. I t i s p o s s i b l e to preserve the original

a r c h i t e c t u r e of t h e b r i d g e for historical
purposes.
9. T h e a r c h e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y e x t e n d t h e b r i d g e ' s life
s p a n t o t h a t o f a new b r i d g e . S i n c e the arches
a r e new s t e e l , t h e r e h a b i l i t a t e d t r u s s b r i d g e w i l l
l a s t a s l o n g a s a new b r i d g e .
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We h a v e r e h a b i 1 i t a t e d h i g h w a y t r u s s b r i d g e s i n
Pennsylvania , Connecticut , Maryland , Ne w York , Idaho ,
K e n t u c k y , an d Orego n b y superimposin g stee l arche s o n
th e existin g trusses . Figure s 1 a n d 2 s h o wa t r u s s
bridg e i n Ne w Yor k befor e an d afte r rehabilitatio n wit h
stee l a r c h e s . Befor e rehabilitation , t h e m a x i m u m liv e
loa d a l l o w e d o n t h e b r i d g e w a s o n l y 4 4 . 4 8 k N . A f t e r
rehabilitation , t h e a l l o w a b l e liv e loa d i s 3 2 0 . 2 6 k N .
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Figure 2
A r c h - R e i n f o r c e d P r a t t Truss Bridge Upgraded i n 1986 t o
320.3 kN Weight L i m i t , C o r t l a n d , New York
Arch reinforcement of a r a i l r o a d deck t r u s s bridge
I n the past y e a r , we have a p p l i e d arch r e h a b i l i t a t i o n t o

a r a i l r o a d deck t r u s s b r i d g e i n S t . Regis, Montana. The
b r i d g e , f o r m e r l y b u i l t by N o r t h e r n P a c i f i c R a i l r o a d i n
1908, c o n s i s t s of f o u r 18.19 m approach spans and two
46.25 m t r u s s spans made out of open h e a r t h s t e e l .
The r a i l r o a d owner r e q u i r e d a b r i d g e t h a t would l a s t
another 50 years under the American Railway Engineering
A s s o c i a t i o n ' s Cooper E 80 l i v e l o a d i n g standard and a l s o
wanted t o r e p l a c e the e x i s t i n g open t i m b e r deck system
w i t h concrete b a l l a s t boxes. The b a l l a s t and concrete
boxes would add c o n s i d e r a b l e dead load t o the s t r u c t u r e .
The approach spans could be r e i n f o r c e d e a s i l y t o
accommodate the h e a v i e r loads f o r another h a l f c e n t u r y
but t h e t r u s s spans posed a major problem. T r a i n s
r u n n i n g a t t r a c k speed, 80.45 km/hr, had t o slow down t o
40.22 km/hr upon r e a c h i n g the t r u s s spans due t o the
excessive d e f l e c t i o n s and o t h e r u n c e r t a i n t i e s w i t h
r e g a r d t o the t r u s s e s . Fatigue s t r a i n s and c o r r o s i o n
had accumulated i n members and j o i n t s f o r more than 80
years. Since engineers d i d not o r i g i n a l l y design the
t r u s g spans t o c a r r y h e a v i e r , modern loads, the t r u s s e s
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underwent excessive swayings and d e f l e c t i o n s . As a
r e s u l t of these d e f l e c t i o n s , many r i v e t s f a i l e d at the
s t r i n g e r / f l o o r beam c o n n e c t i o n s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , the
l a t e r a l b r a c i n g s were c r a c k i n g i n the upper r e g i o n s of
the t r u s s e s and bottom chord members were loose, even
under l i v e load c o n d i t i o n s . F i n a l l y , i n s p e c t o r s could
not e c o n o m i c a l l y and r e l i a b l y determine the c o n d i t i o n s
of the many connections w h i l e the b r i d g e was s t i l l i n
use .
The o p t i o n s a v a i l a b l e were t o r e p l a c e the t r u s s spans
w i t h p l a t e g i r d e r spans or r e i n f o r c e the t r u s s spans
w i t h s t e e l arches. The p l a t e g i r d e r o p t i o n would have
r e q u i r e d b u i l d i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e p i e r s more than 15 m t a l l
t o meet t r a c k e l e v a t i o n s and the d e t o u r i n g of t r a i n
t r a f f i c t o other l i n e s . The r a i l r o a d company could not
a f f o r d t o experience the p r o j e c t e d loss of revenues and
customers t o o t h e r r a i l r o a d companies by c l o s i n g t h i s
main l i n e . A f t e r a l s o c o n s i d e r i n g the a d d i t i o n a l
expenses a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the new p l a t e g i r d e r o p t i o n
w i t h new a d d i t i o n a l p i e r s , they opted f o r us t o design
the r e i n f o r c e m e n t of the t r u s s e s w i t h s t e e l arches and
m a i n t a i n the c o n t i n u i t y of t r a i n t r a f f i c d u r i n g
construction.
The a p p l i c a t i o n of the Cooper E 80 l i v e l o a d i n g on
the t r u s s spans meant the o v e r a l l a p p l i c a t i o n of 6,574.1
kN of l i v e l o a d i n g alone on each t r u s s span w i t h a
s p e c i f i e d impact of more than 42% a p p l i e d t o each
member. T h i s gave the e f f e c t of an o v e r a l l l i v e load
per t r u s s g r e a t e r than 9,335.3 kN. The new concrete
b a l l a s t boxes and b a l l a s t added 1,729.8 kN t o the dead
load of the o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e . A f t e r thorough
a n a l y s e s , we decided t o use f o u r W24x62, A572 Grade 50
r o l l e d s t e e l s e c t i o n s ( y i e l d s t r e s s of 344.8 MPa) f o r
the arches w i t h e i g h t #18 Grade 75 rebars ( y i e l d s t r e s s
of 517.1 MPa and 5.733 cm i n diameter) as p o s t t e n s i o n m g
rods. A l l new s t e e l met American I n s t i t u t e of Steel
Construction standards. The t r u s s spans are on slender
p i e r s so p o s t t e n s i o n i n g rods not o n l y reduce the dead
load s t r e s s e s i n e x i s t i n g t r u s s members, but a l s o r e s i s t
the outward t h r u s t of the arches and prevent o v e r t u r n i n g
of t h e p i e r s . F i g u r e s 3 and 4 show the r a i l r o a d deck
t r u s s spans b e f o r e and a f t e r arch r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
The r a i l r o a d company h i r e d a t e s t i n g f i r m t o study
the load d i s t r i b u t i o n s between the arches and t r u s s e s .
As of t h i s w r i t i n g , those r e s u l t s are not o f f i c i a l l y
available. However, p r e l i m i n a r y r e s u l t s show t h a t the
arches are p e r f o r m i n g as designed. We expect t h i s deck
t r u s s b r i d g e t o support t r a i n s r e l i a b l y f o r a t l e a s t
another 50 y e a r s .
552
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Figure 3
165 m Long R a i l r o a d B r i d g e B u i l t 1908, S t . R e g i s , Montana
Figure 4
A r c h - R e i n f o r c e d R a i l r o a d B r i d g e Upgraded i n 1989 t o C a r r y
9,335.3 kN L i v e Load P l u s 1,729.8 kN A d d i t i o n a l Dead Load
Per T r u s s Span, S t . R e g i s , Montana
553
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PART E L E V E N
CABLEAND
MEMBRANE
STRUCTURES
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STATE OF THE ART: NONLINEAR
DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF MEMBRANES
C.H. JENKINS, J.W. LEONARD
Ocean Engineering Programme, Dept Civil Engineering, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
Abstract
M o d e r n m e t h o d s f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f membrane s t r u c t u r e s a r e e v o l v i n g .
Two p r o b l e m s o f a n a l y s i s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h membrane s t r u c t u r e s : (i)
shape ( o r form) f i n d i n g ; ( i i ) response ( d e f o r m a t i o n and/or s t r e s s )
analysis. Shape f i n d i n g i s a n o n - t r i v i a l s t a t i c problem t h a t i s n o t
c o n s i d e r e d i n t h i s paper. T h i s paper i s concerned w i t h r e v i e w i n g
m e t h o d s o f n o n l i n e a r d y n a m i c a n a l y s i s o f membrane s t r u c t u r e s . Atten-
t i o n i s f o c u s e d on f o r m u l a t i o n o f f i e l d e q u a t i o n s , w r i n k l i n g a n a l y s i s ,
f l u i d / s t r u c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n s , m a t e r i a l n o n l i n e a r i t i e s , and computa-
t i o n a l methods.
Keywords: Membranes, N o n l i n e a r , Dynamics
1 Introduction
I n m o d e r n t i m e s , membranes h a v e s e e n i n c r e a s i n g u s e i n b u i l d i n g
s t r u c t u r e s s u c h a s r a d a r domes, t e m p o r a r y s t o r a g e , a n d a e r o - s p a c e
structures. N o v e l a p p l i c a t i o n s abound. F o r example, i n the ocean
e n v i r o n m e n t , membrane s t r u c t u r e s h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d f o r u s e a s
b r e a k w a t e r s a t l e a s t s i n c e 1960 [NCEL ( 1 9 7 1 ) ] . Modi a n d Poon ( 1 9 7 8 )
i n v e s t i g a t e d i n f l a t e d v i s c o e l a s t i c tapered c a n t i l e v e r s f o r underwater
and o f f s h o r e a p p l i c a t i o n s . S z y s k o w s k i and G l o c k n e r ( 1 9 8 7 a ) h a v e
c o n s i d e r e d s t a t i c e l a s t i c m o d e l s o f membrane s t r u c t u r e s a s f l o a t i n g
storage v e s s e l s . L e e u w r i k (1987) and B o l z o n , e t a l . (1988) c o n s i d e r e d
f l e x i b l e membrane dams.
2 N o n l i n e a r Membrane F i e l d Equations
2.1 General
S t r u c t u r e s t h a t c a n n o t s u p p o r t s t r e s s c o u p l e s anywhere a r e by d e f i n i -
t i o n ' t r u e membranes' and a r e i n h e r e n t l y n o n l i n e a r , w i t h t h e d e g r e e o f
n o n l i n e a r i t y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e f i e l d e q u a t i o n s d e p e n d e n t on t h e
formulation philosophy. T h u s , t h e o r i e s may be d e v e l o p e d r a n g i n g f r o m
l i n e a r to s m a l l s t r a i n - f i n i t e r o t a t i o n (geometric n o n l i n e a r i t y only:
h e r e a f t e r c a l l e d ' l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n ' ) to f u l l y n o n l i n e a r both i n
geometry and m a t e r i a l s ( g e o m e t r i c and p h y s i c a l n o n l i n e a r i t y : here-
a f t e r c a l l e d 'large deformation'). The l i n e a r t h e o r y w i l l n o t be
d i s c u s s e d h e r e [ s e e , e.g., L e o n a r d ( 1 9 8 8 ) ] .
557
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The g o v e r n i n g f i e l d e q u a t i o n s a r e m o s t e a s i l y a n a l y z e d i n s t a t i c
l o a d i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , and c o n s t i t u t e t h e b u l k o f work r e p o r t e d .
T h i s i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a s r e s t r i c t i v e a s i t may seem s i n c e many
d y n a m i c l o a d i n g r e g i m e s c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a s q u a s i - s t a t i c , i . e . , when
the i n h e r e n t time s c a l e of the l o a d i n g i s such t h a t i n e r t i a l e f f e c t s
c a n be i g n o r e d . The s l o w i n f l a t i o n o f a p l a n e membrane w o u l d be o f
t h i s type. F u r t h e r m o r e , s i n c e membranes a r e i n h e r e n t l y t h i n , l i g h t
s t r u c t u r e s , t h e i r i n e r t i a l e f f e c t s may be i g n o r e d e v e n f o r more r a p i d
l o a d i n g schemes. The more r e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o t h e f u l l y
d y n a m i c p r o b l e m w i l l be r e p o r t e d s e p a r a t e l y .
2.2 F o p p l - H e n c k y Theory
By e q u a t i n g t h e s t i f f n e s s i n t h e F o p p l - v o n K a r m a n n o n l i n e a r ( s m a l l
s t r a i n , 'moderate' r o t a t i o n ) p l a t e e q u a t i o n s t o z e r o , t h e e q u a t i o n s
f o r the Foppl-Hencky t h e o r y a r e o b t a i n e d . The c o u p l e d n o n l i n e a r
p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o s o l v e i n c l o s e d form.
B e r g e r (1955) used the Foppl theory to formulate the s t r a i n energy
d e n s i t y o f a d e f o r m e d p l a t e a n d t h e n made t h e s i m p l i f y i n g ( b u t n o n -
r a t i o n a l ) assumption of i g n o r i n g the term c o n t a i n i n g the second
i n v a r i a n t of s t r a i n . T h i s approach has been a p p l i e d to l a r g e d e f l e c -
t i o n s o f membranes b y J o n e s ( 1 9 7 4 ) who u s e d a P r a n d t l s t r e s s f u n c t i o n
s o l u t i o n a n d b y S c h m i d t a n d DaDeppo ( 1 9 7 4 ) who u s e d a p e r t u r b a t i o n
t e c h n i q u e . F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n on B e r g e r ' s h y p o t h e s i s a n d e q u a -
t i o n s , s e e Mazumdar a n d J o n e s ( 1 9 7 4 ) .
N u m e r i c a l methods a r e u s u a l l y employed to s o l v e t h e g o v e r n i n g
e q u a t i o n s . Shaw a n d P e r r o n e ( 1 9 5 4 ) u s e d a f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e - r e l a x a t i o i
i t e r a t i o n method a f t e r r e c a s t i n g e n t i r e l y i n terms o f d i s p l a c e m e n t .
T h e y c o n s i d e r e d a r e c t a n g u l a r membrane a n d c a l c u l a t e d s t r e s s c o n t o u r s ,
S e e a l s o Kao a n d P e r r o n e ( 1 9 7 2 ) . A l l e n and A l - Q a r r a ( 1 9 8 7 ) have u s e d
a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e t h e o r y , s o l v e d b y t h e f i n i t e e l e m e n t method, a n d
c o n s i d e r b o t h s q u a r e a n d c i r c u l a r membrane p r o b l e m s .
C a u t i o n m u s t be e x e r c i s e d i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e F o p p l - H e n k y
t h e o r y to the l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n problem. For the case of the axisym-
m e t r i c d e f o r m a t i o n o f a n a n n u l a r membrane, W e i n i t s c h k e ( 1 9 8 0 ) comparec
t h e Foppl-Henky and l a r g e r o t a t i o n R e i s s n e r s h e l l t h e o r i e s . I n some
c a s e s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e o r i e s e x c e e d s 10%. The a p p r o p r i a t e -
ness of the R e i s s n e r theory f o r large r o t a t i o n s i s r e i t e r a t e d i n
G r a b m u l l e r and W e i n i t s c h k e ( 1 9 8 6 ) , and W e i n i t s c h k e ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
2.3 G e n e r a l Membrane S h e l l T h e o r y
A c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f w o r k i n n o n l i n e a r membrane r e s p o n s e f o l l o w s
from t h e t h e o r y f o r t h e l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n problem a s d e r i v e d from
c l a s s i c a l s h e l l theory. [ F o r a r e v i e w o f w o r k p r e c e d i n g 1973 s e e
Leonard (1974).]
A t r a c t a b l e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e above i s t h e c a s e o f a x i s y m m e t r i c
d e f o r m a t i o n s o f a n i s o t r o p i c i n c o m p r e s s i b l e membrane o f u n i f o r m
undeformed t h i c k n e s s . Many i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e s t u d i e d t h e q u a s i -
s t a t i c i n f l a t i o n o f a p l a n e c i r c u l a r e l a s t i c membrane. Wineman ( 1 9 7 6
1978) and R o b e r t s and G r e e n (1980) have c o n s i d e r e d s i m i l a r problems
but with a nonlinear v i s c o e l a s t i c c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n .
F i n i t e element s o l u t i o n s of the q u a s i - s t a t i c i n f l a t i o n of a plane
c i r c u l a r membrane w e r e g i v e n by Oden a n d S a t o ( 1 9 6 7 ) , L e o n a r d a n d
V e r m a ( 1 9 7 6 ) , a n d L e o n a r d a n d Lo ( 1 9 8 7 ) . Warby a n d Whiteman ( 1 9 8 8 )
558
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

p r e s e n t a f i n i t e element s o l u t i o n f o r the q u a s i - s t a t i c i n f l a t i o n o f an
i n i t i a l l y p l a n e c i r c u l a r l i n e a r v i s c o e l a s t i c membrane up t o a r i g i d
obstacle. Haug a n d P o w e l l ( 1 9 7 2 ) i n c l u d e w r i n k l i n g a n a l y s i s i n t h e
f i n i t e e l e m e n t membrane s o l u t i o n . Douven, e t a l . ( 1 9 8 9 ) c o n s i d e r a
f i n i t e element formulation f o r a v i s c o e l a s t i c t r a n s v e r s e l y i s o t r o p i c
membrane.
2.4 A d d i t i o n a l Formulation P h i l o s o p h i e s
N o n l i n e a r membrane e q u a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f L a g r a n g i a n d i s p l a c e m e n t
components were f o r m u l a t e d by G l o c k n e r and V i s h w a n a t h (1972) and
a p p l i e d t o a s p h e r i c a l H o o k e a n membrane. C l o s e d form s e r i e s s o l u t i o n s
were g e n e r a t e d by p e r t u r b a t i o n methods.
A new f o r m u l a t i o n was d e v e l o p e d [Malcom a n d G l o c k n e r ( 1 9 7 8 ) ] t o
study the response o f s p h e r i c a l i n f l a t a b l e s to ponding c o l l a p s e . See
a l s o S z y s z k o w s k i and Glockner (1984a,b). T h e a b o v e membranes a r e
c o n s i d e r e d t o be i n e x t e n s i b l e and w r i n k l i n g a n a l y s i s i s i n c l u d e d . See
the r e v i e w a r t i c l e by G l o c k n e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) . Dacko a n d G l o c k n e r ( 1 9 8 8 )
i n c l u d e e x t e n s i b i l i t y o f t h e membrane i n o r d e r t o a d j u s t f o r d i f f i c u l -
t i e s i n some o f t h e p r e v i o u s work.
2.5 N o n l i n e a r Dynamics
The q u a s i - s t a t i c a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o t h e d y n a m i c membrane p r o b l e m h a s
a l r e a d y b e e n p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d . Dynamic r e l a x a t i o n i s a s o l u t i o n
t e c h n i q u e f o r t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c problem t h a t borrows from c o m p u t a t i o n a l
methods o f s o l u t i o n f o r s t r u c t u r a l dynamic r e s p o n s e . I n this explic-
i t , i t e r a t i v e method, f i c t i t i o u s v a l u e s o f mass a n d damping a r e c h o s e n
s o t h a t t h e s t a t i c s o l u t i o n i s a c h i e v e d w i t h t h e s m a l l e s t number o f
s t e p s [Barnes ( 1 9 8 0 a ) ; Barnes and W a k e f i e l d ( 1 9 8 8 ) ] . The c o m p l e t e
d y n a m i c a n a l y s i s t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i n e r t i a o f t h e membrane a n d
i t s s u r r o u n d i n g medium ( a d d e d m a s s ) a s w e l l a s t h e damping o f t h e
membrane a n d i t s s u r r o u n d i n g medium ( r a d i a t i o n damping) [ D a v e n p o r t
(1988)]. As i n t h e q u a s i - s t a t i c c a s e , v a r i o u s a p p r o x i m a t i o n s a r e
made.
N o n l i n e a r membrane e q u a t i o n s f o l l o w i n g f r o m t h e l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n
t h e o r y have been u s e d by Chobotov and B i n d e r (1969) and Y e n and L e e
(1975) t o s t u d y t h e f r e e and f o r c e d v i b r a t i o n s o f a p l a n e c i r c u l a r
membrane u s i n g p e r t u r b a t i o n m e t h o d s . P l a u t and Leeuwrik (1988) d e r i v e
a n o n l i n e a r e q u a t i o n o f m o t i o n b a s e d on t h e i n e x t e n s i b i l i t y assumption
a n d u s e G a l e r k i n ' s method t o a n a l y z e t h e n o n l i n e a r o s c i l l a t i o n s o f a
c y l i n d r i c a l membrane.
The e q u a t i o n s o f m o t i o n f o r t h e l a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n p r o b l e m c a n b e
w r i t t e n u s i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e o f v i r t u a l work [ L e o n a r d ( 1 9 8 8 ) ] . The
e q u a t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y s o l v e d by a s p a t i a l d i s c r e t i z a t i o n u s i n g t h e
f i n i t e e l e m e n t method and a t e m p o r a l d i s c r e t i z a t i o n u s i n g e i t h e r a n
i m p l i c i t o r e x p l i c i t d i f f e r e n c e method [ s e e , e . g . , B a r n e s ( 1 9 8 0 ) ] .
Since the system s t i f f n e s s i s u s u a l l y non-constant, i t e r a t i o n (e.g.,
Newton-Raphson) [ B a r n e s ( 1 9 8 0 a ) ] d u r i n g e a c h time s t e p w i l l be r e -
quired. --``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I m p l i c i t methods r e q u i r e e q u a t i o n s o l u t i o n s a t e a c h time s t e p b u t
aire u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y s t a b l e . E x p l i c i t methods f i n d t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s
from t h e e q u a t i o n s o f motion and a r e then i n t e g r a t e d t o o b t a i n t h e
d i s p l a c e m e n t s without t h e need f o r s o l v i n g equations ( p r o v i d e d the
559
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mass m a t r i x i s d i a g o n a l ) . E x p l i c i t methods a r e c o n d i t i o n a l l y s t a b l e
and t h u s r e q u i r e s m a l l e r time s t e p s .
Oden, e t a l . ( 1 9 7 4 ) c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r o b l e m o f a p l a n e s q u a r e mem-
brane s u b j e c t to a c e n t r a l impulsive load u s i n g t r i a n g u l a r elements
a n d c e n t r a l d i f f e r e n c e method ( e x p l i c i t ) . B e n z l e y a n d Key ( 1 9 7 6 ) u s e d
c u b i c q u a d r i l a t e r a l e l e m e n t s and the c e n t r a l d i f f e r e n c e method to
e x a m i n e t h e f r e e v i b r a t i o n o f a s q u a r e membrane. L e o n a r d and Lo
( 1 9 8 7 ) c o n s i d e r e d t h e same p r o b l e m u s i n g a v a r i e t y o f e l e m e n t t y p e s ,
a n d s h o w e d q u a d r a t i c q u a d r i l a t e r a l s t o be a d v a n t a g e o u s . Forced
v i b r a t i o n p r o b l e m s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d u s i n g Newmark's m e t h o d ( i m p l i c i t ) .
Hsu ( 1 9 8 7 ) d e s c r i b e s use o f a c o m m e r c i a l n o n l i n e a r f i n i t e e l e m e n t code
to s t u d y the dynamic r e s p o n s e ( e x p l i c i t ) o f a t e n s i o n f a b r i c s t r u c -
ture. N o t a b l e i n h i s work a r e the use o f a v i s c o e l a s t i c c o n s t i t u t i v e
e q u a t i o n and s t r e s s r e l a x a t i o n a n a l y s i s .
3 Constitutive Relations
Generalized l i n e a r e l a s t i c relations, while suitable for large d e f l e c -

t i o n p r o b l e m s , w i l l n o t be d i s c u s s e d h e r e . The more g e n e r a l l a r g e
d e f o r m a t i o n p r o b l e m u s e s c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s b a s e d on t h e s t r a i n
energy f u n c t i o n , i . e . , the s o - c a l l e d ' h y p e r e l a s t i c ' m a t e r i a l s . The
s t r a i n e n e r g y f u n c t i o n i s t a k e n t o be some f u n c t i o n o f t h e s t r a i n
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
i n v a r i e n t s , where the s t r a i n i n v a r i e n t s a r e f u n c t i o n s of the e x t e n s i o n

ratios. Many f o r m s h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d [ f o r a b r i e f summary, s e e L i b a i
a n d Simmonds ( 1 9 8 8 ) ] .
For m a t e r i a l s e x h i b i t i n g e l a s t i c time dependency, a v i s c o e l a s t i c
c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n i s i n order. C e r t a i n membrane m a t e r i a l s , l i k e
p o l y m e r s a t s m a l l s t r a i n , may be m o d e l e d f o r some p u r p o s e s by a l i n e a r
viscoelastic relation. O t h e r s a t s m a l l s t r a i n , and m o s t a t l a r g e
s t r a i n , require a nonlinear formulation. Linear viscoelastic rela-
t i o n s may be o f two t y p e s , d i f f e r e n t i a l o r i n t e g r a l . Differential
e q u a t i o n s a r e w r i t t e n f o r m e c h a n i c a l models c o n s i s t i n g o f c o m b i n a t i o n s
o f s p r i n g s and d a s h p o t s . The a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e g r a l f o r m i s b a s e d on
the s o - c a l l e d ' h e r e d i t a r y i n t e g r a l ' . For u n i a x i a l s t r e s s / s t r a i n , t h i s
may be shown t o be e x p r e s s i b l e i n t e r m s o f t h e c r e e p c o m p l i a n c e and
the r e l a x a t i o n modulus. A l l o f the above a r e g e n e r a l i z a b l e to m u l t i -
axial stress/strain. W i t h s u i t a b l e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e c r e e p and r e l a x -
a t i o n f u n c t i o n s , c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l and i n t e g r a l
f o r m s c a n be shown.
Warby a n d Whiteman ( 1 9 8 9 ) h a v e p r o p o s e d a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e
Mooney-Rivlin r e l a t i o n to i n c l u d e v i s c o e l a s t i c e f f e c t s . Nonlinear
v i s c o e l a s t i c c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s are fundamentally of the m u l t i p l e -
i n t e g r a l type. However, f o r t r a c t a b i l i t y , c e r t a i n a s s u m p t i o n s ( e . g . ,
s u p e r p o s e d s m a l l l o a d i n g on a l a r g e c o n s t a n t l o a d i n g ) c a n l e a d t o
single integral representations.
C r e e p p r o b l e m s o f membrane s t r u c t u r e s a r e d o c u m e n t e d and r a n g e i n
extremes from a e s t h e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s to l o s s of p r e s t r e s s [ L i d d e l l
( 1 9 8 6 ) ; and S r i v a s t a v a ( 1 9 8 7 ) ] . V i s c o e l a s t i c e f f e c t s are u s u a l l y
temperature dependent as w e l l . Coated f a b r i c s deserve c o n s i d e r a t i o n
a s c o m p o s i t e s t r u c t u r e s and a l s o i n c l u d e the p r o b l e m o f f r a c t u r e
[Racah ( 1 9 8 0 ) ] .
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4 Wrinkling
T h i n membranes a r e i n h e r e n t l y n o - c o m p r e s s i o n s t r u c t u r e s . P o t e n t i a l
c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s and/or l o s s of p r e s t r e s s a r e h a n d l e d v i a changes i n
membrane g e o m e t r y , i . e . , l a r g e o u t - o f - p l a n e d e f o r m a t i o n s . These
' w r i n k l e s ' a r e a l o c a l i z e d b u c k l i n g phenomenon. A n a l y s i s o f t h e
w r i n k l i n g response i s important to p r e d i c t i o n of s t r u c t u r a l i n s t a b i l i -
t i e s and f a t i g u e l i f e .
Wagner ( 1 9 2 9 ) i n t r o d u c e d t h e i d e a s o f w r i n k l i n g and ' t e n s i o n f i e l d
theory': u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c l o a d i n g , one o f t h e p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s e s g o e s t o z e r o , t h e o t h e r r e m a i n s n o n n e g a t i v e and d e f i n e s a
'tension f i e l d . ' The c r e s t s and t r o u g h s o f ' w r i n k l e w a v e s ' a l i g n w i t h
the d i r e c t i o n of the nonzero p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s . R e i s s n e r (1938) gen-
e r a l i z e d Wagner's r e s u l t s by i n t r o d u c i n g an a r t i f i c i a l orthotropy.
I n most w r i n k l i n g a n a l y s e s , r e s u l t s a r e i n terms o f average s t r a i n s
a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t s , w h i l e no d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n i s g e n e r a t e d f o r e a c h
wrinkle. See Wu ( 1 9 7 4 , 1 9 7 8 ) , and Wu and C a n f i e l d ( 1 9 8 1 ) w h e r e i n a
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
' p s e u d o d e f o r m e d s u r f a c e ' and 'pseudo s t r e s s r e s u l t a n t s ' a r e d e f i n e d .

