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STRUT-AND-TIE MODELLING
Introduction and Overview of STM Process

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References

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Strut-and-Tie Model

 Struts: Compressive concrete members.

 Ties: Tensile steel members.
 Nodes: where struts, ties and concentrated forces intersect.
 Nodal zone: volume of concrete surrounding a node
transferring forces through the node.

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Strut-and-Tie Model
 Struts: Compressive concrete members.
 Ties: Tensile steel members.
 Nodes: where struts, ties and concentrated forces intersect.
 Nodal zone: volume of concrete surrounding a node
transferring forces through the node.
 STM: Idealised and simplified representation of concrete
structures at overload (with significant cracking/deformation).
 A STM is a statically admissible stress field required only to
satisfy equilibrium and yield criteria.
 Strut-and-tie modelling is a lower-bound plasticity method.
 Strut-and-tie modelling does not provide a unique design
solution for a given structural system.
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STM - Lower-bound plasticity method

 Concrete has a limited capacity to sustain plastic deformation
and is not an elastic-perfectly plastic material: The chosen
stress state should reflect the natural behaviour of the
structure, minimising the demand for stress redistribution.
Concrete stresses must be controlled to prevent brittle failure.
 Concrete structures are designed to ensure yielding of
reinforcement (ties/stirrups) occurring before crushing of
concrete (struts and nodes).
 So:
 STM must be in equilibrium with design loads.

 Material capacity must not be exceeded.

 Enough ductility for any needed stress redistribution.

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STM Process

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Requirements
 Loads applied at nodes & struts and ties subjected to only axial
forces.
 STM providing load path to carry all factored loads to the
supports or adjacent B-regions.
 STM in equilibrium with the applied loads and the reactions.
 In determining the geometry of the truss, the dimensions of the
struts, ties, and nodal zones shall be taken into account.
 Ties shall be permitted to cross struts.
 Struts shall cross or overlap only at nodes.
 The angle between the axes of any strut and any tie entering a
node must be greater than a minimum value (e.g. for AS3600-
2018: >30o for reinforced concrete; >20o for prestressed
concrete)

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Struts
 Compression struts fulfil two functions in the STM:
 as the compression chord of the truss mechanism which
resists moment;
 as the diagonal struts which transfer shear to the supports.
Orientation of diagonal struts is based on shear force
diagram  Drawing SFD can be useful in many cases.
 Diagonal struts are generally oriented parallel to the expected
axis of cracking. This make the most efficient use of the
concrete because the ultimate mechanism does not require
reorientation of the struts.

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Struts – Types of struts

 Three main types of struts:

 If a strut does not have sufficient capacity, provide compression

reinforcement or increase the size of nodal zone.

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Ties
 Tensions ties include stirrups, longitudinal (tension chord)
reinforcement, and any special detail reinforcement.
 Adequate anchorage for the reinforcement must be
provided. Hook, steel plate, or mechanical anchor may be
required.
 In AS3600, smallest angle between the strut and tie
entering a node must be >30o for RC elements and 20o for
prestressed concrete elements.

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Nodes
 Nodes are joints in the STM, i.e., the locations at which
struts, ties and concentrated forces converge.
 Nodes are the locations at which forces are redirected
within the STM.

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STM Process

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