WA-725-1 Design

Department of Municipal Affairs and Transport
PO Box 20
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
© Copyright 2016, by the Department of Municipal Affairs and Transport. All Rights Reserved.
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IRRIGATION SYSTEMS DESIGN VOL-I
TABLE OF CONTENT
TABLE OF CONTENT .......................................................................................................................................... I
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................................. IX
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................................ XI
GLOSSARY ........................................................................................................................................................ XII
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................ XVII
1 GENERAL ............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Purpose.............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Scope ................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.4 Basic Data Required .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.4.1 Landscape/Plant Type ....................................................................................................................... 2
1.4.2 Application Losses ............................................................................................................................. 2
1.4.3 Salinity ............................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.4 Soils ................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.5 Groundwater Table Level .................................................................................................................. 4
1.4.6 Slope .................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.4.7 Topography/Levels ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.4.8 Climate ............................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4.9 Irrigation Management ....................................................................................................................... 6
1.4.9.1 Hydrozones ................................................................................................................................ 6
1.4.9.2 Lateral Systems ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.4.9.3 Pressure Contraints ................................................................................................................... 7
1.4.9.4 Irrigation Scheduling .................................................................................................................. 7
1.5 Service Area ...................................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Irrigation Water Sources .................................................................................................................... 8
2 EXISTING NETWORK .................................................................................................................... 9
2.1 TSE Network ...................................................................................................................................... 9
1.2.2 Transmission Network ..................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 TSE Quality ...................................................................................................................................... 11
2.3 Types of Secondary Irrigation System ............................................................................................. 12
2.3.1 Classification of Irrigation Systems .................................................................................................. 12
2.3.1.1 Pressure................................................................................................................................... 12
2.3.1.2 Water Delivery Method ............................................................................................................ 12
2.3.1.3 Type of Installation ................................................................................................................... 13
2.3.2 Above Ground Irrigation Systems - Sprinklers, Rotors, Bubblers and Drippers .............................. 13
2.3.2.1 Sprinklers ................................................................................................................................. 13
2.3.2.2 Spitters, Micro-jets and Sprayers............................................................................................. 14
2.3.2.3 Bubblers ................................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.2.4 Drippers ................................................................................................................................... 16
2.3.2.5 Integrated Drip – Line (Built – in Emitters) ............................................................................... 17
2.3.2.6 Pressure Compensated (PC) Drippers .................................................................................... 18
2.3.3 Sub-surface Irrigation Systems........................................................................................................ 18
2.3.3.1 Integrated Drip – Line (Built – in Emitters) ............................................................................... 19
2.3.3.2 Porous Pipes............................................................................................................................ 20
3 WATER QUALITY ...........................................................................................................................22
3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 22
3.1.1 Public Health Factors in TSE Use ................................................................................................... 22
3.1.2 Suitability of TSE for Landscape Irrigation ...................................................................................... 23
3.2 TSE Parameters .............................................................................................................................. 23
3.3 Quality Standards and Guidelines ................................................................................................... 24
3.3.1 Quality Standards in UAE ................................................................................................................ 24
3.3.2 FAO Guidelines ............................................................................................................................... 25
3.3.3 U.S. Salinity Laboratory ................................................................................................................... 27
3.3.4 Current Guidelines ........................................................................................................................... 29
3.3.4.1 Site Conditions ......................................................................................................................... 29
3.3.4.2 Methods and Timing of Irrigation ............................................................................................. 29
3.3.4.3 Water Uptake by Crops ........................................................................................................... 29
3.3.4.4 Restriction on Use ................................................................................................................... 29
TOC PAGE I FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

3.3.5 Clogging Potential ............................................................................................................................ 30

3.4 Irrigation System Design for Poor-Quality Water............................................................................. 30
3.4.1 Distribution Uniformity...................................................................................................................... 31
3.4.2 Site-Specific Application Capability and Capacity ........................................................................... 31
3.4.3 Control Flexibility ............................................................................................................................. 32
3.4.4 Additional System Design Considerations ....................................................................................... 32
3.4.4.1 Irrigation Systems Hydraulic Design for LR ............................................................................. 32
3.4.4.2 Emitter Selection and Spacing Evaluation ............................................................................... 33
3.4.4.3 Pressure-Regulated Valve-in-Head ......................................................................................... 33
3.4.4.4 Geometric Configurations (Square versus Triangular) ............................................................ 33
3.4.4.5 Combating Wind Effects on Distribution Uniformity ................................................................. 33
3.4.4.6 Hydraulic Systems ................................................................................................................... 33
3.4.4.7 Weather and Soil Moisture Monitoring Equipment .................................................................. 33
3.4.4.8 Setbacks and Buffer Zones ..................................................................................................... 34
3.4.4.9 Corrosion-Resistant Components............................................................................................ 34
3.4.4.10 Miscellaneous Items ............................................................................................................ 34
4 IRRIGATION WATER BUDGETING ........................................................................................35
4.1 Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) ............................................................................................... 36
4.2 Landscape Coefficient (KL) .............................................................................................................. 36
4.3 Run-off ............................................................................................................................................. 40
4.4 Leaching Requirement (LR)............................................................................................................. 40
4.4.1 Salt Tolerance by Landscape Plants ............................................................................................... 41
4.5 Irrigation Efficiency .......................................................................................................................... 41
4.6 Total Demand .................................................................................................................................. 41
4.6.1 Irrigation Water Requirements ......................................................................................................... 41
4.6.1.1 Net Irrigation Water Requirement ............................................................................................ 41
4.6.1.2 Gross Irrigation Water Requirement ........................................................................................ 41
4.6.2 Irrigation Water Budget. Total Demand ........................................................................................... 42
5 ESTIDAMA CONSIDERATIONS. PRDM AND USDM .....................................................43
5.1 Liaising Irrigation Water Budget (VIWR) with Estidama .................................................................... 43
6 IRRIGATION SYSTEMS ...............................................................................................................45
6.1 Soil-Water-Plant Relationships ........................................................................................................ 45
6.1.1 Soil Texture ...................................................................................................................................... 45
6.1.2 Soil Structure ................................................................................................................................... 47
6.1.2.1 Soil Structure Types ................................................................................................................ 48
6.1.2.2 Soil Pore Space ....................................................................................................................... 48
6.1.3 Water Movement in the Soil............................................................................................................. 49
6.1.3.1 Infiltration ................................................................................................................................. 49
6.1.3.2 Deep Percolation and Surface Run-off .................................................................................... 50
6.1.4 Effective Root Zone ......................................................................................................................... 50
6.1.5 Soil Moisture Holding Capacities ..................................................................................................... 51
6.1.5.1 Definitions ................................................................................................................................ 51
6.1.5.2 Depletion .................................................................................................................................. 53
6.1.6 Irrigation Interval .............................................................................................................................. 54
6.1.7 Irrigation Run Time .......................................................................................................................... 54
6.1.8 Irrigation Method .............................................................................................................................. 54
6.1.8.1 Drip Irrigation Systems ............................................................................................................ 55
6.1.8.2 Sub-surface Irrigation Systems................................................................................................ 56
6.1.8.3 Sprinkler Irrigation Systems ..................................................................................................... 57
6.2 Hydraulic Principles of Hydrozones ................................................................................................. 58
6.2.1 Friction Head Losses ....................................................................................................................... 58
6.2.2 Localized Head Losses .................................................................................................................... 60
6.2.2.1 Resistance Coefficient “K” ....................................................................................................... 60
6.2.2.2 Equivalent Length .................................................................................................................... 61
6.2.2.3 Design Coefficient .................................................................................................................... 62
6.2.3 Maximum Allowable Flow Variation in Hydrozones ......................................................................... 63
6.2.4 Maximum Allowable Pressure Variation in Hydrozones .................................................................. 63
6.2.5 Head Losses Distribution in Hydrozones ......................................................................................... 64
6.2.6 Head Losses in Laterals and Sub-mains ......................................................................................... 65
6.2.6.1 Equally Spaced Emitters/Derivations. Christiansen’s Friction Factor (F) ................................ 65
6.2.6.2 Grouped Emitters/Derivations .................................................................................................. 66
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6.2.6.3 Continuous Flow Distribution. Porous Pipes ........................................................................... 67

6.3 Design of Drip irrigation ................................................................................................................... 67
6.3.1 Type of Drippers .............................................................................................................................. 68
6.3.2 Dripper Discharges .......................................................................................................................... 70
6.3.2.1 Pressure versus Discharge ...................................................................................................... 70
6.3.2.2 Temperature versus Discharge ............................................................................................... 71
6.3.2.3 Uniformity Standards ............................................................................................................... 71
6.3.3 Emitter Spacing ............................................................................................................................... 73
6.3.3.1 Wetted Area ............................................................................................................................. 73
6.3.3.2 Overlap .................................................................................................................................... 74
6.3.3.3 Spacing .................................................................................................................................... 75
6.3.3.4 Checking for Infiltration ............................................................................................................ 75
6.3.4 Lateral Row Spacing ........................................................................................................................ 75
6.3.4.1 Percentage of Wetted Area ..................................................................................................... 75
6.3.4.2 Number of Emitters per Plant .................................................................................................. 75
6.3.4.3 Lateral Spacing ........................................................................................................................ 76
6.3.4.4 Precipitation Rate .................................................................................................................... 76
6.3.5 Sectioning ........................................................................................................................................ 76
6.3.6 Pipe Size and Length ....................................................................................................................... 77
6.3.7 Flush Cups and Flush Valves .......................................................................................................... 77
6.4 Design of Subsurface Irrigation ....................................................................................................... 77
6.4.1 Type of Subsurface Irrigation Systems ............................................................................................ 78
6.4.1.1 Sandwiched Systems .............................................................................................................. 79
6.4.2 Discharges ....................................................................................................................................... 79
6.4.3 Burial Depth ..................................................................................................................................... 79
6.4.4 Spacing ............................................................................................................................................ 80
6.4.5 Layout .............................................................................................................................................. 80
6.4.5.1 Trees on Turf Areas ................................................................................................................. 81
6.4.5.2 Curved Edges .......................................................................................................................... 82
6.4.5.3 Slopes ...................................................................................................................................... 82
6.4.6 Sectioning ........................................................................................................................................ 83
6.4.8 Flush Pipes and Flush valves .......................................................................................................... 83
6.4.9 System Longevity ............................................................................................................................ 83
6.4.9.1 Root Intrusion........................................................................................................................... 83
6.4.9.2 Filtration ................................................................................................................................... 84
6.4.9.3 Flushing ................................................................................................................................... 85
6.4.9.4 Use of Recycled Water ............................................................................................................ 85
6.5 Design of Sprinklers ......................................................................................................................... 85
6.5.1 Types of Sprinklers .......................................................................................................................... 86
6.5.1.1 Spray Sprinklers....................................................................................................................... 86
6.5.1.2 Rotating Sprinklers .................................................................................................................. 88
6.5.2 Discharge of Sprinklers .................................................................................................................... 88
6.5.2.1 Types of Nozzles ..................................................................................................................... 89
6.5.2.2 Uniformity of Precipitation ........................................................................................................ 89
6.5.3 Spacing ............................................................................................................................................ 91
6.5.3.1 Square Pattern ......................................................................................................................... 92
6.5.3.2 Triangular Pattern .................................................................................................................... 93
6.5.3.3 Staggering the Patterns ........................................................................................................... 93
6.5.3.4 Precipitation Rate .................................................................................................................... 94
6.5.3.5 Checking for Infiltration ............................................................................................................ 94
6.5.4 Sectioning/Zoning ............................................................................................................................ 95
6.5.5.1 Locating Valves and Laterals ................................................................................................... 95
6.6 Section Total Demand ..................................................................................................................... 96
6.7 Valve Selection ................................................................................................................................ 96
6.8 Design of Irrigation Mains ................................................................................................................ 97
6.8.1 Total Demand for the Entire Area .................................................................................................... 97
6.8.2 Main Line Pipe Size ......................................................................................................................... 97
7 OPERATING SCHEDULING .......................................................................................................98
7.1 Irrigation Requirements ................................................................................................................... 98
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7.1.1 Peak Demand .................................................................................................................................. 98

7.1.2 Available Pressure/Flow in the System ........................................................................................... 98
7.2 Avoiding Run-off .............................................................................................................................. 99
7.2.1 Observation Method ........................................................................................................................ 99
7.2.2 Basic Infiltration Rate Method .......................................................................................................... 99
7.2.3 Run Time of Each Cycle Start ....................................................................................................... 100
7.2.4 Soak Time Between Cycle Starts .................................................................................................. 100
7.3 Scheduling Constraints .................................................................................................................. 101
7.4 Sectioning/Zoning the Service Area .............................................................................................. 101
7.5 Design the System to Operate 14 Hours per Day ......................................................................... 101
7.6 Clustering of Valves ....................................................................................................................... 102
7.7 Total Number of Valves to Work Simultaneously .......................................................................... 102
8 IRRIGATION SERVICE CORRIDOR .....................................................................................103
8.1 Utility Corridors – Utility Corridor Design Manual (UCDM) ............................................................ 103
8.2 Irrigation Corridor Requirements ................................................................................................... 103
8.2.1 Irrigation Pipe Corridor Width Requirements ................................................................................. 103
8.2.2 Irrigation Appurtenances ................................................................................................................ 104
8.2.3 Irrigation Corridor ........................................................................................................................... 104
8.2.4 Irrigation Pipe Depth ...................................................................................................................... 105
8.2.5 Special Arrangements ................................................................................................................... 105
8.2.6 Location of the Irrigation System Corridor ..................................................................................... 105
8.3 Selecting/Identifying service corridors ........................................................................................... 105
8.3.1 City Context ................................................................................................................................... 106
8.3.2 Town Context ................................................................................................................................. 106
8.3.3 Commercial Context ...................................................................................................................... 106
8.3.4 Residential Context ........................................................................................................................ 106
8.3.5 Industrial Context ........................................................................................................................... 106
8.3.6 Utility Reservation Widths Summary Table ................................................................................... 106
9 PIPE NETWORK ............................................................................................................................107
9.1 Network Configuration ................................................................................................................... 107
9.1.1 Branched Systems ......................................................................................................................... 107
9.1.2 Looped Systems ............................................................................................................................ 107
9.2 Material Selection .......................................................................................................................... 108
9.2.1 Ductile Iron Pipes ........................................................................................................................... 108
9.2.2 Steel Pipes ..................................................................................................................................... 109
9.2.3 Polyethylene Pipes (HDPE) ........................................................................................................... 109
9.2.4 uPVC Pipes.................................................................................................................................... 110
9.2.5 GRP Pipes ..................................................................................................................................... 110
9.3 Hydraulic Design ............................................................................................................................ 110
9.3.1 Design Flow ................................................................................................................................... 111
9.3.2 Design Velocity .............................................................................................................................. 111
9.3.3 Energy Losses ............................................................................................................................... 111
9.3.3.1 Friction Head Losses ............................................................................................................. 112
9.3.3.2 Localized Head Loses ........................................................................................................... 113
9.4 Structural Design ........................................................................................................................... 114
9.4.1 Internal Forces ............................................................................................................................... 114
9.4.2 External Forces .............................................................................................................................. 114
9.4.3 Temperature Range ....................................................................................................................... 115
9.4.4 Unbalanced Thrust ........................................................................................................................ 115
9.4.5 Design Requirements .................................................................................................................... 115
9.4.6 Unforeseen Ground Conditions ..................................................................................................... 116
9.5 Reference Manuals ........................................................................................................................ 116
10 VALVES .............................................................................................................................................117
10.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 117
10.2 Types of Valves ............................................................................................................................. 117
10.2.1 Gate Valves ............................................................................................................................... 117
10.2.2 Globe Valves.............................................................................................................................. 117
10.2.3 Butterfly Valves .......................................................................................................................... 117
10.2.4 Ball Valves ................................................................................................................................. 117
10.2.5 Diaphragm Valves ..................................................................................................................... 118
10.2.6 Check Valves ............................................................................................................................. 118
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10.2.7 Air Valves ................................................................................................................................... 118