They a l s o d e f i n e d the 'wrinkle s t r a i n ' which i s the d i f f e r e n c e between
s t r e t c h r a t i o s i n t h e p s e u d o d e f o r m e d and a c t u a l d e f o r m e d s u r f a c e s .
C r o l l ( 1 9 8 5 ) d e s c r i b e d t h e w r i n k l i n g o f a p l a n e membrane w i t h i n -
p l a n e e l a s t i c c o n s t r a i n t s . C o n t r i and S c h r e f l e r ( 1 9 8 8 ) u s e d g e o m e t r i -
c a l l y n o n l i n e a r f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s to s t u d y the w r i n k l i n g o f an
inflated airbag. A membrane n e e d n o t be w r i n k l e d o v e r i t s e n t i r e
surface. S t e i n a n d H e d g e p e t h ( 1 9 6 1 ) s t u d y p a r t l y w r i n k l e d membranes.
M i k u l a s ( 1 9 6 4 ) e x t e n d e d t h e w o r k and p r o v i d e d e x p e r i m e n t a l details;
f i n i t e e l e m e n t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n M i l l e r and Hedgepeth
( 1 9 8 2 ) , and M i l l e r , e t a l . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . M a n s f i e l d (1968, 1970) reformu-
l a t e d the t h e o r y u s i n g an energy approach. Other s t u d i e s of i n t e r e s t
include: Zak ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; I k e m o t o ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; P i p k i n ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; L u k a s i e w i c z and
G l o c k n e r ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; G l o c k n e r ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; S z y s z k o w s k i and G l o c k n e r (1987b,c);
P i p k i n a n d R o g e r s ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; Honma, e t a l . ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; Roddeman, e t a l .
(1987).
The c r e e p / r e l a x a t i o n r e s p o n s e l e a d i n g t o a l o s s o f p r e s t r e s s i n
v i s c o e l a s t i c membrane s t r u c t u r e s s h o u l d a c c e l e r a t e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f
wrinkles. T h i s phenomenon h a s b e e n l i t t l e s t u d i e d , a s h a s t h e r e l a -
t i o n b e t w e e n ' w r i n k l e wave l e n g t h ' and m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s , o r t h e
problem o f dynamic w r i n k l i n g ( p a n e l f l u t t e r ) [ S r i v a s t a v a ( 1 9 8 7 ) ;
Leonard (1988)].
5 Fluid-Structure Interaction
S i n c e m o s t membranes w i l l be l o c a t e d i n a f l u i d ( e i t h e r g a s o r l i q -
u i d ) , the f l u i d - s t r u c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n i s of i n t e r e s t . Assumptions f o r
the f l u i d f i e l d i n c l u d e c o n s i d e r i n g the a s s o c i a t e d p r e s s u r e f i e l d to
be u n a f f e c t e d b y s t r u c t u r e d e f o r m a t i o n s , i n t e r a c t i v e a n a l y s i s w h e r e b y
t h e d e f o r m a t i o n s do a f f e c t t h e f l u i d f i e l d , and r e a l and i n v i s c i d
f l u i d models.
L a r g e d e f o r m a t i o n s o f b o t h f l u i d and s o l i d s t r u c t u r e h a v e o n l y
r e c e n t l y b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d , and t h e n more o f t e n f o r f r e q u e n c y r a t h e r
t h a n t i m e d o m a i n [Huang, e t a l . ( 1 9 8 5 ) ; and M i n a k a w a ( 1 9 8 6 ) ] . L e e and
L e o n a r d ( 1 9 8 8 ) r e p o r t on n o n l i n e a r t i m e d o m a i n m o d e l s f o r f l o a t i n g
561
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body p r o b l e m s . Some w o r k h a s b e e n m o t i v a t e d b y t h e a r e a s o f s u s p e n -
s i o n r h e o l o g y a n d b i o m e c h a n i c s [ Z a h a l a k ( 1 9 8 7 ) ] . Wind-membrane s t r u c -
t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d by K u n i e d a , e t a l .
( 1 9 8 1 ) a n d Han and O l s o n ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
T h e r e h a s b e e n an i n t e r e s t i n the i n t e r a c t i o n o f o c e a n waves and
h i g h l y deformable s t r u c t u r e s . Here the problem i s f u l l y n o n l i n e a r i n
t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e f l u i d , t h e s t r u c t u r e , and t h e c o u p l i n g ( v i a b o u n d -
a r y c o n d i t i o n s ) a r e a l l g o v e r n e d by n o n l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s . This coupled
p r o b l e m h a s r e c e n t l y b e e n r e v i e w e d by B r o d e r i c k a n d L e o n a r d ( 1 9 9 0 ) .
6 Experimental Methods
E x p e r i m e n t s p l a y many r o l e s i n t h e n o n l i n e a r membrane p r o b l e m . Due t o

t h e l o w r i g i d i t y / l o w e l a s t i c m o d u l i o f t y p i c a l membrane m a t e r i a l s ,
n o n — i n v a s i v e , n o n - c o n t a c t methods o f m e a s u r e m e n t a r e d e s i r a b l e , s u c h
a s o p t i c a l g r i d and m o i r e m e t h o d s . Problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the above
methods a r e the d i f f i c u l t y o f p r e p a r i n g an a c c u r a t e l y r u l e d specimen,
the d i s t o r t i o n a s s o c i a t e d with r e p r e s e n t i n g a curved s u r f a c e i n a
p l a n e f o r v i e w i n g , and t h e n e e d f o r a s t a b l e p r o c e s s i n g e n v i r o n m e n t .
F u r t h e r d e t a i l s a r e o u t l i n e d i n : D a l l y and R i l e y ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; and L a e r m a n n
(1988) .
D i g i t a l imaging techniques have been a p p l i e d to the l a r g e deforma-
t i o n p r o b l e m [ P e t e r s and R a n s o n ( 1 9 8 2 ) ] . A p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e m e t h o d
a r e d e m o n s t r a t e d by Chu, e t a l . ( 1 9 8 5 ) . P e r r y (1985) d i s c u s s e s the
u s e o f s t r a i n g a g e s on l o w - m o d u l u s m a t e r i a l s . O t h e r methods u s e d
s p e c i f i c a l l y on membranes a r e c a p a c i t a n c e t y p e d i s p l a c e m e n t t r a n s d u c e r
on a c o n d u c t i v e m y l a r membrane [ C h o b o t o v and B i n d e r ( 1 9 6 4 ) ] a n d a
c o m b i n a t i o n o f s t r a i n g a g e s and h i g h s p e e d f i l m c a m e r a [ K o n o v a l o v
(1987)].
Experimental determination of v i s c o e l a s t i c parameters of bulk
m a t e r i a l s i s w e l l known. Corresponding procedures s p e c i f i c a l l y for
t h i n membrane m a t e r i a l s a r e n o t w e l l documented, e s p e c i a l l y f o r
d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s t a t i c and d y n a m i c r e g i m e s . E x p e r i m e n t s may a l s o
r e v e a l s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , e.g., v i b r a t i o n f r e q u e n c i e s and
mode s h a p e s . T a k e d a , e t a l . ( 1 9 8 6 ) p e r f o r m e d v i b r a t i o n t e s t s on a
l a r g e - s c a l e s t r u c t u r a l model. Numerous m o d e l t e s t s w e r e c o n d u c t e d by
Y o s h i d a , e t a l . ( 1 9 8 6 ) and Ban, e t a l . ( 1 9 8 6 ) . I s h i z u and Minami
( 1 9 8 6 ) made i n - s i t u t e s t s o f membrane t e n s i l e s t r e s s .
E x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a c o n c e r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l l o a d s on membrane s t r u c -
tures are sketchy. I n t h e c a s e o f w i n d l o a d s , t h i s i s p a r t l y due t o
t h e f a c t t h a t membranes a r e o f t e n l a r g e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t d i s t u r b t h e
flow f i e l d s , thus r e n d e r i n g the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s c o n f i g u r a t i o n
specific. Wind t u n n e l t e s t i n g o f s c a l e d a e r o e l a s t i c m o d e l s o f mem-
b r a n e s t r u c t u r e s i s needed. An e a r l y ( c a . 1954) 'radome' w i n d t u n n e l
t e s t i s d i s c u s s e d by Newman and G o l a n d ( 1 9 8 2 ) and a w i n d t u n n e l t e s t
on a c y l i n d r i c a l ' t e n t ' ( c a . 1 9 6 3 ) i s d i s c u s s e d by R o s s ( 1 9 6 9 ) . Other
r e p o r t s o f w i n d t u n n e l t e s t i n g and w i n d l o a d i n g may be f o u n d i n H o w e l l
( 1 9 8 0 ) ; T u r k k a n , e t a l . ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; Fukao, e t a l . ( 1 9 8 6 ) ; Ikemoto, e t a l .
( 1 9 8 6 ) ; I k o m a ( 1 9 8 7 ) ; and M i y a m u r a , e t a l . ( 1 9 8 7 ) .
562
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

7 C o n c l u s i o n s and Future Studies
The u s e o f membrane s t r u c t u r e s h a s b e e n o u t l i n e d . C e r t a i n l y , t h e i r
use i s not q u i e s c e n t . Some a s p e c t s o f t h e membrane p r o b l e m a r e w e l l
i n v e s t i g a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y q u a s i - s t a t i c a x i s y m m e t r i c d e f o r m a t i o n s and
h y p e r - e l a s t i c and l i n e a r v i s c o - e l a s t i c c o n s t i t u t i v e t h e o r y .
O t h e r a r e a s a r e n o t so w e l l s t u d i e d , i n c l u d i n g b i a x i a l m a t e r i a l
p r o p e r t i e s o f t h i n membranes; n o n - i n v a s i v e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e s f o i
l a r g e o u t - o f - p l a n e membrane d e f o r m a t i o n s e s p e c i a l l y f o r f i e l d t e s t i n g
and i n r e a l t i m e ; and d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l l o a d s .
C u r r e n t s t u d i e s a t Oregon S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y i n c l u d e the f l u i d -
membrane s t r u c t u r e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o b l e m u s i n g a c o u p l e d b o u n d a r y
e l e m e n t / f i n i t e e l e m e n t m e t h o d f o r wave l o a d s on membranes, a n a l y s i s of
h y d r o d y n a m i c r e s p o n s e o f v i s c o - h y p e r - e l a s t i c membranes, a n d a d v a n c e s
i n t h e w r i n k l i n g t h e o r y o f membranes.
8 Acknowledgement
T h i s m a t e r i a l i s b a s e d upon w o r k s u p p o r t e d b y t h e USN O f f i c e o f N a v a l
R e s e a r c h u n d e r t h e U n i v e r s i t y R e s e a r c h I n i t i a t i v e N00014-86-K-0687.
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--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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DYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF
TRANSVERSELY STIFFENED SINGLE
C U R V A T U R E CABLE SUSPENDED ROOF
AND APPLICATION
T. JI
School of Civil Engineering, University of Birmingham,
Birmingham, UK
J. ZHAO
Institute of Building Structures, China Academy of Building
Research, Beijing, Peoples Republic of China
Abstract
The dynamic characteristics of transversely stiffened single curvature cable-
suspended roof are studied and the analytical expressions of natural frequencies
and some related conclusions are presented i n this paper. The analysis of this
type of structure is different from that of common structures i n two aspects that
the change of cable forces during the small-amplitude vibration must be consid-
ered and the dynamic analysis should be based on the static equilibrium position
rather than the original position before loading. A comparison between theo-
retical prediction and the measurements of a test model gives very satisfactory
agreement. Finally the first ten periods of this type of roof of a sport hall built
in Anhui Province, China, are predicted by the proposed formulas.
Keywords: Single Curvature, Cable-Suspended Roofs, Small amplitude vibra-

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tion, Dynamic Analysis, Dynamic Characteristics, Frequencies, Modes.
1 Introduction
A schematic diagram of transversely stiffened single curvature cable suspended

roof structure is shown i n Fig.1. Either beams or trusses may be employed as the
transversely stiffening elements which are established orthogonally on the cables.
By means of the forced displacements to the end supports of transversely stiffened
elements, pre-tension is resulted i n the cables which ensures the stiffness of the
roof effectively and the pre-stress is also built i n the transversely stiffened elements
which will balance part of external loads and reduce structural weight.
Fig.1 Schematic Diagram of the Structure
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Cable-suspended roofs seem to have different free-vibration characteristics
compared w i t h common structures by reviewing previous theoretical analysis and
experimental study on dynamic aspects. Geschwindner and West[l] numerically
studied the natural frequencies and modes for Aden Airways Network with hy-
perbolic paraboloid cable surface. For the computational purpose, the network
was discreted with 25 inner nodes. The results indicated that the first 25 mode
shapes exhibit pre-dominately vertical displacements and the fundamental mode
of the net shows an anti-symmetric shape. Krishina[2] also analysed a cable net
in a rectangular plan and showed the first mode of the net is an anti-symmetric
one. Shen et a/[3] carried out a model test of a pre-stressed double layer cable
system. Both measured and analysed results revealed that the fundamental mode
presents an anti-symmetric shape. Lan and the authors[4] also accomplished a
model study of transversely stiffened single curvature cable-suspended roof. The
experimental measurements showed the first mode is an anti-symmetric one in
the cable direction.
Ji and Lan[5] proposed a rational design and simplified analysis method for the
transversely stiffened single curvature cable-suspended roof on static state which
included determination of responses at both pre-stressing state and loading state.
The static and dynamic structural behavior were also examined empirically in
Ref[4]. On the basis of previous study, the dynamic characteristics of this kind
of roof structure is studied theoretically i n this paper. The study reveals that
(1) the change of the cable forces, even during small amplitude vibration, must
be taken into account; (2) because of the geometric non-linearity of cable type
roof and the effect on dynamic characteristics by cable forces, it is required that
the relative zero position for the dynamic study is the equilibrium position after
loading rather than the initial position before loading.
For the simplicity, the Transversely Stiffened Single Curvature Cable-

Suspended Roof is called TSSCCSR in following sections.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2 Dynamic Equilibrium Equation of TSS-

CCSR
Except the assumptions made for the static analysis of TSSCCSR[5], the small
amplitude vibration is assumed i n the dynamic analysis. Because the trusses in
the analysis can be equivalently expressed as beams, we simply mention beams
instead of beams or trusses.
Taking any node ( x , y ) i n the structure as the centre(Fig.2), an element

m n
ABCD is symmetrically cut and separated and the action between cut surfaces
is represented by forces. The element ABCD is equilibrium at position z + w
where z and w are the initial position and the vertical displacement under loads
570
Copyright CRC Press

respectively. The equilibrium equations at x and z directions are
S(x ,yc)
c - H(x ,y ) A A = 0
+ QD~QB + q(xc - x )(yD - A VB) = 0
(1)
Ar-
'
—
H i
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
d
•I
V
Fig.2 Analysis Model
Noticing xc — XA = d, VD — VB = E q . l can be alternatively expressed
H(x ,yc)
c _ H(x y )
Al A
b b
0
xc — XA
\H d{z+w)~\ _ \H d{z+w)]
QD QB
[b dx \ [b dx \ _|_
-± ^- + 5 = o
c A
(2)
xc — XA VD - yc
Let
H Q
Q H
b ^ d
It can be found that Eq.2 are the difference equations of following differential
equations
d_ (3)
^ dy ^ '
= 0
dx
because
- dw 3
W = ~ D Q
Eq.3 can be summarized as following one basic equation
-d8*1
w A
-, ,d (z2
+ w)
(4)
dy dx 2
This is the basic static equilibrium differential equation of TSSCCSR consisting

of single direction membranes and single direction plate strips i n which the cable
material and the bending stiffness of beams are uniformly distributed. S(y) is
only the function of y co-ordinate from the first formula of Eq.3.
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When the roof is vibrated with a small amplitude w on the basis of the static
equilibrium position z + w. the corresponding dynamic equation, considering the
change of cable forces during vibration, is
Substituting Eq.4 into Eq.5, we have the free vibration equation of TSSCCSR
where D - the distributed bending stiffness i n a unit width

H - the tension i n a unit width
AH - the tension variation during vibration i n a unit width
z' - the co-ordinate of the static equilibrium position, i.e. z + w
m - the distributed mass of the structure
There are two considerations i n Eq.(6) different from common structures that
1. The change of cable forces AH(y) during small amplitude vibration is taken
into account. This is essential to reveal correctly the dynamic characteristics
of this kind of roof structures.
2. The study of the dynamic characteristics is based on the static equilibrium
position z' rather than original (before loading) position z. The correspond-
ing terms i n Eq.6 are H(y) and z'.
3 A Few Results from Static Analysis of T S S -

CCSR
Ref.[5] had studied the static characteristics and rational design of TSSCCSR.
Some results from Ref. [5] can be directly adopted for the purpose of dynamic
analysis.
3.1 T h e surface equation of T S S C C S R after loading
After pre-stressing and loading stages, the surface of the roof can be approximately
represented as
where / is the initial sag of cables before loading; A is the forced displacement m
of the end of the middle beam; A / = 6 — A ; £ , obtained by E q . l l , is the

m m m
displacement of the centre point of the roof after pre-stressing and loading.
572
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Copyright CRC Press

3.2 Cable force distribution after loading
Under uniformly distributed loads, the cable force distribution can be described
S(y) = B + (S - Ho) sin y - y = H + H sin ^-y

0 m 0 (8)
L
y h
y
H and H i n Eq.8 can be determined by following formulas
0 m
A
* =
S^K- + 3
^ + 2 /
'" s
J < i o )
x
C A , 4
(Vy t L
X A \ 1
+ 7m n2
. T17T
7T V DlT* 7 n=l^,.. n
( n
+ Arnjmn 2
+ A m ) £ y
a = 1+
^- +
Z> ^ 1+
TeW ( 1 2 )
_ 128dpL EAfi y _ Pit*
EA = EA/b D = (14)
Where g° and H® are the uniformly distributed load and the j t h cable force
before pre-stressing stage respectively; q is the product of the external uniformly y
distributed load q and interval of beams d\ b is the interval of cables, c is the

difference between the two fixed ends of cables. EA is the tension stiffness; D
and GA is the bending stiffness and shearing stiffness of beams respectively. Let
yj = 0 and yj = L /2 respectively, H and H can be calculated by Eq.(9-14).
y Q m
3.3 T h e relationship between increment of cable force and

displacement
The displacement w is produced based on the equilibrium position z', the cable
force change is by the displacement
21
-, . EA t * dz'dw
AT T 1 fdwY L
dx
According to the assumption of small amplitude vibration, above equation is

reduced to
^ = T;JO A H
dx~dxdx (15
>
Substituting Eq.7 into Eq.15, it yields
^ ) f U - 2 * ) ^ (16)
573
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Copyright CRC Press

4 D y n a m i c Characteristics of T S S C C S R
When the first three terms i n Eq.6 are the linear functions of w, the total strain
energy is
! f L x f L y [ d 4 w Q2 W d 2 ,
z ^
wdxdy (17)
The kinetic energy of the system is
The vibration equation satisfying boundary conditions is assumed
w
= fl fl ™H = fl fl v C s i n
~F~ s i n
^ sin
(^* +
( )
19
t=ij=i »=i i = i -k*
By using Lagrange Equation of a conservative system
d dV _ dV_ dU_ _ Q
dt dwij dulij dwij
and substituting concerned equations into Eq.20, we have the expression of the ij
t h frequency as following
& = ± + +? ....
The term containing EA only exists when the subscript i is odd number. The
corresponding vibration mode is
= sin — sin ^ (22)
Table 1. Comparison between theoretical predication and measurements

mode vibration theoretical theoretical measured
order mode values 1(HZ) values 2(HZ) values(HZ)
1 i=2,j=l 4.05 4.02 4.32
2 i=3, j = l 5.11 5.05 4.63
3 i=4, j = l 5.63 5.53 5.35
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4 i=5,j=l 6.55 6.53 5.55(6.35)

5 i=l,j=l 6.51 6.51 5.92
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Ref[4] completed a static and dynamic model test of TSCCSR. The model, 3.6 x
4.8m i n plane, consisted of 7 <f>5 high tensile wires and 5 ^53 x 3 steel tubes. A
comparison between the theoretical prediction and the measurements of a real
model test gives very satisfactory agreement. Table 1 shows the comparison. The
theoretical value 1 is predicated by eqs(8-14) and (21) and theoretical value 2 is
calculated by Eq.(21) based on the measured static results. The uniform load
acting on the model is 4.17kg/m 2
It can be found from Eq.21 and Table 1 that
1. Different from ordinary structures, it is interested to point out that the

fundamental frequency of a transversely stiffened single curvature cable sus-
pended structure corresponds an anti-symmetrical double half-wave mode,
the symmetric single half-wave mode will occur at much higher frequency.
2. The variation of cable forces during vibration, even i n smaller amplitude

vibration, must be considered. Otherwise the fifth frequency i n Table 1 will
become the first one with the value 3.54/sec. and it is a obvious error both
numerically and physically.
3. The reason that the symmetric structure presents the fundamentally anti-
symmetric mode is that the cable forces will be changed when cables vibrate
in a symmetric mode. The increased cable forces will contribute extra strain
energy to the whole system and consequently the corresponding frequency
will be higher. When cables vibrate in an anti-symmetric mode, the cable
forces will keep constant, i.e., AH(y) = 0 and no extra contribution to the
strain energy. As a result, the frequency will be relatively smaller and easier
to be excited.
4. The differences between the predicated and measurement are smaller in the
first and the third frequencies than the rest frequencies. When the first
or the third mode is produced, AH(y) = 0 and the assumed mode( Eq.22 )
is more close to the real one.
5. I t should be pointed out that the fundamental mode also can appear a
symmetric single wave i n cable-suspended roof. The condition that the first
mode presents a symmetric single wave i n the cable direction of TSSCCSR
is
L 3ir J £* [ Zw\f + AJ m 2\f + A) m
(23'
If the sag / of the cables goes smaller and consequently the cable forces will
be increased, or alternatively, the smaller tension stiffness EA is adopted, --``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Eq.(23)can be realized. The corresponding physical explanation is

If the difference of strain energy contributed by cable forces in the first two
modes(i = 1,2 j = 1) is greater than the extra strain energy produced by
the change of cable forces in the mode (i = 1 j = 1) during vibration,
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the fundamental mode will presents the symmetric single wave in the cable
direction
This conclusion is also valid for other types of cable-suspended roof though
the formula may be varied according to different type structures. As a
deduction, the condition that the first mode presents a symmetric single
wave for a single cable under uniformly distributed line load q is x
S^q L 2
>64EA (24)
x x
5 Prediction of Periods and Modes on the T S S -

C C S R of A n h u i Sport H a l l
The TSSCCSR has been employed i n the design and construction of Anhui Gym-
nasium i n China. The roof consists of 29 cables, spanning 72m and with an
interval of 1.5m, and 11 steel latticed trusses, at a distance of 6m and orthogo-
nally located on the cables. The length of the trusses is varied according to the
geometry of the plane(Fig.3) and the depth is changed linearly from 3.2m i n the
centre to 1.6m at the end[6]
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig.3 The Anhui Sport Hall
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The design data for the prediction of natural periods of the real roof are listed
as following
L = 72m
x L = 53.4m
y / = 4.5m c = 4.6m
6 = 1.5m d = 6m q° = 0.02t/m 2
q = 0.133t/m 2
A = 0.29m
m EA = 9918* D = 186186* - m 2
The first ten periods and the corresponding mode shapes of the roof of Auhui
Sport Hall are listed i n Table 2.
Table 2. The Prediction of Natural Periods and Mode Shapes

mode vibration predicted mode vibration predicted
order mode values(s) order mode values(s)
1 i=2, j = l 1.248 6 i=l,j=l 0.957
2 i=4,j=l 1.149 7 i=8, j = l 0.905
3 i=3, j = l 1.139 8 i=7, j = l 0.899
4 i=5, j = l 1.031 9 i=10j=l 0.799
5 i=6, j = l 1.026 10 i=9, j = l 0.781
The actual roof would be a little more stiff than the calculated one since all the
formulas for both static and dynamic analysis are derived on the basis of a regular
plane. Consequently, the actual periods of the roof will be a little smaller than
the predicted ones.
6 Conclusions
The analytical study of the dynamic aspect of TSSCCSR reveals the dynamic
characteristics of this structure, explains the reason that fundamental mode of this
kind of cable-suspended roof presents an anti-symmetrical shape i n cable direction
and provides the condition that the first vibration mode appears a symmetrical
single wave.
The feasibility of the proposed analytical formulas for predicating the natural
frequencies of TSSCCSR is verified by a real model dynamic test. Furthermore,
these formulas are applied to predict the periods and mode shapes of the TSS-
CCSR of Auhui Sport Hall.
7 References
1. L . F. Geschwinder and H . H . West (1979) Parametric investigations of v i -
bration cable networks, J . S t r c t . D i v . , 105, pp.465-479.
577
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Copyright CRC Press

2. P. Krishina (1978) Cable-Suspended Roofs, Mc. Graw-Hill Book Com-
pany.
3. S. Shen, C. X u and H . Guo (1984) Static and dynamic characteristics of

pre-stressed double layer cable system, Proceedings of 2 n d National
Conference on Space Structures (ed. Tien T. Lan) (in Chinese).
4. Tien T . Lan, Jida Zhao and Tianjian Ji (1988) A study on the structural
behavior of transversely stiffened cable-suspended roof and its application
to sports buildings, Space Structures for Sports Buildings(eds. Tien
T . Lan and Zhilian Yuan), Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp.524-533.
5. Tianjian Ji and Tien T. Lan (1987) Rational design and simplified analy-
sis method for transversely stiffened single curvature cable suspended roof,
Proceedings of the International Conference on the Design and
Construction of Non-Conventional Structures (ed. B. Topping),
Civil-Comp, 2, pp.7-16.
6. Gymnasium Design Group, Anhui Design Institute of Architecture (1984)

Anhui Gymnasium, J . Building Structures, 5, (in Chinese).
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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D E S I G N , A N A L Y S I S AND R E S P O N S E OF
D O U B L E - L A Y E R T E N S E G R I T Y GRIDS
A. HANAOR
Dept Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rutgers University,
Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
Abstract
Tensegrity s t r u c t u r e s are free-standing, i n t e r n a l l y prestressed cable
networks. The c a b l e s ( t e n d o n s ) a r e p r e s t r e s s e d a g a i n s t a
discontinuous system of bars (or s t r u t s ) . I n double-layer tensegrity
g r i d s ( D L T G s ) , t h e b a r s ( s t r u t s ) a r e c o n f i n e d b e t w e e n two p a r a l l e l
surfaces of cables (tendons). The a n a l y s i s o f c a b l e n e t w o r k s ,
i n c l u d i n g t e n s e g r i t y s t r u c t u r e s , t y p i c a l l y i n v o l v e s a shape f i n d i n g
p h a s e and a l o a d a n a l y s i s p h a s e , b o t h a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g e o m e t r i c
nonlinearities. Two t y p e s o f c a b l e n e t w o r k s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d —
g e o m e t r i c a l l y f l e x i b l e and g e o m e t r i c a l l y r i g i d , w i t h r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e
and s m a l l d e f l e c t i o n s r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The p a p e r p r e s e n t s two s p e c i e s o f DLTGs c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m p r i s m a t i c
a n d p y r a m i d a l u n i t s — f l a t g r i d s and domes. W h i l e f l a t g r i d s do n o t
i n v o l v e s h a p e f i n d i n g , domes do, and t h e s h a p e d e p e n d s on t h e
construction constraints. The s t i f f n e s s o f DLTGs v a r i e s l a r g e l y ,
d e p e n d i n g p r i m a r i l y on t o p o l o g y , s h a p e ( f l a t o r c u r v e d ) and b o u n d a r y
conditions. Domes a r e s t i f f e r t h a n f l a t g r i d s when l a t e r a l movement
o f s u p p o r t s i s r e s t r a i n e d , and g e o m e t r i c a l l y r i g i d t o p o l o g i e s are
c o n s i d e r a b l y s t i f f e r than g e o m e t r i c a l l y f l e x i b l e ones.
Keywords: T e n s e g r i t y , T e n s e g r i t y S t r u c t u r e s , C a b l e s , Tendons, C a b l e
Networks, P r e s t r e s s , Nonlinear A n a l y s i s , Geometric N o n l i n e a r i t y .
1 Introduction
T e n s e g r i t y s t r u c t u r e s a r e p r e s t r e s s e d c a b l e networks, i n which the

c a b l e s (or tendons, i n general) are p r e s t r e s s e d a g a i n s t a
discontinuous system of bars ( s t r u t s ) . Unlike conventional
p r e s t r e s s e d c a b l e n e t w o r k s , t h e y do n o t r e q u i r e a n e x t e r n a l a n c h o r i n g
s y s t e m i n t h e f o r m o f r i n g beams o r m a s t s . They a r e p r e s t r e s s e d
i n t e r n a l l y and h e n c e a r e f r e e - s t a n d i n g . T h i s f e a t u r e makes t h e s e
s t r u c t u r e s i n h e r e n t l y d e p l o y a b l e , s i n c e i n the u n p r e s t r e s s e d state
t h e y p o s s e s s no s t i f f n e s s and a r e t h u s c o l l a p s i b l e . Furthermore, the
d i s c o n t i n u i t y o f t h e b a r s y s t e m , makes f o r v e r y s i m p l e and r e l i a b l e
c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n b a r s and c a b l e s . T e n s e g r i t y s t r u c t u r e s are thus
e m i n e n t l y s u i t a b l e f o r d e p l o y a b l e or temporary a p p l i c a t i o n s , but
permanent s p a c e coverings are a l s o f e a s i b l e .
A l t h o u g h a number o f t e n s e g r i t y s t r u c t u r e s w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d , most
n o t a b l y by t h e a r t i s t K e n n e t h S n e l s o n , t h e s e h a v e b e e n l a r g e l y
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d e c o r a t i v e f e a t u r e s . E a r l y e n g i n e e r i n g s t r u c t u r a l c o n c e p t s l i k e R.B.
F u l l e r ' s dome a n d 0. V i l n a y ' s t e n s e g r i t y n e t w o r k s ( F i g . 1 ) s u f f e r e d
f r o m some t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s , w h i c h may h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e l a c k
of i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n . These problems a r e a s s o c i a t e d
m a i n l y w i t h b a r c o n g e s t i o n ( i n t e r f e r e n c e o f b a r s w i t h one a n o t h e r ) o n
t h e one h a n d ( F u l l e r ) , a n d e x c e s s i v e b a r l e n g t h s , c a u s i n g b u c k l i n g
problems, on t h e o t h e r hand ( V i l n a y ) . D e t a i l s o f F u l l e r ' s and
V i l n a y ' s c o n c e p t s c a n be found i n F u l l e r (1963) and V i l n a y
(1977,1981).
Fig. 1 a) F u l l e r ' s t e n s e g r i t y dome ( h a l f plan)