10.3 Valve Selection .............................................................................................................................. 118
10.4 Actuators ........................................................................................................................................ 119
10.4.1 Manual Operation ...................................................................................................................... 119
10.4.2 Power Actuators......................................................................................................................... 119
10.4.3 Operating and Torque Considerations ...................................................................................... 120
10.5 Valves’ Function ............................................................................................................................ 120
10.5.1 Isolation Valves .......................................................................................................................... 121
10.5.1.1 Line Shut-off Valves ........................................................................................................... 121
10.5.1.2 Equipment Isolation Valves ............................................................................................... 121
10.5.2 Reverse Flow Prevention Valves ............................................................................................... 122
10.5.3 Air Release and Vacuum Valves ............................................................................................... 122
10.5.3.1 Air Release under Operation ............................................................................................. 122
10.5.3.2 Air Outflow ......................................................................................................................... 123
10.5.3.3 Air Inflow ............................................................................................................................ 123
10.5.4 Washout valves.......................................................................................................................... 123
10.5.4.1 Flushing Flow ..................................................................................................................... 124
10.5.4.2 Maximum Draining Flow .................................................................................................... 124
10.5.4.3 Draining Time..................................................................................................................... 124
10.5.5 Automated Valves ...................................................................................................................... 125
10.5.6 Pressure Reducing Valves ........................................................................................................ 125
10.5.7 Pressure Sustaining Valves ....................................................................................................... 126
10.5.8 Differential Pressure Valves ...................................................................................................... 126
10.5.9 Flow Control Valves ................................................................................................................... 126
10.5.10 Quick Relief Valves .................................................................................................................... 127
11 VALVE CHAMBERS ....................................................................................................................128
11.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 128
11.2 Flow Meter Chamber ..................................................................................................................... 128
11.3 Line Shut-off Valve Chamber......................................................................................................... 129
11.4 Air Valve Chamber ......................................................................................................................... 129
11.5 Washout chamber .......................................................................................................................... 129
11.6 Turn-out chamber .......................................................................................................................... 129
11.7 Control Valve chamber .................................................................................................................. 130
11.8 Access Covers ............................................................................................................................... 130
11.9.1 Internal Forces ........................................................................................................................... 130
11.9.2 External Forces .......................................................................................................................... 130
11.9.3 Temperature Range ................................................................................................................... 130
11.9.4 Unbalanced Thrust .................................................................................................................... 131
11.9.5 Design Requirements ................................................................................................................ 131
11.9.6 Unforeseen Ground Conditions ................................................................................................. 131
12 PUMPING STATIONS..................................................................................................................132
12.1 Pumps ............................................................................................................................................ 132
12.1.1 Pump Type................................................................................................................................. 132
12.1.2 Pumps Connection .................................................................................................................... 132
12.1.3 Number of Pumps ...................................................................................................................... 132
12.1.4 Pump Selection .......................................................................................................................... 133
12.1.4.1 Required Pump Operational Points ................................................................................... 133
12.1.4.2 Pump Performance Curve ................................................................................................. 133
12.1.4.3 NPSH, Vibration, Cavitation and Noise ............................................................................. 134
12.2 Pump Station Arrangement ........................................................................................................... 135
12.2.1 General ...................................................................................................................................... 135
12.2.2 Dry Well ..................................................................................................................................... 135
12.2.3 Wet Well..................................................................................................................................... 136
12.2.4 Wet Well Pump Stations ............................................................................................................ 136
12.2.5 Suction Arrangement ................................................................................................................. 136
12.2.6 Discharge Arrangement ............................................................................................................. 137
12.2.7 Access ....................................................................................................................................... 138
12.2.8 Ventilation .................................................................................................................................. 138
12.2.9 Vibration ..................................................................................................................................... 138
12.2.10 Noise .......................................................................................................................................... 138
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12.3 Automatic Self-cleaning Screen Filters .......................................................................................... 139

12.4 Electric Design ............................................................................................................................... 139
12.4.1 Motors ........................................................................................................................................ 140
12.4.2 Starters ...................................................................................................................................... 140
12.4.3 Variable Frequency Drives (VFD) .............................................................................................. 140
12.4.4 Motor Control Centre (MCC)...................................................................................................... 140
12.4.5 Power Factor Correction Capacitors.......................................................................................... 142
12.4.6 Earthing ...................................................................................................................................... 142
12.4.7 Lightning .................................................................................................................................... 143
12.4.8 Lighting ...................................................................................................................................... 143
12.4.9 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) ......................................................................................... 143
12.4.10 Cables ........................................................................................................................................ 144
12.5.1 General ...................................................................................................................................... 144
12.5.2 Limit states ................................................................................................................................. 144
12.5.3 Actions ....................................................................................................................................... 145
12.5.4 Further provisions ...................................................................................................................... 145
13 RESERVOIRS .................................................................................................................................146
13.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 146
13.2 Functional Requirements ............................................................................................................... 146
13.2.1 Capacity ..................................................................................................................................... 146
13.2.2 Water Quality ............................................................................................................................. 147
13.2.3 Operation ................................................................................................................................... 147
13.3 Design Requirements .................................................................................................................... 149
13.3.1 Water Tightness ......................................................................................................................... 149
13.3.2 Structural Design ....................................................................................................................... 149
13.4 Water Towers ................................................................................................................................ 151
13.5 Ground Tanks ................................................................................................................................ 151
13.5.1 Arrangement .............................................................................................................................. 151
13.5.2 Shape and Depth ....................................................................................................................... 151
13.5.3 Capacity ..................................................................................................................................... 151
13.5.4 Inlet Arrangement ...................................................................................................................... 152
13.5.5 Overflow and Washout .............................................................................................................. 152
13.5.6 Access ....................................................................................................................................... 152
13.5.7 Ventilation .................................................................................................................................. 152
13.5.8 Water Level Indication ............................................................................................................... 152
13.6 Design Life ..................................................................................................................................... 153
14 INSTRUMENTATION ...................................................................................................................154
14.1 Sensors .......................................................................................................................................... 154
14.1.1 Level Measurement ................................................................................................................... 154
14.1.2 Flow Measurement .................................................................................................................... 156
14.1.3 Pressure Measurement ............................................................................................................. 158
14.1.4 Quality Measurement ................................................................................................................. 159
14.2 Compatibility to SCADA ................................................................................................................. 162
15 CONTROL SYSTEMS..................................................................................................................163
15.1 Control Philosophy......................................................................................................................... 163
15.1.1 Pump Control ............................................................................................................................. 163
15.1.2 Tank/Reservoir Level Control .................................................................................................... 163
15.2 Communication System ................................................................................................................. 164
15.2.1 Fieldbuses .................................................................................................................................. 164
15.2.2 Different Fieldbuses ................................................................................................................... 164
15.2.3 Galvanic Isolation ...................................................................................................................... 165
15.2.4 Transient Suppression ............................................................................................................... 165
15.2.5 Power Supply ............................................................................................................................. 165
15.3 SCADA System ............................................................................................................................. 165
16 SURGE SUPRESSION ................................................................................................................171
16.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 171
16.2 Surge Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 171
16.3 Surge Suppression Systems ......................................................................................................... 172
16.3.1 Quick Relief Valve ..................................................................................................................... 172
16.3.2 Surge Vessels ............................................................................................................................ 174
TOC PAGE VI FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016
16.3.3 Soft Starters and VFD ................................................................................................................ 175

17 SUBSOIL DRAINAGE .................................................................................................................176
17.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 176
17.2 Basic Principles of Subsurface Flow and Drainage Design .......................................................... 177
17.3 Planning and Implementing Drainage Projects ............................................................................. 178
17.3.1 Reconnaissance Study .............................................................................................................. 179
17.3.2 Construction near Utilities .......................................................................................................... 180
17.3.3 Concept Design ......................................................................................................................... 181
17.3.3.1 Topography and System Layout ........................................................................................ 181
17.3.3.2 Drain Spacing, Depth and Grading .................................................................................... 182
17.3.3.3 Determining Discharge from Field Drains .......................................................................... 182
17.3.3.4 System Capacity and Drainage Coefficient ....................................................................... 183
17.3.3.5 Pipe Sizing ......................................................................................................................... 183
17.3.3.6 Pipes .................................................................................................................................. 184
17.3.3.7 Envelopes .......................................................................................................................... 184
17.3.3.8 Envelope Materials ............................................................................................................ 184
17.3.3.9 Envelope Requirements in Relation to Soil Characteristics .............................................. 185
17.3.3.10 Trench and Gravel Envelope Dimensions ......................................................................... 185
17.3.3.11 Gravel Envelopes .............................................................................................................. 186
17.3.3.12 Synthetic Envelopes .......................................................................................................... 187
17.3.3.13 Pipe Connections ............................................................................................................... 187
17.3.3.14 Sump Design ..................................................................................................................... 188
17.4 Drainage Installation ...................................................................................................................... 190
17.5 Maintenance .................................................................................................................................. 191
17.6 Tubewell Drainage Design ............................................................................................................. 191
17.6.1 Tubewell Drainage Versus Other Subsurface Drainage Systems............................................. 192
17.6.2 Physical and Economic Feasibility............................................................................................. 192
17.6.3 Basic Equations ......................................................................................................................... 192
17.6.4 Well Field in a Triangular Pattern .............................................................................................. 193
17.6.5 Well Field in a Rectangular Pattern ........................................................................................... 194
17.6.6 Semi-Confined Aquifers ............................................................................................................. 196
17.6.7 Design Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 196
17.6.8 Design Considerations ............................................................................................................... 196
17.6.9 Well Field Design ....................................................................................................................... 197
17.6.10 Well Design ................................................................................................................................ 199
17.6.11 Borehole Maintenance ............................................................................................................... 203
17.6.12 Pump Maintenance .................................................................................................................... 203
18 VALUE ENGINEERING...............................................................................................................204
18.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 204
18.2 Methodology Overview .................................................................................................................. 204
18.3 Pre-Workshop ................................................................................................................................ 205
18.4 VM Workshop ................................................................................................................................ 205
18.4.1 Information Phase ...................................................................................................................... 206
18.4.2 Function Analysis Phase ........................................................................................................... 206
18.4.2.1 Function Determination ...................................................................................................... 206
18.4.3 Creative Phase .......................................................................................................................... 206
18.4.4 Evaluation Phase ....................................................................................................................... 206
18.4.5 Development Phase .................................................................................................................. 207
18.4.6 Presentation Phase ................................................................................................................... 207
18.5 Post-Workshop .............................................................................................................................. 207
19 ECONOMICAL AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS ...................................................................208
19.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 208
19.2 Design Life ..................................................................................................................................... 209
19.3 Identification and Quantification of Cost and Benefits ................................................................... 209
19.4 Valuation of Economic Costs and Benefits .................................................................................... 210
19.5 Least-cost and Cost-effective analysis .......................................................................................... 210
19.5.1 Life Cycle Costs (LCC) .............................................................................................................. 211
19.5.2 Net Present Value ...................................................................................................................... 211
19.6 Sensitivity and Risk Analysis ......................................................................................................... 212
19.7 Sustainability of Project ................................................................................................................. 212
20 COMPUTER MODELLING ........................................................................................................214
TOC PAGE VII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016
20.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 214

20.1.1 Use of Models ............................................................................................................................ 215
20.2 Modelling Software ........................................................................................................................ 216
20.3 Model Build .................................................................................................................................... 216
20.3.1 Water Demands Allocation ........................................................................................................ 216
20.3.2 Elevation .................................................................................................................................... 216
20.3.3 Operational Data ........................................................................................................................ 216
20.3.4 Model Calibration ....................................................................................................................... 217
20.4 Model Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 218
21 SUBMISSION REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................219
21.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 219
21.2 Application ..................................................................................................................................... 219
21.3 Required Standards ....................................................................................................................... 219
21.4 Contact Details .............................................................................................................................. 219
21.5 Submission Requirements ............................................................................................................. 220
21.6 Review Stages and Requirements ................................................................................................ 220
21.6.1 General Notes ............................................................................................................................ 220
21.6.2 Detailed Design Package Submission Flowchart ...................................................................... 221
21.6.3 Preliminary Design ..................................................................................................................... 221
21.6.4 Detail Design.............................................................................................................................. 225
21.6.5 Design presentation ................................................................................................................... 228
21.6.5.1 Reports .............................................................................................................................. 233
21.6.5.2 Drawings ............................................................................................................................ 233
21.7 As built Data Requirement ............................................................................................................. 234
21.7.1 Drawing Format ......................................................................................................................... 234
21.7.2 Data Format ............................................................................................................................... 235
21.8 CAD Standards .............................................................................................................................. 236
22 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................................237
22.1 APPENDIX A – ETo Table and Drawings ..................................................................................... 237
22.2 APPENDIX B – The Landscape Coefficient Formula .................................................................... 239
22.3 APPENDIX C – Salt Tolerance of Plants ....................................................................................... 250
22.4 APPENDIX D – Pearl Rating System for Estidama (Extract) ........................................................ 263
TOC PAGE VIII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure ‎2-1: TSE Network Breakdown and Ownership ..................................................................................... 10
Figure ‎2-2: TSE Transmission & Distribution Network .................................................................................... 11
Figure ‎2-3: Sprinkler types............................................................................................................................... 14
Figure ‎2-4: Spitters, Micro-jets and Sprayers .................................................................................................. 15
Figure ‎2-5: Bubblers ........................................................................................................................................ 15
Figure ‎2-6: Drippers ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure ‎2-7: Integrated Drip – Line (Built – in Emitters-Thin Walled) ................................................................ 17
Figure ‎2-8: Pressure Compensated (PC) Drippers ......................................................................................... 18
Figure ‎2-9: Integrated Drip – Line (Built – in Emitters-Sub-surface) ............................................................... 19
Figure ‎2-10: Porous Pipes ............................................................................................................................... 20
Figure ‎3-1: Appraisal of the hazards of exchangeable sodium on plants and soils (The U.S. Salinity
Laboratory)............................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure ‎3-2: Appraisal of the combined EC-SAR effects on the permeability of soil (The U.S. Salinity
Laboratory)............................................................................................................................................... 29
Figure ‎6-1: Textural Classes (The USDA Soils Manual) ................................................................................. 47
Figure ‎6-2: Soil structure types and their effect on downward movement of water ....................................... 48
Figure ‎6-3: Root Zone Water Extraction Depth ............................................................................................... 51
Figure ‎6-4: Availability of soil moisture content ............................................................................................... 52
Figure ‎6-5: The wetting pattern in drip irrigation systems as affected by the soil texture class ...................... 55
Figure ‎6-6: Salts accumulation with localized irrigation ................................................................................... 55
Figure ‎6-7: Salts accumulation and rainfall impact .......................................................................................... 55
Figure ‎6-8: Impact of soil texture on Sub-surface irrigation............................................................................ 56
Figure ‎6-9: Impact of water quality on Sub-surface irrigation .......................................................................... 56
Figure ‎6-10: Top View of lateral and side view of wetted soil under sprinkler irrigation ................................. 57
Figure ‎6-11: Salts distribution under sprinkler irrigation .................................................................................. 57
Figure ‎6-12: Keller and Karmeli graph to evaluate the equivalent length ....................................................... 62
Figure ‎6-13: Christiansen friction factor outlet spacing ................................................................................... 66
Figure ‎6-14: Modified Christiansen friction factor spacing between groups .................................................... 66
Figure ‎6-15: Types of Drippers ........................................................................................................................ 69
Figure ‎6-16: In-line and on-line emitters .......................................................................................................... 70
Figure ‎6-17: Emitters overlapping of the wetted areas .................................................................................... 74
Figure ‎6-18: Sandwiched sub-surface irrigation systems ................................................................................ 79
Figure ‎6-19: Sub-surface systems loop arrangement ..................................................................................... 81
Figure ‎6-20: Sub-surface systems - Trees on Turf Areas arrangement .......................................................... 82
Figure ‎6-21: Sub-surface systems - Curved Edges arrangement ................................................................... 82
Figure ‎6-22: Sub-surface systems – accommodation for slope ...................................................................... 83
Figure ‎6-23: Spray sprinklers patterns ............................................................................................................ 87
Figure ‎6-24: Fan spray sprinklers .................................................................................................................... 87
Figure ‎6-25: Rotating sprinklers ...................................................................................................................... 88
Figure ‎6-26: The effect of pressure on the water distribution from a sprinkler ................................................ 89
Figure ‎6-27: Sprinkler distribution rate curve test ............................................................................................ 90
Figure ‎6-28: Sprinkler distribution rate curve................................................................................................... 90
Figure ‎6-29: Sprinkler spacing ......................................................................................................................... 91
Figure ‎6-30: Head-to-head Sprinkler spacing.................................................................................................. 92
Figure ‎6-31: Square pattern Sprinkler spacing ................................................................................................ 92
Figure ‎6-32: Triangular pattern Sprinkler spacing ........................................................................................... 93
Figure ‎6-33: Combinations of the various patterns Sprinkler spacing ............................................................. 94
Figure ‎6-34: The straight line lateral circuit for sprinklers ................................................................................ 96
Figure ‎6-35: The split-length lateral circuit for sprinklers ................................................................................. 96
Figure ‎9-1: Various losses for consideration in pipeline hydraulic design ..................................................... 111
Figure ‎12-1: Pumping System Characteristics .............................................................................................. 134
Figure ‎12-2: Pump intake design considerations .......................................................................................... 137
Figure ‎16-1: Backpressure correction factor ................................................................................................. 173
Figure ‎16-2: Viscosity correction factor ......................................................................................................... 174
Figure ‎17-1: Main Components of Subsurface Drainage System ................................................................. 177
Figure ‎17-2: Water Flow to Drains ................................................................................................................. 178
Figure ‎17-3: Sample Piezometric Contour Map along with Flow Direction ................................................... 180
Figure ‎17-4: Various Drainage System Layout Alternatives .......................................................................... 181
Figure ‎17-5: Alignment of Field Laterals with Contours ................................................................................ 182
TOC PAGE IX FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Figure ‎17-6: Placement of Field Drains with Respect to the Impermeable Layer ......................................... 183
Figure ‎17-7: Sizing of Trench and Gravel Envelope ..................................................................................... 186
Figure ‎17-8: Blind Connection between Field Drains and Collectors and Flushing arrangement................. 188
Figure ‎17-9: Typical Manhole Design ............................................................................................................ 188
Figure ‎17-10: Wells Located in a Pattern of Equilateral Triangles (Well Spacing ......................................... 193
Figure ‎17-11: Rectangular Well Field Configuration. ................................................................................... 195
Figure ‎17-12: Typical Design of a Tubewell .................................................................................................. 200
Figure ‎18-1: The VM Job Plan ....................................................................................................................... 205
Figure ‎19-1: A flowchart for the economic analysis of a water supply project .............................................. 208
Figure ‎21-1: Detailed Design Package Submission Flowchart ..................................................................... 221
Figure ‎21-2: Asset Data Update Workflow .................................................................................................... 235
TOC PAGE X FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