b) V i l n a y ' s t e n s e g r i t y Dome ( h a l f plan)
These d i f f i c u l t i e s have l e d t o t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f
d o u b l e - l a y e r t e n s e g r i t y g r i d s ( H a n a o r 1987, 1 9 9 0 a , Motro 1 9 8 7 ) . I n
t h i s c o n c e p t , b a r s a r e c o n f i n e d b e t w e e n two p a r a l l e l l a y e r s o f
tendons, t h u s p r o v i d i n g a l i m i t on b a r l e n g t h s and adequate s p a c i n g
of bars. A d d i t i o n a l advantage i s t h a t f l a t a s w e l l a s curved shapes
are f e a s i b l e , whereas the s i n g l e - l a y e r concepts r e q u i r e c u r v a t u r e to
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p r o v i d e s t r u c t u r a l depth. A l l double-layer tensegrity grid (DLTG)
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s p u b l i s h e d t o d a t e a r e b a s e d on tensegrity prisms (T
p r i s m s ) as the b u i l d i n g b l o c k s . A t r i a n g u l a r p r i s m i s shown i n F i g .
2. The t e n d o n s l i e a l o n g t h e edges o f a r e g u l a r p r i s m , and t h e b a r s
along the d i a g o n a l s of the s i d e f a c e s , i n a c o n s i s t e n t sense
(clockwise or a n t i c l o c k w i s e ) . E l o n g a t i o n of the bars ( s t r u t s ) causes
t h e two b a s e s t o r o t a t e u n t i l p r e s t r e s s i s a c h i e v e d a t a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n g l e o f r o t a t i o n e q u a l t o h a l f t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n two
a d j a c e n t s i d e s o f t h e b a s e p o l y g o n (30o f o r t r i a n g u l a r p r i s m , 45o f o r
square e t c . ) .
Fig. 2 Tensegrity prism
lal b I I
Fig. 3 Methods f o r f o r m i n g DLTGs
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M o t r o ' s a n d H a n a o r ' s c o n c e p t s d i f f e r i n t h a t Motro ( 1 9 8 7 ) p r o d u c e s
r e g u l a r p a t t e r n s of the chords, but the b a r s are j o i n e d together a t
t h e common n o d e s . H a n a o r ' s c o n c e p t i s g e o m e t r i c a l l y more c o m p l e x ,
w i t h chords forming l e s s r e g u l a r p a t t e r n s , but i t preserves the
p r i n c i p l e t h a t b a r s are j o i n e d o n l y to c a b l e s . T h r e e methods o f
j o i n i n g T prisms are i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 3 using triangular prisms.
S a m p l e g r i d s c a n be f o u n d i n H a n a o r ( 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 9 0 a ) . Curved s u r f a c e s
a r e o b t a i n e d by u s i n g t r u n c a t e d p y r a m i d s (T p y r a m i d s ) i n s t e a d o f
p r i s m s , w i t h t h e two b a s e p o l y g o n s h a v i n g d i f f e r e n t r a d i i .
2 Analysis
The a n a l y s i s o f t e n s e g r i t y s t r u c t u r e s i s s i m i l a r t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f
c o n v e n t i o n a l p r e s t r e s s e d c a b l e networks, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n t h a t the
network c o n t a i n s bar elements, capable of s u s t a i n i n g compression, as
w e l l as cable elements. Two t y p e s o f p r e s t r e s s a b l e n e t w o r k s c a n be
d i s t i n g u i s h e d ( V i l n a y 1 9 8 7 ) — ( a ) g e o m e t r i c a l l y r i g i d and s t a t i c a l l y
i n d e t e r m i n a t e , and ( b ) g e o m e t r i c a l l y f l e x i b l e and k i n e m a t i c a l l y
i n d e t e r m i n a t e ( P e l l e g r i n o and C a l l a d i n e , 1 9 8 6 ) . Most conventional
c a b l e n e t w o r k s b e l o n g t o t h e s e c o n d c a t e g o r y , b u t i n many c a s e s , a
n e t w o r k c a n be s t i f f e n e d i n t o t h e f i r s t c a t e g o r y , by t h e a d d i t i o n o f
cables. F i g . 4 shows a reinforced tensegrity prism (RT p r i s m ) i n
w h i c h a d d i t i o n a l c a b l e s have been added a l o n g the d i a g o n a l of the
p r i s m f a c e s n o t o c c u p i e d by b a r s . I n t h i s case the r e l a t i v e r o t a t i o n
a n g l e o f t h e b a s e s i s n o t u n i q u e a n d c a n be v a r i e d b e t w e e n t h e
o r i g i n a l a n g l e , a t which p o i n t the a d d i t i o n a l c a b l e s are not
p r e s t r e s s e d , and d o u b l e t h a t v a l u e , a t w h i c h p o i n t the b a r s i n t e r s e c t
( f o r t h e t r i a n g l e , 30o t o 6 0 o ) . The p r i s m shown i n F i g . 4 h a s a
r e l a t i v e r o t a t i o n of 45o.
Fig. 4 Reinforced tensegrity prism
Geometrically f l e x i b l e n e t w o r k s i n v o l v e l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n s and a r e
therefore highly geometrically nonlinear. The a n a l y s i s i s t y p i c a l l y
done i n two p h a s e s . Phase I i s a shape f i n d i n g procedure, which
f i n d s the d e f l e c t i o n s from an assumed i n i t i a l geometry to a
p r e s t r e s s a b l e geometry. Phase I I i s a n a l y s i s under the a p p l i e d l o a d
o f the p r e s t r e s s e d geometry. An i n t e r m e d i a t e p h a s e may be e m p l o y e d ,
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p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r i n v e s t i g a t i v e purposes, i n v o l v i n g a n a l y s i s of the
s t a t e s o f p r e s t r e s s and i n t e r n a l mechanisms o f the p r e s t r e s s e d
g e o m e t r y ( P e l l e g r i n o and C a l l a d i n e , 1 9 8 6 ) . Geometrically rigid
n e t w o r k s i n v o l v e o n l y e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n s and a l i n e a r a n a l y s i s i s
o f t e n adequate.
S e v e r a l a l g o r i t h m s are a v a i l a b l e f o r the n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s of
cable networks. The m o s t w i d e l y u s e d i s , a r g u a b l y , a s t i f f n e s s b a s e d
p r o c e d u r e e m p l o y i n g Newton i t e r a t i o n ( A r g y r i s and S c h a r p f 1 9 7 2 ) .
D y n a m i c r e l a x a t i o n ( B a r n e s 1984, 1987) i s a v e r y e f f i c i e n t method f o r
shape f i n d i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y where v e r y l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n s a r e
i n v o l v e d , w h i c h may c a u s e c o n v e r g e n c e p r o b l e m s i n t h e Newton method.
H a n a o r ( 1 9 8 8 ) h a s d e v e l o p e d a f l e x i b i l i t y b a s e d method f o r t h e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s t a t e s o f p r e s t r e s s and m e c h a n i s m s and f o r f i r s t
o r d e r a n a l y s i s , when t h e p r e s t r e s s e d g e o m e t r y i s known.
F l a t DLTGs h a v e a known p r e s t r e s s e d g e o m e t r y w h i c h i s d e r i v e d
d i r e c t l y from the geometry o f the c o n s t i t u e n t p r i s m s (Hanaor, 1990a).
Domes, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e q u i r e a s h a p e f i n d i n g p h a s e and t h e i r
p r e s t r e s s e d g e o m e t r y d e p e n d s on c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s t r a i n t s and b o u n d a r y
c o n d i t i o n s (Hanaor 1990b). I n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y two method w e r e
employed: a f i r s t o r d e r f l e x i b i l i t y method f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g f l a t
g r i d s a n d a Newton i t e r a t i v e s t i f f n e s s b a s e d methods f o r
i n v e s t i g a t i n g domes, a s w e l l a s f o r n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f f l a t g r i d s .
D e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the p r o c e d u r e s a r e g i v e n i n Hanaor (1988)
and i n A r g y r i s and S c h a r p f ( 1 9 7 2 ) r e s p e c t i v e l y .
boundar y m e m b e r s
Fig. 6 Typical plane grid
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3 Plane Grids
3.1 Analytical investigation

A f i r s t order parametric a n a l y t i c a l study of the response of f l a t
t r i a n g u l a r g r i d s ( F i g . 6 ) was c a r r i e d o u t o n g r i d s l o a d e d w i t h
u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d l o a d and s i m p l y s u p p o r t e d a t a l l boundary nodes
a l o n g t h e edges (Hanaor and L i a o 1990). The main r e s u l t s a r e
summarised below:
a) Member f o r c e s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y b a r s ) v a r y a p p r o x i m a t e l y l i n e a r l y
w i t h span, f o r c o n s t a n t depth/span ratio.
b) The g e o m e t r i c d e f l e c t i o n s dominate. T h e i r magnitude depends
on t h e l e v e l o f p r e s t r e s s . The a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t s t h a t f o r a
p r e s t r e s s e v e l which i s a constant f r a c t i o n o f the t o t a l allowable
bar force, the geometric displacement/span r a t i o i s approximately
constant (independent o f span).
c) The f i r s t o r d e r a n a l y s i s o v e r e s t i m a t e s t h e d e f l e c t i o n s and
u n d e r e s t i m a t e s t h e member f o r c e s .
d) T h e m o s t h i g h l y s t r e s s e d members - b o t h b a r s a n d t e n d o n s - a r e
located near the boundaries. This implies that shear forces
r a t h e r t h a n b e n d i n g moments d o m i n a t e t h e r e s p o n s e .
N o n l i n e a r a n a l y s e s were c a r r i e d o u t on a g r i d s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f F i g .
6 b u t s u p p o r t e d a t s i x b o t t o m n o d e s o n l y a n d w i t h b o u n d a r y members
a d d e d a l o n g a l l b o u n d a r i e s ( s e e F i g . 6 ) . T h i s g r i d was l o a d e d a t
n i n e c e n t r a l n o d e s o n l y ( s e e a l s o dome o f s i m i l a r l a y o u t , F i g . 1 0 ) .
A g e o m e t r i c a l l y r i g i d g r i d o f a s i m i l a r l a y o u t was a l s o a n a l y s e d . To
achieve geometric r i g i d i t y , i t i s not s u f f i c i e n t to use r e i n f o r c e d
p r i s m s b u t t h e c o n n e c t i n g tendons have to a t t a c h t o b a r s o f d i f f e r e n t
Fig. 7 Interior tendons i n g e o m e t r i c a l l y r i g i d grid.
The response o f t h e two g r i d s i s compared i n F i g . 8 i n t h e form o f
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l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e s , u s i n g a r b i t r a r y u n i t s . The t h i n d a s h e d
l i n e s i n d i c a t e the p r a c t i c a l l o a d range, assuming a p r e s t r e s s f o r c e
l e v e l i n b a r s o f 1/3 t h e a l l o w a b l e , y i e l d i n g a " p r a c t i c a l "
displacement/span r a t i o of 1/25 f o r the f l e x i b l e geometry and 1/20
f o r t h e g e o m e t r i c a l l y r i g i d c o n f i g u r a t i o n , a s s u m i n g t h e same
prestress level. The " p r a c t i c a l " l o a d o f t h e " r i g i d " c o n f i g u r a t i o n
i s , h o w e v e r , 1.75 t i m e s t h e " f l e x i b l e " one. E l i m i n a t i n g the
p r e s t r e s s i n t h e r i g i d g e o m e t r y i n c r e a s e s somewhat t h e d e f l e c t i o n s
b u t t h e l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y f o r t h e same d e s i g n i s a l s o i n c r e a s e d ,
a s more o f t h e member c a p a c i t y i s a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e a p p l i e d l o a d .
Fig. 8 A n a l y t i c a l load response of f l a t DLTGs
3.2 Experimental study

The s m a l l m o d e l shown i n F i g . 9 a was t e s t e d u n d e r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
l e v e l s of p r e s t r e s s , with bar p r e s t r e s s f o r c e s of 1/12, 1/6 and
1/3 of the bar b u c k l i n g load. A f o u r t h t e s t was c a r r i e d o u t f r o m
the unloaded s t a t e of the t h i r d t e s t to f a i l u r e . Results are
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p r e s e n t e d i n F i g . 9b a s l o a d - d i s p l a c e m e n t c u r v e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h
l i n e a r and n o n l i n e a r a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s . Analytical results are
p r e s e n t e d a l s o f o r a g r i d o f t h e same l a y o u t e m p l o y i n g r e i n f o r c e d
prisms and f o r a g e o m e t r i c a l l y r i g i d topology, w i t h the t h i r d
prestress level.
The t e s t r e s u l t s a r e i n v e r y good a g r e e m e n t w i t h n o n l i n e a r
analysis. T h e f a i l u r e mode o f t h e g r i d i n t h e f o u r t h t e s t was
rupture of cables. The t e s t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s t y p e o f s t r u c t u r e
h a s i n b u i l t s t r u c t u r a l r e d u n d a n c y due t o i t s c o m p o s i t i o n o f
individual units. F o l l o w i n g f i r s t r u p t u r e , r e p r e s e n t i n g l o s s o f one
u n i t out o f seven, the s t r u c t u r e recovered almost i t s f u l l load
bearing capacity.
J '— 1 L
Fig. 9 a) T e s t model l a y o u t ; b) Load response
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4 Domes
4.1 Shape f i n d i n g
U n l i k e f l a t DLTGs, t h e d e s i g n a n d a n a l y s i s o f t e n s e g r i t y domes
i n v o l v e s shape f i n d i n g . The p r e s t r e s s e d shape depends p r i m a r i l y on
t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s t r a i n t s and on t h e boundary (support)
conditions. Some t y p i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s t r a i n t s may i n c l u d e :
a) T h e dome i s c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m i d e n t i c a l p y r a m i d a l u n i t s . This
i s p o s s i b l e due t o t h e g e o m e t r i c f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e n e t w o r k .
b) P r e s t r e s s i s o b t a i n e d by e q u a l e l o n g a t i o n s o f a l l b a r s .
c) P r e s t r e s s f o r c e s a r e e q u a l i n a l l b a r s . T h i s may b e t h e c a s e
i n d e p l o y a b l e domes w i t h t e l e s c o p i n g b a r s , d e p l o y e d b y h y d r a u l i c
or pneumatic p r e s s u r e .
d) Minimum d e v i a t i o n o f t h e p r e s t r e s s e d s u r f a c e f r o m a d e s i r e d
t h e o r e t i c a l surface i s required.
e) T h e p r e s t r e s s i s done w i t h t h e f i n a l b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s ( s e e
below) i n p l a c e o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , w i t h d i f f e r e n t boundary
c o n d i t i o n s ( e . g . w i t h o u t boundary members). I n the l a t t e r case,
f i n a l s u p p o r t c o n d i t i o n s a r e a p p l i e d t o t h e p r e s t r e s s e d geometry.
Fig. 10 Initial dome g e o m e t r y
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Boundary c o n d i t i o n s may include:
a) Free h o r i z o n t a l displacements o f supports (other than

r e s t r a i n t s r e q u i r e d t o p r e v e n t r i g i d body m o t i o n ) .
b) H o r i z o n t a l displacements a r e prevented (e.g. by t e n s i o n r i n g ) .
c) V a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s o f b o u n d a r y members ( w h i c h do n o t f o r m
p a r t o f t h e g r i d p a t t e r n ) and supports.
Botto mchor d
Fig. 11 Deflections of prestressed geometry
A s p h e r i c a l dome i s u s e d a s a n e x a m p l e . The i n i t i a l geometry i s

c o m p u t e d b y a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e archgrid — the grid connecting the
c e n t r o i d s o f t h e t r u n c a t e d p y r a m i d a l t e n s e g r i t y u n i t s - forms a
g e o d e s i c s u b d i v i s i o n o f t h e r e g u l a r hexagonal pyramid e n c l o s e d by t h e
dome. D e t a i l s o f t h e a l g o r i t h m a r e g i v e n i n H a n a o r ( 1 9 9 0 b ) . F i g . 10
shows t h e i n i t i a l g e o m e t r y o f a dome w i t h subdivision frequency o f 2.
O n l y t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m t e n d o n l a y e r s a r e shown, f o r c l a r i t y .
The S t i f f n e s s m e t h o d w a s u s e d t o o b t a i n t h e p r e s t r e s s e d g e o m e t r y
under v a r i o u s c o n s t r a i n t s and boundary c o n d i t i o n s . F i g 11 shows t h e
v e r t i c a l d e f l e c t i o n s a c r o s s a c e n t r e l i n e o f t h e dome o f F i g . 10, when
i t i s p r e s t r e s s e d w i t h c o n s t a n t b a r f o r c e , w i t h o u t b o u n d a r y members
and w i t h o n l y r i g i d body m o t i o n r e s t r a i n e d . When p r e s t r e s s i s w i t h
b o u n d a r y members, a s i n d i c a t e d i n F i g . 10, t h e d e f l e c t i o n s o f t h e
p r e s t r e s s e d geometry from t h e i n i t i a l geometry a r e s m a l l ( l e s s t h a n
1/100 o f t h e s p a n ) . U n i t s a n d d i m e n s i o n s a r e t h e same a s i n t h e f l a t
g r i d o f s e c t i o n 3 ( F i g . 6 ) . Although these dimensions a r e a r b i t r a r y ,
the r e s u l t s a r e roughly r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a r e a l i s t i c s t r u c t u r e o f
t h i s type.
4.2 Load response

The l o a d r e s p o n s e o f domes s t r o n g l y d e p e n d s o n t h e b o u n d a r y
conditions. F i g . 12 shows l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e s f o r domes o f t h e
l a y o u t o f F i g . 10, l o a d e d a t t h e n i n e c e n t r a l t o p c h o r d n o d e s , w i t h
d i f f e r e n t boundary c o n d i t i o n s . A geometrically r i g i d response i s
a l s o shown. I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t when t r u e dome a c t i o n i s f a c i l i t a t e d
b y r e s t r a i n i n g h o r i z o n t a l movement o f t h e s u p p o r t s , t h e s t i f f n e s s i s --``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
s u b s t a n t i a l l y enhanced. C o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e s i n t h e b a r s ( n o t shown
h e r e ) a r e a l s o r e d u c e d u n d e r t h e s e boundary c o n d i t i o n s compared w i t h
flat grids.
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Fig. 12 Double-layer t e n s e g r i t y dome l o a d response
5 Acknowledgement
The work r e p o r t e d i n this p a p e r was p a r t i a l l y supported by a N a t i o n a l

Science Foundation grant.
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6 References
A r g y r i s , J . H . a n d S c h a r p f , D.W. ( 1 9 7 2 ) L a r g e d e f l e c t i o n a n a l y s i s o f
p r e s t r e s s e d n e t w o r k s . J . S t r u c t . D i v . , ASCE, 106 ( S T 3 ) , 6 3 3 - 6 5 4 .
B a r n e s , M.R. ( 1 9 8 4 ) F o r m - f i n d i n g , a n a l y s i s a n d p a t t e r n i n g o f t e n s i o n
s t r u c t u r e s , i n P r o c . o f t h e 3 r d . I n t n l . Conf on Space S t r u c t u r e s
( e d . H. N o o s h i n ) , E l s e v i e r , L o n d o n , pp. 7 3 0 - 7 3 6 .
B a r n e s , M.R. ( 1 9 8 7 ) F o r m - f i n d i n g a n d a n a l y s i s o f p r e s t r e s s e d n e t s a n d
membranes, i n I n t n l . C o n f . o n t h e A n a l y s i s a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n o f
N o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l S t r u c t u r e s ( V o l . 1 ) ( e d . H.V. T o p p i n g ) , C i v i l
Comp P r e s s , L o n d o n , p p . 3 2 7 - 3 3 7 .
F u l l e r R.B. ( 1 9 6 2 ) T e n s i l e - i n t e g r i t y s t r u c t u r e s , U.S. P a t e n t
3,063,521.
H a n a o r A. ( 1 9 8 7 ) P r e l i m i n a r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f d o u b l e - l a y e r
t e n s e g r i t i e s , i n I n t n l . Conf. on t h e A n a l y s i s a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n o f
N o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l S t r u c t u r e s ( V o l . 2) ( e d . H.V. T o p p i n g ) , C i v i l
Comp P r e s s , L o n d o n , pp. 3 5 - 4 2 .
H a n a o r A. ( 1 9 8 8 ) P r e s t r e s s e d p i n - j o i n t e d s t r u c t u r e s - F l e x i b i l i t y
a n a l y s i s a n d p r e s t r e s s d e s i g n , C o m p u t e r s a n d S t r u c t u r e s 28 ( 6 ) ,
757-769.
H a n a o r A. ( 1 9 9 0 a ) D o u b l e - l a y e r t e n s e g r i t y g r i d s : g e o m e t r i c
c o n f i g u r a t i o n and b e h a v i o u r , i n Space S t r u c t u r e s : Theory and
P r a c t i c e ( e d . H. N o o s h i n ) , M u l t i s c i e n c e , i n p r e s s .
H a n a o r A. ( 1 9 9 0 b ) A s p e c t s o f d e s i g n o f d o u b l e - l a y e r t e n s e g r i t y domes,
I n t . J . Space S t r u c t u r e s , forthcoming.
H a n a o r A. a n d L i a o M.K. ( 1 9 9 0 ) D o u b l e - l a y e r t e n s e g r i t y g r i d s : s t a t i c
l o a d r e s p o n s e , a n a l y t i c a l s t u d y . , J . S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r i n g , ASCE
forthcoming.
M o t r o R. ( 1 9 8 7 ) T e n s e g r i t y s y s t e m s f o r d o u b l e - l a y e r s p a c e s t r u c t u r e s
I n t n l . Conf. on t h e D e s i g n and C o n s t r u c t i o n o f Non-conventional
S t r u c t u r e s ( V o l . 2) ( e d . H.V. T o p p i n g ) , C i v i l Comp P r e s s , London,
pp. 4 3 - 5 2 .
P e l l e g r i n o , S. a n d C a l l a d i n e , C R . ( 1 9 8 6 ) M a t r i x a n a l y s i s o f
s t a t i c a l l y and k i n e m a t i c a l l y i n d e t e r m i n a t e frameworks, I n t . J .
S o l i d s S t r u c t s . , 22, 409-428.
V i l n a y , 0. ( 1 9 7 7 ) S t r u c t u r e s made o f i n f i n i t e r e g u l a r t e n s e g r i c n e t s ,
I A S S b u l l e t i n , 18 ( 6 3 ) , 5 1 - 5 7 .
V i l n a y 0. ( 1 9 8 1 ) D e t e r m i n a t e t e n s e g r i c s h e l l s , J . o f t h e S t r u c t .
D i v . , A S C E , 107 ( S T 1 0 ) , 2 0 2 9 - 2 0 3 3 .
V i l n a y 0. ( 1 9 8 7 ) C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f c a b l e n e t s , J . S t r u c t u r a l
E n g i n e e r i n g , ASCE, 113 ( 7 ) , 1 5 8 6 - 1 6 9 9 .
590
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PRESTRESSED TRUSSES: ANALYSIS
BEHAVIOUR AND DESIGN
G.G. SCHIERLE
Director, Graduate Programme of Building Science, School of
Architecture, University of Southern California, Los Angeles,
California, USA
Abstract
Prestressed truss concepts are presented, their structural behavior evaluated,
and integration with functional design objectives described. The Evaluation is
based on computer analysis, static simulation models, and prototype structures
Integration of prestressed trusses for synergy with functional objectives is
described on hand of designs for two university sports centers. Cable trusses a
light-weight, which is important for long-span structures, especially in seismic
zones to minimize seismic forces. The collapse of a heavy double-deck concret
freeway in the recent San Francisco earthquake dramatized this point.
Keywords: Cable Truss, Computer Analysis, Prestress, Space Truss, Test Mode
1 Introduction
Prestressed cable trusses of curved configuration have been proposed or built f

various longspan structures; some based on the Jawerth System (Bach, 1975,
Hottinger, 1963). The rational for such trusses is based on using members in
tension to avoid buckling and bending and on using high-strength cables or
strands, all to reduce dead weight and to allow for potentially longer spans. Yet
these benefits are partly offset by the need to resist horizontal reactions, and by
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
possible flutter (Zetlin, 1963). This paper includes a new truss concept of straigl
chord members with diagonal bars, to provide a triangular configuration for betti
stiffness and stability; combining straight system lines of conventional trusses wi
flexible tensile members of cable trusses.
1.1 Basic Principles

Compared to conventional trusses, prestressed trusses have some or all rigid
bars substituted by flexible tension members (cables, strands) which absorb
compressive forces through reduction of prestress. The effect of prestress is
shown by Fig 1, a flexible wire supported at both ends and with a load P that is
applied at its center. The wire on the left, without prestress, strains an amount e
under the load P. The wire on the right is prestressed and strains only e/2 unde
the same load P, because half of its load is carried by the lower link through a
reduction of prestress. For prestressed cable systems of similar symmetry
conditions these observations can be made:
Prestress reduces strain deformation to half.

Compressive forces are absorbed through reduction of prestress.
Prestress must be 5 0 % of design stress to prevent slack members.
Prestress above 5 0 % compensates for creep and temperature changes.
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CO CO
NOTE:
P = LOAD
PS = PRESTRESS
e = STRAIN
CN
CO CO
Q_ Q_
Fig. 1 . Effect of prestress on strain
Fig. 2. Load bearing

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A EXTERNALLY STABILIZED
STRANDS-
STRUTS -
JET
B INTERNALLY STABILIZED
Fig. 3. Support conditions
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Replacing rigid struts by flexible tension members eliminates buckling, for
better efficiency. This, and substituting high-strength cables or strands for mild
steel, substantially reduces the dead weight of prestressed trusses; thus reducing
seismic forces, an important consideration in seismic zones. Yet the benefits are
partly offset by the need in some prestressed truss systems to resist horizontal
reactions, which typically are about twice the amount of the vertical reactions. To
resist the horizontal reactions by economical means is important for prestressed
trusses to be economically viable. Design options include circular compression
rings, available infrastructures, such as structural slabs, shear walls; and soil or
rock anchors, given a firm soil.
1.2 Load Bearing

Parabolic trusses (Fig 4) absorb loads in their bottom and top cable polygons for
gravity and uplift loads respectively. The load bearing mode of parallel chord
trusses (Fig 5) is more complex, as illustrated in the abstract truss of Fig 2. Loads
P1 and P2 are carried by polygon A. Load P3 is carried by a second polygon B.
Inward sloping diagonals are active, as are the top chords near the supports and
the bottom chords at mid-span. This force flow reflects shear and moment
distribution of an equivalent beam with fixed end supports. The truss members
not shown carry uplift load and part of gravity load through reduction of prestress.
1.3 Classification
Prestressed trusses can be classified by support condition, configuration, and
dimensionality, with variations of each. Regarding support, they may be either
externally stabilized (horizontal reactions resisted externally) or internally
stabilized (horizontal reactions balanced by internal compression members) as
shown in Figs 3 A and B respectively. Configuration may either be based on
curved or straight system lines (Figs 4 and 5). The latter may also be grouped by
systems with diagonal members (Jawerth) or with vertical struts/strands only.
Dimensionality may either be one-way (Figs 12-18) or two-way (Figs 4-5). The
latter have inherent stability against buckling but are more complex to built and
are only efficient if the spans are about equal both ways.
2 Static Simulation Models
Static simulation models are means to explore new structures (Schierle, 1986).
They visualize spatial qualities and provide information on deformation and stress
distribution, for intuitive understanding of force flows, reinforced by touching
models under various loads. Seven simulation models were built and tested in a
seminar conducted by the author to develop, test, and compare various prestress
truss concepts; two of which are shown in Fig 4 and 5. The models were related
to original structures by three scales: geometric scale S , force scale S , and g f
strain scale S . The latter was chosen 1:1 to prevent errors due to geometrically
s
non-linear behavior. Since all members were subject to axial load only, without
bending, the force scale S was defined as
f
S = P /P = A
f m 0 m E /A E
m 0 0 = model force/original force, where (1)
A = cross section area of members,

E = modulus of elasticity,
m subscript for model,
o = subscript for original structure.
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Fig. 4. Parabolic truss
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The models were built with piano wire of .01 inch (.25 mm) diameter and tubing, to
represent cables and struts respectively. Prestress was applied by turnbuckles
and measured by comparing the sound of wires with a tension gauge of equal
wire length and cross-section area. Tests were conducted to measure
deformations and forces in truss members under load. Combined dead and live
loads of 30 psf (1.4 kPa) on the original structure were simulated on models by
sand cups. The encouraging test results prompted further investigation (by
computer simulation and prototype structures) of concepts with parallel chords
(Fig 5 and a similar one-way truss). While more complex, the parallel chord truss
with diagonals had greater stiffness than the parabolic one without diagonals; and
had better dynamic stability (no flutter). Also, trusses with parallel chords may be
architecturally advantageous in certain situations.
3 Computer Simulation
The systems of Fig 6 (B: 4-bay and C: 8-bay) were studied to determine how
forces and deflections are effected by the following design variables:
Variable depth/span ratio (Fig 6B).

Variable prestress (Fig 6B).
Variable safety factor (Fig 6C).
The computer graphs visualize results in Fig 7 and show typical member forces
and maximum deflections under applied gravity load. Horizontal reactions were
assumed as the sum of top and bottom chords and diagonal members at
supports. The iterative analysis program TRITRS (Haug, 1975) was used for the
simulation, based on the following assumptions (except where the values are
design variable):
Strand cross section: 1.86 sq.in. (12 cm ). 2
Strut cross section: 7.8 sq.in. (50 cm ).