LIST OF TABLES
Table ‎2-1: Sprinkler types ................................................................................................................................ 13
Table ‎3-1: TSE Water (final effluent) Standards ............................................................................................. 24
Table ‎3-2: FAO Guidelines for Interpretations of Water Quality for Irrigation1 ............................................... 25
Table ‎3-3: The U.S. Salinity Laboratory water quality classification schemes for irrigated agriculture ........... 27
Table ‎3-4: Clogging potential of certain levels of constituents in water applied in drip irrigation systems ...... 30
Table ‎4-1: The water requirements for several species in Abu Dhabi ............................................................ 38
Table ‎6-1: Particle size classification ............................................................................................................... 45
Table ‎6-2: Textural classes (the USDA soils manual) ..................................................................................... 46
Table ‎6-3: Average soil infiltration rates according to the Soil Textural Classes ............................................ 49
Table ‎6-4: Design-available water holding capacity ........................................................................................ 52
Table ‎6-5: Recommended no-stress values based on soil texture class ........................................................ 53
Table ‎6-6: The Blasius formula “C coefficient” under various temperatures ................................................... 59
Table ‎6-7: Typical values of “Resistance K coefficient” ................................................................................... 61
Table ‎6-8: Types of Drip Emitters and their Common Applications ................................................................ 70
Table ‎6-9: Flow Regime and Emitter Type ...................................................................................................... 71
Table ‎6-10: Classification of drippers according to coefficient of variation ..................................................... 72
Table ‎6-11: Emitters recommended values of Emission uniformity ................................................................ 72
Table ‎6-12: The area wetted by an emitter for various soil textural classes ................................................... 73
Table ‎6-13: Emitters overlap coefficient .......................................................................................................... 74
Table ‎6-14: Spacing of emitters and laterals for sub-surface irrigation ........................................................... 80
Table ‎6-15: Spacing of emitters and laterals for sandwiched systems with better horizontal distribution ...... 80
Table ‎6-16: Rating to the lower quarter distribution uniformity for overhead irrigation systems according to
sprinkler system characteristics ............................................................................................................... 91
Table ‎6-17: Slope factor in designing a sprinkler system ................................................................................ 94
Table ‎7-1: Allowable Surface Accumulation depending on soil class and slope........................................... 100
Table ‎7-2: A sample of operating schedule ................................................................................................... 102
Table ‎8-1: The pipe corridor width requirements for the different pipe diameters......................................... 103
Table ‎8-2: The pipe and chamber corridor widths required for the primary irrigation system for the different
street families ......................................................................................................................................... 105
Table ‎9-1: Hazen Williams' formula “Coefficient C” for different materials ................................................... 112
Table ‎9-2: Darcy-Weisbach formula“Roughness coefficient” for different materials ..................................... 113
Table ‎9-3: Minor head losses calculation – “Resistance coefficient” ............................................................ 114
Table ‎10-1: Selection of nominal size of air valves ....................................................................................... 122
Table ‎10-2: Selection of nominal size of washout valves .............................................................................. 124
Table ‎14-1: Level sensor types and their characteristics and usage ............................................................ 156
Table ‎14-2: Flow sensor types and their characteristics and usage ............................................................. 158
Table ‎14-3: Pressure sensor types and their characteristics and usage ...................................................... 159
Table ‎15-1: Standard for fieldbuses .............................................................................................................. 164
Table ‎15-2: The most common fieldbuses .................................................................................................... 164
Table ‎17-1: Soil Properties and Pipe Spacing ............................................................................................... 182
Table ‎17-2: Design Criteria for Gravel Envelopes ......................................................................................... 187
Table ‎17-3: Well Spacing for Different Pump Capacities and Well-field Configurations ............................... 198
Table ‎17-4: Comparisons of Well Screen Materials ..................................................................................... 201
Table ‎17-5: Comparisons of Pump Metallurgies ........................................................................................... 202
Table ‎20-1: Shapefiles for hydraulic modelling.............................................................................................. 214
Table ‎22-1: National Center Meteorology and Seismology (NCMS) ............................................................. 238
Table ‎22-2: Evapotranspiration data ............................................................................................................. 238
Table ‎22-3: Species factor categories ........................................................................................................... 239
Table ‎22-4: Density factor categories ........................................................................................................... 240
Table ‎22-5: Microclimate factor categories.................................................................................................... 241
Table ‎22-6: Turf grasses (California Department of Water Resources) ........................................................ 242
Table ‎22-7: Xeriscape species (New Mexico State University) ..................................................................... 243
Table ‎22-8: Species Evaluations (California Department of Water Resources) ........................................... 245
Table ‎22-9: Turf grasses (California Department of Water Resources) ........................................................ 250
Table ‎22-10: Groundcovers Soil salinity tolerance ........................................................................................ 251
Table ‎22-11: Shrups Soil salinity tolerance ................................................................................................... 253
Table ‎22-12: Trees Soil salinity tolerance ..................................................................................................... 255
Table ‎22-13: Flowers Soil salinity tolerance .................................................................................................. 257
TOC PAGE XI FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

GLOSSARY
Analysis Period: the period of time for which the economic analysis is to be made.
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT): The total annual volume of traffic passing a point or
segment of a road in both directions divided by the number of days in a year.
Asphalt base course: an asphalt layer under the wearing surface layer and above the
aggregate base/Subbase courses. It is a uniform, non-erodible, and stable construction
platform. It is designed to resist fatigue cracking.
Asphalt binder (intermediate) course: the second asphalt layer following the surface layer.
Its properties are coarser than the surface layer. It is designed to resist permanent deformation.
Asphalt binder: It is a viscous material that binds the aggregate particles together to form the
asphalt concrete mixture. It is referred to as Asphalt, Bitumen, or asphalt cement
Asphalt concrete: is a mixture of aggregate (about 96% by weight) and asphalt binder (about
4 % by weight). It is also referred to as Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) since hot ingredients and heat is
used for mixing.
Asphalt structural course: A separation layer that prevents fine soils from entering the ATB
or CTB.
Asphalt wearing course (Surface): one or more layers of a pavement structure designed to
accommodate the traffic load. The top layer resists skidding, traffic abrasion, and the
disintegrating effects of climate. Sometimes referred to as surface course.
Average Daily Traffic: The total volume during a given time period, in whole days, greater
than one day and less than one year, divided by the number of days in the time period.
Backcalculation: mathematical analysis to estimate the modulus of a pavement layer using
deflection measurement.
Base course: the layer or layers of specified or selected material of designed thickness placed
on a Subbase or a subgrade to support a surface course.
Change in serviceability (ΔPSI): A value that indicates the degradation in a road’s condition
over time, which is the difference between the road’s initial serviceability rating and its terminal
serviceability.
Chip seal: asphalt surface treatment to improve Rideability and seal surface. It consists of
applying asphaltic emulsions or liquid paving grade asphalts and covers with aggregate and
rolling.
Climatic (Environmental) conditions: parameters that impact the pavement performance and
are related to the environment, such as temperature and rainfall.
Composite pavements: a pavement structure composed of an asphalt concrete surface and
Portland cement concrete (PCC) slab.
Concrete modulus of rupture (S'c): A 28-day flexural strength based on third point loading
that indicates the extreme fibre stress under the breaking load in a beam-breaking test. In
accordance with section 2.3.4 of the 1993 AASHTOGuide for Design of Pavement Structures
(4), pavement designs for department projects use a standard S’c value of 635 psi.
Concrete pavement slab: Normally consisting of plain cement concrete pavement, slabs
serve as the main structural element in the rigid pavement system. Such slabs must be at least
8 inches thick.
Construction Joint: a joint made necessary by a prolonged interruption in the placing of
concrete.
TOC PAGE XII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Contraction Joint: a joint normally placed at recurrent intervals in a rigid slab to control
transverse cracking.
Crack seal: is the placement of materials into working cracks to fill and seal the crack.
Dowel: a load transfer device in a rigid slab, usually consisting of a plain round steel bar.
Drainage coefficients: Factors used to modify layer coefficients in flexible pavements or
stresses in rigid pavements as a function of how well the pavement structure can handle the
adverse effect of water infiltration.
Drainage factor (CD): A pavement subsurface’s ability to drain over a period from 1 hour to 72
hours. In accordance with section 2.4.1 of the 1993 AASHTOGuide for Design of Pavement
Structures (4), pavement designs for department projects use a standard CD value of 1.0.
DMAT: To be defined as “Department of Municipal Affairs and Transport”
Empirical Pavement Design: methodology to design pavement based on test sections or
empirical models.
Equivalent Single Axle load (ESAL): the accumulation of the damage caused by mixed truck
traffic during the design period compared to the damage caused by equivalent single axle load.
Expansion joint: a joint located to provide for expansion of a rigid slab, without damage of
itself, adjacent slabs, or structures.
Fatigue cracking: a series of interconnected cracks that is caused by fatigue failure of the
asphalt surface (or the stabilized base) under repeated traffic loading.
Finite element analysis: the use of Finite element analysis to model and analyze a pavement
structure under traffic loads.
Flexible pavements: a pavement structure which distributes loads to the subgrade by means
of aggregate interlock, particle friction, and cohesion for stability. Asphalt concrete is mainly
used at the surface layer.
Fog seal: A fog seal is a light application of a slow-setting asphalt emulsion diluted with water
to seal the pavement surface.
Initial serviceability (PI): A value, generally between 4.2 and 4.5, that indicates the condition
of a newly constructed roadway.
Joint transfer factor (J): A concrete joint’s ability to transfer load. In accordance with section
2.4.2 of the 1993 AASHTOGuide for Design of Pavement Structures (4), pavement designs for
department projects use a standard J value of 3.2.
Layer coefficients: the empirical relationship between structural number (SN) and layer
thickness which expresses the relative ability of a material to function as a structural
component of the pavement.
Life Cycle Cost (LCC): the estimated cost of the pavement during its life span. The cost
includes construction, maintenance, and other user related costs.
Linear elastic analysis: the use of fundaments material properties to estimate how will deform
and stress due to load application. The analysis is based on assumed linear and elastic
behaviour of the material.
Load transfer device: a mechanical means designed to carry loads across a joint in a rigid
slab.
Longitudinal joint: a joint normally placed between traffic lanes in rigid pavements to control
longitudinal cracking.
Low Volume Road (LVR): a roadway generally subjected to low levels of traffic.
Material Characterization: the use of testing or prediction models to obtain material properties
that is needed in the design methodology.
TOC PAGE XIII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E) Pavement Design: pavement design that is based on the use of
fundamental properties (such as stiffness) in mechanistic model to obtain material response
(deformation and stresses) due to applied loads. The material response is then used in
empirical models to predict pavement performance.
Modulus of elasticity (EC): Known as Young’s modulus or stress-to-strain ratio, a
measurement of the stiffness of a concrete slab. The standard EC value for concrete slabs is
4,000,000 psi.
Modulus of subgrade reaction (k-value): Westerfaard’s modulus of subgrade reaction for use
in rigid pavement design (the load in pounds per square inch on a loaded area of the roadbed
soil or subbase divided by the deflection in inches or the roadbed soil or subbase. The default
value is 200 lbs/inch2/in for special select soil material (sand).
Natural ground or fill: Natural material or embankment material that resides under the
constructed pavement structure.
Nomograph: is a graphical presentation of the solution of an empirical model.
Panel length: the distance between adjacent transverse joints.
Pavement condition survey: a survey that is conducted on existing pavements to access the
pavement condition. The survey includes visual and physical measurement of the pavement
distress.
Pavement distress: is the failure of the pavement to provide its purpose of a smooth and
stable ride-able surface. The distresses have different types such as roughness, fatigue
cracking, permanent deformation, pot holes and others.
Pavement maintenance: the preservation of the entire roadway, including surface, shoulders,
roadsides, structures, and such traffic control devices as are necessary for it safe and efficient
utilization
Pavement Management Systems (PMS): a tool for designers and decision makers to collect
a comprehensive database of current and historical information on pavement conditions,
pavement structures, and traffic. Then analyze the data to determine existing and future
pavement conditions, predict financial needs, and identify and prioritize pavement preservation
and maintenance plans.
Pavement rehabilitation: Methodologies to renovate the existing pavement by removing
damaged layers and replace/add new layers to restore the structural capacity of the pavement.
Pavement structural capacity: the carrying load capacity of a pavement structure. This can
be measured by deflection testing, amount of distress, material properties and layer thickness.
Pavement structural design: a process to estimate the layers thickness for a pavement
structure.
Pavement Structure: Pavement structure is a combination of Subbase, base course (treated
or untreated), and surface course placed on a subgrade to support the traffic load and
distribute it to the roadbed soil or embankment material.
Performance period: the period of time that an initially constructed or rehabilitated pavement
structure will perform before reaching its terminal serviceability.
Permanent deformation (rutting):Surface depression in the wheel path that might be
accompanied by pavement uplift (shearing) along the sides of the rut.
Present serviceability index (PSI): A roadway’s ability to serve the traffic that uses the related
facility. A roadway’s PSI can rate from 0 to 5, with 5 being the best and 0 being the worst. As a
road’s smoothness deteriorates, its PSI decreases.
Pumping: The ejection of foundation material through joints or cracks or along edges of rigid
slabs, resulting from vertical movements of the slab under traffic.
TOC PAGE XIV FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Reinforcement: steel embedded in a rigid slab to resist tensile stresses and detrimental
opening of cracks.
Reliability (%R): Statistical probability that a facility will achieve its desired design life. This
factor that enables design engineers to tailor designs to more closely match the needs of the
project. A high reliability value, however, may substantially increase concrete depth. Reliability
models are based on serviceability rather than specific failure mechanisms, such as cracking
and pumping. In accordance with section 2.1.3 of the 1993 AASHTOGuide for Design of
Pavement Structures (4), recommended values range from 75% to 95%. Reliability, however, is
not an input value for the AASHTO design equation. Rather, engineers input the standard
normal deviate (ZR) into the equation.
Required depth (DR): A pavement structure’s required strength, represented by the slab depth
as determined from traffic load information and roadbed soil strength.
Resilient modulus (Mr): a measure of the modulus of elasticity of subgrade soil or other
pavement material.
Rigid pavement: a pavement structure which distributes loads to the subgrade, having as one
course a Portland cement concrete slab of relatively high bending resistance.
Selected material: a suitable native material obtained from a specified source such as a
particular roadway cut or borrow area, of a suitable material having specified characteristics to
be used for a specific purpose.
Serviceability: the ability of time of observation of a pavement to serve traffic which uses the
facility.
Slurry seal: is a mixture of slow-setting emulsified asphalt, well-graded fine aggregate, mineral
filler, and water. It will fill fine cracks in the pavement surface.
Standard deviation (SO): A value used in design calculations to represent the variability in
construction and loading prediction for rigid pavements. The pavement designs use a fixed
value of 0.35.
Standard normal deviate (ZR): A value derived by converting a corresponding Reliability (%R)
value into logarithmic form.
Structural Number (SN): an index number derived from an analysis of traffic, roadbed soil
conditions, and environment which may be converted to thickness of flexible pavement layers
thought the use of suitable layer coefficients related to the type of material being used in each
layer of the pavement structure.
Subbase: A vertically drainable and stable layer or layers, at least 6 inches thick, of specified
or selected material of designed thickness placed on a subgrade to support a base course or
the concrete slab.
Subgrade: the top surface of a roadbed upon which the pavement structure and shoulders are
constructed.
Tandem axle load: the total load transmitted to the road by two consecutive axles extending
across the full width of the vehicle.
Terminal serviceability (PT): A value, generally between 2.0 and 2.5, that indicates that a
road requires some type of rehabilitation or reconstruction.
Tie bar: a deformed steel bar or connector embedded across a joint in a rigid slab to prevent
separation of abutting slabs.
Traffic equivalence factor: a numerical factor that expresses the relationship of a given axle
load to another axle load in terms of their effect on the serviceability of a pavement structure.
Traffic studies: Studies that are conducted to obtain vehicle count and distribution, vehicle
classification and axle loads.
TOC PAGE XV FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Treated permeable base: A non-structural layer underneath the pavement slab that provides
lateral drainage for water that infiltrates through pavement joints. Many types of material,
including asphalt treated permeable base (ATB) and cement treated permeable base (CTB),
are available for this base layer.
Tridem Axle load: the total load transmitted to the road by three consecutive axles extending
across the full width of the vehicle.
TOC PAGE XVI FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AADT: Annual Average Daily Traffic
AASHTO: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
AC: Asphalt concrete
ADT: Annual daily traffic
AED: Arabic Emirates Dirham
ASL: Aggregate Severity Level
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
ATB: Asphalt treated base
Austroads: Association of Australian and New Zealand road transport and traffic authorities
CBR: California Bearing Ratio
CIPR: cold-in-place recycling
CRCP: Continuous reinforced concrete pavement
CTB: Cement treated base
DCP: Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DF: Directional factor
DL: Design Life
ADM: Abu Dhabi City Municipality
DMAT: Department of Municipal Affairs and Transport , Abu Dhabi
EALF: Equivalent Axle load factor
EC: Modulus of elasticity
ESAL: Equivalent Single Axle load
FWD: Falling Weight Deflectometer
GF: Growth factor
GPR: Ground Penetrating Radar
HIPAR: Hot-in-place asphalt recycling
HMA: hot mix asphalt
IRI: International roughness index
J: Joint transfer factor
JPCP: Jointed plain concrete pavement
JRCP: Jointed reinforced concrete pavement
k-value: Modulus of subgrade reaction
kPa: Kilo Pascal
LCC: Life Cycle Cost
LDF: lane distribution factor
LSF: load safety factor
LTPP: Long-term pavement performance
TOC PAGE XVII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