2
Depth/span ratio: 1:12.5.

Prestress: 95 k (423 kN) = 4 4 % of max. force under design load.
Safety factor: 2 for maximum stress and 3.9 for mean stress.
Uniform gravity load: 30 psf (1.4 kPa) combined dead and live load.
Evaluating the computer graphs of Fig 7, these observations are of interest:
3.1 Variable Depth/Span Ratio

The median force increase is only 11 %, for a 50 % depth/span ratio decrease
from .1 (1:10) to .05 (1:20). Deflections caused by live load are tabulated below
for three depth/span ratios and four safety factors (four member sizes).
Safety factor depth/span ratio: 1:10 1j15 1£0

2 defl./span ratio: 1:480 1:240 1:160
3 defl./span ratio: 1:727 1:362 1:242
4 defl./span ratio: 1:960 1:480 1:320
5 defl./span ratio: 1:1100 1:550 1:366
This deflection table illustrates an impressive performance, and suggests that

depth/span ratios of 1:15, or 1:20, are feasible. Hence prestressed trusses could
be used for very long spans, for a small depth implies short struts with reduced
buckling. Depth/span ratios under 1:20 are too shallow for most applications.
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A CONSIDERED SYSTEM
i><j><i>axr>^^
B FOUR BAY TRUSS C EIGHT BAY TRUSS
Fig. 6. Systems used in computer simulation
FORCE OIAtRA H
F
OR
CEO
MC
RA
H F
OR
CE
2fOSr -
2440 - OIAGRAH
\
120 10 0 20 0
"1i=
0^
s.
V
.02 0 .04 0 .00 0 .00 0 SAFETY FACTORS
IAX.T
EEN
O
SISN
IT
/O/P
DEPTH/SPAM0ATI 0
O1 T
VftAI.
N OH BOTTOn
fcnAI.TENSION/OIACONAL
Anm. TENO
SIN
0|HO Z
R
O
ICO
NM
TALP
R
O
ESIN
REACO
TIN
PRESTRES
OMAX.
OEPTH
SP/AN RAT
O
I PRESTRES
0 , J 1 0 1 2 0 1 6 0 2 0 9
0. 02 0 .04 0 .00 0 .00 0. 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 '
SFFELYFKT0RS
BLE DEPTH/SPAN RATIO VARIABLE PRESTRESS VARIABLE SAFETY FACTOR
Fig. 7. Prestressed truss design considerations
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3.2 Variable Prestress
To prevent slack members, prestress must be at least 3 4 % of maximum member
stress and 5 0 % of the mean stress of all members under design load. Deflection
increases sharply when prestress reaches 0 under applied load (slack members).
Those observations correspond with observations on Fig 1. Also, when slack
members occurred, stability was impaired by a strong flutter tendency.
3.3 Variable Safety Factor

Increasing safety factors from 2 to 4 reduces deflections by 50 %, yet causes only
minor force increases. A safety factor of 5 reduces deflections by 66%.
4 Prototype Structures
Two prototypes, a one-way and a two-way truss (Figs 8 to 11), were built with the
objective to explore details, fabrication and erection procedures, test buckling,
and verify model and computer simulations. The one-way system was stabilized
against rotational buckling by lateral bracing at alternate joints. For the two-way
truss a joint was developed and tested to connect continuous cable members to
vertical struts. The diagonal cables were connected in pairs (Fig 11) to provide
concentric connections and a smaller joint radius. Lead inlets, inserted between
cables and strut brackets, provided slip resistance needed at those connections.
Based on the test model (Fig 8) and computer analysis the truss was partly pre-
assembled in the shop with loosely connected joints. The erection was started by
first installing helix ground anchors and erecting four support trusses, held by
temporary guy ropes. Next, the cable trusses were spread out on the ground,
then gradually lifted by a boom and pulley system and connected to the support
trusses. After some prestress had been applied, by means of threaded stud
connections, the vertical struts were aligned to their final position. Prestress was
then fine-tuned and checked with a tension gauge. Finally the strut joints were
firmly tightened for slip resistance between cables and struts to achieve stiffness
and stability for the system. The erection took about six hours. Due to
experience, a second erection took only about three hours. Load tests confirmed
the model and computer simulations with remarkably good accuracy. But most
impressive, the system proved incredibly stiff when several students bounced
jointly from a single joint, without visually noticing deflection or dynamic flutter.
5 Projects
The following projects illustrate the integration of prestressed truss systems with
architectural and other design objectives. Given the location of both projects in
very active seismic regions, reducing dead weight and thus lateral seismic forces
was an important factor in system selection and design.
5.1 Sports Center University of California Berkeley

A prestressed roof truss was proposed for the master plan of this addition to an
existing gym (Figs 12 and 13). One-way trusses allow modular expansion of the
facility. Horizontal reactions are transferred to a structural slab by guy cables
which are slanted two ways to provide stability against seismic forces as well. The
guy cables are expressed in the entry lobby for spatial definition and externally to
articulate the facade, similar to buttresses in Gothic cathedrals. Exterior walls
follow the inward slope of guys to visually open the adjacent street space, while
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Fig. 8. Prototype model
Fig. 9. Prototype structure
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--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 12. UC Berkeley sports center - axon
I
k
/ H i l l
' ' ' > ' I * I
-S^LOBBY ^
I GYM | I II
Fig. 13. UC Berkeley sports center - elevation
600
Copyright CRC Press

reducing the interior volume for economy in air handling. A band of louvers at the
truss level serves for natural ventilation and further articulates the exterior.
5.2 Loyola Marymount University Pavilion

This sports center (Figs 14 to 18) features parabolic cable trusses that span the
long way, to provide large side doors as visual link with outdoor seating, for
occasional large events. Exposed guy cables transfer horizontal reactions on one
side to shear walls which also serve as external handball courts and on the other
side to wind scoop walls facing the Pacific for natural ventilation. The parabolic
cables reinforce the interior space profile, formed by the gym floor and bleachers.
Guys for the main cables and radiating truss cables are connected to common
anchor points to balance forces that alternate between bottom and top cables for
gravity and uplift loads respectively. Computer plots of some load response
cases are illustrated in Fig 17. The CAD studies (Figs 16 and 18), based on the
analysis data, visualize the structure.
6 Conclusions
The prestressed trusses presented include a new concept with parallel chords,
along with design data and evaluation. This truss has better stiffness and
appears less susceptible to dynamic flutter than other cable systems. For some
applications straight system lines may be desirable. While the system's
complexity may result in higher costs, it has good potential from a structural point
of view. As for most cable trusses, efficient resolution of horizontal reactions is
critical. The design projects describe the creative integration of structures with
architectural objectives; based on the author's belief, reinforced by historic
examples, that an integrative design philosophy can enrich architecture, by
techtonic integrity and synergy of form and structure.
7 Credits
Student teams of models, Fig 4: Miller, Suekama; Fig 5: Fung, Gee, Jordan.
Grant for prototype Figs 8-11: American Iron and Steel Institute.
Design team for project Figs 12-13: Schierle Associates, Architects;
T.Y. Lin International, Structural Engineers.
Design team, project Figs 14-18: Kahn, Kappe, Lotery, Boccato, Architects;
Reiss and Brown Structural Engineers;
Dr. Schierle, consultant, CAD/analysis.
8 References
Bach, K. et al (1975) Nets in Nature and Technics, Institute for Lightweight

Structures, IL 8, University of Stuttgart.
Haug, E. and Powell, G.H. (1975) Analytical Shape Finding of Cable Nets,
Proceedings, IASS Pacific Symposium, Tokyo.
Hottinger, H. (1963) Concepts For The Design Of Structures Using Tensional
Cable Systems, Hanging Roofs (eds Esquillan, Saillard) John Wiley, New
York
Schierle, G.G. (1986) Design Considerations for Lightweight Structures,
LSA 86 Proceedings, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Zetlin, L. (1963) Elimination Of Flutter In Suspension Roofs, Hanging Roofs,
(eds Esquillan, Saillard) John Wiley, New York.
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Hg. 14. Loyola sports center
Fig. 15. Loyola sports center
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Fig. 16. Loyola sports center - truss system interior
Fig. 17. Loyola sports center - load response plots
Fig. 18. Loyola sports center - truss axon
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A CAD GRID M E T H O D FOR T E N S I L E
PRESTRESSED MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
CONCEPTS
D.A. CHAMBERLAIN
Lightweight Structures Unit, Dept Civil Engineering, City University,
London, UK
Abstract
T h i s p a p e r d e s c r i b e s a g r i d scheme by w h i c h membrane f i e l d s c a n be
d e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g to predetermined constant prestress ratios. Both
i n t e g e r and n o n - i n t e g e r r a t i o c a s e s are covered, these respectively
d e t e r m i n e d f r o m e x p l i c i t and n u m e r i c a l b a s e d s o l u t i o n s o f t h e d e r i v e d ,
governing, g r i d generator curve. The p r o p o s e d d e v i c e i s i m p l e m e n t e d
w i t h i n a PC b a s e d CAD s y s t e m , w h i c h p r o v i d e s t h e means o f a d d r e s s i n g
and s c r i b i n g on t h e g r i d s u r f a c e . Worked e x a m p l e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d f o r
single and multiple f i e l d systems, i n c l u d i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the
g e n e r a t i o n of geodesies, which are a s s o c i a t e d with surface p a t t e r n
production.
1 Introduction
The author i s a member o f t h e l i g h t w e i g h t s t r u c t u r e s u n i t i n the
D e p a r t m e n t o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , C i t y U n i v e r s i t y , London, w h i c h has
ongoing i n t e r e s t s i n the development of e x p e r t systems for tension
structure technology. The content of this paper, together with
p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d work,' r e p r e s e n t s some e n a b l i n g d e v i c e s f o r t h e
constitution of an advisory system for the conceptual design of
prestressed membrane f o r m s . This i s aimed at those wishing to
e x p e r i m e n t i n membrane f o r m s p r i n c i p a l l y by g e o m e t r i c a l means.
W h i l s t a n i n v e s t i g a t o r m i g h t p r e f e r t o be f r e e t o d e f i n e any s u r f a c e
which p o s s e s s the e s s e n t i a l a n t e c l a s t i c c h a r a c t e r , workable d e s i g n s a r e
r e l a t e d to t e n a b l e p r e s t r e s s regimes. C o n s i d e r i n g the pure p r e s t r e s s
state, the uniform p r e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n i s o f t e n p r e f e r r e d on both
e s t h e t i c and e c o n o m i c g r o u n d s . S u c h s u r f a c e s a r e t h o u g h t t o be n a t u r a l
i n a p p e a r a n c e , and h a v e t h e a d v a n t a g e o f minimum p r e s t r e s s requirement.
However, f a c t o r s s u c h a s t h e g e n e r a l p l a n s h a p e and t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r
more c o n t r a s t i n t h e form, may l e a d t o n o n - u n i f o r m p r e s t r e s s i n g .
C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e membrane f a b r i c s u p p l y , t h e weave and i t s s t r e t c h
behaviour, l e a d s to the o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t p r e s t r e s s v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n a
s i n g l e f i e l d s h o u l d be r e s t r i c t e d w h e r e p o s s i b l e . Practical states
w o u l d i n c l u d e u n i f o r m s t r e s s , c o n s t a n t p r e s t r e s s r a t i o and n o n - l i n e a r
of the type a r i s i n g i n c o n i c a l forms. The l a t t e r i s t h e most g e n e r a l
c a s e , and i s b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h e work c u r r e n t l y r e p o r t e d . In this
work, a g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h i s p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e c o n s t a n t p r e s t r e s s r a t i o
s t a t e , be t h i s u n i t y o r any o t h e r d e s i r e d v a l u e .
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The s o l u t i o n s p r e s e n t e d have been prepared u s i n g F o r t r a n and L i s p code
r u n on an IBM PC AT microcomputer s u p p o r t i n g VGA l e v e l g r a p h i c s . Grid
g e n e r a t i o n and s u r f a c e s c r i b i n g are s u p p o r t e d w i t h i n the framework o f
AutoCAD v e r s i o n 10, a w e l l known CAD drawing package, w i t h hardcopy
o u t p u t t o a Roland DXY1300 pen p l o t t e r .
2 Prestress regimes
F i g u r e 1 i l l u s t r a t e s a p o r t i o n o f an a n t i c l a s t i c s u r f a c e g r i d formed by
r e v o l v i n g t h e g r i d g e n e r a t o r p r o f i l e curve abc, w h i c h l i e s i n the XY
p l a n e , about t h e X a x i s .
R e f e r r i n g now t o f i g u r e 2, d e s c r i p t i o n o f the g e n e r a t i o n i s apparent

i n t h e l o c a l p r o f i l e and o f f s e t r a d i i and respectively.
FIGURE 2 .
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Since, under pure p r e s t r e s s , the r a t i o of p r i n c i p a l p r e s t r e s s values
must be e q u a l t o t h e i n v e r s e p r i n c i p a l c u r v a t u r e r a t i o , we h a v e :
(1)
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Where N i s the pre-determined constant prestress ratio.
C o n s i d e r i n g a g e n e r a l p o i n t p ( x , y ) on t h e p r o f i l e , we c a n e x p r e s s r
and r as follows:
2
/
p 2 n 3/2 / r\
dy d y
2
1 +
dx
dx 2
and r = y/cos 6 (2)

2
where 8 i s defined in figure 2.
U s i n g ( 2 ) i n ( 1 ) and s i m p l i f y i n g , we a r r i v e at a second order

d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n f o r t h e p r o f i l e abc:
N. y. y " - (y' Y (3)
By s u b s t i t u t i o n q = y' and use of the boundary conditions q = 0 at

y = L we h a v e
dy'
dx* = ± (4)
2/N
y'=L - 1
Analytical solutions are readily available for (4), where N is a

p o s i t i v e i n t e g e r , examples being
y = L.cosh (x/L) for N = 1,
2
and + 1 L for N = 2 (5)
However, f o r n o n - i n t e g e r p o s i t i v e v a l u e s f o r N, solutions are computed

n u m e r i c a l l y from tne i n t e g r a t i o n formula ( 4 ) .
3 Grid generation
Having d e f i n e d the g r i d g e n e r a t o r p r o f i l e a t a s e r i e s of p o i n t s , these
a r e t h e n u s e d t o c r e a t e t h e g r i d s u r f a c e by r e v o l u t i o n a b o u t t h e x
axis. With r e s p e c t to the p o s i t i v e s e n s e of the x a x i s , revolution
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s p e c i f i e d a s - a t o + ft. I f r e q u i r e d , the r grid
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u n i t c a n be h e l d c o n s t a n t , by d e t e r m i n i n g generator points a t equal
curve i n t e r v a l s . T h e r ^ g r i d i s o b v i o u s l y n o t c o n s t a n t , a n d d e p e n d s on
the i n t e g e r d i v i s i o n o f a + ft. Complementary t o t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e

uniform r ^ g r i d u n i t , i t i s an easy matter to determine the curved
distances along any p a r t i c u l a r r^ grid curve. A k n o w l e d g e o f g r i d xiiAt
s p a c i n g i s f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f g e o d e s i c c u r v e s , t h e s e by
d e f i n i t i o n p r o c e s s i n g t h e p r o p e r t y o f maximum o r minimum p a t h lengths
b e t w e e n two p o i n t s on t h e s u r f a c e .
F i g u r e 3. i l l u s t r a t e s p r o v i s i o n s f o r d u a l f i e l d g e n e r a t i o n together
w i t h a p o r t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t i n g s u r f a c e g r i d . The p r o f i l e A i s b a s e d on
N = 1 a n d t h a t o f B on N = 2, a n d t h e y a r e s e t t o i n t e r s e c t a t t h e
common o f f s e t p o i n t 1. I n t h i s example, A a n d B f i e l d s a r e u n i t e d by
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
an a r c r i d g e .
Generator Axis
FIGURE 3
\. J
I n t h e g r i d g e n e r a t i o n , t h e mesh i s a c t u a l g e n e r a t e d o n t h e b a s i s o f
p o l y g o n s , w h i c h a r e s u b s e q u e n t l y smoothed by f i t t i n g a c u b i c B - s p l i n e
surface . Though c o m p u t a t i o n a l l y slov/er, t h e t r u e s u r f a c e generated
f r o m (4) c o u l d be u s e d f o r g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y .
4 Field production
The u s e r g r i d s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d a r e c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g L i s p coding
r u n w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f AutoCAD. Once t h e p r e s t r e s s r a t i o N, h a s
been s e l e c t e d , and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e g r i d d i s p l a y e d , t h e u s e r i s a b l e t o
window a n d zoom on t h e p o r t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e upon w h i c h t h e d e s i g n
f i e l d i s t o be e n s c r i b e d . By r o t a t i o n o f t h e g r i d s u r f a c e , i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o a c c e s s o b s c u r e d r e g i o n s , a n d a l s o overcome t h e p r o b l e m o f
multiple layers, t h o u g h w i t h some c o m p u t a t i o n a l delay, t h i s c a n be
avoided by p r o c e s s i n g a h i d d e n l i n e f a c i l i t y . When t h e d e s i g n i s
c o m p l e t e , a n d t h e g r i d s u r f a c e i s removed, t h e d e s i g n c a n be p r o c e s s e d
f o r geodesic production, s u r f a c e shading or other requirements.
Options i n t h e CAD s y s t e m permit the user t o snap on t o g r i d
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i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s on g r i d l i n e s , on a n e a r e s t
point basis. E a c h s n a p s e l e c t i o n p r o v i d e s 3D c o o r d i n a t e f e e d b a c k , thus
t h e s u r f a c e i s a d d r e s s a b l e by means o f i t s d e f i n i t i o n g r i d system.
Further refinement i s possible by setting a finer mesh over a
p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n of i n t e r e s t . C a b l e t y p e s c a l l o p f e a t u r e s c a n be
r e p r e s e n t e d by s p a t i a l B - s p l i n e c u r v e s m o o t h i n g f o r d a t a p o i n t s
selected between s c a l l o p ends. Although resulting in difficult
prestressing r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e s y s t e m a l s o a l l o w s t h e u s e r t o p u l l out
a g r i d i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t and r e s m o o t h t h e s u r f a c e .
W h i l s t g r i d s a r e r e a d i l y e s t a b l i s h e d and c o n v e n i e n t l y a d d r e s s e d , i t i s
d i f f i c u l t to s a t i s f y f i x e d c o n t r o l p o i n t requirements w i t h the c u r r e n t
system. I n p r a c t i c a l d e s i g n s , s u c h p o i n t s a r i s e i n the form envelope

on a c c o u n t o f p l a n and e l e v a t i o n r e s t r i c t i o n s , a c c e s s and f u n c t i o n a l
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
requirements. I d e a l l y , t h e s e would be a c c e p t e d a s b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s
i n the i n i t i a l g r i d g e n e r a t i o n procedure. U n l e s s boundary c o n d i t i o n s
a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y numerous o r r e s t r i c t i v e , t h e u s e r w o u l d s t i l l remain
with c o n s i d e r a b l e scope f o r experimentation. Using the current
f a c i l i t y , t h r e e c o n t r o l p o i n t s c a n be m a t c h e d by r o t a t i o n s o f t h e l o c a l
coordinate system and overall scaling. I n the conceptual design
p r o c e s s , t h e u s e r may be more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s u r f a c e f o r m however,
than meeting a l l c o n t r o l p o i n t requirements. C o n t r o l p o i n t matching i s
the s u b j e c t of ongoing study.
5 Patterning
Anteclastic surfaces are non-developable, and require careful
patterning f o r t h e i r production. Production f a b r i c s are typically
manufactured i n r o l l form, t o a b o u t 2rn w i d t h , t h u s p a t t e r n i n g t e n d s t o
be d e r i v e d by s u b d i v i s i o n i n t o s t r i p s . D e p e n d i n g on t h e . d e g r e e of
f a b r i c t r a n s l u c e n c y and b a c k l i g h t i n g , t h e o v e r l a y o f f a b r i c a t seams,
r e s u l t s i n pronounced l i n e s over the s u r f a c e . A p a r t f r o m t h e most
f u n c t i o n a l o f s t r u c t u r e s , t h e a r c h i t e c t may w i s h t o u s e t h e s e l i n e s t o
i n f l u e n c e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e form.
D i s r e g a r d i n g the mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e a c t u a l woven f a b r i c ,
t h e r e i s l i t t l e r e s t r i c t i o n on t h e s e t t i n g o f p a t t e r n arrangements,
other than the a d v i s a b i l i t y of f o l l o w i n g s u r f a c e geodesies. F a i l u r e to
o b s e r v e t h e l a t t e r may r e s u l t i n p a n e l s n e e d i n g t o be s h e a r e d into
place, a l i m i t e d prospect with coated f a b r i c s .
T u r n i n g to the matter of m a t e r i a l behaviour, f a b r i c s e x h i b i t marked
o r t h o t r o p y i n r e s p e c t t o t h e warp and w e f t d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e weave.
Under reasonable stress levels, t h e warp d i r e c t i o n i s noticeably
stiffer than the weft direction, thus compensation for prestress
stretch is differential even under uniform stress conditions.
C o m p i l i n g t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s a r i s i n g i n the P o i s o n ' s r a t i o e f f e c t , the
p a t t e r n seams a r e o f t e n s e t to c o r r e s p o n d w i t h e i t h e r of t h e p r i n c i p a l
prestress directions. F o r forms d e r i v e d w i t h h i g h p r e s t r e s s r a t i o s ,
t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f p a t t e r n i n g i s t h u s l i k e l y t o i n f l u e n c e t h e form.
O n l y w i t h n e a r u n i f o r m p r e s t r e s s i s the form f a i r l y independent of the
p a t t e r n i n g arrangements. Warp and w e f t s t r e t c h i n g i s t y p i c a l l y o f t h e
order of ± 1% and 0-5% respectively, d e p e n d i n g on the level of
p r e s t r e s s and m a t e r i a l t y p e .
In the c u r r e n t f a c i l i t y , geodesic lines c a n be a p p r o x i m a t e l y determined
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b e t w e e n a n y two g i v e n p o i n t s on a single field, using a s e r i e s of
conical helix elements. Referring t o f i g u r e 4, t h e p r o c e d u r e i s a s
follows:
(i) Two p o i n t s a a n d b a r e s e l e c t e d on t h e f i e l d , t h e s e referenced

by p r o f i l e p o s i t i o n u a n d p r o f i l e i n c l i n a t i o n v.
V?/
z ' \
FIGURE 4.
(ii) Superimposing the p r o f i l e curves P and P a s shown i n f i g u r e 5a,

1 2
and c r e a t i n g n equal subdivisions (n = 4. illustrated), n + l
number R c i r c l e s a r e a p p a r e n t .
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FIGURE 5.
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By t h e s e means, a s e r i e s o f c o n i c a n n u l i p r o v i d e an approximation
to t h e c u r v e d s u r f a c e a s shown i n F i g u r e 5b.
(iii) The geodesic between p o i n t s 1 and 2 i s now fitted such that £S.
i s minimum, u s i n g t h e l e n g t h n o t a t i o n shown i n F i g u r e 5b. Since

each intermediate point m & n i s required to r e m a i n on a
particular R circle, t h e l e n g t h i s m i n i m i s e d by t h e v angular
d i s p l a c e m e n t of these p o i n t s . T h i s i s a c h i e v e d by an i t e r a t i v e
algorithm.
By t h e a b o v e means, t h e n o n - d e v e l o p a b l e s u r f a c e i s a p p r o x i m a t e d
by a s e r i e s o f d e v e l o p a b l e c o n i c a n n u l i , and the a c c u r a c y is
d e p e n d a n t on t h e number o f a n n u l i s e t i n t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . The
p a t t e r n i n g i s thus s e t i n the d e f i n i t i o n of the g e o d e s i e s , the
seams. B e t w e e n t h e R c i r c l e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e c h o s e n p o i n t s
1 and 2, f u r t h e r g e o d e s i e s c o u l d be p r e p a r e d on an o f f s e t b a s i s ,
though t h e s e would r e q u i r e e x t r a p o l a t i o n to f i e l d boundaries.
6 Case s t u d i e s
F i g u r e 6 shows a s i n g l e f i e l d e n s c r i b e d on a n N = 1.5 g r i d , f i g u r e 7 a
d o u b l e f i e l d on N = 2.0 and f i g u r e 8 t r i p l e f i e l d s p r e p a r e d on a
combination o f N = 1.0 ( u n i f o r m s t r e s s ) and N = 2 . 0 g r i d s . In each
case, the f i e l d s have been r o t a t e d to a p o s i t i o n of i n t e r e s t .
FIGURE 6 .
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FIGURE 7 .
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7 Conclusions
A method h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d by w h i c h a p p r o x i m a t e p r e s t r e s s membrane
f o r m s c a n be c o n s t r u c t e d u n d e r c o n s t a n t p r e s t r e s s r a t i o c o n d i t i o n s , t h e
u s e r s e t t i n g t h e r e q u i r e d r a t i o N. Principal curvature grid surfaces
are a u t o m a t i c a l l y generated and c a n be a d d r e s s e d u s i n g CAD drawing
software. An approximate means of generating geodesies between
s e l e c t e d p o i n t s has been d e s c r i b e d .
A m a t t e r which has not r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n i s t h a t of f o r c e e q u i l i b r i u m .
H o l d i n g t h e w e f t p r e s t r e s s a t some c o n s t a n t v a l u e t h r o u g h o u t a f i e l d ,
t h e w a r p s t r e s s i s s i m i l a r l y known f r o m N. Using the geometry of the
f i e l d and b o u n d a r i e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e to determine boundary r e a c t i o n s
etc. I n t h e c a s e o f t h e m u l t i p l e f i e l d s o f f i g u r e 8, t h e p r e s t r e s s
l e v e l s c o u l d be a d j u s t e d t o p r o v i d e e q u i l i b r i u m f o r t h e a r c h e s a t t h e
field interfaces. F u r t h e r study i s n e c e s s a r y i n order to p r o p e r l y
e x p l o i t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f p r e s t r e s s and s u r f a c e geometry.
A u s e f u l e x t e n s i o n w o u l d be t o p r o v i d e g r i d s f o r v a r i a b l e p r e s t r e s s
r a t i o , a s a r i s i n g i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f smooth c o n i c t e n t s . The means o f
creating transition between different field settings i s also of
i n t e r e s t , t h o u g h t h i s i s known t o be a complex m a t t e r .
8 References
1. C h a m b e r l a i n , D.A., Aids f o r the Conceptual Design of P r e - S t r e s s e d
Membrane S t r u c t u r e s , 4 t h I n t . Conf. on Civil and Structural
E n g i n e e r i n g Computing, C i v i l Comp. P r e s s , E d i n b u r g h , 1989.
2. C h a m b e r l a i n , D.A., A G e o m e t r i c a l A p p r o a c h t o Smooth C o n i c Tents,

30th Anniversay of IASS, Conf, Cedex, M a d r i d , 1989.
3. DeBoor, C. , A Practical Guide to Splines, Springer, Berlin, FRG,

1978.
4. N u t b o u r n e , A.W. and M a r t i n , R.R., D i f f e r e n t i a l Geometry A p p l i e d to

C u r v e and S u r f a c e D e s i g n . Vol. 1 Pub. E l l i s Harwood, C h i c h e s t e r
1988.
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THE COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN OF
MEMBRANE STRUCTURES
A . H . YOUSUFI
Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology, TUD, The
Netherlands
Abstract
The faculty of architecture of Delft University of Technology in the
Netherlands has stimulated a specific research on the field of fabric
structural design within our technological development in general, and the
use of fabric as a building material towards many social and economical
demands which require in physical form rapid response to a recognised
social, economical or strategic need in specific.
The design of prestressed coated fabric structures are usually started from an
architectural sketch te determine and develop the design concept. However,
it is useful to employ computer simulation of the structural form which will
display the accurate stress distribution throughout and a further
investigation of the whole structure.
Introduction
The recent advances in design techniques and increasing utilisation of coat-

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ed fabric and constructional materials have made possible to construct large

span structures in a variety of geometrical forms. Most fabric structures, air
supported, tension or frame supported fabric structures must be analyzed
structurally through mathematical methods, which require computer
programme to determine the accurate shape that result from the prestressed
forces. The mathematical model with accuracy and exact shape at given
stress patterns would permit the designer to find and explore a new shape
and combination of shapes. Computer model incorporate the consideration of
form and patterning, which influences the form and deformability, and
allow the efficient change of element and a system of geometry.
The fabric and cables used to build structures are extremely light, they have
no rigidity or stiffness, therefore they can carry loads only in tension and
must be kept in tension to stabilize the structure and prestress shape.
Prestressed tension structures need guy ropes and anchors to lift up the
horizontal components which are under prestress and external forces, and to
transform these forces into the ground directly or indirectly.
Usually the self supported or prestressed structure which the forces are
carried by the fabric itself and anchored to the ground, and cable stayed
structure which the structure is stabilized by cables and ropes, may cause
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some functional proolems. F i g . ( l ) Therefore, some other forms of fabric
structures have been developed to eliminate the need for external guys.
Fig.(2).
As far as the anchors and guy ropes are the essential part of the structure,
their elimination will change the form of the structure which has been
expressed as skeleton or frame structure and braced fabric structure, that
the fabric is planer or single curvature, and is used as cladding material.
The variety of possible forms is infinite, any manipulation within the
structural system, require the knowledge of the interrelations between the
form and the mass of the structure and its ability to transmit forces. Fig.(3).
There is a potential for obtaining very economical structures using
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the fabric and plastic sheeting by the availability of powerful
microcomputer systems which makes physical modelling very attractive for
expediting and development of analytical procedures for modelling
structures.
Computer aided design
When we talk about design in this field, it is not just the structural design but
the total design which is Architectural, Structural and constructural.
The form of Tent and complex structures can be determined on the same
principle of empirical methods used in conventional structure. Today the
application of Software Computer Graphic has made possible to generate a
coplex structure and form, that the output of the programme is a set of points
co-ordinates which can describe the form, from this all other values can be
determined, such as ground plan, elevations, sections, prespective and a
three dimensional working model.
The application of computer to the Architectural Design and analysis
of complex structures is one of the fields that attracted a great deal of
research efforts, since the introduction of the computer as a tool of
Architectural Design consideration, recently there are a number of
computer programmes available for the Architectural Design, research and
practice.
The A R I A D N E programme is an integrated system for building structures
which programmed to meet the needs of the computer Aided Architectural
Design. The system which is still in its initial stage of development, includes
the following sub-systems, each of which is programmed to have various
graphical computation capabilities in 3D as :
- Manipulation and analysis of building components.

- Preprogrammed generation of building components.
- Combination of building components.
- Architectural drafting, presentation, and visualization in 3D.
The Ariadne programme has the capacity of three dimensional analyses of

building system with more improved accuracy. The programme is writen in
F O R T R A N language, operated with UNIX system, and possibly linked to the
other software systems.
The geometric solid modelling of a structure consist of the out-line
configuration and the geometric modelling of the building components. The
designer has usually no need to search for the best outline configuration
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because it comes directly from the form of the structure, instead the
designer has to select the size of the components and the number and
situations of the building components, that the final result is structurally
acceptable. The following page describe the design of tents under the effect
of the load symmetrical in regard to columns, in square and polygonal plan
which are reinforced by means of cable or braced stabilized by cables. Each
unit of the structure is stabilized by itself, and can be erected as a single unit
or as many as required. The structure can be erected by Prestressing the
surface fabric upon upper and lower portion of the support. When the
desired prestressing is achieved, the coated fabric and cables can be clamped
to its support. Fig.(4).
Inorder to achieve with this system the following parameters should be
taken into account.
a Various components used in a structure might have different sizes,

section and jointing technique, which can change with different
manufacturers.
b The geometrical solid components generated by computer should be
handled like handling the real component in practice.
c The software computer should be suitable for moddelling of
geometrical solid that combined together and made the final output as
an object.
d As far as the solid modelling is concerned the combination of the
component must be as accurate as possible,
e Finding the order, arrangement and pattern of structure, for ease of
combination.
f Presentation of sequential drawings in 3D by means of bottom-up or
top-down systems,
g Documentation of data for each different components and the
structure as a whole.
In the geometrical modelling of structural components the effective use of

computer requires a knowledge in the geometry, the geometry of form
giving possibilities, and techniques which makes possible to deal with large
combination at a time.
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The designer can modify the model or component by changing the values of
parameters in connection with size, cutting mode, existence of the separate
components etc., changing the co-ordinates of the ralative origin of the
component, the joint can move along the absolute origin of the final object,
that makes easier to change the outline configuration at any moment.
By using this system of computer the user can create structures very
effectively. The process is like dealing with real structural components on
site, beacause modelling progress is seen continuously in three dimension
on the screen with its data value. The most common models are
preprogrammed and can be used by pressing a corresponding special
commands and inserting limited values. A l l the parameters of these common
models are open to change, the user has an infinite number of possibilities
to gain an optimum form and structure.
The use of solid modelling programme allows easy sectioning of models
to reveal hidden detail and check interferences and examine relationships
between components in assembllies particularly using colour rendering to
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Fig.(2) Cable stayed membrane structure, a prototype of tent designed for Haj Terminal at the
Jeddah airport in Saudi Arabia.
Fig.(3) Braced membrane structures, as alternative of the tent of Haj Terminal at the Jeddah
airport in Saudi Arabia. Top; single curvatures, Bottom; double curvatures.
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differentiate components. These techniques imply a further step in
visualization of building structure.
There are many advantages achieved by CAAD besides the main
benefits related to the cost reduction in the design and drafting process.
- Accuracy, quality and visualization .