LVR: Low Volume Roads

MAAT: Mean annual air temperature
M-E: Mechanistic – Empirical
MPa: Mega Pascal
N: Allowable number of standard axle repetitions
NDT: non-destructive deflection testing
PRFD- Parks & Recreational Facilities Division – ADM
PCC: Portland cement concrete pavement
PI: Penetration Index
PMS: Pavement Management Systems
PSI: Present serviceability index
QADT: Quad axle with dual tires
R%: Reliability
RTFO: Rolling Thin Film Oven tests
SADT: Single axle with dual tires
SAST: Single axle with single tire
S'c: Concrete modulus of rupture
SN: Structural Number
SO: Standard deviation
T: percentage of trucks
T800 pen: temperature, in degrees Celsius, when binder penetration (100 g, 5 s) is 800.
TADT: Tandem axle with dual tires
TAST: Tandem axle with single tire
TF: Truck factor
TRDT: Tridem axle with dual tires
UCS: unconfined compressive strength
UPC: Urban Planning Council
WIM: Weigh-in-motion
WMA: warm mix asphalt
WMAAT: weighted mean annual air temperature
WMAPT: Weighted mean annual pavement temperature
ZR: Standard normal deviate
Zx: Cumulative difference variable
TOC PAGE XVIII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

1 GENERAL
1.1 Introduction
This Irrigation Manual provides a foundation for sustainable development of the irrigation
system in line with Abu Dhabi 2030 Urban Structure Framework Plan (UPC 2030), Abu Dhabi
Landscape Master Plan, Estimada Guidelines and Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi (EAD)’s
Environmental Strategy 2030. The Irrigation Manual builds on Estimada guidelines to produce
an irrigation design and management strategy which promotes low water demand through
efficient irrigation networks.
1.2 Purpose
The purpose of the Design Manual is to ensure uniformity of approach and consistency in the
technical standards to be adopted by the various parties involved in the work of designing
irrigation systems. The irrigation consultants performing the design must be experienced
professionals, specialist within their fields and capable of producing work to the highest
international standards. This manual covers aspects of irrigation engineering that are of specific
relevance to the current situation in Abu Dhabi Municipality. It is not intended to be a guide to
general techniques of irrigation design or their broader application in the Middle East, since this
expertise is being provided by irrigation consultants who are highly proficient in these skills.
The process of design involves reconciling a number of sometimes conflicting requirements;
achieving the greatest savings of irrigation water whilst enhancing landscape design quality,
retaining maximum landscape impact and minimizing maintenance commitments, all in a cost
effective manner. The irrigation consultants are expected to develop their own creative and
innovative solutions appropriate to the needs of each area, within the guidelines contained in
this manual. The Design Manual’s contents are intended to provide a flexible framework within
which the design solutions can be considered.
1.3 Scope
The Design Manual provides the guidelines for irrigation engineers, landscape architects and
others, in the irrigation design for median islands, streetscape, parks, natural areas and other
public facilities, where DMAT will assume operations and maintenance activities. Use of this
manual for private or residential landscape development is voluntary.
1.4 Basic Data Required

The broad scope of an irrigation project and its extensive geographical range mean that the
appointed consultants will need to interface with a large number of other bodies and concerned
parties for consultations and information gathering. In addition, consultants will need to ensure
that design proposals satisfy all statutory and regulatory requirements, and that all necessary
approvals or clearances are obtained. Requirements include the following:
a) Development plans and related projects: Numerous projects are on-going in Abu
Dhabi or are in the preparation stages at any given time. It is essential that all projects
in the same area be taken into account together in the planning and redesign of
landscape and irrigation systems. Development plans and project details need to be
obtained from the concerned departments of Abu Dhabi Municipality & Town Planning,
public service authorities and companies, and other involved parties.
b) Information on statutory and regulatory requirements: The concerned government
bodies, other departments of Abu Dhabi Municipality, and service authorities and
companies should be approached for information relating to their statutory and
01-INTRODUCTION PAGE 1 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

regulatory requirements and procedures.

c) Ownership, responsible parties and jurisdictions: This information needs to be
obtained from the concerned parties for each location.
d) Information on existing utilities and other assets: Where possible, relevant
information will be made available by DMAT, other consultants, and the operation &
maintenance contractors responsible for the irrigation distribution networks and
pumping stations.
e) Present operational issues and problems: Important information of direct relevance
to the re-engineering work and its future operation and maintenance should be obtained
from DMAT, and the operation & maintenance contractors.
The various concerned parties from whom information will be collected or with whom
consultations or co-ordination will be required include: government ministries, departments and
agencies like UPC, DoT, EAD, etc.; the DMAT Design Section and other departments of Abu
Dhabi Municipality & Town Planning; public service authorities and companies like ADSSC,
ADDC, etc.; the Division’s operation and maintenance contractors; other consultants,
particularly those appointed for related or affected projects; and concerned private third parties.
Besides the above mentioned requirements some essential data for the appropriate design of
irrigation systems is required and detailed.
1.4.1 Landscape/Plant Type

For irrigation purposes the following are some general guidelines on irrigation of soft
landscape:
a) Plants shall be selected and planted appropriately based upon their adaptability to the
climatic, geologic, edaphologic, salinity and topographical conditions of the project site.
Low-water use, deep-rooted plants and native species are highly recommended, as well
as plants that are well suited for the soil type that exists on site.
b) Plants shall be grouped into hydrozones with plant species having similar water
demands and by their soil, sun, shade, and maintenance requirements.
c) Turf areas must be efficiently designed taking into account its irrigation so as to avoid
run-off or overspray.
d) Turf should is not recommended in an area that is less than 2.5 m wide in any direction
unless low volume or subsurface irrigation is utilized.
e) Turf is not recommended within 0.6 m of impermeable surfaces unless it is irrigated with
low volume or subsurface irrigation or unless the adjacent impermeable surfaces are
designed and constructed to cause water to drain entirely into a landscaped area.
f) Turf is not recommended on slopes where the grade is greater than 25 per cent (4:1)
and where the toe of the slope is adjacent to an impermeable hardscape unless the turf
is irrigated with low volume or subsurface irrigation.
g) All large turf areas in projects such as, but not limited to, ball fields, cemeteries and
parks should be designed to limit the use of turf in any portion of the landscaped area
not essential to operation of the facility.
h) Turf is not recommended in centre island median strips, parking lot islands or public
right of way.
i) Turf is not recommended in locations inaccessible and unusable to the public or site
occupants.
Finally, the correct definition of the irrigable areas is essential for appropriate irrigation water
budget and irrigation system design. The irrigation water budget is an essential value to assess
the fulfilment of Estidama guidelines.
1.4.2 Application Losses

An efficient irrigation system is one that supplies each plant its optimum irrigation for healthy
growth, whilst keeping losses and wastage to a minimum. Losses may occur by evaporation,

over-spray, run-off, excessive percolation or dispersal into the ground, and losses from the
system itself. All potential losses need to be addressed in order to achieve the most efficient
application of water. In general the following guidelines will need to be considered in design to
minimize application loses:
a) All irrigation systems shall be designed to avoid runoff, seepage, low head drainage,
overspray or other similar conditions onto adjacent property, non-irrigated areas, walks,
roadways or structures.
b) Systems benefiting from flushing shall accommodate the water generated by the
flushing without erosion or disturbance to the planting. Water used for flushing shall be
channelled into adjacent drainage structures, where possible.
c) Overhead irrigation shall not be allowed on slopes where the grade is greater than 25
per cent (4:1) and where the toe of the slope is adjacent to an impermeable hardscape.
d) Overhead irrigation shall not be allowed in an area that is less than 2.5 m wide.
e) Overhead irrigation shall not be permitted within 65 cm of an impermeable surface.
Allowable irrigation within the setback from impermeable surfaces may include drip, drip
line, or other low flow non-spray technology. The setback area may be planted or
unplanted. The surfacing of the setback may be mulch, gravel or other porous material.
These restrictions may be modified if:
i. The landscape area is adjacent to permeable surfacing and no overspray and
runoff occurs; or
ii. The adjacent impermeable surfaces are designed and constructed to drain
entirely to landscaping; or
iii. The irrigation designer specifies an alternative design or technology and clearly
demonstrates strict adherence to irrigation system design criteria as described
in bullet a).
f) The water delivery rate of the irrigation system shall take into account the slope gradient
and percolation rate of the soil in order to minimize runoff.
g) The irrigation system shall deliver water efficiently and uniformly. Water used for
irrigation shall be minimized to the amount needed to maintain adequate plant health
and growth.
h) The irrigation system must function at a minimum average irrigation efficiency of 0.71,
which includes application efficiency and distribution system efficiency.
1.4.3 Salinity
Salinity is a critical issue affecting the suitability of plant species for use in Abu Dhabi. Salts
reach the plants from several different sources. Firstly, the ground-water is typically highly
saline, approaching or often exceeding the salinity of seawater. Secondly, airborne salt can be
significant, particularly along the coastline where damage to foliage can occur. Rainfall will also
bring down large quantities of airborne salt into the water catchment of plants, in which case
flushing may be necessary. However, the third and most important source of salts is Abu
Dhabi’s irrigation water. The treated sewage effluent used as the municipality’s main source of
irrigation water is brackish, having total dissolved solids (TDS) in the region of 4,000 ppm.
Saline irrigation water is and will continue to be a primary constraint upon choosing suitable
plants for Abu Dhabi, restricting the number useable species to those having good or excellent
salinity tolerance. Build-up of salts in the root zone of plants is a significant on-going problem in
the landscape areas of Abu Dhabi. The design, operational regimes and specification of the
irrigation system, and especially the correct selection of application devices, can all play a
considerable part in avoiding salt accumulation in the soil.
1.4.4 Soils
Native soils are generally sandy, and consequently are not retentive of moisture and are poor
in plant nutrients. They may also have high salinity and other chemical properties harmful to

plants. They are therefore an unsuitable growing medium for most plants unless changes are
made. As standard practice, plants are normally planted into planting beds or pits and
backfilled with a suitable soil mix. Soil investigations must be carried out for all planting areas
under the irrigation project. The soil study will propose the necessary corrective measures to
address any deficiencies in soil structure, soil texture, chemical properties, water retention, and
nutrient status.
The soil study will provide detailed information on the physical and chemical properties of the
existing growing medium with reference to its suitability for plant growth. Soil mix specifications
will be tailored to suit the needs of each category of plants, based upon this information as well
as the feasibility of retaining and improving the existing topsoil. Suitable soil mix specifications
will be compiled for flowers, for grass, a general mix for groundcovers, shrubs and trees, and
for palm trees which generally are suited to pure dune sand with minimal additives. The soils
study and report should cover the following topics of investigation:
a) Soil texture and structure: The soil texture of the existing topsoil will be studied using
sieve analysis and physical description, and recorded according to conventional
classifications of loam, sandy loam, sand etc. The soil structure and profile will be
examined, paying particular attention to the depth of the topsoil, the occurrence of
impermeable layers or strata, the presence of anything potentially or detrimental to plant
growth, and the depth of water table or evidence of water-logging.
b) Chemical analysis and nutrient status: A detailed chemical analyses of the existing
soil is required. The analyses will include pH as well as measurements of those
chemical components having an effect upon plant growth either directly or by affecting
the availability of other chemical elements. The presence of any substances at levels
harmful to plant growth shall be particularly identified. The chemical analyses will also
indicate the level of major plant nutrients (nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus), minor
nutrients and trace elements.
c) Organic content: The organic matter content in the existing topsoil will be determined
and recorded.
d) Drainage and water retention: In addition to the physical presence of a water table or
evidence of waterlogging as mentioned above, the water-retention and drainage
properties of the existing topsoil will be studied, measured and recorded.
1.4.5 Groundwater Table Level

Abu Dhabi Island is low-lying, with a high water table that is continuously supplemented in
planted areas by downward percolation of irrigation water. In many cases the water table is
encroaching upon or immediately below the root zone of plants. Certain plants are able to
thrive in such conditions. However, most plant species used for amenity landscape require or
prefer free-draining ground conditions and will not tolerate waterlogged ground conditions at
the root zone. The irrigation project must identify those landscape areas where high water table
is a problem, and recommend suitable solutions such as the installation of subsoil drainage.
The need for subsoil drainage will be assessed on a case-by-case basis. Although it is not
envisaged that subsoil drainage will be needed or feasible beneath all planted areas, it should
be provided as part of the irrigation project wherever it is required for planting or for engineering
reasons. The soils study will provide detailed information about areas having high water table,
water retention or deficient drainage, wherever these conditions will be potentially detrimental
to planting. In some cases it may be possible to reduce the effects of such conditions through
landscape design measures or by plant selection. There are a number of technical challenges
posed by providing subsoil drainage for existing planted areas, including the following:
a) Availability of nearby points of connection: A major issue is the availability near the
landscape area of suitable storm drainage manholes into which outlet connections can
be made. Connection of subsoil drainage networks into foul sewerage systems will not
be permitted under any circumstances.
b) Invert elevations of existing storm drains: The invert elevation at the outlet may also
be a constraint upon the design of subsoil drainage networks, especially in cases where
the invert elevation of the main storm sewer is less than than 2 m below finished ground
level.
c) Obstructions: There may be obstructions caused by existing utilities and structures
that make installation of drains difficult.
d) Road crossings: Road crossings, particularly those across major roads, may not be
permitted, thereby preventing the installation of piped subsoil drainage in some
locations. However, it may still be possible to achieve some benefit by the installation of
subsoil drainage layers.
1.4.6 Slope
Where surface slopes irrigation water will flow rapidly from the area. Such high run-off reduces
infiltration into the soil and may affect the selection of the secondary irrigation system, its
operating schedule and efficiency. Landscape architects must take into account the influence
of slopes in irrigation when grading the landscape areas. Appropriate contour and slope maps
of finished ground level must be provided for an appropriate irrigation design.
1.4.7 Topography/Levels
Abu Dhabi is predominantly flat and low-lying, with virtually no significant variation in level. The
existing landscape layouts rarely make any attempt to use changes in level as a design
element. However landscape architects may create interest through introducing variations in
level, for example by mounding, terracing, artificial hills, and other hard landscape features that
have the potential improve the visual interest of the landscape design.
Topography, which is of prime importance in irrigation, influences the general plan that must be
made. Even before reaching the planning and designing stages of irrigation, the importance of
topographic features must be recognized.
Topographic maps for the finished ground level are essential in any detailed irrigation design.
These maps must show land slopes, length of slope, elevations, etc. In addition, the maps
often reveal clues to the type of irrigation needed and, to a degree, its practicability. In addition
to natural features, topographic maps should show the location of roads, railroads, pipe and
utility lines, structures, and land subdivision lines.
The scale of the maps to be used depends upon the size of the area being studied and the
purposes of the design. For a reconnaissance study of a long transmission main a scale of
1:5000 is usually adequate, but maps with other scales may be used. For smaller areas or for a
basic design, a scale of 1:1000 would be advantageous. Detailed and final studies and the
location and design of pump stations and reservoirs require a scale of 1:250.
Topographic maps should have contour intervals consistent with the scale used, the size of the
area surveyed, and the purpose of the map. For preliminary study of large areas with
considerable topographic relief, a 2 meter contour interval is satisfactory. A 1 meter interval is
usually sufficient for the basic design, but for detailed and final studies and the location and
design of pump stations and reservoirs, a 0.25 meter interval is required.
1.4.8 Climate
Climate is the primary factor affecting irrigation design in the Middle East. Abu Dhabi’s climate
can be classified as arid-humid with very low rainfall and high summer temperatures above 40°
Celsius. Nevertheless, the climate is moderate and clement for a significant portion of the year
between October and April. The coldest temperatures are never sufficiently low to reduce the
irrigation to “0”. Not only do climatic factors affect the irrigation rates, but they also greatly
influence all other aspects of irrigation design. Conditions in Abu Dhabi are hot and humid
during the summer months, when the use of public landscape areas is very limited.

Temperatures are lower between October and April, but can still be uncomfortable under direct
sun in un-shaded areas. It is remarkable that landscape areas receive much more use during
the night time, for a combination of both practical and cultural reasons; this has considerable
implications for the provision of properly designed irrigation schemes which observe the varying
requirements of safety and convenience.
1.4.9 Irrigation Management

Abu Dhabi’s landscape areas and their irrigation systems are under direct operation and
maintenance by DMAT. The extensive area of the plants means that a large number of
resources, vehicles, equipment and materials are required. Clearly, the scale of this
maintenance task presents enormous challenges for effective supervisory control and
efficiency.
The widespread use of manual irrigation methods is a major factor contributing to the current
excessive maintenance requirements. In addition, many maintenance tasks performed
manually at present could be carried out more efficiently with appropriate automated systems.
DMAT is implementing the conversion of the manual control system for irrigation networks in
Abu Dhabi Island to an automatic system that will address all the deficiencies of manual
irrigation.
From a design point of view some considerations must be taken into account when designing
an irrigation system to ensure effective irrigation management for the future.
1.4.9.1 Hydrozones
a) Each valve shall irrigate a hydrozone with similar slope, sun exposure, soil conditions,
and plant materials with similar water use.
b) Sprinkler heads and other emission devices shall be selected based on what is
appropriate for the plant type within that hydrozone.
c) Where feasible, trees shall be placed on separate valves from shrubs, groundcovers,
and turf.
d) Individual hydrozones that mix plants of moderate and low water use, or moderate and
high water use, may be allowed under certain circumstances if the plant factor of the
higher water using plant is used for calculations.
e) High water use plants shall not be permitted in a low water use hydrozone.
f) On the landscape design plan and irrigation design plan, hydrozone areas shall be
designated by number, letter, or other designation. On the irrigation design plan, the
areas irrigated by each valve shall be designated, and a number to each valve shall be
assigned. Use this valve number in a Hydrozone Information table. This table can also
assist with pre and final inspections of the irrigation system and programming the
controller.
1.4.9.2 Lateral Systems
a) Each lateral system shall be capable of meeting the minimum needs of the mature plant
material during peak demands.
b) Lateral systems shall be divided by exposure (sun/shade, etc.), plant material
(turf/shrub, etc.), differing plant water requirements (tropical/low water using, etc.),
elevation, and by type of application equipment (drip, spray, etc.), to the degree that is
both practical and feasible.
c) Spray system heads of different manufacturers or of different basis types (drip, bubbler,
stream, standard, impact etc.) shall have consistent operating characteristics on any
single lateral circuit.
d) Spray heads on the same lateral circuit shall be balanced for matched precipitation
rates within 5 per cent from the average for any different arcs of coverage or operating
radii.

e) Separately controlled lateral systems shall be used when head or nozzle precipitation
rate varies more than 15 per cent from the average application in the area.
f) Specially designed adjustable nozzles shall be used for odd shaped areas, maintaining
even application rates.
g) After plants are established, the irrigation system is to provide sufficient water to sustain
plants in a healthy, growing condition.
1.4.9.3 Pressure Contraints
a) Irrigation systems shall be designed to operate correctly at the lowest available
operational pressure expected during the year and shall withstand water system surges.
b) Pressure loss within lateral piping circuits shall not exceed 20 per cent of the designed
operating pressure of the equipment on that circuit.
c) Pressure regulating devices shall be installed on any systems with a static inlet
pressure at the point of connection greater than 4 bar unless specifically approved by
DMAT. Pressure shall be regulated to a pressure adequate to operate the equipment at
designed pressures with all incidental and line losses included. Where the pressure
within the system exceeds 4 bar (due to elevation drops, etc.) a pressure reducing valve
shall be used to reduce pressure to operational levels.
d) The irrigation system shall be designed to ensure that the dynamic pressure at each
emission device is within the manufacturer’s recommended pressure range for optimal
performance.
e) If the static pressure is above or below the required operating pressure of the irrigation
system, pressure regulating devices such as inline pressure regulators, booster pumps
or other devices shall be installed to meet the required operational pressure of the
irrigation system.
f) Static water pressure, or operating pressure and flow reading of the water supply shall
be measured at the point of connection. These pressure and flow measurements shall
be conducted at the design stage. If the measurements are not available at the design
stage, the measurements shall be conducted at installation.
1.4.9.4 Irrigation Scheduling
An annual irrigation program with monthly or seasonal irrigation schedules shall be submitted
and provide the following information:
a) A description of the automatic irrigation system that will be used for the project.
b) The time period when overhead irrigation will be scheduled and confirmation that no
overhead irrigation shall be used between 10:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m.
c) The parameters used for setting the irrigation system controller for the following:
i. The plant establishment period (monthly).
ii. The established landscape (seasonal).
iii. Temporarily irrigated areas (monthly).
iv. Different seasons during the year.
d) Each schedule for each station should consider all of the following that apply:
i. Irrigation interval (days between irrigation).
ii. Irrigation run times (hours or minutes per irrigation event to avoid runoff).
iii. Number of cycle starts required for each irrigation event to avoid runoff.
iv. Amount of water scheduled to be applied on a monthly basis.
v. Application rate setting, root depth setting, plant type setting, soil type and
irrigation efficiency setting.
1.5 Service Area

A service area is an irrigation area which has a common source. This common source can be a

reservoir, a booster pump, a direct feed from TSE network or a desalinated water connection
(flow meter). All assets from the source to the irrigable area that belongs to a specific service
area have influence on the performance of the whole service area irrigation system.
Direct connections are responsible for loss of water and reduced pressures. The direct
connections to the TSE network must be avoided. Irrigation systems need to be rationalized by
integration into existing service areas or routed through their own reservoirs and pump stations,
creating a new service area.
When designing irrigation systems it is especially important to know the hydraulics of the
service area. Appropriate assessment of the service area hydraulic performance, including the
newly designed irrigation system, must be made. The performance must be assessed through
a hydraulic model of the whole service area, including the newly designed assets and irrigation
scheduling.
The newly designed irrigation system may create a new service area. In this case also a
hydraulic model must be built to assess if the designed service area fulfils the conditions of flow
and pressure stated in the point of connection by the relevant authority. Whenever possible a
field test of the capability of the point of connection to supply the design pressure and flow
without disturbing the proper working of the service area network must be done.
1.6 Irrigation Water Sources

In recent years, Abu Dhabi Municipality has been embarking upon a policy of optimization of
resources. In an arid region such as Abu Dhabi, one of the most critical resources is water.
Therefore the efficient use of water is a priority for DMAT. In line with this principle, irrigation
systems must be designed to:
a) Optimise use of TSE.
b) Minimize / eliminate use of desalinated water.
c) Minimize / eliminate use of groundwater.
The main sources of irrigation water are:
a) Treated Sewage Effluent (TSE): Is the effluent water from Mafraq and Wathba
Wastewater Treatment Plants. The TSE, used as the municipality’s main source of
irrigation water is brackish, having an average total dissolved solids (TDS) level in the
region of 4,000 ppm.
b) Desalinated water: Is the water coming from the public potable water network. Its
quality is very good but its cost is very high. The use of desalinated water must be
avoided whenever TSE is available.
c) Groundwater: Is the water coming from existing wells. Its quality is variable; in some
locations the reported salinity is as high as TDS 20,000 ppm. The use of groundwater
must be avoided whenever TSE is available.
Mosques, hospitals and nurseries are usually irrigated from potable supplies although the total
consumption of these areas is relatively small, as a percentage of the total. There is no
objection on religious grounds or regulatory bodies to the use of TSE water for the irrigation of
landscape areas, and this option should be looked at on a case-by-case basis during the
process of irrigation systems engineering. Hospitals must continue to be irrigated by potable
water for health reasons. Plant nurseries also need potable water supplies, although there is a
benefit to having TSE irrigation available for growing-on stock.
An irrigation water budget must be established for each irrigation project, and this will serve as
the basis for determining the amount of landscape planting that can be sustained in the long
term. Irrigation water availability is therefore one of the key factors that will govern the
landscape design stage.

2 EXISTING NETWORK
Abu Dhabi irrigation system consists of two main zones, namely Abu Dhabi island (Northern
Region) and the mainland (Southern region) naturally separated from the Arabian Gulf by a
channel. For both areas, the estimated irrigation network length down to 100 mm diameter is
around 5,000 km, similarly the estimated irrigation network length from 100 mm to the solenoid
valve is around 11,000 km.
There are 146 reservoirs all equipped with pumping stations, 60 in the Island and 86 in
Mainland. In addition, there are some booster pumps situated in the network (without
reservoirs).Presently irrigation water to Abu Dhabi Island and Mainland is mainly supplied from
the existing Mafraq and Wathba Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTP). This TSE is either
supplied directly from the WWTPs through gravity systems or it is pumped through the Central
irrigation Pump Station (CIPS) located at Mafraq. In the areas where the TSE transmission
network is not fully developed, desalinated and ground water are used as irrigation water
source.
2.1 TSE Network

The major part of the TSE network is used for the transport of water from the pump station to
the irrigated areas; the topology of the network is relatively simple. In general, the TSE
network can be divided into 4 categories:
a) Transmission: Pipelines which connect the source of TSE (WWTP) with major pump
stations (IPS1, IPS2, IPS3, CIPS), i.e. Mafraq to IPS1. Essentially, these pipelines are
owned by ADSSC
b) Main distribution: Pipelines which connect major pump stations with other major
pump stations (for its later distribution to irrigation reservoirs), i.e. emergency line from
IPS1 to IPS2. These are owned by DMAT
c) Secondary distribution: Pipe network which connects major pump stations with
irrigation reservoirs and direct feeds, i.e. Island upstream network from IPS2 to R43.
These are owned by DMAT
d) Local distribution: Pipe network which connects irrigation reservoirs and direct feeds
from TSE network with solenoid valves, i.e. R43 to solenoids. Essentially is the
downstream network from irrigation reservoirs. These are owned by DMAT
02-EXISTING NETWORK PAGE 9 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Figure 2-1: TSE Network Breakdown and Ownership
2.1.1 Transmission Network

From the WWTPs, TSE water is delivered to DMAT through a system of transmission
pipelines to the main locations, namely Central Irrigation Pump Station (ClPS) at Mafraq, IPS
1/1A and IPS-3 in the mainland and IPS 2/2A in the island. From these locations, TSE water is
distributed to various parts of the island and mainland.
From Mafraq tTSE is delivered through 2 DN 1300 gravity pipelines, ERM-1 and ERM-2, to
IPS 2/2A (ERM-1) and IPS 1/1A and IPS 3/3A (ERM-2). CIPS is connected directly to Mafraq
WWTP through a DN1600 pipeline.
From Wathba, TSE is delivered by gravity via 1 DN 2000 and 1 DN1800 pipelines, ISTP-1 and
ISTP-2, to Khalifa City “A” and ”B” Ring and IPS 3/3A (ISTP-1); ISTP-2 connects with ERM-1
and ERM-2 near Mafraq to support the supply. Both pipelines are interconnected at Wathba
WWTP.
From IPS 1 water is delivered to NADIA (R-77) and local networks. From IPS 1A water is
delivered to Zayed city and local networks. There is an existing DN900 emergency line from
IPS 1A to IPS 2 to support the supply to the island.
From IPS 2/2A water is delivered to the island ring and local networks. There is another DN
450 emergency line that connects the pipeline ERM-2 with the island ring.
From IPS 3/3A the water is delivered to the local networks in Dubai Road, Yas Island, etc.
There is a DN 600 emergency line from IPS 3/3A that supports NADIA (R-77).
From CIPS the areas of Al Faya, Al Dhafra, Al Wathba and Al Khatim, as well as some areas
near Khalifa “B”, Mafraq and Dubai Road are supplied via DN 400 and DN 800 pipelines.
The following schematic illustrates the TSE transmission network:

Figure 2-2: TSE Transmission & Distribution Network
2.2 TSE Quality

In general, the biological quality of the TSE supplied to Abu Dhabi Island and the Mainland is
of such quality that it presents no harm to public health provided that certain safeguards are
observed. Standards for TSE and its re-use vary country to country, and those adopted by
WWTP’s can be considered as typical.

In addition to biological impurities, TSE may also contain chemicals that could affect human
health. The most common contaminants include lead, nitrates, and carcinogenic organic
compounds. Since this problem is usually associated with heavy industry, health issues
related to chemical contamination are less likely to be of significance in Abu Dhabi, where the
principal source of TSE is domestic sewage.
Irrigation water supplied from the WWTP’s is of relatively high salinity. The electrical
conductivity (EC) of TSE is 6,000 µmhos/cm (6 dS/m), and in practice it varies between 5,000
and 7,000 µmhos/cm (5 to 7 dS/m). The cause of this salinity is saltwater entering the trunk
sewerage networks in both Abu Dhabi Island and the Mainland. Control of the level of salinity
in the product effluent is achieved by continuous monitoring of EC in the irrigation water and
throughout the trunk sewerage network.
2.3 Types of Secondary Irrigation System

There are several types of secondary irrigation systems. Each type has its own advantages
and disadvantages and is better adapted to some specific types of landscapes.
Water emitters dictate the type of system and in most cases the type of installation. Fitted on
the laterals at frequent spaces, they deliver water to the plants in the form of a rain jet, spray,
mist, small stream, fountain or continuous drops. All types of emitters presently in use are of
the small orifice-nozzle, vortex or long-path labyrinth types. Thus, the flow in the water emitters
is turbulent.
2.3.1 Classification of Irrigation Systems

Irrigation systems can be classified according to the pressure required for operation, the
method of delivering water to plants, and the type of installation.
2.3.1.1 Pressure
The pressure of the system is the maximum water pressure required for normal system
operation and includes:
a) the friction losses in the piping network from the control station to the distal end of the
system
b) the pressure required at the emitter
c) the difference in elevation (plus or minus)
Systems can be classed as:
a) low pressure systems, where the pressure required is 1.5-3.5 bars
b) medium pressure, where the pressure required is 3.5-5.0 bars
c) high pressure, where the pressure required exceeds 5.0 bars
Low pressure systems are preferred. The use of medium and high pressure systems must be
justified by the designer in terms of water use efficiency and cost.
2.3.1.2 Water Delivery Method
The water delivery method is the way the water is distributed to the plants. Systems can be
classed as:
a) Sprinkler (overhead) irrigation. The water is delivered in the form of raindrops
precipitated over the entire area. There are many variations of this method in terms of
the discharge and diameter coverage, the height of the water jet above ground
(overhead, under the foliage), the type of sprinkler mechanism, etc.
b) Surface irrigation (furrow, basin, border, etc.). The water is delivered to the field plots
directly from tankers, main or sub-main pipelines through the hydrants and it is spread
all over the area, or it is side applied. These systems are not recommended for
landscape purposes in Abu Dhabi.

c) Micro-irrigation (localized irrigation) by drippers, sprayers, bubblers, micro-jets, etc.

The water is delivered to the plants without being spread over the entire area but by
being applied in low rates to a limited soil surface area around the plants.
The water delivery method and the type of the water emitter are the main characteristics of an
irrigation system. In many cases they influence and specify other characteristics (pressure and
type of installation) and performances, such as the flow capacity of the system and the
duration of application.
The flow capacity of a system is the water flow (in cubic metres per hour or litres per second)
given, or designed to meet the irrigation requirements of the irrigable area at peak demand. It
is inversely proportional to the duration of application. Where designed, it must be the
minimum permissible in order to economize on pipe size and other equipment. The duration of
application is the time required for the completion of one irrigation cycle.
Surface irrigation systems are not allowed due to their low efficiency. Surface irrigation
of landscape areas is only allowed where an appropriate irrigation system is not installed or at
early stages of landscape establishment. In these cases the use of tankers and hoses is
allowed as a temporary measure.
2.3.1.3 Type of Installation
Systems can be classed as:
a) Solid installations (fixed systems), where all the components are laid or installed at
fixed permanent or seasonal positions
b) Semi-permanent installations, where the mains and sub-mains are permanent while
the laterals are portable, hand moveable or mechanical moveable
c) Portable installations, where all the components are portable
2.3.2 Above Ground Irrigation Systems - Sprinklers, Rotors, Bubblers

and Drippers
2.3.2.1 Sprinklers
Sprinklers are overhead slow rotating emitters, impact or rotary type, single or twin nozzle. The
sprinklers shoot jets of water into the air and spread these to the field in the form of raindrops
in a circular pattern. They are available in various nozzle sizes, flow discharges, operating
pressures and wetted diameters or diameter coverage, full circle or part circle. They are
classified as low, medium and high pressure/capacity. Depending on the height of the water jet
above the nozzle, they are divided into low angle (4º-11º), or high angle (20º-30º). They are
made of brass or high engineering plastics with internal or external threaded connections.
Quite often they are buried in the ground with pop-up systems, fitted on the laterals. The
sprinkler spacing in the field is rectangular or triangular at distances not exceeding 60 per cent
of their diameter coverage. Filtration requirements, where necessary, are about 65 mesh (250
microns).
Table 2-1: Sprinkler types
Sprinkler type Operating pressure Flow rate Coverage

3
(bars) (m /h) (m)
Low pressure 1.5-2.5 0.3-1.5 12-21
Medium pressure 2.5-3.5 1.5-3.0 24-35
High pressure 4.0-9.0 5.0-45.0 60-80

Figure 2-3: Sprinkler types

Advantages
a) Cost-effective irrigation for large areas
b) Modern models are robust, compact and resistant to damage
c) A large area can be covered by fewer sprinklers, reducing maintenance requirements
d) Large nozzles are less affected by dirty irrigation water
Disadvantages
a) Significant wastage in hot conditions by evaporation
b) Needs to be scheduled to operate in early mornings or late evenings
c) Large radius makes them unsuitable for smaller and awkwardly-shaped areas
d) Prone to vandalism
e) Higher operating pressure requirement
f) High flows = large pipe sizes
g) Concentrate salts in arid climates due to evaporation
Typical applications
 Irrigation of large and open areas of grass or ground cover with slopes less than 25%,
such as golf courses or sport fields
2.3.2.2 Spitters, Micro-jets and Sprayers
These are small plastic emitters with a low water discharge at a low angle in the form of fine
drops in a sectorial or full circle pattern. They are of various mechanisms with a wide range of
flow rates and water diameters. They have a small passage diameter, thus filtration of the
water is essential. They are connected to laterals through small flexible tubes. The spacing
arrangement in the field is the same as for conventional sprinklers. When used for irrigation of
trees they are placed 30-50 cm apart. Their operating pressure is 1.5-2.0 bars, flow rates of
35-250 l/h and wetted diameter of 3-6 m. The filtration requirements are about 80 mesh (200
microns).