- Reduction of time in the design process.
- Ability to produce alternative design.
- Avoiding the inconsistencies on complex structures and forms.
- The speed and control of design modifications.
- Estimating the precise components, materials and quantity.
References
Sedlak, V.F.J. (1981) Membrane structures, constructural and design

aspects of some recent membrane structures in Australia. P. Kneen
p.42.
Topping, B.H.V. (1987) Non-conventional structures. V o l . - l . About the

prinzip Leichtbau. J Hennike, p. 277.
Wagner, W.F. (1980) Architectural Record, Tent structures: Are they

Architecture,.p. 127.
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Fig.(4) Double layers, single curvature membrane structure.
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PART TWELVE
SPACE STRUCTURES
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A QUEST FOR GLASS SPACE
STRUCTURES
M . EEKHOUT
Octatube Space Structures, Delft, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
T h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n d e s c r i b e s the development process of r e a l structu-

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r a l g l a s s as performed a t Octatube of D e l f t NL. The d e s c r i b e d process

i n c l u d e s s e v e r a l methods of s t r u c t u r a l use of g l a s s panels i n
s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e s , ranging from non-loadbearing g l a s s panels i n
c o n v e n t i o n a l s k y l i g h t s around space frames, v i a s t r u c t u r a l l y s e a l e d
g l a s s panels w i t h an a d d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i s i n g f u n c t i o n to s t r u c t u r a l l y
l o a d - b e a r i n g g l a s s p a n e l s , where metal elements are only used as
connection elements and a d d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i t y . The point of view of
the author i s t h a t of a p r o d u c t - a r c h i t e c t , who combines the p r o f e s -
s i o n of an a r c h i t e c t , a s t r u c t u r a l engineer, an i n d u s t r i a l designer
on the one hand, and a s p e c i a l i s t - p r o d u c e r on the other hand.
1 WHAT I S STRUCTURAL GLAZING?
The d e s c r i p t i o n ' S t r u c t u r a l G l a z i n g has a number of d i f f e r e n t

1
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n the a r c h i t e c t u r a l p r o f e s s i o n , departing from the

architectural or the s t r u c t u r a l point of v i e w .
1.1 A r c h i t e c t u r a l meaning
In the f i r s t p l a c e 'structural' i s used as the a b b r e v i a t i o n of the

b u i l d i n g t e c h n i c a l word ' s t r u c t u - r a l l y s e a l e d ' meaning a method of
attachment of g l a s s panels to the s u b - s t r u c t u r e i n c u r t a i n w a l l i n g .
In the e a r l y days of c u r t a i n w a l l s i t i n d i c a t e d anything e l s e than
f i x i n g by screw s t r i p s . The growing tendency amongst a r c h i t e c t s to
design i n an a b s t r a c t and non-material-bound way has s t r o n g l y
s t i m u l a t e d the use of g l a s s as a cladding m a t e r i a l f o r e x t e r i o r w a l l s
and r o o f s . T h i s tendency was r e i n f o r c e d s h o r t l y a f t e r the f i r s t o i l
c r i s e i n 1973 when i n European g l a s s i n d u s t r i e s a s e a r c h began f o r
g l a s s panels w i t h g r o s s l y improved b u i l d i n g p h y s i c a l q u a l i t y i n
order to beat the enhightened energy c o s t s of g l a s s - c l a d b u i l d i n g s .
The demand f o r s l i c k b u i l d i n g s u r f a c e s and low maintenance c o s t s l e d
to the a p p l i c a t i o n of g l a s s panels t h a t were s t r u c t u r a l l y s e a l e d to
the aluminium s u b - s t r u c t u r e w i t h s i l i c o n e and were provided w i t h a
s i l i c o n e w a t e r t i g h t s e a l between the g l a s s p a n e l s . These techniques
were e x p l o i t e d on a l a r g e s c a l e i n the USA even before 1973, forced
by the i m p l i c a t i o n s of h i g h - r i s e b u i l d i n g technology and imported
i n t o Europe only l a t e r . I n f a c t , even a f t e r 20 years of experience i n
the USA, s t r u c t u r a l l y s e a l e d g l a s s i s s t i l l not permitted i n some
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c o u n t r i e s l i k e West-Germany. I n those cases the s i l i c o n e s e a l i n g and
g l u e i n g techniques s t i l l have to be combined w i t h mechanical screwing
techniques t h a t have a conventional s a f e t y . These d e s c r i p t i o n s a l l
r e g a r d c u r t a i n w a l l i n g and s k y l i g h t s . Loadings are only e x t e r n a l
loadings a c t i n g on one g l a s s p a n e l . No f u r t h e r s t r u c t u r a l loadings
are t a k e n . ' S t r u c t u r a l ' r e f e r s only to the mode of connection to the
subframe: w i t h s e a l a n t . The confusion grows when people commonly
r e f e r to any type of c l a d d i n g i n which s e a l a n t i s used f o r
w a t e r t i g h t n e s s only as ' s t r u c t u r a l ' .
1.2 S t r u c t u r a l meaning
Quite d i f f e r e n t and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y more i n t e r e s t i n g , i s the l i n e of

thought f o l l o w i n g the s t r u c t u r a l engineering meaning of ' s t r u c t u r a l
glazing': g l a s s s t r u c t u r e s t h a t bear e x t e r n a l loadings over more
than one g l a s s p a n e l , and contain bending and normal s t r e s s e s . The
s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s of heat-strengthened or tempered g l a s s challenge
some d e s i g n e r s to see where the l i m i t s of s u i t a b i l i t y are f o r g l a s s
panels to be used as load bearing s t r u c t u r a l elements i n s t r u c t u r e s
t h a t only c o n t a i n an absolute minimum of metal components. This
a r t i c l e e x p l a i n s the development process of g l a s s panels from the
s t a r t i n g p o i n t of a n o n - s t r u c t u r a l v i a a h a l f - s t r u c t u r a l to a
c u r r e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t of completely s t r u c t u r a l use i n the s t r u c t u -
r a l e n g i n e e r i n g s e n s e . I n p a r t i c u l a r those cases of an i n c r e a s i n g
degree of experimentation and d i f f i c u l t y are r e v e a l e d as they were
processed i n the Company of Octatube Space S t r u c t u r e s bv i n D e l f t NL
d u r i n g the l a s t few y e a r s . The s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t i s March 1990. T h i s
process of Design + Development + A p p l i c a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d from a
broader point of view of the author being a p r o d u c t - a r c h i t e c t
combining the s k i l l s of an a r c h i t e c t , a s t r u c t u r a l designer and an
i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n e r , combined w i t h the p o s s i b i l i t i e s and r e s p o n s a b i -
l i t i e s of the s p e c i a l i s t - p r o d u c e r , r a t h e r than t h a t of only a broad
v i s i o n of an a r c h i t e c t , a more deep and narrow i n t e r e s t of the
s t r u c t u r a l r e s e a r c h e r or the economical i n t e r e s t of the producer.
2 THE PRODUCT-ARCHITECT
I n the Netherlands the term ' p r o d u c t - a r c h i t e c t ' has been known ever
s i n c e november 18, 1988 when the author proposed i t i n the f i r s t
Booosting congres i n Rotterdam [ r e f 1 ] . I t was there d e s c r i b e d t h a t
the f u n c t i o n of the p r o d u c t - a r c h i t e c t i s to d e s i g n , r e s e a r c h and
develop components of b u i l d i n g s , independant from the a c t u a l design
of b u i l d i n g s by p r o j e c t - a r c h i t e c t s , and to apply these b u i l d i n g
products i n the o v e r a l l - d e s i g n of b u i l d i n g s t h a t are normally d e s i g -
ned by p r o j e c t - a r c h i t e c t s .
The p r o d u c t - a r c h i t e c t t r i e s to complete the p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of new
m a t e r i a l s ( M a t e r i a l S c i e n c e ) , production techniques ( M a t e r i a l P r o c e s -
s i n g ) and of a p p l i c a t i o n systems ( S t r u c t u r a l Engineering and A r c h i -
t e c t u r e ) w i t h the a n a l y t i c a l approach of the i n d u s t r i a l d e s i g n e r , and
the know-how on the a r c h i t e c t u r a l b u i l d i n g s i t e of the a r c h i t e c t ,
and the c r e a t i v i t y of both. So the f i e l d of a c t i o n and a l s o the
622
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(start prvjecty(T)
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USC£_ rvetopment \ identity plan (prelim) \ Organogram of a Design and Development
Process for new products in the building industry.
material techncal
Phase I : 'Orientation and Product Concept* for a
research
normal design + development process for new
production application products in the building industry as a preliminary
research research
design phase with provisory market evaluation.
Phase 2: 'Testing Market on Product Concept'
design-build
prototype showing the market research on the first product
concepts.
IfesUeyakjate [preliminary
[prototype [cost price Phase 3: 'Techniques and Costs of Prototypes'
showing the necessary in-house mainly technical
< 'prototype ^\/evaluate

acceptable ? /^prototype
developments to complete the prototype.
Phase 4: 'Prototype and Market' showing the con-
frontation in the market with the developed
)
[evaluate I '
[projeci prototype and its evaluation.
fcontmuahon
I cpntinuation V no f \
Phase 5: 'Launching of Product' showing the pro-
cess of production of the first application, with
r
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# 3 evaluation for duplication and further standard
production.
623
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Copyright CRC Press

a b i l i t i e s of the p r o d u c t - a r c h i t e c t combine t h a t of the a r c h i t e c t , the
i n d u s t r i a l designer and the s t r u c t u r a l engineer,
3 DESIGNING + EXPERIMENTING + BUILDING
The p o s i t i o n of the p r o d u c t - a r c h i t e c t i s producer-bound r a t h e r than

consumer-bound. A l a r g e range of subsequent a p p l i c a t i o n s every
s p e c i a l i s t - p r o d u c e r normally i s working on, enables him to design and
develop a b u i l d i n g component product i n t o maturity w i t h i n a r e a s o n -
a b l e s h o r t time without the danger t h a t developments stop a f t e r the
completion of only one prototype b u i l d i n g , because one c l i e n t stops a
p r o j e c t or because a p r o j e c t has been completed.
The d e s c r i b e d process i s a r e s u l t of a slow s t e p - b y - s t e p method. I n

d e t a i l and more g e n e r a l i s e d such a 'Design + Research + Development'
process of b u i l d i n g products has been worked out i n f i g 1. The
Organogram i n f i g 1 g i v e s a t y p i c a l design and development process
f o r b u i l d i n g products and components (from ' A r c h i t e c t u r e i n Space
S t r u c t u r e s ' [ r e f 1 ] ) . T h i s scheme i s the r e s u l t of a n a l y s e s by the
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
author of s e v e r a l product development p r o c e s s e s . I t has the advantage
of v i s u a l communication f o r d e s i g n e r s , needing only a b r i e f comment:
. Phase l : O r i e n t a t i o n and product Concept showing a p r e l i m i n a r y
design phase w i t h p r o v i s o r y market e v a l u a t i o n .
. Phase 2: T e s t i n g Market on Design Concept showing the market
r e s e a r c h on the f i r s t product concepts.
. Phase 3: Techniques and c o s t s of prototypes showing the necessary
mainly t e c h n i c a l in-house developments to complete the prototype.
. Phase 4: Prototype and Market showing the confrontation i n the
market w i t h the developed prototype and i t s development.
. Phase 5: Launching of a product showing the process of production
of the f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n , w i t h e v a l u a t i o n for d u p l i c a t i o n and f u r t h e r
standard p r o d u c t i o n .
T h i s process scheme can be used for a wide range of new products.
The ' s m e l l ' of m a t e r i a l s and the p h y s i c a l presence of i t , has always
been the source of know-how of any s p e c i a l i s t , and has proven to be
v e r y i n s p i r i n g f o r d e s i g n e r s . New o p p o r t u n i t i e s begin and end w i t h
m a t e r i a l s and production p r o c e s s e s . Furthermore, the r e a l b u i l d i n g
o p p o r t u n i t i e s of a number of s u c c e s s i v e b u i l d i n g products enables
continuous feedback and product improvement.
4 MATERIALS + TECHNIQUES + SYSTEMS
4.1 Material Properties
For an a r c h i t e c t u r a l l y t r a i n e d designer l i k e the a u t h o r , t h e numerical

s i d e of the Science of M a t e r i a l s i s not the most compelling aspect of
the p r o f e s s i o n . Yet the r e l a t i v e large d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r o p e r t i e s of
the d i f f e r e n t b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s provide a reasonable i n d i c a t i o n
whether combinations of these m a t e r i a l s are d e s i r a b l e , p o s s i b l e or
whether they are n o t . By j u s t comparing these p r o p e r t i e s , some b a s i c
and v e r y l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s can be drawn, t h a t u s u a l l y are never
done because s c i e n t i s t s h a r d l y ever step over the borders of t h e i r
specialist territory.
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600
sfriL N/mm2
500 glass
fe360
almqsit lt6
WO
300
200
100\
sfrainin %
10 20 30 40
2. S t r a i n - s t r e s s diagram of G l a s s , compared w i t h Aluminium and S t e e l
4 . 2 Young's modulus of e l a s t i c i t y
Approximate E - v a l u e s i n N/mm2 a r e (see f i g 2 ) :

. Steel 210,000
. Aluminium 67,000 to 73,000
. O r d i n a r y G l a s s 73,000 to 75,000
. Heat-strengthened g l a s s 73,000 to 75,000
. PMMA 3,200
. PC 2,300
. Wood 14,000
Out of a l l t r a n s p a r a n t b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s g l a s s i s the best
s u i t e d f o r s t r u c t u r a l purposes. Both polycarbonate (PC) and a c r y l a t e
(PMMA) have a f a r l e s s favourable modulus of e l a s t i c i t y (2,300 /
3,200 N/mm2 compared w i t h 75,000 N/mm2 f o r normal / toughened g l a s s ) ,
meaning t h a t the s t i f f n e s s of these m a t e r i a l s i s f a r l e s s ; so
d e f l e c t i o n s under e x t e r n a l loadings a p p l i e d on PMMA and PC a r e much
larger.
4.3 T e n s i l e strength
The maximal t e n s i l e strengths i n N/mm2 of the d i f f e r e n t b u i l d i n g

materials are:
. M i l d S t e e l 360
. A l u a l l o y AlMgSi 0.5 215
. Ordinary g l a s s 40
. Heat-strengthened G l a s s 200
. PMMA 70 to 110
. PC 60 to 100
. Wood 100 --``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The maximal t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of g l a s s i s 40 N/mm2, but t h a t of

h e a t - s t r e n g t h e n e d g l a s s goes up to even 200 N/mm2, w h i l e t h a t of PC
i s 60 to 100 N/mm2 and PMMA 70 to 110 N/mm2. More n o t i c e a b l e : the
maximal compressive s t r e n g t h of g l a s s i s i n both cases 800 N/mm2
(without the i n f l u e n c e s of b u c k l i n g ) .
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4.4 Brittleness
The most d e v i a n t property of g l a s s a p p l i e d as an element of a primary

s t r u c t u r e , compared w i t h other s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l s , i s i t s b r i t t l e -
ness, which t u r n s out to be most d i c i s i v e f o r the use of g l a s s as a
s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l . The a c h i l l e s h e e l , the weakness of g l a s s (and to
a f a r l e s s e r extend a l s o c a s t metals l i k e some aluminium a l l o y s ) , i s
caused by t h i s b r i t t l e n e s s . Very g e n e r a l l y put, there are two
f r a c t u r e mechanisms competing to break a m a t e r i a l :
. P l a s t i c Flow
. B r i t t l e Cracking.
The m a t e r i a l w i l l succumb to whatever mechanism i s weaker. I f i t
y i e l d s before i t c r a c k s , i t i s d u c t i l e . I f i t c r a c k s before i t
y i e l d s , i t i s b r i t t l e . The p o t e n t i a l i t y of both forms of f a i l u r e i s
always p r e s e n t i n most m a t e r i a l s . Y i e l d i n g i s a s a f e and much
d e s i r e d p r o p e r t y , spontaneous c r a c k i n g i s an u n d e s i r a b l e property
for a s t r u c t u r a l material.
4.5 Time and creep
G l a s s i s a s o l i d i f i e d l i q u i d and not a c r y s t a l l i s e d s o l i d . However,

the tendency towards c r y s t a l l i s a t i o n i s p r e s e n t , and given time,
g l a s s w i l l c r y s t a l l i s e . T h i s i s known as d i v i t r i f i c a t i o n . I t
i n v o l v e s s h r i n k a g e s , the g l a s s i s often weakened and sometimes f a l l s
i n t o p i e c e s d u r i n g the p r o c e s s . I t w i l l always f r a c t u r e i n the same
b r i t t l e way. Creep i n g l a s s and heat-strengthened g l a s s i s
p r a c t i c a l l y n i l , but f o r PC and PMMA i s f a i r l y high (although no
e x a c t f i g u r e s are known). And fArom here on only hearsay can be
noted. Some g l a s s i n d u s t r i e s t e l l us t h a t g l a s s i n time w i l l deform
( l i q u i d w i l l f l o w ) : hence many o l d m i r r o r s have become bobbly by now
and o l d window panes are never f l a t . Only data about the time s c a l e
i n which t h i s happens are completely unknown. Some g l a z e r s s t a t e t h a t
o l d l a r g e and t h i c k window panes always are d i f f i c u l t to remove
because the lower end appears to be t h i c k e r than the upper end t h a t
s t i c k s i n the g l a s s groove.
Wood c r e e p s , as we a l l know from h e a v i l y loades t i l e d roofs b u i l t
from timber beams.
4.6 Thermal c o n d u c t i v i t y
The r e s p e c t i v e v a l u e s f o r the r e s p e c t i v e m a t e r i a l s i n W/mK:

. S t e e l 40-50
• Aluminium 200
• Glass 0.80
. PMMA 0.07 to 0.21
. PC 0.12 to 0.19
. Timber 0.12 to 0.16
4.7 Thermal expansion
T h i s thermal expansion i s important f o r the mutual d i f f e r e n c e s

between s t r u c t u r a l and c l a d d i n g m a t e r i a l s and between c o - o p e r a t i n g
m a t e r i a l s i n s t r u c t u r e or c l a d d i n g . Values are given i n 10.-6 m/mK:
626
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. Steel 12
• Aluminium 24
. Glass ( a l l types) 9
. PMMA 70
. PC 65
. Timber 3 to 5
There w i l l be trouble when v a l u e s of c o - o p e r e r a t i n g m a t e r i a l s
d i f f e r too much. PMMA and PC expand 7 times as much as g l a s s . The
combination of s t e e l and g l a s s causes l e s s problems than aluminium
and g l a s s .
4.8 S p e c i f i c gravety
Values i n kN/m3:
. Steel 78
. Aluminium 27
. Glass 25
. PMMA 12
. PC 12
. Timber 7
4.9 Behaviour a t high temperatures
The maximal workable temperature i n degrees C e l s i u s :

. Steel 550
. Aluminium 250
. Ordinary G l a s s 60-110
. Heat-strengthened G l a s s 270
. PMMA 80
. PC 115
These f i g u r e s show why f i r e - r e s i s t a n t panels have to be made of
s t e e l and s t e e l elements (wire mesh i n g l a s s ) . No o r d i n a r y t r a n s p a -
r a n t m a t e r i a l w i l l have a good f i r e r a t i n g . Only b o r o s i l i c a t e g l a s s
has a b e t t e r f i r e r a t i n g , but i s much more expensive.
4.10 Production techniques
S i n c e we are i n t e r e s t e d to see i n how f a r g l a s s could be used as

a r e a l s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l , the f a i l u r e mechanism f o r g l a s s can be
seen as f o l l o w s . G l a s s i s cooled during f a b r i c a t i o n so f a s t t h a t the
molecules do not have time to s o r t themselves out i n t o c r y s t a l s . So
cooled g l a s s i s a s o l i d i f i e d l i q u i d , not a c r y s t a l i s e d solid.
However, the tendency i n t o c r y s t a l i s a t i o n i s p r e s e n t , and given time,
g l a s s w i l l c r y s t a l l i z e . T h i s i s known as d e v i t r i f i c a t i o n . I t i n v o l v e s
s h r i n k a g e s , the g l a s s i s often weakened, and sometimes even f a l l s
i n t o p i e c e s during the p r o c e s s . I t w i l l always f r a c t u r e on the same
b r i t t l e way. I n f a c t , i f we want to prevent the g l a s s from c r a c k i n g ,
we have to put i t under compression. T h i s can be done by heating the
g l a s s panels a g a i n , and c h i l l i n g the two o u t s i d e s of the hot g l a s s
panels during f a b r i c a t i o n very f a s t l y , so t h a t the two o u t s i d e s form
w i t h the core a compression + t e n s i o n mechanism. When the outer
s u r f a c e s are c o o l e d , they s o l i d i s e , w h i l e the core i s s t i l l hot
( 7 0 0 ° C ) . The s h r i n k i n g during c o o l i n g of the core causes the outside
627
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s k i n s to be compressed, w h i l e the c e n t r a l core w i l l remain under
t e n s i o n . So the outside s k i n of heat-strengthened g l a s s i s under com-
p r e s s i o n , the core i s under t e n s i o n . T h i s i s a mechanism to avoid
s u r f a c e c r a c k s , but a l s o hides i n t e r n a l c r a c k s . The mechanism i s the
same f o r nodular i r o n and c a s t aluminium: the outside s u r f a c e can be
v e r y smooth, w h i l e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s can be hidden i n s i d e the m a t e r i a l .
A f t e r s t r e n g t h e n i n g the outcome i s a g l a s s panel w i t h higher
t e n s i l e strengths, a l s o a higher impact s t r e n g t h . Great care has to
be taken t h a t the g l a s s s u r f a c e i s not s c r a t c h e d by a sharp t o o l ,
because then i t w i l l c r a c k i n t o thousands of small b i t s . T r y to b r i n g
g l a s s panels out the r e a c h of v a n d a l s . Or r e v e r s e d l y put, sharp g l a s s
hammers a r e a s a f e t y t o o l to break out of an a l l g l a s s cage. (For use
i n s t r u c t u r a l g l a s s a p p l i c a t i o n s l i k e the G l a s s Music H a l l i n
Amsterdam, see par 1 2 ) .
I n heat-strengthened g l a s s panels p o s s i b l e c r a c k s are avoided by
the compression mechanism. Using connections of the b o l t - a n d - h o l e
type i n the g l a s s can, consequently, be done best by a p r e t e n s i o -
ning type of b o l t connection: i n t h a t case not the hole edges are
loaded by the b o l t on f l u s h , (with the i n h e r e n t danger of e n l a r g i n g
the micro c r a c k s around the b o l t hole by d r i l l i n g ) , but the preten-
s i o n e d b o l t w i l l compress the two outside metal r i n g s or components
on the g l a s s where the mutual f r i c t i o n w i l l b r i n g over the connection
f o r c e . The f r i c t i o n f o r c e can be enhightened by g r i n d i n g or b l a s t i n g
the s u r f a c e around the b o l t h o l e . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , A f l u s h - t y p e
connection w i l l have to contain an intermediate m a t e r i a l between
b o l t and g l a s s hole to avoid l o c a l toptensions i n the h o l e , from
which micro c r a c k s can l e a d to s e r i o u s c r a c k s . But another idea might
be to f i l l i n the i r r e g u l a r l e f t - o v e r spaces i n the holes between the
o u t s i d e s of the holes and the b o l t s by l i q u i d epoxy, i n order to get
a f i r m a b r a s i o n connection. T h i s i s a technique developed to renovate
o l d n a i l e d r a i l w a y bridges w i t h s l o t t e d b o l t h o l e s . I n t h i s case the
method i s a means to i s o l a t e metal from g l a s s and to a d j u s t g l a s s
panels e x a c t l y to the r e q u i r e d s i z e s . The type of connection w i l l
decide on the v u l n e r a b i l i t y of the i r r e g u l a r i t y of the b o l t s h a f t and
the b o l t h o l e .
On s c a l e of the g l a s s p a n e l s , a p o s s i b l e compression (normal)
f o r c e i n t r o d u c e s the danger of b u c k l i n g the panel so t h a t the l a r g e s t
commercially a v a i l a b l e panel t h i c k n e s s e s (12, 15 or 19 mm) w i l l have
to be used t h a t are q u i t e expensive per volume. I t would be b e t t e r
then - i f a t a l l p o s s i b l e - to load the g l a s s panels under t e n s i l e
(normal) f o r c e i n s t e a d of compression: t h a t i s to suspend r a t h e r
t h a t to s t a c k them.
The thermal-hardening process i s one of the i n t e r e s t i n g produc-
t i o n techniques of s t r u c t u r a l g l a s s . I t was invented decades ago, but
i s s t i l l the b a s i s of the c u r r e n t s t r u c t u r a l g l a s s t y p e s . Another
remark has to be made on i n s t a l l a t i o n of g l a s s p a n e l s : although g l a s s
panels are v e r y strong they are l i k e l y to s p l i n t e r up i n t o thousands
of s m a l l p i e c e s f o r example when not f u l l a t t e n t i o n i s p a i d during
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
h o i s t i n g and i n s t a l l a t i o n .
4.11 S t a t i c a l systems
The s t a t i c a l systems a p p l i c a b l e f o r g l a s s s t r u c t u r e s a l l w i l l
628
Copyright CRC Press

depart from g l a s s panels. G l a s s bars do e x i s t but the nature of these
g l a s s f i b e r bars f i l l e d w i t h epoxy i s not t r a n s l u c e n t . Moreover the
connections are s t i l l q u i t e laboursome, so i n t h i s a r t i c l e g l a s s i s
only regarded i n panelform, and not i n g l a s s b a r s . The most simple
s o l u t i o n i s the c l a s s i c a l v e r t i c a l g l a s s p a n e l , able to make a
v e r t i c a l span w i t h or without metal or g l a s s r i b s . One of the f i r s t
a r c h i t e c t u r a l design p r i o r i t i e s s e t by the author, and a l s o by a
g r e a t number of h i s c o l l e g u e - a r c h i t e c t s , i s to develop s t r u c t u r e s
w i t h minimal v i s u a l d i s t u r b a n c e s . As a consequence thereof the v i s u a l
minimal 2 - d i m e n s i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s (because of the f l a t p l a t e s ) l i k e
guyed s t r u c t u r e s are the most l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . F i g u r e 3 w i t h the
d e r i v a t i o n of the guyed s t r u c t u r e p r i n c i p l e i s s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y . The
p r i n c i p l e forming the base of guyed g l a s s s t r u c t u r e s i s t h a t short
and s l e n d e r metal compression bars are used, w i t h long t h i n metal
t e n s i o n bars and g l a s s p l a t e s where i n v i s i b l e normal s t r e s s e s i n the
form of t e n s i o n - or compression s t r e s s e s are i n c l u d e d . F i g 3 a l s o
i n d i c a t e s the d i f f e r e n c e between Open and closed s t r u c t u r a l schemes,
t h a t i s important i n regards to the connections w i t h the s u b s t r u c -
t u r e . A l s o an i n d i c a t i o n i s given of the single-sided and the double-
sided schemes a r i s i n g out of a r c h i t e c t u r a l r e a s o n s .
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3.
D e r i v a t i o n of guyed s t r u c t u r e s i n c r o s s s e c t i o n a p p l i c a b l e
to space s t r u c t u r e s w i t h g l a s s panels as the main
s t r u c t u r a l elements and c r o s s bars plus t e n s i l e rods as
auxiliaties
Although the s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e i s f i x e d now, i t seems a d v i s a b l e to

develop new a s p e c t s and d i f f i c u l t i e s only a t a modest speed: s t e p - b y -
s t e p , where every s t e p means only one or two new aspects compared
w i t h the in-house t e c h n i c a l s t a t e of the a r t . Thinking and developing
i n t h i s way has l e d to the r e s t of the d e s c r i p t i o n of t h i s a r t i c l e .
The step-by-step-method i s the only l o g i c a l way of developing a new
technology above the l e v e l of the s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t , Only a f t e r
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h i s technology the r e s p e c t i v e standards w i l l
u s u a l l y be developed. The involvement i n an e a r l i e r phase of p o s i t i v e
p r o d u c t - r e s e a r c h by the o f f i c i a l B u i l d i n g r e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e s would
be most welcome.
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5. SPACE FRAMES WITH SEPARATE GLAZING SYSTEMS
F i t t i n g i n the whole c o n s t e l l a t i o n of the b u i l d i n g i n d u s t r y , the

decision f o r a separate glazing system around or on a space frame i s
an accepted s o l u t i o n , ready f o r sub-contracting. Standard solutions
are s u i t e d f o r normal a p p l i c a t i o n s , but often f a i l when geometrical
complications a r i s e . In f a c t very soon i t appears t h a t standard
solutions and more experimental (or non-standard) solutions are a
world apart and show large differences i n approach. For example
suspended glass surfaces, i r r e g u l a r geometical surfaces and facets
u s u a l l y require non-standard solutions. Apart from t h a t , the r e s u l -
t i n g o p t i c a l doubling of s t r u c t u r a l bars and glazing mullions can
work very confusing. Along these considerations the author developed
a new complete glazing system f o r the Raffles C i t y Glass Atriums i n
Singapore (1983).
In case of the Raffles s k y l i g h t system, there was no other way
than t o develop a separate s k y l i g h t system on a separate space frame,
as t h i s space frame was very heavily loaded (high upward and downward
windforces caused by the four large towers), and permitted only t o
r e s t on 3 or 4 p o i n t s , t o allow the towers t o move f r e e l y without the
danger of crushing the space frame. Figure 4 however, shows by the
graphical play of l i n e s t h a t the doubling of space frame l i n i n g and
s k y l i g h t l i n i n g works a l i t t l e confusing v i s u a l l y .
Space frame and s k y l i g h t of one of the Raffles C i t y Centre

Complex i n Singapore
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6. SPACE FRAMES WITH INTEGRATED GLAZING
When the g l a z i n g system i s not seen as an independant or semi-

dependant system on the space frame, the next step toward s t r u c t u r a l
g l a s s i s to design and development an i n t e g r a t e d system i n which
the g l a z i n g m u l l i o n s do c o i n c i d e w i t h the space frame b a r s . A
d i s t i n c t i o n has to be made here between space frames w i t h square or
r e c t a n g u l a r modules and space frames w i t h t r a p e z o i d a l of t r i a n g u l a r
modules. A t t e n t i o n has to be p a i d to the f a c t t h a t a d e f i n i t i v e
disadvantage i s t h a t the p r i c e of ( t r a p e z o i d a l but even worse:)
t r i a n g u l a r g l a s s panels i s more than double the p r i c e of square or
r e c t a n g u l a r p a n e l s . But by i n t e g r a t i n g the s k y l i g h t m u l l i o n and the
space frame tube, the v i s u a l aspect has been improved 100%. Following
t h i s r o u t e , i n the T u b a l l space frame system a new l i n e of p r o f i l e s
has been developed c a l l e d the O T - p r o f i l e s i n which the f u n c t i o n s of
s t r u c t u r e and c l a d d i n g are c l e a r l y r e a d a b l e : the c i r c u l a r s e c t i o n
c a r r i e s normal f o r c e s , the T - f l a n g e on top c a r r i e s the g l a s s (or
c l a d d i n g ) p a n e l . The t o t a l system i s c a l l e d the T u b a l l - P l u s system.
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5 and 6.
O v e r a l l and i n s i d e view of the music p a v i l l i o n geodesic
dome i n Haarlem, 9 m diameter, 7.5 m h e i g h t . A 3-frequency
icosahedron. Rib length 1.7 m, covered w i t h laminated c l e a r
g l a s s i n the T u b a l l - P u l s system.
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7.
D e t a i l of the Tuball-Plus system.
8 and 9.
Arcade i n Tuball-Plus f o r the shopping centre 'de
Amsterdamse Poort' i n Amsterdam Zuidoost.
The music dome i n Haarlem NL, designed by town-architect Prof

Wiek Roling i n co-operation w i t h the author as a product-designer has
been b u i l t i n 1984 as the f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n of a Tuball-Plus system
of i n t e g r a t e d structure and cladding elements. See f i g 5 and 6. This
dome i s a geodesic dome w i t h a 3-frequency icosahedronal subdivision.
A l l glass panels have the same t r i a n g u l a r form as the s t r u c t u r e . The
design o f the Tuball-Plus node w i t h machined-out ends of the bars
s t a r t e d as a brainwave behind the d r a f t i n g t a b l e , strongly influenced
by the p o s s i b i l i t i e s of a prototype laboratory. For a l l completeness
one should mention two t y p i c a l t e c h n i c a l contradictions, g i v i n g a
clue of the immanent b a t t l e between the designer and the s t r u c t u r a l
engineer behind the system. F i r s t l y i t i s not a custom t o introduce
bending stresses i n the space frame bars apart from the normal
stresses. Secondly on the place where the largest shear forces are
a c t i n g because of the bending moments, the most m a t e r i a l a t the end
of the OT-bars has been machined away (see f i g 7 ) . These i n t e r v e n -
t i o n s are c a l c u l a t e d out i n the stress analysis of the d i f f e r e n t
elements, but v i s u a l l y f o r the s t r u c t u r a l engineer they seem i l l o g i -
c a l . I t i s the p r o d u c t - a r c h i t e c t / i n d u s t r i a l designer who decided
here.
The arcade of the Amsterdam shopping centre 'De Amsterdamse Poort'
has been designed and b u i l t i n the same Tuball-Plus system i n square
panels. See f i g 8 and 9. The arcade i s composed of delta trusses
supported on each lower node, covered w i t h laminated glass. Module of
space frame abnd glazing: 1.7 x 1.7 m. Span 11 m, length 34.7 m,
height 5.5 m. Designed by a r c h i t e c t Ben Loerakker and the author.
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7. SPACE FRAMES WITH STRUCTURALLY SEALED GLASS
A next step foreward i s t o change the mechanical screw connection

between glass and stucture i n t o s t r u c t u r a l sealant w i t h s i l i c o n e . The
f i x a t i o n i s by glueing i n stead of screwing, while the watertightness
seam i s again a separate s i l i c o n e seal i n stead of a rubber s t r i p . So
i n t h i s case there are 2 types of sealant: s t r u c t u r a l adhesive and
weather s e a l , separated by a foamband so t h a t s t r u c t u r a l movements i n
2 d i r e c t i o n s are independant. The r e s u l t i s a f l u s h outside surface
without any screw s t r i p s , g i v i n g a dome even more a c r y s t a l l i n e
character. I r r e g u l a r i t i e s t h a t cause f i l t h i n e s s on the surface l i k e
screwstrips have been removed.
Example of t h i s i s the canopy of the Raffles C i t y Hotel Complex i n
Singapore, where f l a t laminated clear glass panels 6.6.2 were sealed
d i r e c t l y onto the aluminium Tuball-Plus p r o f i l e s . See f i g 10 and 11.
The f l a t roof plane has only a camber of 1%. On top of the space
frame square panels were used; on the sides t r i a n g u l a r panels. The
outside o f the t r i a n g u l a r glass panels form one f l u s h glass surface
1.5 x 42 m long. Module length 1.9 m.
10 and 11.
Pictures of the Raffles C i t y entrance canopy i n Tuball-Plus
w i t h laminated glass sealed w i t h s i l i c o n e sealant on top of
the OT-profiles
633
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Glueing g l a s s panels w i t h s t r u c t u r a l s e a l a n t on the b u i l d i n g s i t e i s
not a r e a l g a i n i n assembly technology as i t i s v e r y s e n s i b l e f o r low
temperature and humidity / wetness. T h e r e f o r e , f u r t h e r development
l e d toward g l a s s elements provided w i t h glued-on aluminium p r o f i l e s
i n the f a c t o r y (under i d e a l c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s ) w i t h a s t r u c t u r a l
s e a l a n t , t h a t can be screwed w i t h mechanical means on the s t r u c t u r e
on the b u i l d i n g s i t e , and subsequently weathersealed w i t h s i l i c o n e
when the humidity allows i t . A l a s i n t h i s case the v i s u a l p r o f i l e
t h i c k n e s s i s l a r g e r , and the d e t a i n i n g has not a minimal s l e n d e r -
ness any more.
8. SPACE FRAMES AND STABILISING SEALED GLASS
The next s t e p a f t e r the s t r u c t u r a l s e a l i n g of g l a s s panels seems

l o g i c a l now. The idea i s to give the g l a s s panels a l s o a s t a b i l i s i n g
f u n c t i o n i n the form of a d d i t i o n shear s t r e n g t h . At t h i s moment i s
should be p o s s i b l e to design a rectangulated hinged space frame
( a c t u a l l y a space ' t r u s s ' ) , where the h o r i z o n t a l s t a b i l i t y can be
taken by the g l a s s panels s e a l e d w i t h s t r u c t u r a l s e a l a n t on the metal
frame, p r e v e n t i n g h o r i z o n t a l deformations. The consequence of t h i s i s
t h a t not only t r i a n g u l a t e d dome and saddle-shaped s t r u c t u r e s can be
b u i l t , but a l s o r e c t a n g u l a t e d or t r a p e z o i d a l s u b d i v i s i o n s , t h a t are
cheaper than the t r i a n g u l a t e d s t r u c t u r e s by the c l a d d i n g .
( T r i a n g u l a t e d g l a s s panels are 2.6 times as expensive as r e c t a n g u l a r
or square p a n e l s , and so are more d e c i s i v e i n p r i c e t h a t the
s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f . Also i n general one could s t a t e t h a t the covering
s k y l i g h t s are more expensive t h a t the space frame underneath).
Using the shear s t r e n g t h of g l a s s panels i s an idea t h a t ,
u n c o n s c i o u s l y , was used i n the l a s t century i n g l a s s houses. These
g l a s s panels ensured the m a j o r i t y of the h o r i z o n t a l s t a b i l i t y because
they were f i x e d i n r i g i d p u t t y . D e t a i l study of these g l a s s houses
l i k e the C r y s t a l A r t Palace i n the B o t a n i c a l Garden i n Glasgow show
by the c u r v a t u r e s i n the domes with t h e i r h o r i z o n t a l l y t w i s t e d l i n e s ,
t h a t the shear r e s i s t a n c e came from the g l a s s s panels and not from
the metal s t r u c t u r e below. See f i g 12. There are no metal wind
b r a c i n g s i n these s t r u c t u r e s .
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One example of a s t a b i l i s e d s p a t i a l l y curved roof i s given i n the

saddle shaped roof of the Entertainment H a l l i n Zandvoort designed by
a r c h i t e c t S j o e r d Soeters and the author i n 1987, t h a t w i t h a p o s s i b l e
i n f u l l of s t r u c t u r a l l y s e a l e d g l a s s panels could have been s t a b i l i s e d
i n any h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n . See f i g 13. The a c t u a l roof was designed
as a double p r e s t r e s s e d membrane, and as a s i n g l e l a y e r e d space frame
w i t h plywood i n f i l l p a n e l s , but s t r u c t u r a l l y s e a l e d g l a s s panels
would have been p o s s i b l e , too.
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13.
Isometry of the a n t i - c l a s t i c a l roofs of the Entertainment
H a l l i n Zandvoort: 15 x 45 m
14.
I s o m e t r i c view of a g l a s s t e n t s t r u c t u r e designed by the
author i n 1989.
Another example i s a t e n t - l i k e polygonal atrium s k y l i g h t t h a t i s
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p r e t e n s i o n e d by a c e n t r a l hanging mast and guying c a b l e s , as designed

by the author i n 1989 ( f i g 1 4 ) .
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9. SPOKED GLASS PANELS: OSAKA P A V I L I O N S
I t i s o n l y a v e r y simple step forward from g l a s s panels s t a b i l i s i n g

space frames to the s t a b i l i s a t i o n of g l a s s panels by metal compon-
e n t s . But i n doing so the importance of the two elements are
i n t e r c h a n g e d : g l a s s p l a t e s get the primary f u n c t i o n , while metal
components get the secondary f u n c t i o n .
So t h i s s t e p i s the most c r u c i a l one i n the process d e s c r i b e d i n
t h i s booklet as i t turns the normal way of t h i n k i n g upside down!
The most simple form i s an assembly of 4 g l a s s panels i n a metal
frame t h a t are s t a b i l i s e d i n the centre by two cross-bars,
s t a b i l i s e d on t h e i r t u r n by 2 x 4 t e n s i l e bars to the 4 c o r n e r s . The
whole assembly resembles a square b i c y c l e wheel w i t h 2x4 spokes. The
c e n t r a l nave r e a l l y c o n s i s t s of 2 h a l f elements compressing the g l a s s
panels i n between t o g e t h e r . The seams between two adjacent panels are
formed by a c r y l a t e H - p r o f i l e s t h a t even do not give a shadow l i n e and
a r e almost i n v i s i b l e . ( F i g 1 5 ) . T h i s system has been designed as the
g l a s s facade of a modular e x p o s i t i o n p a v i l i o n f o r a Dutch p a v i l i o n
b u i l t i n Osaka i n March 1989 for the EVD (a s e r v i c e of the Dutch
m i n i s t r y of Economic A f f a i r s ) , by p r o j e c t - a r c h i t e c t Frans P r i n s and
the a u t h o r . A s i m i l a r p a v i l i o n was l a t e r b u i l t for Heineken Japan,
(see f i g 16) i n a s l i g h t l y modified form i n Osaka i n march 1990.
15.
E x h i b i t i o n mock-up of one f a s c i a u n i t of the Osaka-
p a v i l i o n , d i s p l a y i n g the 2 c r o s s bars and 8 t e n s i l e
spokes.
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16.
The Osaka p a v i l i o n c o n s i s t i n g of a tunnel shaped space
frame clad w i t h prestressed membrane elements, and s t a b i l i -
sed glass facades as a t r i b u t e t o t r a d i t i o n a l Japanese
A r c h i t e c t u r e ; the f a s c i a elements are composed of 4
s t a b i l i s e d glass panels (1.2 x 1.2 m) each w i t h 2 cross
bars and 2 x 4 spokes. Designed by a r c h i t e c t Frans Prins
and the author.
The o r i g i n a l design consists of a modular Tuball space frame i n

p o r t a l form 4.8 m high, 9.6 m deep and 19.2 m long. A l l three space
frame planes are covered w i t h white prestressed PVC/PS membrane
elements, while the long fascia's are covered w i t h the above
presented s t a b i l i s e d glass system. When the system should be b u i l t
without the surrounding metal frame, the glass panels would be
compressed i n t h e i r plane towards each other, w i t h the a c r y l a t e H-
p r o f i l e s i n between. The Osaka p a v i l i o n has been designed as an ode
to t r a d i t i o n a l Japanese modular a r c h i t e c t u r e , i n a modern form, w i t h
modern materials and modern techniques: w i t h a touch of western High-
Tech. The requirement of quick s i t e assembly and demountability has
led t o the s p e c i f i c choices of materials and components. The module
had t o be 2.4 m a l l over, as the Japanese are very s t r i c t i n the use
of r e g u l a t i o n s . As the snipping container size i s outward 2.4 m but
inward 2.2 m, glass panels sized 2.4 x 2.4 m could not be
transported but had t o be devided i n t o 4 p a r t s . So the size of the
glass panels i s 1.2 x 1.2 m, i n demountable window frames of 2.4 x
2.4 m. In consequence of the design of the Tuball space frame, the
nodal p o i n t of the top of the cross bars had the hollow sphere form
i n which the 4 spokes run and can be prestressed i n t e r n a l l y without
v i s i b l e nuts. This underlines the abstract character of the design.
637
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10. PRESTRESSED GLASS PANELS
The next step i n the development process i s t o give glass panels a

r e a l primary s t r u c t u r a l f u n c t i o n , by l e t t i n g them function t o pass
normal f o r c e s . For t h a t aim a thorough t h e o r e t i c a l study has been
made i n 1988 in-house by Rile Grashoff, a student of C i v i l Engineering
a t the TU D e l f t . The i n i t i a t i v e was a r e s u l t of w r i t i n g the
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d i s s e r t a t i o n 'Architecture i n Space Structures' by the author,
s t a r t e d i n jan 1988, and published i n May 1989. [Ref 2 ] . The aim of
t h i s s t r u c t u r a l f e a s i b i l i t y study was purposely kept on t e c h n i c a l
aspects, not f i n a n c i a l or b u i l d i n g - p h y s i c a l , as these aspects were
supposed only t o r e s t r i c t and endanger a possible t e c h n i c a l step
foreward. The m a t e r i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n showed indeed t h a t glass i s
s t i l l the only appropriate s t r u c t u r a l transparant m a t e r i a l f o r
s t r u c t u r e s of the above described kind. (See par 4 ) . For safety
reasons i n roofs heat-strengthened glass panels could be laminated
and used as s t r u c t u r a l p l a t e s , although the lamination layer weakens
the s t r u c t u r a l capacity by 30 % i n strength. Single heat-strengthened
glass i s not safe (depending on the estimation of the danger of
vandalism or mechanical loadings and f a l l h e i g h t ) . Duplex strengthe-
ned glass has problems w i t h size accuracies of p o s i t i o n of b o l t holes
and panel sizes. Laminated normal glass i s less expensive but not as
safe, but less expensive and cannot have b o l t holes. The i n v e s t i -
gation has taken t h i c k heat-strengthened glass panels as a base t h a t
are laminated w i t h t h i n normal glass panels f o r minimal s e c u r i t y
reasons. The study r e s u l t e d i n a system of laminated heat-strengthe-
ned panels i n square sizes from 1.2 t o 2.1 m, w i t h thicknesses of
8, 10, 12, 15 and 19 mm.
17.
F i r s t Mock-up of the prestressed connection of 9 heat-
strengthened glass panels, 10 mm t h i c k , as a f i r s t step
i n t o the d i r e c t i o n of load bearing glass s t r u c t u r e s .
638
Copyright CRC Press

The f i r s t prototype connection i n the m a t e r i a l - s t r u c t u r a l f e a s i -
b i l i t y study was made w i t h 4 ( i n s t e a d of g l a s s ) plywood panels and
d o u b l e - s i d e d 4 t u r n b u c k l e s , to p r e s t r e s s the connection so t h a t both
compression and t e n s i o n f o r c e s could be t r a n s f e r r e d . I n order to
a v o i d the danger of asymmetrical p r e s t r e s s i n g (with bending moments
on the g l a s s p a n e l s ) , i n the prototype a t the end of the 3-months
study e q u i l i b r i u m saddles were b u i l t i n , i n order to obtain even
under s t r o n g asymmetrical p r e t e n s i o n i n g only normal f o r c e s i n the
g l a s s p l a t e s . The t o t a l s i z e of t h i s second prototype was 1.9 x 1.9 m
composed of 3 x 3 g l a s s panels 630 x 630 mm (so i n s c a l e 1:3) to be
a b l e to t r a n s p o r t the prototype as a whole, and to use i t f o r
e x h i b i t i o n purposes, w h i l e the mechanical connection nodes and
a u x i l a t i e s were made on r e a l s c a l e 1 : 1 . See f i g 17. The whole
assembly gave as a r e s u l t of the mixture of s c a l e s a r a t h e r
mechanical outlook, a s k i n g f o r f u r t h e r refinement i n d e s i g n . Another
disadvantage of the 1:3 s c a l e of the g l a s s p l a t e d was t h e i r r e l a t i v e
s t i f f n e s s , a l l o w i n g loadings t h a t normally could not have been taken
because of the high t o r s i o n r i g i d i t y of the s c a l e model.
The i n t e r n a l prestress-method had the aim to overcome the c u t t i n g
t o l e r a n c e s of the g l a s s . I n p r a c t i c e these g l a s s t o l e r a n c e s seem
q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y now (See par 12: G l a s s Music Box), so t h a t the
t o l e r a n c e s i n the metal components are most d e c i s i v e now.
11. STRUCTURAL GLASS WALL: COOL CAT, GRONINGEN NL
The f i r s t c o n t r a c t f o r a p r e s t r e s s e d s t r u c t u r a l c u r t a i n w a l l was
designed i n 1988 by p r o j e c t - a r c h i t e c t Paul Verhey f o r a f a s h i o n shop
of the Cool Cat concern i n Groningen NL. See f i g 18. The design
c o n s i s t s of 6 panels s i z e d 2 x 2.25 m, i n the t o t a l s i z e of 4.5 m
high and 6 m long, as a suspended g l a s s c u r t a i n on the f i r s t s t o r y of
the shop f r o n t , as shown on the p e r s p e c t i v e drawing n r . 18. The
d e t a i l of the j o i n t i s given on adjacent photograph 19. For t h i s
f i r s t a p p l i c a t i o n the whole assembly has been b u i l t up i n the
Octatube f a c t o r y . The e v a l u a t i o n of t h i s mock-up i n the l a b o r a t o r y i n
which both the g l a s s panels as the j o i n t s are on r e a l s c a l e , proved
the v i s u a l c o r r e c t n e s s of the Minimal-Material h y p o t h e s i s . The s i x
panels have been assembled i n t o one c o n s i s t e n t whole by a double-
s i d e d guyed bar system on 2 x 3 c r o s s b a r s . The s i z e of the short
c r o s s bars i s 20 mm, the t e n s i l e guy bars 8 mm. The s i z e of the g l a s s
panels i s so l a r g e compared w i t h the j o i n t s t h a t these j o i n t s have
been enlarged i n the design phase out of v i s u a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , i n
order to o b t a i n a v i s u a l l y c r e d i b l e s t r u c t u r e from 40 mm to 50 mm
props. The s t r u c t u r a l assembly i s a s t r u c t u r a l e n t i t y i n the sense
t h a t t h i s c l o s e d system contends the neccesary t e n s i l e and compres-
s i v e elements to form an independant whole. I t could a l s o work i n
s p a c e . However, to f u n c t i o n the s t r u c t u r e has been suspended from a
s t e e l p o r t a l frame. Windforces are taken to the 4 s i d e s of the --``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
s t r u c t u r e ; on the lower s i d e a metal bridge takes over the h o r i z o n t a l

windforces of the both s i d e s , but v e r t i c a l f o r c e s are not taken over
due to the v e r t i c a l s l e e v e h o l e s . I n t h i s way a l s o the e x t r a loads
on the bridge can not cause e x t r a v e r t i c a l s t r e s s e s i n the c u r t a i n
w a l l . The d e t a i n i n g of the nodes, the c r o s s bars and the guy bars i s
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18.
Perspective view of the C o l l Cat shop facade i n Groningen
NL designed by Paul Verhey. The c u r t a i n w a l l of the f i r s t
f l o o r ( 4.5 x 6 m) i s suspended from the s t e e l p o r t a l and
brings over h o r i z o n t a l wind forces t o the 4 sides of the
glass w a l l .
19.
D e t a i l of the Cool Cat node, designed by the author.
very f u n c t i o n a l , but i n i t s design also abstract. See f i g 19. The

glass plates are under compression by the prestress mechanism, while
the wind loads r e s u l t i n extra compression forces i n the glass plates
as w e l l as extra tension i n one of the t e n s i l e elements. These are
two d i f f e r e n t mechanisms acting.
The mock-up i n the Octatube factory c l e a r l y showed the i n s p i r a -
t i o n derived from such a s t r u c t u r e . As t o material application:"there
is not one ounce too much fat". The transparancy of the structure
underlines one of the evaluation c r i t e r i a of i t s product development:
minimal v i s u a l disturbances. I t also underlines the over-value aimed
at i n t h i s process: g i v i n g structures a c e r t a i n i n s p i r i n g form.
Professor Ludwig van Wilder of the TU D e l f t Architecture Department
gave another point of view when he commented on the structure as an
example of "exchanging material for brains", and c l e a r l y expressed
t h a t the development of glass structures stems from an i n t e l l e c t u a l
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
challenge. Due t o retardement i n the o v e r a l l b u i l d i n g scheme of the

shop, the c u r t a i n w a l l w i l l be i n s t a l l e d i n f e b r u a r i 1990.
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1 2 . GLASS MUSIC HALL IN THE BERLAGE EXCHANGE, AMSTERDAM
The Cool Cat w a l l i s the predecessor of the g l a s s w a l l s around the

G l a s s Music H a l l b u i l t i n the former Option Exchange H a l l i n the
famous Exchange b u i l t by D r . Hendrik P. Berlage between 1896 and
1903, one of the f i r s t modernist b u i l d i n g s i n the Netherlands. I n
t h i s h a l l a s m a l l e r volume was b u i l t to f u n c t i o n as the a c o u s t i c a l
r e h e a r s a l room f o r the Dutch Philharmonical O r c h e s t r a . See f i g 20.
T h i s h a l l has been made of g l a s s because of the d e s i r e d dominance of
the i n t e r i o r of the o l d b u i l d i n g and because the g l a s s box a c t s only
as an a c o u s t i c a l e n v e l l o p e , w h i l e around i t other a c t i v i t i e s s t i l l
can take p l a c e without mutual d i s t u r b a n c e s . The s i z e of the G l a s s
Music H a l l i s 9 m h i g h , 9/13/10.8 m wide ( b e l l y form) and 21.6 m long
(see f i g 2 1 ) . The 4 w a l l s a r e composed of g l a s s panels s i z e d 1.8 x
1.8 m. The w a l l s are suspended from a table-formed r i g i d double
l a y e r e d space frame s t r u c t u r e supported by 6 slender s t e e l columns.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
20.
I s o m e t r i c view of B e r l a g e ' s exchange w i t h the G l a s s Music
H a l l i n s i d e , as o r i g i n a l l y designed by a r c h i t e c t P i e t e r
Zaanen.
21.
B i r d e y e ' s view of the G l a s s Music H a l l s i z e d 9/13/10.8 m
wide, 9 m high and 21.6 m long, a l l covered w i t h g l a s s
panels 1.8 x 1.8 m, as designed by the a r c h i t e c t and the
author.
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22.
Cross s e c t i o n of the G l a s s Music H a l l i n Amsterdam, w i t h
space frame roof s t r u c t u r e and suspended g l a s s panels i n
both w a l l s , s t a b i l i s e d by a guy t r u s s system spanned
between space frame and r e i n f o r c e d concrete substructure
» B
)
\ / i\ / l \ /
f
I
i
1 \
!
8mmde*o
t
\1
1
1
h ! ;
/\ i h
:
i
The g l a s s w a l l s are suspended from the edges of the space frame, and
s t a b i l i s e d by double (counter-)spanning guyrods on c r o s s bars ( f i g
2 2 ) . These s t a b i l i s i n g systems are only present on the i n s i d e of the
h a l l , so t h a t the outside has a s l i c k g l a s s s u r f a c e . The roof plane
of the h a l l i s covered w i t h laminated g l a s s 5 . 5 . 1 , grey t i n t e d . The 3
r e c t a n g u l a r s i d e s are 8 mm grey t i n t e d heat-strenthened g l a s s p a n e l s ,
w h i l e the b e l l y - f o r m e d (out of a c o u s t i c a l reasons) long w a l l has
c l e a r g l a s s 8 mm heat-strengthened g l a s s p a n e l s . The o r i g i n a l
suggestion by the author was to have an a l l - t r a n s p a r a n t c l e a r g l a s s
box, w i t h only the curved w a l l as grey t i n t e d , to emphasize the form-
d e v i a t i o n . However the a r c h i t e c t decided to use the c l e a r / g r e y g l a s s
panels j u s t r e v e r s e d to enlange the s u r p r i s e e f f e c t when e n t e r i n g the
G l a s s Box. The grey t i n t e d g l a s s has a remarkable cameleon e f f e c t .
Seen from the o u t s i d e , w i t h l i g h t outside the g l a s s box i s dark grey.
However, when s i t t i n g i n s i d e , and when the s p o t l i g h t s i n the l a r g e r
Berlage space are l i t on the w a l l s , the g l a s s a l l of a sudden seems
almost c l e a r : I t l e a v e s a very good p i c t u r e of the Berlage w a l l s .
Darkening the room can hence be done by dimming the outside l i g h t s .
The s t r u c t u r e was completed i n december 1989. The design of t h i s
s t r u c t u r e has been j o i n t l y made by p r o j e c t - a r c h i t e c t P i e t e r Zaanen
and the author as a t e c h n i c a l designer cum producer. The form of the
h a l l has been a n a l y s e d and advised permanently during the design
phase by the a c o u s t i c a l a d v i s o r Peutz, and proved to give the d e s i r e d
a c o u s i t c a l v a l u e s when measured a f t e r completion. F i g u r e 23 to 26
g i v e an o v e r a l l view and some d e t a i l s .
B u i l d i n g the G l a s s Music H a l l has taught us one very important
l e s s o n : the type of metal connection node does not permit l a r g e
d e v i a t i o n s i n s i z e . Not i n the o v e r a l l s i z e of the g l a s s panel and
not i n the seams i n between. We have used g l a s s panels very
a c c u r a t e l y cut i n the Swiss S e c u r i t f a c t o r y w i t h a water l a s e r j e t ,
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23 to 26.
D i f f e r e n t d e t a i l s of the G l a s s Music H a l l
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g i v i n g b o l t hole a c c u r a c i e s of +0,00 / - 0 , 5 mm. The panel s i z e
t o l e r a n c e was +0,00 / - 1 , 0 mm, orthogonally and d i a g o n a l l y . T h i s of
course meant, together w i t h the r i g i d connectors, t h a t the max 1,0 mm
t o l e r a n c e was t o be met i n the b o l t h o l e . We a l s o found t h a t the
a c c u r a c y of these computer-cut g l a s s panels was so h i g h , t h a t i n the
t o t a l assembly the s i z e of our s t e e l s t r u c t u r e became the point t h a t
r e q u i r e d the most a t t e n t i o n , and appeared to be the most c r i t i c a l .
During the i n s t a l l a t i o n of the 4 g l a s s panel w a l l , we t e s t e d the
f a i l u r e of one of the upper p a n e l s , which a l l c a r r y the deadweight of
the lower p a n e l s . The s t r u c t u r a l design p r e d i c t e d a square c h a i n ,
a c t i o n a f t e r c o l l a p s e of an upper p a n e l , so t h a t the deadweight of
the 4 lower g l a s s panels was c a r r i e d over by panel n r . 4 to her
a d j a c e n t panels nr 4 and again up to panels nr 5 . And t h i s happened
i n d e e d . There was no p r o g r e s s i v e c o l l a p s e . But more of these
p r a c t i c a l experiments w i l l have to be made before these type of g l a s s
s t r u c t u r e s w i l l be accepted as being as safe as any other m a t e r i a l .
I t s t i l l w i l l remain g l a s s i n a l l i t s p r o p e r t i e s , and i t s development
r e q u i r e s a l o t of p a t i e n c e , t r i a l and e r r o r and f e e l i n g f o r m a t e r i a l
and s t r u c t u r a l behaviour from the s i d e of the s t r u g g l i n g d e s i g n e r .
13. FLOWER SHOP, HULST NL
The l a s t s t e p i n t h i s development report i s the r e a l i s a t i o n of the

f i r s t outdoor g l a s roof i n a guyed s t r u c t u r e by the author. Not y e t
i n a form where the underspanning-and-glass cooperation i s f u l l y
a c t i v e l y s t r u c t u r a l , but i n a way t h a t the g l a s s i s p a s s i v e l y
s t r u c t u r a l . The a r c h i t e c t of the b u i l d i n g i s Walter L o c k e f e e r , a
young Dutch a r c h i t e c t working i n the t r a d i t i o n of Dom van der Laan
(a school of Dutch a r c h i t e c t s where t r a d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s and
proportions r e s u l t i n a v e r y primary a r c h i t e c t u r e ) . The design of
the g l a s s roof has been made by the p r o j e c t - a r c h i t e c t and the author
j o i n t l y , w h i l e the a r c h i t e c t worked out the design very r e f i n e d i n
cooperation w i t h the Octatube design team, making simultaneous
models, computer g r a p h i c s , d e t a i l designs and s t a t i c a l a n a l y s i s ( f i g
27).
27.
O v e r a l l view of the g l a s s roof between the brickwork cubes
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28 and 29.
Two p e r s p e c t i v e views of the g l a s s roof wioth the RHS
perimeter p r o f i l e , i n s i d e the brickwork w a l l s .
The Flower shop i s a p a v i l i o n b u i l d i n g , composed of 2 brickwork cubes

approximately 6 x 6 x 6 m, w i t h an entrance bay of 2.23 m wide. The
two cubes are e n t i r e l y c l o s e d i n the outer w a l l s . The g l a s s roof i s
a t 5 m l e v e l and l e a v e s a i m high parapet running around. The roof
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
i s completely composed of f l a t double g l a s s panels (composed as

r e f l e c t i v e , heat-strenghtened upper panels 8 mm, 12 mm a i r and 3.3.1
laminated c l e a r g l a s s as the lower p a n e l s ) . The t o t a l s i z e of the
roof i s 6 x 15 m; the i n d i v i d u a l panels measure roughly 1.450 x
1.450 m. The panels are each supported a t the 4 corners by support
b r a c k e t s designed i n the same mode as the ' f r o g f i n g e r s ' or g l a s s
b r a c k e t s of the G l a s s Music H a l l i n Amsterdam. The g l a s s brackets are
glued to the laminated lower g l a s s p l a n e l s , w i t h a d e t a i l t h a t s t i l l
enables t u r n i n g of the support i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n due to d e f l e c -
t i o n s . On the same spot the upper g l a s s panel i s a l s o supported by a
s o l i d prop i n the 12 mm a i r c a v i t y , s e a l e d between upper and lower
p a n e l . The s t e e l support elements have been glued w i t h a s p e c i a l l y
t e s t e d type of glue to the g l a s s inner pane to give a s u f f i c i e n t
adherence f o r a h o r i z o n t a l shear and v e r t i c a l u p l i f t . Each of the
d e s c r i b e d g l a s s brackets has been elongated w i t h a v e r t i c a l 20 mm
t h i c k pole t h a t has been guyed by 8 mm s t e e l rods i n the node as
d r a f t e d i n f i g 25. The whole s t r u c t u r e i s surrounded by a RHS
p r o f i l e , supporting a continuous edge g u t t e r . Hence t h i s system can
s t i l l be regarded as halfway between a c l o s e d roof system and an open
s t r u c t u r e w i t h a perimeter ringbeam t h a t takes the compression
f o r c e s , omitted i n the upper g l a s s p a n e l s . The slope of the g l a s s
panels i s 1%. Completion of the s t u c t u r e i n March 1990. F i g 28 and 29
give some d e t a i l s .
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REFERENCES
1. Booosting. Booosting Experimenteert Booosting, Den