Figure 2-4: Spitters, Micro-jets and Sprayers

Advantages
a) Flexible means for irrigation of smaller and awkwardly-shaped areas
b) Spray cools the air and benefits the surrounding planted areas
c) Washing of foliage improves growth and retains a fresh appearance
Disadvantages
a) Fine spray results in considerable wastage in hot conditions by evaporation
b) Needs to be scheduled to operate in early mornings or late evenings
c) Moderately high maintenance requirements
d) Prone to vandalism
e) Higher flows = larger pipe sizes
f) Concentrate salts in arid climates due to evaporation
 Irrigation of medium areas of grass or ground cover with slopes less than 25%, such as
parks
 Irrigation of small and awkwardly-shaped areas of grass or ground cover with slopes
less than 25%, such as streetscape
 Irrigation of isolated trees in areas with slopes less than 25%
2.3.2.3 Bubblers
Low pressure bubblers are small-sized water emitters designed for localized flood irrigation of
small areas. They deliver water in bubbles or in a low stream at the same spot. The flow rate is
adjusted by twisting the top and ranges from 110 to 250 l/h at operating pressures of 1.0-3.0
bars. The bubbler heads are installed on small plastic wedges inserted into the ground and
connected to a lateral. They are placed in a tree basin; one or two per tree. The basin is
always needed to contain or control the water because the bubbler discharge usually exceeds
the soil infiltration rate. The filtration requirements are about 60 mesh (250 microns).
Figure 2-5: Bubblers

Advantages
a) Simple robust devices giving trouble-free low-maintenance operation
b) Higher water flow prevents salt build-up
c) Gives deep watering that encourages deep rooting
d) Operation is very easy to monitor
e) Models are available for mounting on pop-ups
Disadvantages
a) More wastage of water, less efficient than drip systems
b) Difficult to ensure that the water is delivered just where it is needed at the root system
c) Prone to vandalism
d) High flows = larger pipe sizes
 Irrigation of scattered trees, shrubs and bushes with retention basin
2.3.2.4 Drippers
The drippers are small-sized emitters made of high quality plastic. They are mounted on small
soft PE pipes (hoses) at frequent spaces. Water enters the dripper emitters at approximately
1.0 bar and is delivered at zero pressure in the form of continuous droplets at low rates of 1-24
l/h. The filtration requirements are about 120 mesh (125 microns).
Drippers are divided into two main groups according to the way they dissipate energy
(pressure):
a) Orifice type, with flow areas of 0.2-0.35 mm2;
b) Long-path type, with relatively larger flow areas of 1-4.5 mm2.
Both types are manufactured with various mechanisms and principles of operation, such as a
vortex diode, a diaphragm or a floating disc for the orifice drippers, and a labyrinthine path, of
various shapes, for the long-path ones. All the drippers now available on the market are
turbulent flow ones. Drippers are also characterized by the type of connection to the lateral:
a) on-line, i.e. inserted in the pipe wall by the aid of a punch; or
b) in-line, where the pipe is cut to insert the dripper manually or with a machine.
On-line multi-exit drippers are also available with four to six ‘spaghetti’ type tube outlets.
Figure 2-6: Drippers
Advantages
a) Allow the quantity of irrigation water to be accurately applied where needed, according
to the plant’s needs

b) Wastage from leaching down is minimal

c) Losses by evaporation are kept to a minimum
d) Reduced likelihood of human exposure when used with treated effluent water
e) Easy to install and remove
f) Multi-outlet models are available, giving flexibility
g) Low flows = smaller pipe sizes
Disadvantages
a) Subject to clogging and thus requiring very clean irrigation water or reliable operation.
Requires a reliable filtration system
b) Tendency to encourage build-up of salts in the fringe of the wetted zone, especially if
the soil is not very free-draining
c) Overall, requiring high maintenance and close regular inspection
d) The devices are quite susceptible to damage or disturbance
e) Relatively costly
 Irrigation of trees, shrubs and bushes and flower beds in regular or irregular plantation
patterns
2.3.2.5 Integrated Drip – Line (Built – in Emitters)
These are thin-walled integral drip lines with emission points spaced 10, 20, 30, 45 cm or any
other distance apart, delivering lower quantities of water than the usual drippers at low
pressures, i.e. 0.4-4.0 litres/h at 0.6-1.0 bar. They are integrated drip lines where the drippers
are built in the pipe walls at the desired spacing during the manufacturing process. They are
ready-made dripper laterals with a very high uniformity of application. Integrated drips are
made of LDPE in various diameters from 12 to 20 mm and in several wall thicknesses (0.10-
1.25 mm). Thanks to a filtration system incorporated inside the tubing, they are less
susceptible to mechanical and biological blockages than conventional drippers. However the
filtration requirements are about 120 mesh (125 microns), as conventional drippers.
Figure 2-7: Integrated Drip – Line (Built – in Emitters-Thin Walled)

Advantages
a) Ease of installation
b) Allows the quantity of irrigation water to be applied accurately and uniformly, according
c) Wastage from leaching down is minimal
d) Losses by evaporation are kept to a minimum
e) Reduced likelihood of human exposure when used with treated effluent damage or
disturbance
f) Low maintenance
g) Low flows = Smaller pipe sizes

Disadvantages
a) Less suitable where plant spacing is not regular and predictable
b) Does not have the inherent flexibility of separate emitters especially in clearing
clogging
c) Tendency to encourage build-up of salts in the fringe of the wetted zone, especially if
d) Monitoring requires close inspection
 Irrigation of trees, shrubs and bushes and flower beds in regular plantation patterns
2.3.2.6 Pressure Compensated (PC) Drippers
Several drippers and other water micro-emitters are available with built-in flow regulators.
These emitters deliver a constant flow of water at any pressure exceeding the fixed operating
one. Uniform rates of discharge are achieved along the laterals regardless of the number of
emitters, spacing, length of line or elevation, where excessive pressure is available. Therefore,
pressure variations in the laterals due to friction losses can exceed 20 per cent. Thus, less
expensive smaller diameter pipes can be installed in certain cases. However, the self-
regulated emitters, called pressure compensated, are normally operated under pressures
exceeding the fixed operational pressures and cost more than the conventional ones.
Figure 2-8: Pressure Compensated (PC) Drippers
Advantages
a) The same as drippers and integrated drip-lines
b) It allows high application efficiency in hydrozones with elevation differences above 2 m
c) It allows longer lateral length
Disadvantages
a) The same as drippers and integrated drip-lines
b) Typical applications requires higher pressures
c) Costly
 Irrigation of trees, shrubs and bushes and flower beds in hydrozones with elevation
differences above 2 m
 Irrigation of trees, shrubs and bushes with laterals above 100 m length
2.3.3 Sub-surface Irrigation Systems

Sub-surface irrigation is the practice of applying irrigation water beneath the soil surface. The
main drivers for this technology are:

a) To reduce evaporation from soil surface

b) To reduce run-off
c) To apply fertilizers at root level
d) To reduce the exposure of the irrigation system to vandalism
Common sub-surface irrigation systems involve burying plastic pipes at 10 – 20 cm beneath
the soil surface. Several vendors offer inline drip or porous pipe systems, which can be directly
buried. These pipes can be “sandwiched” between 2 geotextile sheets, which help to spread
the moisture laterally. This is particularly important in sandy soils with high permeability and
low water holding capacity. To avoid the intrusion of roots inside the emitters they are coated
with a root inhibitor or the irrigation system is fitted with a chemical system to apply the root
inhibitor with the irrigation water. The main problem of sub-surface irrigation systems is the
clogging of the emitters by the surrounding soil particles. To avoid this situation the
manufacturers offer emitters with self-flushing and anti-siphon mechanisms. Besides these
preventive mechanisms the hydrozones must be fitted with flush systems to clean the laterals
as part of routine maintenance.
This technology is perfectly suited for narrow irregularly shaped lawns, where overhead
irrigation tends to overspray water beyond the planted area, and sloppy areas, where
overhead irrigation tends to produce run-off.
Sub-surface irrigation is the state-of-the-art in water use efficiency. Its use offers many other
advantages, including the ability to apply water and nutrients to the most active part of the root
zone, protection of lateral lines and the ability to safely irrigate with wastewater while
minimising human contact.
2.3.3.1 Integrated Drip – Line (Built – in Emitters)
These integral drip lines for sub-surface drip irrigation have the same hydraulic characteristics
as the above ground versions. The main differences are the self-flushing and anti-siphon
mechanisms to avoid clogging and sometimes the root inhibitor.
The self-flushing mechanism provides a peak flow at the start of the irrigation to drag any
particle from the emitter. The anti-siphon mechanism works as a check valve, stopping the
dripper flow when the pressure in the lateral is below a fixed limit, usually 0.5 bar. The filtration
requirements are about 140 mesh (100 microns).
Figure 2-9: Integrated Drip – Line (Built – in Emitters-Sub-surface)

Advantages
a) Allows the quantity of irrigation water to be applied accurately and uniformly, according
b) Allows the use of fertilizers at root level


e) Losses by run-off are kept to a minimum
f) Reduced likelihood of human exposure when used with treated effluent damage or
disturbance
g) No exposure to vandalism
h) Low flows = Smaller pipe sizes
Disadvantages
a) Less suitable where plant spacing is not regular and predictable
b) Does not have the inherent flexibility of separate emitters
c) Tendency to encourage build-up of salts in the soil, especially if the soil is not very
free-draining
d) Operation and monitoring requires close inspection and trained personnel
e) Preventive maintenance to avoid clogging and root intrusion is required
f) If not properly maintained risk of clogging and root intrusion
g) High investment cost
 Same as drippers, inline drip systems and pressure compensated drippers
 Irrigation of medium areas of grass or ground cover with slopes higher than 25%, such
as interchanges
higher than 25%, such as streetscape
 Irrigation of narrow areas of grass or ground cover (less than 2.5 m), such as medians
2.3.3.2 Porous Pipes
These pipes are small-sized (about 16 mm) thin-walled porous flexible hoses made from PE
fibres, PVC, ABS or rubber. They permit water and nutrients under low pressure to pass from
inside the tube, by transpiration, and irrigate the plants. The porous pipeline discharge is not
accurate because the size of the pores varies and is not stable. The operating pressure is very
low (around 0.5 bar) with also very low flow rates (around 0.8 l/h·m). They are used as lateral
drip lines beneath the surface. The filtration requirements are about 200 mesh (75 microns).
The porous pipes are prone to clogging because they have no self-flushing or anti-siphon
mechanisms; appropriate anti-siphon and flushing systems must be provided in addition.
Figure 2-10: Porous Pipes
Advantages
a) Allows the quantity of irrigation water to be applied accurately and uniformly, according
b) Allows the use of fertilizers at root level


e) Losses by run-off are kept to a minimum
f) Reduced likelihood of human exposure when used with treated effluent damage or
disturbance
g) No exposure to vandalism
h) Low flows = Smaller pipe sizes
Disadvantages
a) Low application uniformity
b) Less suitable where plant spacing is not regular and predictable
c) Does not have the inherent flexibility of separate emitters
d) Tendency to encourage build-up of salts in the soil, especially if the soil is not very
free-draining
e) Monitoring requires close inspection and trained personnel
f) Preventive maintenance to avoid clogging and root intrusion is required
g) Requires high performance filtration system. If not properly maintained risk of clogging
and root intrusion
h) High investment cost
 Same as drippers and inline drip systems
 Irrigation of medium areas of grass or ground cover with slopes higher than 25%, such
as interchanges
higher than 25%, such as streetscape
 Irrigation of narrow areas of grass or ground cover (less than 2.5 m), such as medians

3 WATER QUALITY
For decades, communities have been reusing valuable recycled water to recharge aquifers,
irrigate landscapes and agricultural fields, provide critical stream flows, and provide industries
and facilities with an alternative to potable water for a range of uses. While water reuse is not
new, population increases and land use changes, combined with changes in the intensity and
dynamics of local climatic weather patterns, have exacerbated water supply challenges in
many areas of the world. Furthermore, treated wastewater is increasingly being seen as a
resource rather than simply ‘waste’.
In this context, recycled water reclamation and reuse have taken on increased importance in
the water supply of communities around the world in order to achieve efficient resource use,
ensure protection of environmental and human health, and improve water management. Strict
effluent discharge limits have spurred effective and reliable improvements in treatment
technologies. Along with a growing interest in more sustainable water supplies, these
improvements have led an increasing number of communities to use recycled water as an
alternative source to conventional water supplies for a range of applications. In some areas
water reuse and dual water systems for distribution of recycled water for non-potable uses
have become fully integrated into local water supplies. Alternative and efficient water supply
options, including recycled water, are necessary components of holistic and sustainable water
management.
3.1 General
Substituting recycled water for valuable and scarce potable water often serves to supplement
supplies of fresh water. Communities and water purveyors also may benefit in other ways, too.
The benefits of using recycled water include the following:
a) When uncertainties exist with a supply of traditional (potable) water, the use of recycled
water for such non-potable applications as landscape irrigation can help reduce the
demand on a water system, thereby increasing the supply of available water and
improving the reliability of its supply
b) Supplementing a water system with recycled water can, in some situations, decrease
the diversion of fresh waters from sensitive ecosystems
c) Recycling treated wastewater reduces the discharge of effluent to sensitive
environments and protects the quality of surface water and groundwater. Furthermore,
recycled water may be used to enhance and create wetlands and riparian habitats
d) Using recycled water may reduce the costs of wastewater treatment and disposal. It
may also provide other economic benefits to dischargers and, indirectly, to businesses
and the public
e) In communities that recycle water, water purveyors may be able to “bank” a portion of
their imported water during average and above-average water years or to reserve
some of the imported water for use during dry years
f) The use of recycled water, obtained from a local source, often partially offsets the need
to import water. That strategy, in turn, reduces the need for pumping and other energy
consumptive activities associated with importing water
Generally, recycled water reuse standards are either adopted from WHO standards or other
international standards. It is vitally essential that such adopted guidelines be adapted to
prevailing epidemiological, sociocultural and environmental local conditions.
3.1.1 Public Health Factors in TSE Use

The likelihood of human contact with irrigation water cannot practically be avoided in amenity
landscape areas. There are several possible means by which pathogenic organisms from
03-WATER QUALITY PAGE 22 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

irrigation water could be transferred to humans. The three most likely methods are as follows:
a) Bodily contact with irrigation water or the soil
b) Breathing of air that contains fine droplets of irrigation water
c) Consumption of contaminated food or drinks
Picnicking on grass shortly after it has been irrigated or being in the immediate vicinity when
sprinkler systems are in operation are the most likely means by which pathogens could be
ingested. Bacteria may survive in the soil for up to two months or even one year, although
sandy soils and high temperatures tend to decrease survival times. Ensuring that lawn
sprinkler systems are scheduled to operate in the early morning hours is a necessary
precaution. Possible exposure to irrigation water is less likely with drip irrigation as compared
to bubblers or spray sprinklers.
Rigorous quality control of the purity of WWTP’s product effluent water is the most effective
means of ensuring that hazard to human health is negligible. However, it should be noted that
specific health risk is related to an individual’s threshold of susceptibility and that infants,
elderly persons, and those having weakened immune systems are of course the most
susceptible. Notwithstanding the good organic quality and relative safety of Abu Dhabi’s
irrigation water, some degree of health risk cannot be entirely eliminated and it is essential that
special attention be given to protecting those members of the public who may be vulnerable.
For this reason, the grounds of hospitals will continue to be irrigated with potable water, as is
the case at present, particularly in those areas accessible to patients. Similarly, planting within
the grounds of nursery schools and primary schools need to be irrigated with potable water.
3.1.2 Suitability of TSE for Landscape Irrigation

The normal level of salinity in the RW is higher than that preferable for plant growth. This
salinity is a constraint upon plant selection, since all proposed plant materials must be salt-
tolerant at around 6,000 µmhos/cm (6 dS/m). In the medium term, it is anticipated that some
reduction can be achieved through future projects for lining some defective portions of the
sewerage networks. This will have a number of benefits, specifically in allowing a wider choice
of plant materials to be used and reducing the rate of salt build-up in the soil. However, for the
present time plant materials should be selected to suit the current salinity levels.
The suitability of water for irrigation purposes also depends upon its other chemical properties,
including sodium hazard, usually expressed as sodium absorption ratio (SAR), and the levels
of harmful individual ions. SAR is calculated from the ratio of sodium to calcium and
magnesium. Continued use of irrigation water having a high SAR leads to the sodium being
adsorbed, causing the soil to become hard and compact and increasingly impervious to water
penetration. Leaching and soil amendments particularly gypsum are used to counter these
affects. Sandy soils with a low content of clay particles, such as those found at Abu Dhabi, are
less likely to be affected by high SAR.
Many heavy metal are toxic to plants at different concentrations depending upon the individual
plant species’ tolerance and the soil chemistry. A few of these heavy metals, including
chromium, cobalt and particularly cadmium are higher levels than that is recommended for
long-term irrigation use. Nevertheless the near-neutral pH of the irrigation water and the sandy
nature of Abu Dhabi’s soil mean that their availability to the plants’ root systems is reduced,
and it is not considered likely that they would have any harmful effect.
3.2 TSE Parameters