Haag/IoN Rotterdam 1988
2. Eekhout, Mick. Architecture in Space Structures Uitgeve-

r i j 010 P u b l i s h e r s Rotterdam 1989 ISBN 90-6450-080-0
647
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O R T H O G O N A L GRID SHELL: STATIC
MODEL TESTS COMPARING
DEFLECTIONS TO FORMS
P.H. KUO, W. W U , G.G. SCHIERLE
Graduate Programme of Building Science, School of Architecture,
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
Abstrac t
Stati c mode l test s for an orthogona l gri d shell , consistin g of 25x2 5 timbe r bar s
(50x5 0 in the origina l structure) , with span s of 20x2 0 meter s (65. 6 ft), ar e
presente d (Fig . 1 , 2) . Th e test s includ e 3 loa d condition s o n 2 desig n case s o f
differen t cross-sectio n height s (Fig.6) . Tes t result s ar e presente d graphicall y to
visualiz e a significan t correlatio n o f form an d stiffness . Thi s visualizatio n wa s
the prim e objectiv e o f this research , to provid e informe d intuitio n regardin g th e
interdependenc e o f architectura l an d engineerin g design . Precis e engineerin g
analysi s wa s no t intended .
Keywords : Deflection , Form , Gri d Shell , Mode l Test , Stati c Model .
1 Introduction
Gri d shell s hav e significan t advantage s ove r othe r shells . Bein g lightweight ,
eas y to manufacture , an d possibl y translucent , if appropriat e claddin g is used ,
the y ca n b e employe d for use s suc h a s exhibitio n halls , auditoria ,
warehouses , gymnasia , aviarie s an d gree n houses ; give n th e possibl e
translucenc y o r eve n transparency . Th e grid shel l form is an importan t desig n
consideration , no t only regardin g structura l performance , bu t also aestheti c
appearance , energ y performance , functiona l an d constructio n aspects .
2 Correlations of model and original structure
Th e tes t mode l is relate d to the origina l structur e b y thre e scales ; namel y

S G = Geometri c Scal e = mode l dimensio n / origina l dimensio n = Lm/Lo
S F = Forc e Scal
= e mode l force / origina l forc e = Pm / Po
Ss = Strai n Scal= e mode l strai n / origina l strai n = £m/ £ 0
Th e forc e scal e S F i s derive d a s follows :
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Fig. 1 . Test model
Fig. 2. Test model
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A PL 3
unit strain £ = — , strain A = K — , hence

L El
EIA El A
Force P = = x -- , hence
L K
3
KL 2
L
Pm Emlm Lo (A/L)m K 2
Force Scale S F = — = x — x x —
Po Eolo Lm (A/L)o K 2
(A/L)m Lo 2
1
Since = Ss , and — =
(A/L)o Lm 2
SG 2
Emlm 1
SF = x x Ss , or (1)
Eolo SG 2
Emlm 1
SF = x , if Ss = 1 , or (2)
Eolo SG 2
SF = SG , 2
if S s = 1, Em = Eo, and all member sizes are in geometric
scale.
E = modules of elasticity
I = moment of inertia
K = constant of integration
m = subscript for model
o = subscript for original
For the tests presented here, the following scales, relating model to original
structure, were selected and computed:
Geometric Scale S G = 1 :20

Force Scale S F = 1 :1350
Strain Scale S s = 1 :1
The strain scale was selected as unity to avoid errors that may be caused
by geometrically non-linear behavior of the grid shell. The force scale was
computed, based on the assumptions for materials and dimensions for systems
and components tabulated as follows.
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Table 3. Comparing model to original structure
Item Model Original Structure
Length / Width 1000x1000 mm 20x20 m

Height C a s e 1 1
138 mm 2.76 m
Height C a s e 2 2
207 mm 4.14 m
Bar dimensions 1.78x8.89 mm 51x102 mm
Bar spacing 3
41 mm 418 mm
Material Ashwood Ashwood
1 .Case 1 has a depth / span ratio of 1:7.3

2. Case 2 has a depth / span ratio of 1:4.8
3. Bar spacing in developed (flat) position. (1 bar in model * 2 bars in original)
3 Form-Finding and Model Building
An orthogonal grid of square boundaries was built on a flat platform (Fig. 4).
Bars were connected at each joint by a machine bolt. The bolts were loosely
tightened to allow the square grids to deform into rhombuses and, thus, allow
the flat grid to assume its synclastic curvature.
The form finding process began by placing the flat grid over a platform with
a cut-out. 49 weights (cups with sand) attached to every fourth joint were
temporarily supported by a platform, then gradually and simultaneously
lowered to deform the grid (Fig.5). Additional weight was gradually added
until the desired shape for the grid shell had been reached. The form-finding
process was aided by gently vibrating the grid to reduce the friction between
the grid and the platform cut-out. The exact form of the edge condition was
measured and recorded for design and fabrication of the edge supports. The
form-finding platform was then prepared as a permanent base for the grid
shell. Continuous edge support was provided by 4 plywood segments. Those
segments were attached to the base, slanted parallel to the grid tangent at the
springing, to simulate an edge beam and earth berm in the original structure.
Next, the grid shell was lifted in place, deformed, and attached to a groove
along the edge segments by means of a continuous bar. The model then had
assumed its permanent shape of test case 1 (Fig. 6). The bolts of all bar joints
were tightened to improve stability.
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FIG. 4 FLAT GRID
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CASE 2 ELEVATION
FIG. 6 PLAN AND ELEVATION
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Rg. 7. Model testing
4 Testing
Testing of case 1 began by suspending the same 49 weights used in the form-
finding process from every forth joint and supporting them temporarily on a
platform to avoid creep deformation during the test setup. The sand-cup
weights were calibrated to 386g (0.85lb) each, to simulate a combined dead
and live load of 0.77kPa (16 psf) in the original. The platform with the weights
was then lowered (gradually to prevent impact load) to apply a uniform load
over the entire grid shell (Fig.7). After vertical deformations were measured
and recorded at 5 previously established measure points the weight-platform
was raised for completion of test 1 .A .
The above process was repeated for two additional load conditions, namely
half load and diagonal half load (Fig. 8 , load conditions B and C) simulated
with 28 point loads each. After completion of tests for design case 1 the
previously described form-finding process was repeated for design case 2 ,
with a greater cross-section height. Load tests A, B, and C described above
were then repeated for design case 2 to compare deformations as related to
and affected by the form.
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CROSS SECTIONS
CASE 1 CASE 2
MEASURE POINTS
FOR DEFLECTIONS
LOAD CONDITIONS DEFLECTION DIAGRAMS
P ^
o ©
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© ®
DEFL. A.1
"^7
0
4 DEFL. B.2
DEFL C.1 DEFL C.2
DOWNWARD DEFLECTION
MODEL DEFLECTION SCALE flfuLj DOT DIAMETER = DEFLECTION
0 100 200 r\ UPWARD DEFLECTION

ORIGINAL DEFLECTION SCALE fUUUJ w
DOT DIAMETER = DEFLECTION
FIG. 8 TEST RESULTS
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5 T e s t Results
Test results for design cases 1 and 2 and for load conditions A, B, and C are
illustrated in Fig. 8 for comparative visualization. The deflection diagrams
show for each combination of design case and load condition the amount of
vertical deformation on 5 measure points. The diameter of each dot reflects the
amount of deformation on that point in the deflection scale. The deflection
scale is 30 times exaggerated for better visualization and to facilitate scaling.
The results of Fig. 8 show no significant difference between design case 1
and 2 for load condition A (full uniform load). For load condition B the flat
dome of case 1 has greater deformation in the corners and case 2 has greater
deformation in the center, where case 1 has none. This observation seems to
reveal a buckling tendency of case 1 under half load. A similar observation
can be made for load condition C (diagonal half load), where case 1 also has
a tendency to buckle at the corners; but also the center of case 1 deforms ,
while the corner opposite the loaded side deforms upward, another indication
of a buckling tendency.
Both design cases appeared to have improved stability under load than
without load applied. This could clearly be registered by touching the model.
The greatest deflection under full load was 3mm (60mm for the original
structure) at the center, which yields a deflection/span ratio of 1/330 . The
greatest deflection under half load was 4.8mm (96mm for original structure) at
the center, which yields a deflection/span ratio of 1/206.
6 Conclusions
The test results reveal a significant correlation between form and deformation
for asymmetrical but not for symmetrical load. Design case 1, with a depth/span
ratio of 1/7.3 ,while still stable, appears to be too flat, and, under safety
consideration, too vulnerable to buckling, given the assumed design
conditions.
More tests should be conducted with larger test models and greater
accuracy, as well as tests for lateral load and additional design cases.
Grid shells of square or similar forms have good potential for economical
buildings with gracefully elegant appearance. Design information such as
presented in this paper is important to make design decisions regarding
architectural form based on informed intuition and to facilitate a design
process toward synergy of form and structure.
655
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7 References
Borrego,J. (1968) S p a c e Grid Structures, Cambridge, Mass. The

MIT Press.
Burkhardt, B.; Medlin, L ; Minke, G (1967) Lattenkuppeln, Montreal be richt of
the Institute of Lightweight Structures, University of Stuttgart.
Hennicke, J . and Bubner, E. (1973) Grid Shells, Three-Dimensional Curved-
Compression Stressed Lightweight Structures, Proceeding
International Symposium on Prefabricated S h e l l s Vol. Ill, IASS,
Haifa, pp. 44-60.
Minke, G. (1968 ) Auditorium roof Montreal, Architectural Design, Vol.
xxxvlll No. 4.
Otto, Frei et al (1974) Grid Shells, IL Report No.10, Institute for Lightweight
Structures, University of Stuttgart.
656
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S K Y S C R A P E R S OR SPACETOWNS
J. FRANQOIS GABRIEL
Syracuse University School of Architecture, New York, USA
Abstract
The s k y s c r a p e r i s a v e r t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t which came about w i t h t h e
development o f t h e s t e e l frame and t h e e l e v a t o r . I t i s comparable t o
a h o r i z o n t a l s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e sense t h a t b o t h e x i s t a l o n g a l i n e a r
c i r c u l a t i o n system. The s i m i l a r i t y ends t h e r e ; f o r w h i l e roads can
b r a n c h o u t t o p e r m i t l a t e r a l e x p a n s i o n , e l e v a t o r s must remain en-
cased i n t h e s t r a i t j a c k e t o f t h e i r v e r t i c a l s h a f t s .
The spacetown i s a l a r g e s t r u c t u r a l framework t h a t s u p p o r t s a l l
t h e u r b a n systems o f a community. The f o r m o f t h e spacetown i s not
f i x e d once and f o r a l l . U n l i k e t h e s k y s c r a p e r , t h e spacetown can
expand l a t e r a l l y . I t s f o r m can a l s o be m o d i f i e d d u r i n g i t s l i f e span
i n a manner somewhat s i m i l a r t o u r b a n communities b u i l t on t h e ground.
Keywords: A r c h i t e c t u r e , S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r i n g , Urban D e s i g n , Space
Frames
1. Introduction
The a r c h e t y p a l s k y s c r a p e r f o r m r e f l e c t s r i g i d l y , and a p p r o p r i a t e l y ,
i t s c i r c u l a t i o n c o r e : i t i s a s o l i d l o o k i n g , e x t r u d e d f o r m , seem-
i n g l y proud of i t s f i n a l i t y . Even t h e most r e c e n t " p o s t modern"
d e s i g n s c l i n g s t e a d f a s t l y t o t h i s imagery. Many a r c h i t e c t s c u r -
r e n t l y p r a c t i s i n g f e e l drawn back t o t h e i d e a o f t h e w a l l w h i c h ,
i n s k y s c r a p e r s , can o n l y be an i l l u s i o n . The c l a d d i n g may be o f
g r a n i t e , but the s t r u c t u r e i s a s t e e l skeleton.
I n a more f o r w a r d l o o k i n g t r e n d l e d p r i n c i p a l l y by a r c h i t e c t s and
e n g i n e e r s f r o m t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, t h e r e i s a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s t r u c t u r e and e n c l o s u r e . Controversial
b u i l d i n g s such as t h e Bank o f Hong Kong and t h e L l o y d s o f London
v i s u a l l y express the s t r u c t u r a l skeleton. They even c e l e b r a t e i t .
And t h e e n c l o s u r e s d i s t i n c t l y e n c l o s e rooms and do n o t h i n g e l s e .
There i s no a m b i g u i t y r e g a r d i n g s t r u c t u r e and e n c l o s u r e . I n t h e s e
b u i l d i n g s and i n o t h e r s l i k e them, a r c h i t e c t u r e , w h i c h i s e s s e n t i a l l y
an assemblage o f rooms, i s not d e f i n e d by m a k e - b e l i e v e w a l l s . There
are no w a l l s , o n l y l i g h t w e i g h t e n c l o s u r e s .
I t i s n e a r l y s e v e n t y y e a r s s i n c e Le C o r b u s i e r f o r m u l a t e d w i t h g r e a t
i n s i g h t t h e f i v e p o i n t s o f modern a r c h i t e c t u r e , two o f which were t h e
f r e e p l a n and t h e f r e e facade made p o s s i b l e by s k e l e t a l s t r u c t u r e s .
But t h e f i r s t mature d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e s e l i b e r a t i n g p o i n t s was made
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Fig. 1 A model of t h e 8 8 - s t o r e y spacetown under d i s c u s s i o n . The
s t r u c t u r a l f r a m e w o r k c o n s i s t s o f s p a c e t r u s s e s , 32 m e t e r s l o n g ,
f o r m i n g o c t a h e d r a a n d t e t r a h e d r a b e t w e e n them. C l u s t e r s o f rooms
eight storeys high c o n s t i t u t e the buildings proper. Clusters are
shown o n l y i n t h e u p p e r p a r t o f t h e m o d e l .
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F i g . 2 Top v i e w o f t h e t h r e e h e l i c o i d a l t o w e r s f o r m i n g o u r space-
town. The t r i a n g u l a r space i n t h e m i d d l e w i l l r e c e i v e e l e v a t o r s
and f i r e s t a i r s . The f r e e - s t a n d i n g c o n d i t i o n o f t h e o c t a h e d r a where
c l u s t e r s w i l l be b u i l t can be b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d i n t h i s d r a w i n g . I t
w i l l a l s o be seen t h a t e v e r y o c t a h e d r o n i s a d j a c e n t t o a t e t r a h e d r o n
i n w h i c h t h e c l u s t e r can be expanded.
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Fig. 3 Twelve s p a c e t r u s s e s form a t e n - s t o r e y octahedron w i t h i n

w h i c h a n e i g h t - s t o r e y c l u s t e r c a n be b u i l t . The d e t a c h e d o c t a h e d r o n
a t b o t t o m r i g h t i s t h e module f o r b o t h t h e s p a c e t r u s s e s and t h e
m u l t i l a y e r s p a c e f r a m e t h a t c o n n e c t s them.
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F i g . 4 An e i g h t - s t o r e y c l u s t e r n e s t l e d w i t h i n an o c t a h e d r a l frame-
work o f space t r u s s e s . The b u i l d i n g system f o r t h e c l u s t e r i s a
m o d i f i e d m u l t i - l a y e r space frame. The b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f t h e system
are r e p r e s e n t e d as schematic s o l i d s , b u t i n r e a l i t y t h e y a r e open
o c t a h e d r a l frames f o u r meters w i d e .
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i n C e n t r e Pompidou, where s t r u c t u r e and e n c l o s u r e a r e t r u l y i n d e -
pendent o f one a n o t h e r .
What may appear t o be t h e i n o r d i n a t e l y slow m a t u r a t i o n o f an i d e a
i s n o t u n u s u a l i n a r c h i t e c t u r e o r i n s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g . The
f i r s t s k y s c r a p e r t o use t h e s t r u c t u r a l concept o f t h e b r a c e d t u b e was
t h e John Hancock B u i l d i n g , completed i n Chicago i n 1969. The b r a c e d
t u b e was i n v e n t e d by Monsieur E i f f e l , who used i t e i g h t y y e a r s e a r l i e r
i n t h e t o w e r w h i c h bears h i s name.
Tour E i f f e l c l a i m s our a t t e n t i o n f o r o t h e r reasons as w e l l . The
g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e i s p o i s e d over a v e r y l a r g e v o i d . Tour
E i f f e l i s a l i g h t w e i g h t s t r u c t u r e t h a t c e l e b r a t e s space, n o t mass.
The rooms i t c o n t a i n s a r e independent o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l framework.
Tour E i f f e l i s n o t a s k y s c r a p e r , i t i s a p r e c u r s o r o f t h e spacetown.
2. The Spacetown
The s t r u c t u r a l framework o f t h e spacetown p r e s e n t e d here i s composed

o f o c t a h e d r a and t e t r a h e d r a f o r s e v e r a l reasons. I n a three-way
space frame, v e r t i c a l l o a d s can be t a k e n down t o t h e ground i n t h r e e
directions. ( I n t h e post-and-beam system, which i s s t i l l used i n
s k y s c r a p e r s , v e r t i c a l l o a d s can be t a k e n down i n one d i r e c t i o n o n l y ,
t h a t o f t h e v e r t i c a l columns.) The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h o i c e f o r t h e
d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h l o a d s can be t a k e n down g i v e s t h e d e s i g n e r a
g r e a t e r freedom.
I n t a l l b u i l d i n g s , wind b r a c i n g i s c r u c i a l . T e t r a h e d r a and o c t a -
hedra a r e i n h e r e n t l y r i g i d . (Cubic frames a r e n o t r i g i d and must
be t r i a n g u l a t e d as an a f t e r t h o u g h t , as i t were.) A space frame i s
modular. I t s components a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d . P r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d and
a p p l i e d , m o d u l a r i t y renders p o s s i b l e the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a b u i l t
f o r m by d i s m a n t l i n g and r e - b u i l d i n g . M o d u l a r i t y i s n o t an e x c l u s i -
v i t y o f space frames, b u t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l freedom w i t h
r i g i d i t y o f modules i s , i n d e e d , unmatched by any o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l
systems.
The spacetown i l l u s t r a t e d here i s 88 s t o r e y s . I t i s o r g a n i z e d i n
l a y e r s o f n i n e s t o r e y s each. The s t a n d a r d s t r u c t u r a l member i s 32
meters. I t i s c a l l e d a space t r u s s because i t i s composed o f e i g h t
o c t a h e d r a and 14 t e t r a h e d r a . Space t r u s s e s a r e h o l l o w and f i r e p r o o f ,
e i t h e r made o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e o r o f c o n c r e t e encased s t e e l (Ref.
3). Every n i n t h f l o o r , where h o r i z o n t a l space t r u s s e s a r e f o u n d , t h e
e n t i r e s t o r e y i s devoted t o mechanicals. B u i l t as a d o u b l e c o n c r e t e
s h e l l , i t forms a f i r e b a r r i e r .
Only t h e e i g h t - s t o r e y o c t a h e d r a l spaces sandwiched between f i r e
b a r r i e r s are enclosed. I t i s i n t h e s e spaces t h a t t h e b u i l d i n g s
p r o p e r e x i s t , w i t h i n t h e framework o f t h e spacetown. We c o u l d c a l l
them c l u s t e r s , o r v i l l a g e s , t o use Norman F o s t e r ' s t e r m i n o l o g y i n
h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e Bank o f Hong Kong B u i l d i n g . Each c l u s t e r
has i t s own s e l f - c o n t a i n e d system o f s t a i r s and e l e v a t o r s ( F i g . 1 ) .
Three i d e n t i c a l , i n t e r c o n n e c t e d h e l i c o i d a l t o w e r s f o r m t h i s
p a r t i c u l a r spacetown. The t o w e r s s u r r o u n d a l a r g e open space,
t r i a n g u l a r i n p l a n , where e l e v a t o r s and f i r e s t a i r s a r e l o c a t e d .
E l e v a t o r s s t o p a t e v e r y n i n t h f l o o r , where a d i s t r i b u t i o n p l a t f o r m
p r o v i d e s access t o t h r e e c l u s t e r s , each one l o c a t e d i n a d i f f e r e n t
662
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F i g . 5 Only t h e s e t h r e e p a t t e r n s o c c u r i n t h e c l u s t e r shown i n F i g .
4. They a r e shown h e r e i n a c t u a l sequence. The l o w e r p a t t e r n i s
r e p e a t e d on t h e f o u r t h and s e v e n t h l e v e l s , t h e second one on t h e f i f t h
and e i g h t h and t h e t h i r d one on t h e s i x t h .
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t o w e r and t h e r e f o r e f r e e - s t a n d i n g . The remarkable independence o f
t h e c l u s t e r s f r o m t h e s t r u c t u r a l framework i s a k i n t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s
o f o r d i n a r y b u i l d i n g s b u i l t on t h e ground. This, of course, i s very
d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e i m p a c t e d c o n d i t i o n o f t h e rooms i n a t y p i c a l
s k y s c r a p e r . The d i f f e r e n c e i s so c o n s e q u e n t i a l as t o j u s t i f y t h e
d i s t i n c t i o n we make between spacetowns and s k y s c r a p e r s ( F i g . 2 ) .
As we have seen, each c l u s t e r i s b u i l t w i t h i n a l a r g e o c t a h e d r o n
formed by 12 space t r u s s e s . Octahedra do n o t s i t on t o p o f one
a n o t h e r ; t h e y a r e s h i f t e d i n such a way t h a t t h e t e n t h s t o r e y o f one
c l u s t e r , t h a t i s , t h e upper f a c e o f i t s o c t a h e d r a l frame, forms t h e
l o w e r f a c e o f an e i g h t - s t o r e y t e t r a h e d r o n . A c l u s t e r c o u l d , t h e r e -
f o r e , be expanded w i t h i n t h e space o f t h e a d j a c e n t t e t r a h e d r o n o r ,
a l t e r n a t i v e l y , l o o k o u t on a garden. The two f a c e s o f t h e t e t r a -
h e d r a l frame t h a t a r e open t o t h e o u t s i d e c o u l d be g l a z e d t o e n c l o s e
a w i n t e r garden o r , as i t i s sometimes c a l l e d , an a t r i u m . The
d e c i s i o n w o u l d depend on t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e c l i m a t e
where t h e spacetown i s t o be b u i l t , t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r
o c t a h e d r o n under c o n s i d e r a t i o n and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s .
How a r e t h e c l u s t e r s b u i l t w i t h i n t h e space t r u s s framework? By
u s i n g a m u l t i l a y e r space frame c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e space t r u s s e s .
The o c t a h e d r a and t e t r a h e d r a t h a t compose t h e space t r u s s e s measure
f o u r meters. T h e r e f o r e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l members o f t h e space frame
w i l l a l s o measure f o u r m e t e r s . T h i s s t a n d a r d d i m e n s i o n ensures a
f u l l s t o r e y h e i g h t between c h o r d s .
I n a t h r e e - w a y space frame, t h e space between chords i s s u b d i v i d e d
by t h e d i a g o n a l s i n t o a b e e h i v e p a t t e r o f hexagonal p r i s m s . We have
f o u n d , however, t h a t i n m u l t i l a y e r space frames c e r t a i n d i a g o n a l s can
be e l i m i n a t e d w i t h o u t a f f e c t i n g t h e r i g i d i t y o f t h e s t r u c t u r e (Ref. 2 ) .
A n o t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n was made t o t h e space frame c o n f i g u r a t i o n
r e g a r d i n g t h e chords. These r e t a i n a t r i a n g u l a r g r i d b u t i t now
matches t h e v e r t i c a l p r o j e c t i o n s o f t h e d i a g o n a l s (Ref. 1 ) . One
reason f o r t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n was t o have f l o o r beams d i r e c t l y under
v e r t i c a l e n c l o s u r e s . The d i a g o n a l s t h a t a r e r e t a i n e d f o r m d i s c r e t e
o c t a h e d r a s e p a r a t e d by a d i s t a n c e v a r y i n g between f o u r and 12 meters
(Fig. 3,4) .
A b u i l d i n g system r e s u l t s f r o m our m e t h o d i c a l e l i m i n a t i o n o f
d i a g o n a l s and our m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c h o r d s . I t i s c a l l e d t h e Hexmod
System. The b u i l d i n g b l o c k o f t h e system i s an o c t a h e d r a l frame f o u r
m e t e r s wide. Space f l o w s f r e e l y between and around b u i l d i n g b l o c k s
when assembled. S t a i r s and e l e v a t o r s h a f t s can be i n t r o d u c e d anywhere
by e l i m i n a t i n g f l o o r p a n e l s and j o i s t s f r o m t h e s t o r e y s i n v o l v e d .
A l t h o u g h b u i l d i n g b l o c k s cannot be removed, t h e y a r e n o t o b t r u s i v e and
a l m o s t any f u n c t i o n can be accommodated i n a c l u s t e r . Furthermore,
t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e c l u s t e r i s n o t f i x e d and can be adapted t o s u i t
v a r i e d requirements ( F i g . 5 ) .
3. Conclusion
Put s i m p l y , a r c h i t e c t u r e i s t h e a r t o f c r e a t i n g m e a n i n g f u l sequences
o f s i g n i f i c a n t spaces. New m a t e r i a l s and new b u i l d i n g t e c h n i q u e s have
more t h a n once i n t h e p a s t t r a n s f o r m e d a r c h i t e c t u r e . I n the l a s t
t h i r t y y e a r s t h i n s h e l l s , r e t i c u l a t e d domes, pneus, t e n t s and
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F i g . 6 T h e t r u l y m a g n i f i c e n t s p a c e c r e a t e d b y e i g h t s p a c e t r u s s e s on
a triangular platform. A s p a c e l i k e t h i s w i l l t a k e i t s p l a c e among
t h e g r e a t man-made s p a c e s o f t h e p a s t when t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f s p a c e
frame a r c h i t e c t u r e a r e r e a l i z e d .
o t h e r s p a c e s t r u c t u r e s h a v e o p e n e d new h o r i z o n s f o r t h e m a k i n g o f
a r c h i t e c t u r a l form and space. Among s p a c e s t r u c t u r e s , t h e s p a c e
frame, o r o c t e t - t r u s s a s i t i s a l s o c a l l e d , o c c u p i e s a s p e c i a l p l a c e .
F i r s t used t o span e c o n o m i c a l l y l a r g e column-free s p a c e s , then l a t e r
u s e d a s v e r t i c a l e n c l o s u r e s a s w e l l , t h e space frame h a s i n s t o r e
an immense r e s e r v e o f u n t a p p e d s t r u c t u r a l a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l
possibilities. T h e s p a c e w i t h i n , f o r o n e , w i t h i t s own u n i q u e
c h a r a c t e r , d e s e r v e s more a t t e n t i o n t h a n i t h a s r e c e i v e d s o f a r .
U s u a l l y t r e a t e d a s a c o n v e n i e n t bonus s p a c e f o r d u c t s a n d c a t w a l k s ,
i t c a n now b e r a i s e d t o t h e s t a t u s o f a f u l l - f l e d g e d a r c h i t e c t u r a l
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m a t r i x , s i d e by s i d e w i t h t h e b e s t s t r u c t u r a l advances o f t h e p a s t
( F i g . 6) .
The space frame s t a n d s a l o n e among t h e v a r i e d t y p e s o f space
s t r u c t u r e s when t h e p r o b l e m a t hand i s t h e d e s i g n o f a m u l t i - s t o r e y
building. I t s layered nature f i t s i n p e r f e c t l y with the require-
ments o f a h i g h - r i s e , as we have t r i e d t o show above. S t r u c t u r a l l y ,
a m u l t i - l a y e r space frame r e q u i r e s f a r f e w e r d i a g o n a l s t o m a i n t a i n
i t s r i g i d i t y t h a n does a d o u b l e o r t r i p l e l a y e r space frame.
The spacetown i s made p o s s i b l e by t h e space frame. For sheer
e n r i c h m e n t o f t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l v o c a b u l a r y , few developments i n
s t r u c t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g can compare w i t h t h e coming o f age o f t h e
space f r a m e .
4. References
G a b r i e l , J.F. and Mandel, J.A. (1984) A space frame b u i l d i n g system

f o r h o u s i n g . T h i r d i n t e r n a t i o n a l conference on space s t r u c t u r e s ,
Proceedings (ed. H. N o o s h i n ) , E l s e v i e r A p p l i e d Sciences P u b l i s h e r s ,
pp. 1052-1057.
Gabriel,, J.F. (1985) Space frames: t h e space w i t h i n — a g u i d e d t o u r .
J . Space S t r u c t u r e s , 1 , 3-12.
G a b r i e l , J.F. (1986) M u l t i - l a y e r space frames and a r c h i t e c t u r e .
The f i r s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l conference on l i g h t w e i g h t s t r u c t u r e s i n
a r c h i t e c t u r e , Proceedings, Sydney, A u s t r a l i a , 1 , pp. 104-111.
5. Acknowledgements
The model i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 1 was b u i l t w i t h f u n d s p r o v i d e d by t h e