The principal constituents of concern with regard to the quality of recycled water for irrigation
are the following: salinity, which contributes to osmotic effects that affect the availability of soil
water to plants; specific ions toxic to sensitive plants—for example, sodium, chloride, and
boron; and the combined effects of sodicity and salinity, which affect the rate at which water
infiltrates the soil surface and the permeability of the soil profile. Other constituents of concern

include nitrogen, bicarbonates, residual chlorine, and constituents that may cumulatively clog
the small orifices of irrigation systems.
3.3 Quality Standards and Guidelines

3.3.1 Quality Standards in UAE
Regulation & Supervision Bureau (RSB) specified values for the compliance parameters which
are expected from each Treatment Plant. Where Recycled Water is used for irrigation it
specifies additional requirements derived from Annex 1 of WHO 2006 Guidelines for the safe
use of wastewater in agriculture. The TSE Water (final effluent) leaving the Works should
comply with the Standards as detailed below:
Table 3-1: TSE Water (final effluent) Standards
Parameters Unit RSB MAC
Sanitary - Table A1.1 (A) P1 P2 P3
pH 6–8 6–8 6–9
BOD5 mg/l 10 10 50
TSS mg/l 10 20 50
Ammonia Nitrogen mg/l - - 2
Total Phosphorus mg/l - - 2
Turbidity NTU 5 10 75
Residual Chlorine mg/l 0.5 – 1.0 0.5 – 1.0 1
Dissolved Oxygen mg/l >=1 >=1 >3
Microbiological - Table A1.1 (A)
Faecal Coliform CFU/100ml 100 1000 1000
Intestinal Enterococci CFU/100ml 40 200 -
Helminth Ova Nr/l <1 <1 0
Trace elements - Table A2.1 (A)
Aluminium mg/l 5
Arsenic mg/l 0.1
Beryllium mg/l 0.1
Cadmium mg/l 0.01
Chromium mg/l 0.1
Cobalt mg/l 0.05
Copper mg/l 0.2
Fluoride mg/l 1
Iron mg/l 5
Lead mg/l 5
Lithium mg/l 2.5
Manganese mg/l 0.2
Molybdenum mg/l 0.01
Nickel mg/l 0.2
Selenium mg/l 0.02
Vanadium mg/l 0.1
Zinc mg/l 2
Salinity Parameters - Table A2.1 (B)
o
Electrical Conductivity (ECw) dS/m @ 25 C
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) mg/l
Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) meq/l
+
Sodium (Na ) meq/l
-
Chloride (Cl ) meq/l
Boron (B) mg/l
3-
Bicarbonate (HCO ) mg/l

Where:
 P1: General reuse involves frequent & uncontrolled exposure of the general public to
Recycled Water
 P2: Restricted reuse involves infrequent & controlled public exposure to RW.
 P3: Discharge to marine environment
 CFU= Colony Forming Units; NTU = Nephelometric Turbidity Unit; mg/l =
milligrams/litre
 MAC = Maximum Allowable Concentration; Average – Arithmetic mean of the samples
taken in any calendar month must comply with the standard.
 dS/m=deciSiemen/meter in SI units (equivalent to 1 mmho/cm = 1
millimmho/centimetre)
 mg/l = milligram per litre – parts per million (ppm).
 me/l = milliequivalent per litre (mg/l ÷ equivalent weight = me/l); in SI units, 1 me/l = 1
millimol/litre adjusted for electron charge
3.3.2 FAO Guidelines

From an irrigation point of view the RSB regulation does not include any recommendation /
limitation to some essential parameters for appropriate landscape maintenance for long the
term. FAO guidelines for interpretation of water quality for irrigation classify the qualities of the
water for agriculture irrigation.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0234e/T0234E01.htm#ch1.4
The FAO Water Quality Guidelines were developed based on the collective opinions of several
soil, plant, and water scientists with extensive research and practical experience. With these
guidelines, a wide range of conditions encountered in irrigated agriculture is covered, and
water quality is evaluated in terms of the “degree of restriction on use”; i.e., as water quality is
degraded, it requires higher management skills to safely use that water.
These guidelines should be used as a first approximation for considering the suitability of
water for irrigation and then modified for local conditions as needed. Not plant specific, they
may be too restrictive for some more tolerant plants and perhaps not restrictive enough for
some more sensitive plants. No restrictions on use indicate full production capability without
the use of special management practices. Restrictions on use indicate that the choice of plants
may be limited or that special management practices are required to attain full production
capability. This situation may not be as predominant a concern in the case of landscape
plants, as their visual appearance is more important than is harvested yield or biomass.
The FAO guidelines, though accepted worldwide in irrigated agriculture and widely used since
1976, should be considered part of an initial effort to evaluate the suitability of waters for
landscape irrigation. As landscape professionals gain experience in the use of recycled waters
to irrigate landscape plants, they may need to consider additional constraints or modifications
in addition to potential plugging.
Table 3-2: FAO Guidelines for Interpretations of Water Quality for Irrigation
1
FAO GUIDELINES FOR INTERPRETATIONS OF WATER QUALITY FOR IRRIGATION
Degree of Restriction on Use
Potential Irrigation Problem Units Slight to
None Severe
Moderate
2
Salinity(affects crop water availability)
ECw 0.7 –
dS/m < 0.7 > 3.0
3.0
(or)

1
FAO GUIDELINES FOR INTERPRETATIONS OF WATER QUALITY FOR IRRIGATION
Degree of Restriction on Use
Potential Irrigation Problem Units Slight to
None Severe
Moderate
TDS mg/l < 450 450 – 2000 > 2000
Infiltration (affects infiltration rate of water into the soil.
3
Evaluate using ECw and SAR together)
SAR =0–3 and ECw = > 0.7 0.7 – 0.2 < 0.2
=3–6 = > 1.2 1.2 – 0.3 < 0.3
= 6 – 12 = > 1.9 1.9 – 0.5 < 0.5
= 12 – 20 = > 2.9 2.9 – 1.3 < 1.3
= 20 – 40 = > 5.0 5.0 – 2.9 < 2.9
Specific Ion Toxicity(affects sensitive crops)
Sodium (Na)4
surface irrigation SAR <3 3–9 >9
sprinkler irrigation me/l <3 >3
Chloride (Cl)4
surface irrigation me/l <4 4 – 10 > 10
sprinkler irrigation me/l <3 >3
Boron (B)5 mg/l < 0.7 0.7 – 3.0 > 3.0
Trace Elements (see RSB Table in section 3.A)
Miscellaneous Effects(affects susceptible crops)
6
Nitrogen (NO3 - N) mg/l <5 5 – 30 > 30
Bicarbonate (HCO3)
(overhead sprinkling only) me/l < 1.5 1.5 – 8.5 > 8.5
pH Normal Range 6.5 – 8.4
1
Adapted from University of California Committee of Consultants 1974. For referred tables and figures
consult http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0234e/t0234e00.HTM
2
ECw means electrical conductivity, a measure of the water salinity, reported in deciSiemens per metre
at 25°C (dS/m) or in units millimhos per centimetre (mmho/cm). Both are equivalent. TDS means total
dissolved solids, reported in milligrams per litre (mg/l)
3
SAR means sodium adsorption ratio. SAR is sometimes reported by the symbol RNa. See Figure1 for
the SAR calculation procedure. At a given SAR, infiltration rate increases as watersalinity increases.
Evaluate the potential infiltration problem by SAR as modified by ECw. Adapted from Rhoades 1977,
and Oster and Schroer 1979
4
For surface irrigation, most tree crops and woody plants are sensitive to sodium and chloride; use the
values shown. Most annual crops are not sensitive; use the salinity tolerance tables (Tables 4 and 5).
For chloride tolerance of selected fruit crops, see Table 14. With overhead sprinkler irrigation and low
humidity (< 30 percent), sodium and chloride may be absorbed through the leaves of sensitive crops.
For crop sensitivity to absorption, see Tables 18, 19 and 20
5
For boron tolerances, see Tables 16 and 17
6
NO3 -N means nitrate nitrogen reported in terms of elemental nitrogen (NH4 -N and Organic-N should
be included when wastewater is being tested)

3.3.3 U.S. Salinity Laboratory

The U.S. Salinity Laboratory suggested one of the earliest water quality classification schemes
for irrigated agriculture. It involved four quality characteristics and three classes, including
salinity (EC), specific ion toxicity (boron or chloride), and sodicity (Na%).
Table 3-3: The U.S. Salinity Laboratory water quality classification schemes for irrigated agriculture
Class I
Class II Class III
Parameter Excellent to
Good to injurious Injurious to unsatisfactory
good
Ec, dS/m <1 1–3 >3
Boron, mg/l < 0.5 0.5 – 2.0 > 2.0
Chloride, mg/l < 178 178 – 355 > 355
Sodium, % of
< 60 60 – 75 > 75
cations
In 1954, the U.S. Salinity Laboratory published Agricultural Handbook No. 60, which became
regarded worldwide as the definitive book on diagnosing and improving saline and alkali soils.
Included in the handbook was a diagram for classifying irrigation water with regard to salinity
hazard (EC) and sodium hazard (SAR), each with four levels of hazard for a total of 16
classes.
 Low salinity C1 waters can be used to irrigate most plants on most soils with little
likelihood that soil salinity will pose a problem.
 Moderate salinity C2 waters can be used for irrigation without special salinity control
practices, if a moderate amount of leaching occurs or moderately salt-tolerant plants
are grown.
 High salinity C3 waters can be used to irrigate only plants with good salt tolerance on
soils without restricted internal drainage and possibly with special salt management
measures required.
 Very high salinity C4 waters are ordinarily unsuitable for irrigation but may be used to
irrigate highly salt-tolerant plants and under such special circumstances as extensive
leaching. Handbook 60 contained tables on fruit, vegetable, forage, and field crops with
low, moderate, and high salt tolerances.
The sodium hazard is evaluated primarily on physical properties of soils as affected by
accumulation of exchangeable sodium on the cation exchange sites and secondarily on
specific ion toxicity of Na. The accumulation of exchangeable sodium is related to the SAR.
Unlike salinity hazard, the classification of sodium hazards has a negative slope on the SAR
versus EC matrix.
 Low sodium hazard S1 waters can be used to irrigate almost all soils with little danger
of accumulating harmful levels of exchangeable Na but not when such Na sensitive
crops as stone fruits and avocados are involved, since such crops may accumulate
injurious concentrations of Na.
 Medium sodium hazard S2 waters may be used for irrigation of coarse textured or
organic soils with good permeability. Irrigating with these waters will present an
appreciable hazard in fine textured soils with high cation exchange capacity, especially
under low LF. If gypsum is present in the soil, the sodium hazard will be reduced, since
Ca dissolved from gypsum will reduce levels of exchangeable Na.
 High sodium hazard S3 waters for irrigation may result in harmful levels of
exchangeable Na in most soils and will require special soil management, such as good
drainage, high leaching, and additions of organic matter. Gypsiferous soils may not

develop harmful levels of exchangeable Na with this type of water. Chemical

amendments may need to be used to lower exchangeable Na.
 Very high sodium hazard S4 waters are generally unsuitable for irrigation.
Figure 3-1: Appraisal of the hazards of exchangeable sodium on plants and soils (The U.S.
Salinity Laboratory)
Though the U.S. Salinity Laboratory system for classifying irrigation water with regard to EC
and SAR was broadly accepted and applied, some noted that the diagonal lines appeared to
have the wrong slope for the permeability of fine to medium textured soils. Water with low
sodium hazard and low salinity hazard infiltrates slowly over the long term, while a water with
low sodium hazard and medium to high salinity infiltrates at an acceptable rate. SAR can
cause soil colloids, especially clay minerals such as smectites, to disperse, resulting in a poor
rate of water intake, while EC coagulates soil colloids, promoting a good rate of water intake,
so that the adverse effects of SAR are partially overcome by higher salinity. Currently the
graph below is used to appraise the combined EC-SAR effects on the permeability of soil,
while the above graph is used to assess the hazards of exchangeable sodium on plants and

soils.
Figure 3-2: Appraisal of the combined EC-SAR effects on the permeability of soil (The U.S.
Salinity Laboratory)
3.3.4 Current Guidelines

Currently, the FAO guidelines are applied internationally for irrigated agriculture for the use of
recycled water to irrigate crops and landscapes. The guidelines are based on the following
assumptions:
3.3.4.1 Site Conditions
Soil texture ranges from sandy loam to clay loam with good internal drainage and shallow
water table controllable to within 2 m of land surface. The climate is semiarid to arid with low
rainfall. Rainfall does not contribute much to meeting crop water demand or to meeting the
leaching requirement of crops. The guidelines are too restrictive when rainfall is high during
the growing season.
3.3.4.2 Methods and Timing of Irrigation
Normal surface or sprinkler irrigation methods are used. Water is applied when available soil
water depletion is less than 50% before the next irrigation. LF, the ratio of root zone drainage
to infiltrated irrigation water, is 0.15 or greater. These guidelines are too restrictive for drip
irrigation or for daily to frequent irrigations.
3.3.4.3 Water Uptake by Crops
The root water extraction pattern is about 40–30–20–10% of crop reference evapotranspiration
(ETo) from surface root zone quartile to bottom quartile. Each irrigation event results in
leaching of salts in the upper root zone and accumulation of salts in the bottom root zone. The
average root zone salinity in soil water (ECsw) is estimated to be about three times greater than
in the applied water (ECw), and the average root zone salinity of the soil saturation extract
(ECe) is estimated to be about 1.5 times ECw. These relationships are based on a steady-state
LF of 15 to 20% (or 0.15 to 0.20).
3.3.4.4 Restriction on Use
The three categories of restrictions on use, which are somewhat arbitrary due to the lack of a

clear cut specific boundary and the gradual occurrence of changes, are based on studies,
observations, and experiences in the field. A change of 10 to 20% above or below a numeric
guidance value may have little significance for crop yield if other guidance values have no
restrictions or less restriction. Moreover, the management skill of the water user could alter the
degree of restrictions.
3.3.5 Clogging Potential

Recycled waters contain physical, chemical, and biological constituents that might
cumulatively clog small orifices in irrigation systems, such as drip emitters. Physical
constituents include suspended solids, mainly sand fractions. Chemical constituents include
those that form precipitates, such as calcium carbonate, iron and manganese hydroxides, and
hydrogen sulfides. Biological constituents may result from microbial activities, such as the
production of hydroxides and sulfides from microbial mediated redox reactions.
Constituents in most recycled waters, especially waters receiving tertiary treatment, pose little
potential restriction on use for virtually all of these parameters. A possible exception is TDS,
which may pose slight to moderate potential restriction on use.
There are no clear guidelines on the clogging potential of types of water. The following table
summarizes the clogging potentials of certain levels of constituents in water applied in drip
irrigation systems. The values included in the table must be taken as a first approximation.
Direct feedback of site managers is the best way to assess the clogging potential of specific
water types.
Table 3-4: Clogging potential of certain levels of constituents in water applied in drip irrigation systems
Degree of potential restrictions on use

Type of problem Slight to
Little Severe
moderate
TSS, mg/l < 50 50 – 100 > 100
pH <7 7–8 >8
TDS, mg/l < 500 500 – 2,000 > 2,000
Manganese, mg/l < 0.1 0.1 – 1.5 > 1.5
Iron, mg/l < 0.1 0.1 – 1.5 > 1.5
H2S, mg/l < 0.5 0.5 – 2.0 > 2.0
Bacterial CFU < 10,000 10,000 – 50,000 > 50,000
3.4 Irrigation System Design for Poor-Quality Water

A poorly designed irrigation system:
a) Substantially hinders salinity control by leaching
b) Is a major contributor to spatial variability in salinity accumulation across the landscape
c) Results in irrigation scheduling limitations that inhibit salinity management
A system with high uniformity of distribution is critical in avoiding salinity accumulation patterns
resulting from this design-induced scheduling problem as well as efficient salinity leaching.
With saline irrigation water, the practice of overwatering some areas to achieve adequate
irrigation on all areas greatly affects not only water distribution but also salt distribution and
spatial accumulation, resulting in salinity stress responses by plants. Conversely, in the
process of managing those wet areas and trimming back irrigation, drier areas can become
salinized if a sufficient leaching fraction is not applied. When salt accumulation is fostered in
localized areas due to lack of irrigation uniformity and inadequate zoning to achieve site-

specific irrigation, these limitations greatly complicate salinity leaching by:

a) Not allowing site-specific salinity leaching
b) Requiring the same leaching fraction that is sufficient to leach the highest salinity areas
but over-irrigates all other areas
Reducing the number and magnitude of excessive salt accumulation areas will reduce water
use for salinity leaching and allow more efficient leaching in those areas that require extra
water to promote salt movement.
Soil conditions are another important consideration in irrigation system design and scheduling,
but soil structures play an even more important role with saline irrigation water, especially on
more fine-textured soils. Irrigation decisions influenced by soil properties include the following;
a) The water-holding capacity of soils will dictate the length of time between irrigation
events
b) Emitter application and soil infiltration rates will jointly determine the maximum length
of individual irrigation cycles
c) Evapotranspiration (ET) and leaching fractions will determine the total amount of water
and the number of cycles applied during each irrigation event
With saline irrigation water, irrigation decisions on total quantity of water to apply, length of
irrigation pulse cycles, and number of pulse cycles must be made with the primary emphasis
on how salt accumulation or leaching is affected and with secondary consideration to plant
water requirements. Either lack of sufficient soil moisture or high soil salinity will induce
drought stress on the plant, with high salts triggering physiological drought stress even at high
soil water content.
A number of irrigation system design considerations will be discussed but three design criteria
are of special importance and are highlighted. The three critical design characteristics when
using saline irrigation water are
a) Distribution uniformity
b) Site-specific application capability and capacity
c) Control flexibility
3.4.1 Distribution Uniformity