O f f i c e o f t h e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t f o r Research and Graduate A f f a i r s a t
Syracuse U n i v e r s i t y .
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EXPERIMENTAL AND A N A L Y T I C A L
S T U D Y ON T H E E F F E C T OF JOINT
PROPERTIES ON THE STABILITY OF
SPACE STRUCTURES
F.A. FATHELBAB
Structural Engineering Dept, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University, Alexandria, Egypt
R.E. McCONNEL
Engineering Dept, Cambridge University, Cambridge, England, UK
Abs tract
The conventional procedure f o r t h e a n a l y s i s and s t u d y o f
space frames stability assumes t h a t t h e j o i n t s o f these
structures behave as e i t h e r p u r e p i n s o r as f u l l y r i g i d .
This was a d o p t e d d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e j o i n t s o f most
space structures are semi-rigid. The a d o p t i o n o f t h i s
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
assumption was done due to the d i f i c u l t y of considering
the effect of joint properties i n a tangent stiffness
matrix f o r space frame member, and a l s o due to the
dificulty of obtaining t h e a c t u a l p r o p e r t i e s o f a space
frame j o i n t s w i t h o u t extensive experimental tests.
A general space frame tangent s t i f f n e s s matrix which
includes i n addition to the effects o f s t a b i l i t y and
bowing functions, the effects of joints size and
stiffness. An algorithm f o r nonlinear space frame
b e h a v i o u r was d e v e l o p e d .
The new tangent stiffness matrix and t h e d e v e l o p e d
algorithm have been i m p l e m e n t e d i n a computer program f o r
the geometrically nonlinear analysis o f space frames.
Results o b t a i n e d from t h i s program were t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h e
available published results.
An experimental study was done by t e s t i n g a s h a l l o w
single l a y e r l a t t i c e dome m o d e l s b u i l t u s i n g MERO j o i n t i n g
system. In this models, various combination o f member
s i z e , j o i n t t y p e , and l o a d p a t t e r n were used.
The experimental models were also analysed using the
developed computer program. The results obtained
demonstrate the great effect o f t h e j o i n t p r o p e r t i e s on
the behaviour o f space frame structures s p e c i a l l y on
s i n g l e l a y e r l a t t i c e domes.
Keywords: Stability, Space Domes, Joint E f f e c t , Non-
l i n e a r , Tangent, Experimental.
1 Introduction
Space frame structures a r e used t o cover large areas

without intermediate supports. These s t r u c t u r e s a r e b u i l t
from simple prefabricated units w h i c h c a n be e a s i l y a n d
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rapidly p u t t o g e t h e r on s i t e . The s m a l l s i z e o f t h e b a s i c
units of these s t r u c t u r e s s i m p l i f i e s h a n d l i n g and t r a n s -
portation problems which makes these structures very
useful i n cases o f r a p i d emergency i n s t a l l a t i o n . Another
advantage of these structures, s p e c i a l l y i n t h e case o f
shallow s i n g l e l a y e r l a t t i c e domes, i s t h a t i n t h e case o f
failure o f one o r more o f t h e members o r j o i n t s a l l t h e
released stresses are often automatically redistributed i n
such way that t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g members s a f e l y a b s o r b t h e
excess stresses imposed on them, thus p r e v e n t i n g sudden
collapse o f t h e whole s t r u c t u r e .
Because of the in-plane memberane action of shallow
single layer lattice domes a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i r i n i t i a l
curvature, such structures are able t o carry considerable
out-of-plane loads compared w i t h t h e s e l f w e i g h t o f these
structures. However, f o r shallow single layer lattice
domes with small rise t o span r a t i o , t h e s t r u c t u r e res-
ponse i s highly nonlinear e v e n when t h e s t r e s s e s i n t h e
members are small enough t o insure that the material
p r o p e r t i e s are w e l l w i t h i n the e l a s t i c range.
The two main components o f any space s t r u c t u r e a r e t h e
members and the joints, and t h e advantages or disad-
vantages o f any particular structure over the others
depend largely on t h e t y p e o f j o i n t s u s e d as t h i s i s t h e
element that normally determines the f l e x i b i l i t y and
rapidity o f t h e assembly of a space s t r u c t u r e . Also,
depending on how a t s t h e j o i n t s connect t h e members
together, t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l behave.
Traditionally, structural steel research has been
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
dominated by problems concerned with the behaviour of

structural elements and t h e i r e f f e c t on t h e b e h a v i o u r o f
the complete structure. Less a t t e n t i o n has been p a i d t o
the behaviour of j o i n t s . W h i l e t h e members o f s p a c e f r a m e
structures a r e , from a t e c h n i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w , no more
than a length o f p r i s m a t i c m a t e r i a l w i t h some s t r u c t u r a l
cross section. On the other hand considerable
improvements i n t h e t e c h n o l o g y o f space frame j o i n t s have
been achieved. However, compared w i t h t h e space frame
members , t h i s improvement i n t h e t e c h n o l o g y and production
of many new j o i n t s h a s n o t b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a s i m i l a r
improvement i n investigation o f t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e s e new
joints on t h e b e h a v i o u r and s t a b i l i t y o f space frames i n
general, and shallow single layer lattice domes i n
particular.
The design of joints o f space structures has been
constrained by lack o f knowledge o f t h e r e a l behaviour o f
these j o i n t s i n a s t r u c t u r e , and o f d a t a r e l a t i n g t o j o i n t
strength and stiffness. Almost a l l the j o i n t design
methods and their effects on the behaviour of space
structures have been based on b r o a d s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , and
have o f t e n borne l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e a l b e h a v i o u r .
Attempts at semi-rigid analysis and design, f o r
example, by L i g h t f o o t and M e s s u r i e r ( 1 9 7 4 ) , L i o n b e r g e r and
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Weaver (1969), Machaly (1986), and o t h e r s have n o t been
very successful mainly because a l l the methods proposed
require a moment-rotation curve for each joint used.
These curves are s e n s i t i v e t o a number o f v a r i a b l e s , and
attempts to generalise moment-rotation characteristics
have not been successful because o f t h e l a r g e number o f
j o i n t t y p e s and v a r i a b l e s i n v o l v e d .
Many authers Birnstiel and I f f l a n d ( 1 9 8 0 ) , Tong, and
Prescott (1986), and N e t h e r c o t (1985) have r e c o r d e d t h a t
joint behaviour makes an important c o n t r i b u t i o n to the
behaviour of space structures, and t h a t u n c e r t a i n j o i n t
performance has been one o f t h e c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s i n many
strucutral collapses.
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Joints can be classified as pinned; s e m i - r i g i d , or
rigid. The crucial joint characteristic that determines
this c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s the moment-rotation r e l a t i o n s h i p of
the joint.
It is the purpose of this reseach r e p o r t e d here t o
provide some c l a r i f i c a t i o n a n d b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
influence of joint characteristics on the behaviour of
s h a l l o w s i n g l e l a y e r l a t t i c e domes.
2 Space frame element tangent stiffness matrix
A nonlinear space frame element tangent s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x

which takes into c o n s i d e r a t i o n the effects of joint
characteristics was deriven by Fathelbab (1987). This
matrix allows for the standard causes of geometric
n o n l i n e a r i t y , namely:
The effect of axial forces on t h e l a t e r a l s t i f f n e s s

(stability functions).
The effects of bowing on the member l e n g t h ( b o w i n g
functions).
The finite d e f l e c t i o n of j o i n t s w i t h small to moderate
rotation.
The finite rotation of the joints and rigid body
r o t a t i o n s o f t h e members.
The a d o p t e d t a n g e n t s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x c a n be u s e d t o any
of joint idealization shown in F i g . 1. Details of the
adopted space frame element tangent s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x are
g i v e n i n F a t h e l b a b and M c c o n n e l ( 1 9 8 9 ) .
Computer program
The adopted s p a c e f r a m e t a n g e n t s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x has been

implemented in a n o n l i n e a r i n c r e m e n t a l - i t e r a t i v e computer
program. An a l g o r i t h m based on the current s t i f f n e s s
parameter presented by Bergan (1980), and adopted by
Fathelbab (1987) was used. Also a technique f o r the
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spring
r i g i d arm
s p r i n g and r i g i d arm
one v a r i a t i o n a t t h e ends
|(e) two v a r i a t i o n s a t t h e ends
Fig.1. S i m u l a t i o n o f space frame joints
automation o f load i n c r e m e n t a t i o n which enable t h e program

to follow post-buckling equilibrium paths, and f o r
detecting and c l a s s i f y i n g a n y i n s t a b i l i t y may t a k e p l a c e
at any stage o f t h e l o a d i n g p r o c e s s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e was
used .
4 Verification o f the techniques used
The ability o f t h e used technique which consider the

effect o f j o i n t s on t h e b e h a v i o u r o f s h a l l o w s i n g l e l a y e r
lattice domes a n d t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e p r o g r a m u s e d t o t r a c e
the complete equilibrium p a t h s f o r t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s have
been t e s t e d a g a i n s t a v a i l a b l e r e s u l t s .
Fig. 2 shows the results obtained from t h e present
program compared w i t h those o b t a i n e d from a f i n i t e element
analysis, using this p r o g r a m a l s o f o r a 2 member s h a l l o w
toggle. T h e t o g g l e p r o p e r t i e s a r e t h o s e c o m p u t e d f o r MERO
members and j o i n t s . The f i n i t e e l e m e n t a p p r o a c h r e q u i r e s
the introduction o f a node a t each v a r i a t i o n i n c r o s s
section a l o n g t h e member l e n g t h . Simulation (e) o f Fig. 1
was used i n t h e p r o g r a m t o r e p r e s e n t MERO j o i n t s . From
Fig. 2, i t i s o b v i o u s t h a t g o o d a g r e e m e n t was a c h i e v e d .
Table 1 shows a comparison between t h e number o f f r e e
nodes, t h e number o f e l e m e n t s , a n d c o m p u t e r t i m e r e q u i r e d
for 50 l o a d i n c r e a m e n t s u s i n g t h e p r e s e n t method and t h e
f i n i t e element technique.
Table 1. Comparison between t h e present and finite

e l e m e n t m e t h o d s f o r 2 member t o g g l e
Method No . o f No . o f Computing time (sec)

Free nodes element
Present 1 2 2.7
F i n i t e element 9 1 0 10.95
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0 20 40 60 80 100
Deflection mm
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F i g . 2 . Two member s h a l l o w toggle using MERO joints
E = 210 kN/mm 2
I = 15000 mm 4
0 2 4 • 1.0C-02 1.08-01 1.0C+00 l.K+01 1.0C+02 1.0C+03
Lateral deflection at the middle of the column mm K/(E'A)
Fig.3. Elastically connected column
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From Fig. 2 and Table 1, i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e p r e s e n t
approach i s very economic i n a l l aspects of computing,
while a t t h e same t i m e i t g i v e s v e r y g o o d r e s u l t s c o m p a r e d
w i t h t h e f i n i t e element approach r e s u l t s .
Fig. 3 shows an e l a s t i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d column and i t s
buckling load for different values of joint bending
stiffness. I n t h e F i g u r e , t h e b a c k l i n g l o a d i s r a t i o e d by
the Euler load against the lateral deflection atthe
middle o f t h e column f o r d i f f e r e n t values o f j o i n t bending
stiffness "K". An initial lateral imperfection atthe
middle o f t h e c o l u m n o f 0 . 0 1 mm was i n t r o d u c e d t o i n i t i a t e
the mode o f f a i l u r e . From F i g . 3 ( a ) , i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e
buckling load increases with increasing joint stiffness
with the buckling load of a f u l l y r i g i d c o l u m n as t h e
upper limit and t h e b u c k l i n g l o a d o f a p i n j o i n t e d column
as t h e lower l i m i t . Also i t i s obvious t h a t the buckling
load changes rapidly near t h e lower limit f o r small
changes i n "K", a n d t h a t n o s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s t a k e place
near t h e upper l i m i t e v e n f o r l a r g e c h a n g e s i n "K". The
upper and lower values of the buckling loads f o r f u l l y
rigid and pure pinned columns a r e i n agreement with
appropriate hand calculations. From F i g . 3 ( b ) , which
relates the j o i n t bending s t i f f n e s s t o the buckling load,
the effective length factor f o f a column w i t h f l e x i b l e
joints ( v a r y i n g f r o m 1.0 f o r p u r e p i n n e d c o l u m n t o 0.5 f o r
f u l l y r i g i d c o l u m n ) c a n be o b t a i n e d from
c r
( f U 2
where P i s the buckling load obtained from the

cr
computer program.
5 Joint continuity ratio (JCR)
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It was found that f o r a c e r t a i n value of j o i n t s bending
stiffness, i n case of a joint with a certain size, that
the b e h a v i o u r o f t h e s t r u c t u r e was a l m o s t e x a c t l y t h e same
as that of a fully r i g i d j o i n t e d s t r u c t u r e w i t h normal
members. For these joints, the bending s t i f f n e s s of the
joints i s represented by the bending stiffness of a
nondimensional spring ( ) , and their size i s
represented by a rigid length ( X L ) , where X i s the
ratio between joint size a n d member length. This
particular value of j o i n t bending s t i f f n e s s i s r e l a t e d t o
the flexural r i g i d i t y o f t h e members E I and t o t h e l e n g t h
o f r i g i d p a r t s XL a t t h e i r e n d s , w h e r e
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where is the modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y , I i s t h e member
moment of inertia, and L i s the member l e n g t h . This
special value of joint stiffness ( K ) w i l l be d e n o t e d
T r
the "joint continuity stiffness", T h i ' r a t i o between t h e

C
bending stiffness of a joint (K ) and the joint

continuity stiffness ^ ic^
K c a
now
n
be used as an
indication f o r t h e degree of bending continuity of a
joint. This r a t i o , w h i c h w i l l be d e n o t e d t h e " t h e j o i n t
c o n t i n u i t y r a t i o ( J C R ) " , a n d i s e x p r e s s e d as
K
JCR = (3)
K
IC
Fig. 4 ( a ) s h o w s a t w o member t o g g l e . Joint simulation

(c) o f F i g . 1 was u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e t o g g l e j o i n t s . A
rigid part with length XL=57mm ( s o X=0.047) plus a
nondimentional s p r i n g w i t h v a r i a b l e b e n d i n g s t i f f n e s s were
used t o represent the joints of the toggle. Curve ( a )
shows the relation between the joint continuity ratio
(JCR) and the buckling load of the toggle f o r variable
joint stiffness r e l a t e d t o the buckling load of the f u l l y
rigid jointed toggle w i t h no r i g i d l e n g t h s ( t h e b u c k l i n g
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
load has been taken as the load corresponding t othe
minimum current stiffness parameter S ). As c a n be
seen, the load r a t i o o f t h e t o g g l e i s §reater t h a n 1 f o r
JCR g r e a t e r than 1; a l s o t h a t t h e t o g g l e b u c k l e s a t a l o a d
level less than the buckling load of the p i n jointed
toggle f o r s m a l l v a l u e s o f JCR. I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e
that a high percentage of the f u l l y r i g i d jointed toggle
s t r e n g t h i s a c h i e v e d f o r m o d e r a t e v a l u e o f JCR.
Curve ( b ) o f F i g . 4 s h o w s t h e r e s u l t s o f a t w o member
toggle as t h e toggle of curve (a) but w i t h i t s j o i n t size
neglected. Joint simulation ( a ) o f F i g . 1 was u s e d t o
simulate the joints. I t c a n be seen that the load
capacity of the toggle increases with increasing joint
bending stiffness. I t i s apparent that the behaviour
change rapidly near t h e lower limit of a p i n jointed
structure and very s l o w l y near t h e upper l i m i t o f a f u l l y
rigid jointed structure. Theoretically, t h e upper and
lower limits o f b e h a v i o u r , i n t h i s c a s e , c a n be o b t a i n e d
by setting t h e value of joint stiffness t o be » a n d
0 respectively. P r a c t i c a l l y , a large value o f K^/fEI/L)
(200 i n this case) was enough t o g e t a behaviour very
close t o t h e upper l i m i t , and a s m a l l value o f K ^ / f E I / L )
(0.0093 i n t h i s c a s e ) was e n o u g h t o o b t a i n t h e l o w e r l i m i t
behaviour. I n t h i s j o i n t s i m u l a t i o n , t h e behaviour cannot
be outside t h e upper and lower l i m i t s whatever i s t h e
value of j o i n t b e n d i n g s t i f f n e s s n o t as t h e case o f c u r v e
(a) .
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Copyright CRC Press

KAEI/XDOR K(EI/L)
Fig.4. The e f f e c t of j o i n t bending stiffness
6 Experimental results and t h e i r numerical predictions
Experimental dome models were tested. In these models

various member size, joint type, and l o a d p a t t e r n were
used. The t e s t e d dome m o d e l s v a r i e s f r o m a t h r e e member
toggles to a 90 member s h a l l o w d o m e s w i t h 7.2ms diameter
in plan. Here only some o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a n d
the corresponding computer results f o r some m o d e l s a r e
presented. The complete experimental and analytical
results are given i n Fathelbab (1987).
All the e x p e r i m a n t a l d o m e m o d e l s w e r e b u i l t u s i n g MERO
joints. Two different size of joint sleeves (small size
and large size) were used t o c o n n e c t t h e member t o t h e
ball joints. Also two different size of c i r c u l a r tube
member were used to build t h e m o d e l s , t h e s m a l l member
size i s 3 0 x 1 . 6 mm, a n d t h e l a r g e s i z e i s 6 0 . 3 x 3 . 2 mm. For
each type of models a special test r i g was b u i l t t o
support the models, also loading arrangement f o r each
model type w a s d o n e . Two d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d o f l o a d i n g w e r e
used. The f i r s t one was t o a p p l y an i n c r e m e n t a l d i s p l a -
cement f o r one node and r e c o r d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l e v e l o f --``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
load.The second l o a d i n g t e c h n i q u e was t o c o n t r o l t h e v a l u e

of t h e a p p l i e d l o a d i n s t e a d o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t control.
The properties of the dome models components (the
joints, and t h e members) were determined from experiments
on individual joints and members. F i g . 5 shows t h e
m o m e n t - r o t a t i o n c u r v e s f o r some j o i n t s .
674
Copyright CRC Press

Slip rotation in radians ( ? )
Fig.5. The moment-rotation curves of the joints
In a l l models the initial geometry before applying

loads was m e a s u r e d a n d u s e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s . T r a n s d u c e r s ,
dial gauges and strain gauges were used t o measure t h e
models response under the applied load at d i f f e r e n t load
levels.
6.1 T h r e e member t o g g l e s
A number of 24 three-member t o g g l e models were t e s t e d .
Fig. 7 shows the results of only one m o d e l . In this
model, large members and large s l e e v e s were u s e d . The
load applied to the middle node of the toggle was
controlled. The other three nodes were s u p p o r t e d on t h e
rig in such way to be f r e e t o r o t a t e and t h e i r t r a n s -
lations w e r e c o n s t r a i n e d . The m e a s u r e d r e l a t i v e h e i g h t s o f
nodes 1, 2, 3, and 4 o f t h e t o g g l e b e f o r e a p p l y i n g any
loads were 2 . 6 , 0 . 0 , 3 1 . 3 , a n d 0.6 mm r e s p e c t i v e l y . From
Fig. 6, i t can be seen t h a t t h e r e i s a good agreement
between t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l and a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s .
Fig. 6 shows a l s o t h e c o m p u t e r r e s u l t s f o r two a n a l y s e s
considering the extreme j o i n t assumptions of e i t h e r pure
pinned or fully rigid. I t i s obvious that the actual
behaviour i s completely d i f f e r e n t from e i t h e r o f t h e two
extremes .
6.2 90-member dome m o d e l w i t h s m a l l s i z e members a n d

joints
Fig. 7 shows the experimental and analytical load-
deflection curves of o n e n o d e o f a 9 0 - m e m b e r dome. This
dome was b u i l t u s i n g s m a l l s i z e m e m b e r s a n d s l e e v e s , a n d a
uniformly incremental load was a p p l i e d a t e a c h o f i t s 19
internal nodes. In the computer analysis, the actual
members, and joints properties from experiments were
used. The j o i n t c o n t i n u i t y r a t i o ( J C R ) o f t h i s m o d e l was
31%. From F i g . 7, i t can be s e e n t h a t t h e r e i s g o o d
agreement between the c o m p u t e r and e x p e r i m e n t a l results.
Fig. 7 shows a l s o t h e r e s u l t s o f c o m p u t e r a n l y s i s f o r t h e
675
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright CRC Press

3
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deflection mm
Fig.6. Load d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e s o f m i d d l e node o f

t h r e e member t o g g l e .
1.5 -
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Vertical deflection mm
Fig.7. L o a d - d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e s o f n o d e 26 i n s m a l l
member s h a l l o w dome m o d e l .
676
Copyright CRC Press

0 10 20 30 40 50
Vertical deflection of node 31 mm
Fig.8. Load-deflection curves of large member dome model.
fully rigid a n d p u r e p i n n e d j o i n t e d dome. I t c a n be s e e n

that a 31% joint c o n t i n u i t y r a t i o p r o v i d e d a b o u t 76% o f
the difference between the buckling load o f t h e two
extreme a n a l y s i s .
6.2 90-member dome model with large size members a n d

joints
Fig. 8 shows the experimental and a n a l y t i c a l load-
deflection curves o f o n e n o d e o f a 9 0 - m e m b e r dome m o d e l .
In this dome l a r g e s i z e members and s l e e v e s were u s e d t o
build t h e model. A uniform incremental l o a d s were a p p l i e d
to a l l of the internal nodes o f t h e model, and a l l t h e
perimeter n o d e s w e r e s u p p o r t e d o n t h e t e s t r i g i n s u c h way
to r o t a t e b u t n o t t o t r a n s l a t e .
Fig. 8 shows also the a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s of the f u l l y
rigid and pure p i n j o i n t e d a n a l y s e s . The j o i n t c o n t i n u i t y
ratio o f t h i s m o d e l was 4 . 5 % . F r o m F i g . 8, i t c a n be s e e n
that this small JCR provided 21% of the difference i n
b u c k l i n g l o a d s o f t h e f u l l y r i g i d a n d p i n j o i n t e d dome.
7 Conclusion
From the results presented here of the behaviour of

shallow single layer lattice domes, and the effect of
joint properties on t h i s b e h a v i o u r , t h e f o l l o w i n g c a n be
concluded:
The joints characteristics have a considerable effect

--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
677
Copyright CRC Press

on t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h i s t y p e o f s p a c e structures.
For shallow s i n g l e l a y e r l a t t i c e domes w i t h r e l a t i v e l y
flexible joints, a substantial increase i n the load
capacity c a n be o b t a i n e d b y p r o v i d i n g s m a l l a d d i t i o n a l
connection stiffness, i n particular, a 4 . 5 % JCR g a v e
21% improvement i n performance between a pure p i n and
r i g i d j o i n t behaviour.
For structures with large flexible j o i n t s , t h e load
capacity o f t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s c a n become l e s s t h a n t h a t
obtained by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e j o i n t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e t o
be p u r e p i n s .
8 Acknowledgement
The authers would l i k e t o aknowledge MERO-Raumstruckture

of West Germany f o r providing the joints used i n t h e
e x p e r i m e n t a l models.
9 References
Bergan, P.G. (1980) Solution algorithm f o r nonlinear

structural problems, computer & s t r u c t u r e s , V o l . 12,
pp. 497-509.
Birnstiel, C. and Iffland, J.S.B. (1980) Factors
influencing frame s t a b i l i t y , J . o f S t r u c t . D i v . , ASCE,
V o l . 1 0 6 , NO.ST2, F e b . , p p . 4 9 1 - 5 0 4 .
Fathelbab, F.A. (1987) The effect of joints on t h e
stability o f s h a l l o w s i n g l e l a y e r l a t t i c e d o m e s , Ph.D.
t h e s i s , Dept. o f Engng., U n i v . o f Cambridge, U.K..
Fathelbab, F.A., and McConnel, R.E. (1989) Approximate
tangent stiffness matrix includes the effects of joint
properties f o r space frame member, p r o c e e d i n g , IASS
C o n g r e s s , 11-15 S e p t . , M a d r i d , S p a i n .
Jenkins, W.A., Tong, C.S., and P r e s c o t t , A.T. (1986)
Moment-transmitting endplate connections i n steel
construction, and a proposed basis f o r f l u s h endplate
design, The S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r , V o l . 6 4 A , No. 5, May,
pp. 121-132.
Lightfoot, E. a n d Le Messurier, A.P. (1974) Elastic
analysis o f frame works with elastic connections, J.
Struct. D i v . , ASCE, V o l . 1 0 0 , No. ST6, J u n e , pp.
1 2 9 7 - 1 309 .
Lionberger, S.R. a n d W e a v e r , W. ( 1 9 6 9 ) D y n a m i c r e s p o n s e o f
frames with nonrigid c o n n e c t i o n s , J . o f Engng. Mech.
D i v . , ASCE, V o l . 9 5 , No. EM 1 , F e b . , p p . 9 5 - 1 1 4 .
Machaly, E.B. ( 1 9 8 6 ) B u c k l i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e a n a l y s i s
of steel t r u s s e s , c o m p u t e r s & s t r u c t u r e s , V o l . 2 2 , No.
3, p p . 4 4 5 - 4 5 8 .
Nethercot, D. A. ( 1 985 ) J o i n t action and t h e d e s i g n o f
--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
steel f r a m e s , The S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r , V o l . 63A, No.12,

D e c . , p p . 37 1 - 3 7 9 .
678
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--``,,`,,````,,,`,``,`,`,,``,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures

Fracture Mechanics of Concrete Structures: From Theory to

The Maintenance of Brick and Stone Masonry Structures

Reinforced Concrete Chimneys and Towers

Structural Analysis. A Unified Classical and Matrix Approach

Structural Engineering Review (Editor B.H. V. Topping)

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Proceedings of the F o r t h Rail Bridge

LONDON AND NEW YORK

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Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

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PART ONE T H E HISTORY OF STRUCTURAL

The Forth Bridges 3

Forth crossing challenges at Queensferry before the Rail Bridge 36

American long span metal truss experience prior to the

PART T W O RECENT S T R U C T U R A L ENGINEERING

Railway engineering in Scotland today 79

The St Enoch Centre, Glasgow 91

New visitor facilities at Edinburgh Castle 103

PART THREE BRIDGE ENGINEERING 115

Progress in bridge engineering 117

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Corrosion resistance in steels for motorway bridges

Fiber reinforced plastic bridges in Chongqing 1983-1988

The test performance of a full-scale prestressed brickwork

Optimum cost design of composite and noncomposite

A computer-based methodology for investigation of bridge

A reliability-based capacity rating of existing bridges by

Bridge rail design and crash worthiness

PART FOUR REINFORCED C O N C R E T E BRIDGES

A simple method for designing bridge deck slabs

Behaviour of integral reinforced concrete skewed slab bridges

Optimization of prestressed concrete single cell box

Study of cast-in-situ cement concrete multi-circular

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PART FIVE C A B L E BRIDGES 295

Some thoughts on cable bridge design 297

Developments in steels for cable-stayed structures 316

Dynamic behaviour of cable-stayed bridges under

P A R T SIX R A I L W A Y BRIDGES 347

Steel railway bridges: recent developments 349

On fatigue evaluation of riveted connections in railway

PART SEVEN M A S O N R Y A R C H BRIDGES 379

Analysis of masonry arch bridges by a finite element method 381

The behaviour of masonry arch bridges - the effect of defects 393

PART EIGHT S T R U C T U R A L A N A L Y S I S O F BRIDGES 403

The Tay Bridge disaster - a study in structural pathology 405

Sensitivity analysis for short-span steel bridges 415

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A n improved numerical approach for dynamic analysis of

PART NINE BRIDGE D Y N A M I C S

The dynamic behaviour of bridges: prediction and performance

Dynamic behaviour of cable-stayed bridges

Nonstationary analysis of suspension bridges for multiple

Microcomputer-based extraction of cable-stayed bridge

Load testing as a means of assessing the structural behaviour

The management of information in bridgeworks maintenance

The structural assessment and strengthening of

Steel truss bridge rehabilitation technique using superimposed

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