Distribution uniformity, which refers to how evenly water is applied to the irrigated area, is of
primary importance. If the system is not capable of a high degree of water application
uniformity, then both soil moisture and soil salinity will be highly spatially diverse. The coupling
of drought induced by lack of soil moisture and drought caused by excessive soil salt
accumulation will result in a random patchwork of stressed sites across the area. Irrigation
uniformity is a “preventative” measure that greatly reduces site-specific problems from uneven
distribution of irrigation water and its variable accumulation of soluble salt constituents.
3.4.2 Site-Specific Application Capability and Capacity

Maximizing irrigation control down to the smallest manageable area is critical when working
with poor-quality water. This allows maximum flexibility for varying site conditions (salinity
level, soil types, slope, sun, wind exposure, etc.) that warrant special management when
irrigating with poor-quality waters. The ultimate and ideal arrangement is one valve-in-head
per control station, commonly referred to as either “individual control” or “single-head control.”
Even with high uniformity of water application, on salt-affected sites, small stressed areas can
still occur since surface and subsurface salt movement and spatial differences in ET on a site
can also cause a non-uniformity of salt distribution. Single-head zoning and control are more
suitable on a site-specific basis to:
a) Control water applications on small areas exhibiting any water stress from runoff,
localized dry spots, salt accumulation, or high ET in a localized area

b) Leach salts with the least quantity of water. Site-specific salinity leaching at the single-
head level requires information on soil salinity distribution within the zone of influence
of the head. However, recent advances in spatial mapping of soil salinity are
progressing to the point where detailed information on salinity levels within different
areas of a single irrigation head zone of influence can be accomplished
Computer central controllers combined with single or individual head control provide the
ultimate control system that allows leaching of specific areas along with micromanagement of
wet and dry spots. Single individual head control requires additional satellite controllers, but is
well worth the investment on sites with poor water quality and/or where water use efficiency is
a necessity.
3.4.3 Control Flexibility

Irrigation control flexibility entails that any factor which provides the manager with the most
site-specific options to apply water as needed, when needed within a designated time frame
and at an acceptable volume to enhance salt movement for the specific site. The most
important aspect of flexible control was noted in the previous paragraph, namely, single-head
zoning and control.
Other important aspects are:
a) Adequate total quantity of water to apply sufficient water in dry periods to meet the
combined requirements of ET replacement and salt leaching
b) Piping and pumping capabilities to deliver the water volume needed
c) The ability to practice pulse irrigation (also called cycle and soak or repeat cycles) on
all sites, where pulse irrigation is the practice of applying water just to the point of
runoff, ceasing irrigation until the water infiltrates, then repeating cycles until the total
ET replacement and leaching water quantity is applied (sometimes, it may take two or
more evenings or early mornings to accomplish sufficient pulse cycles for effective
leaching when the soils have a high clay content)
Pulse irrigation is very important for efficient salinity leaching, but it is also essential for water-
use efficiency on all sites with fine-textured soils. Soil infiltration, permeability, and internal
drainage characteristics can vary considerably on complex sites. Ideally, the application rate
will not exceed the infiltration rate of the soils. However, in the real world, this is not always
possible since sprinkler precipitation rates very often exceed soil infiltration rates. It is more
often the case that computerized control systems must be used to deliver multiple irrigation
cycles (i.e., pulse irrigation). This strategy provides time between each application cycle,
allowing water to infiltrate and avoid surface run-off. Additionally, pulse irrigation is effective in
moving accumulated soluble salts through micro-pores in soil profiles and in inorganic
amendments that contain high internal micro-porosity.
3.4.4 Additional System Design Considerations

In addition to the critical design criteria the use of saline irrigation water warrants a number of
other irrigation design considerations. The overall performance of an irrigation system is often
limited by the performance of an individual component or subsystem. It should be clear that
ecosystem infrastructure requirements, such as irrigation system design, are essential to
effectively manage accumulated soil salts, and are best installed during the preconstruction
phase. Attempting to accomplish these critical infrastructure characteristics after construction
and planting is very difficult, costly, and often impossible.
3.4.4.1 Irrigation Systems Hydraulic Design for LR
The leaching fraction must be accounted for when designing the irrigation system as this
additional LR water volume must be considered when sizing pipe. If these flow requirements
are not considered, either maximum flow velocities will be exceeded or the watering
application window will need to be extended.

3.4.4.2 Emitter Selection and Spacing Evaluation

The emitter is the most important part of the irrigation system because it distributes the water
over the land. The degree of uniformity of irrigation application determines the effectiveness
and efficiency of the irrigation system. Selection of the best performing emitter and spacing
combination is therefore critical to the success in managing poor water quality with the
irrigation system and in avoiding any soil salt accumulations along with development of
excessively wet or dry areas.
3.4.4.3 Pressure-Regulated Valve-in-Head
Irrigation system design where poor irrigation water is present should specify that all valve-in-
head have internal pressure regulation devices. Depending on the manufacturer, pressure
regulation devices may be optional. Pressure regulation maintains more consistent emitter
flow and application rates, which both contribute to delivering the highest distribution uniformity
possible.
3.4.4.4 Geometric Configurations (Square versus Triangular)
Irrigation text stresses the great importance of placing emitters on consistent geometric
configurations to maximize distribution uniformity. In ground agricultural systems emitters are
most often established on square spacing at least partially as a result of the need to move
laterals with sprinklers on fixed spacing down the field from set to set. Turf grass systems are
usually established on an equilateral triangular spacing. Field sprinkler research demonstrated
statistically that equilateral triangular spacing have the potential to deliver high uniformity
without the need to overlap coverage beyond 50% to 60% of the diameter. Field experience at
golf courses tends to support that equilateral triangular spacing is preferable over square
spacing to optimize distribution uniformity. If proper head spacing is not used, even single-
head control will not result in uniform application of water.
3.4.4.5 Combating Wind Effects on Distribution Uniformity
Wind of any speed distorts distribution profiles and the amount of distortion depends on the
water droplet sizes created by the nozzle. As a rule of thumb when wind speed exceeds 10
km/h coverage uniformity can begin to suffer. Reducing the impact of wind on distribution has
been attempted a number of ways such as reducing upwind or overall spacing distance and/or
reducing operating pressures. Reducing operating pressure at the nozzle, while staying within
manufacturer recommended ranges, will produce larger water droplets that travel less distance
in the wind than fine droplets produced at higher pressure. Improving water distribution
performance in wind with spacing adjustments, especially where heads are offset to the
upwind side, is risky. Unless wind speed and direction are very constant, especially during the
night time hours when most irrigation is carried out, offsetting heads is not recommended.
3.4.4.6 Hydraulic Systems
The pumping and piping systems need to deliver water throughout the site at an adequate,
relatively uniform pressure to allow the emitters to operate efficiently. The system should be
able to complete a full irrigation cycle at maximum ET replacement plus the required leaching
fraction within the time frame of any mandated watering window.
3.4.4.7 Weather and Soil Moisture Monitoring Equipment
Weather and soil moisture monitoring equipment can provide useful information to irrigation
managers working with poor-quality water, however generally this information must be
integrated into salinity management and irrigation scheduling. A leaching fraction can be
added to evapotranspiration estimated by weather monitoring to allow scheduling irrigation
events that meet both the ET replacement and leaching requirements. Soil moisture sensors
can also be installed to monitor how deeply each irrigation application penetrates. By installing
soil moisture monitoring sensors at various depths, the irrigator can determine when the entire
root zone has been adequately wetted.

3.4.4.8 Setbacks and Buffer Zones

Recycled, brackish, and other saline irrigation waters can require setbacks or buffer zones
from surrounding residences and property lines, environmentally sensitive areas, wetlands,
potable surface, potable aquifer recharge zones, and potable groundwater well heads.
Concerns addressed by setbacks and buffer zones range from overspray and wind drift of
recycled water into designated areas, to concerns of leaching or run-off into potable surface
water and groundwater sources. Wellheads are particularly susceptible to leaching
immediately surrounding the area where soil has been disturbed when drilling the well. The
concern is not always directly related to irrigation leaching, but to considering if a pipe were to
break and flood the area immediately surrounding the wellhead.
3.4.4.9 Corrosion-Resistant Components
Salts in irrigation sources can range from under 100 ppm to amounts approaching that of
seawater (i.e., in excess of 40,000 ppm). As total soluble salt content of the water increases,
so does the need for the corrosion resistance of irrigation system components (pumps,
mainline fittings, control cabinets, internal sprinkler components, wire splices, etc.). Exposure
to both high-salinity water and salinized soils can cause corrosion of metal components.
Sprinkler manufacturers have responded with the increased use of plastics for control
cabinets, sprinklers, and so on. High-quality, corrosion-resistant marine and naval grade
paints, epoxy coatings, hardware, and metals commonly used in saltwater and various
industrial applications (corrosive reverse-osmosis water and acid units) are options for
refurbishing existing equipment. Plastic pumps as used in industrial handling of saltwater,
corrosive acids, and deionized and reverse-osmosis ultrapure water have not yet entered the
irrigation industry, but the potential exists as waters of lesser quality continue to be used for
irrigation.
3.4.4.10 Miscellaneous Items
Sites using effluent and other non-potable irrigation sources are often required to provide
warning signs and/or tags at property lines, storage lakes, tags on remote control valves, and
so on stating that the water is not suitable for human consumption. Readily visible signs
indicating purple pipe or burial tape signifying non-potable water lines are also commonly
mandated. Occasionally devices which automatically stop irrigation operations at a particular
wind speed are required.

4 IRRIGATION WATER BUDGETING

Proper irrigation management ensures that plants in landscapes receive adequate water to
grow well and sustain aesthetic appeal. This task involves applying the correct amount of water
at the right time as efficiently as possible. The focus of this part is on determining the water
needs of plants in landscapes.
It should be noted that the goal of irrigating landscape plants differs from the goal in irrigating
crops. In landscapes, the goal is to maximize the intended utility or, by implication, usually to
sustain healthy, attractive plants and sometimes also to control erosion or fire hazards. In
agriculture, the goal is to optimize profitability or, by implication, to maximize the crops’ growth
and yield. Regardless of these differing goals, it is important to accurately estimate the amount
of water needed by plants in a landscape to improve the landscape’s quality while at the same
time conserving water and ultimately reducing costs.
Most methods developed over the past several decades for estimating the water needs of
plants in landscapes are modelled after those used for estimating the water needs of
agricultural crops, which is where most of the research has been conducted. These methods
estimate the water need of a crop by using historical water use records or by using atmospheric
data, such as statistics for humidity, solar radiation, temperature, and wind speed.
In the most widely accepted method to date, which is described in a paper prepared for the UN
Food and Agriculture Organization (1998), the water needs of crops are referred to as crop
evapotranspiration (ETc). This concept includes both evaporation, the physical process by
which water vaporizes from the soil at the surface, and transpiration, the movement of water
from inside the crop’s leaf to the atmosphere.
The method used for estimating water needs for landscape plantings is basically the same as
that used for crops and turfgrasses. The ETc formula is simply modified for application to
landscapes. One key change, however, has been made: instead of using the crop coefficient
(Kc), a landscape coefficient (KL) has been substituted.
The soil is the medium from which plants extract water and essential mineral nutrients. It also
supports the roots of plants. Salts tend to accumulate in the root zone of actively transpiring
plants, as water is lost to the atmosphere through transpiration from plants and evaporation
from the soil, leaving behind the dissolved mineral salts in the soil water. Maintaining a salt
balance in the root zone is critical for satisfactory plant performance in an arid climate with
insufficient rainfall for leaching salts from the root zone. In surface-irrigated soils with
unimpeded drainage, salts leach from the upper root zone and accumulate in the lower root
zone. The extent to which salts accumulate in the lower root zone is regulated by the leaching
fraction (LF), the ratio of the depth of drainage water to the depth of irrigation water. The depth
of drainage water is the irrigation water minus the water lost to the atmosphere from
transpiration by plants and evaporation from the soil. In freely draining soils, a comparatively
small depth of drainage may be sufficient to maintain a salt balance in the root zone.
A system’s irrigation efficiency equals the ratio of the amount of water used beneficially divided
by the total amount applied. This value is less than 100% because, in order to irrigate all plants
adequately, some plants are overwatered. In the overwatered areas, water is lost to run-off or
deep percolation or both. While the total water applied is determined easily from a water meter
reading or water bill, the beneficial use is often determined from an estimate of the landscape
ET because run-off and deep percolation are very difficult to measure. Irrigation efficiency can
be assessed on an irrigation event or a monthly or even yearly basis. It is not uncommon to
have a significant range in values because efficiency is a function of both equipment and
management. Only through deficit or under-irrigation can efficiency reach 100%.
04-IRRIGATION WATER BUDGETING PAGE 35 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

4.1 Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo)

Reference evapotranspiration is evapotranspiration from vegetation having known, defined
reference characteristics. Generally, the reference crop for reference ET refers to a well-
watered, clipped, cool-season grass species. ETo is estimated from a Class A evaporation pan
or from a specialized weather station.
The only factors affecting ETo are climatic parameters. Consequently, ETo is a climatic
parameter and can be computed from weather data. ETo expresses the evaporating power of
the atmosphere at a specific location and time of the year and does not consider the crop
characteristics and soil factors. The FAO Penman-Monteith method is recommended as the
sole method for determining ETo. The method has been selected because it closely
approximates grass ETo at the location evaluated, is physically based, and explicitly
incorporates both physiological and aerodynamic parameters.
The Penman-Monteith Equation is expressed as:
u 2 es  ea 
900
0.408( Rn  G )  
ETo  T  273
   1  0.34u 2 
Where:
 ETo : reference evapotranspiration in mm/day
 Rn : net radiation at the crop surface in MJ/m2·day
 G : soil heat flux density MJ/m2·day
 T : mean daily air temperature at 2 m height in °C
 u2 : wind speed at 2 m height in m/s
 es : saturation vapour pressure in kPa
 ea : actual vapour pressure in kPa
 es - ea : saturation vapour pressure deficit in kPa
 Δ : slope vapour pressure curve in kPa/°C
 γ : psychrometric constant in kPa/°C
Refer to “Crop evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements - FAO
Irrigation and drainage paper 56” for further details on the Penman-Monteith method.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x0490e/x0490e00.HTM
The various parameters listed above and historic weather data for Abu Dhabi meteorological
stations were incorporated to calculate reference evapotranspiration using the above equation.
Based on the ETo obtained for these stations, isolines maps for maximum water requirements
month and the year average were produced for reference. Results obtained are presented in
Appendix A.
4.2 Landscape Coefficient (KL)

Reference ET is used as the basis for determining the plant water needs of landscape plants.
However, because reference ET represents ET from a standardized grass surface, it must be
adjusted to account for effects of other plant species and microclimate. According to the
methodology of the California Department of Water Resources, ETo is adjusted by applying a
landscape coefficient (KL) to calculate the plant water requirement. Water needs of landscape
plantings can be estimated using the landscape evapotranspiration formula:
ETL = KL x ETo
Where:
 ETL: Landscape Evapotranspiration in mm/day
 KL: Landscape Coefficient

 ETo: Reference Evapotranspiration in mm/day

This formula states that water needs of a landscape planting (landscape is calculated by
multiplying the landscape coefficient and the reference evapotranspiration. As mentioned
above, the formula is basically the same as the ETc formula, except that a landscape
coefficient (KL) has been substituted for the crop coefficient (Kc). This change is necessary
because of important differences which exist between crop or turf grass systems and
landscape plantings. The following table summarizes the water requirements for several
species in Abu Dhabi.

Table 4-1: The water requirements for several species in Abu Dhabi
DAILY WATER REQUIREMENTS
NAME Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
PALMS (l/tree/day)
CYCAS REVOLUTA 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
PHOENIX DACTYLIFERA 55.6 70.9 92.2 120.5 144.6 141.1 150.0 144.9 132.5 103.9 80.7 60.1
WASHINGTONIA ROBUSTA 55.6 70.9 92.2 120.5 144.6 141.1 150.0 144.9 132.5 103.9 80.7 60.1
TREES (l/tree/day)
AZADIRACHTA INDICA 9.5 15.0 19.5 28.0 33.6 32.8 34.9 24.7 22.6 17.7 13.8 10.2
CASSIA JAVANICA 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
CONOCARPUS ERECTUS 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
CONOCARPUS LANCIFOLUS 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
CORDIA SEBESTENA 27.4 43.4 56.4 81.0 97.1 94.8 100.8 71.4 65.3 51.2 39.8 29.6
DELONIX REGIA 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
FICUS BINNENDIJKII 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
FICUS NITIDA 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
HIBISCUS TILIACEUS 27.4 43.4 56.4 81.0 97.1 94.8 100.8 71.4 65.3 51.2 39.8 29.6
OLEA OLEANDER 9.5 15.0 19.5 28.0 33.6 32.8 34.9 24.7 22.6 17.7 13.8 10.2
PELTOPHORUM INERME 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
PLUMERIA OBTUSA 27.4 43.4 56.4 81.0 97.1 94.8 100.8 71.4 65.3 51.2 39.8 29.6
PLUMERIA RUBRA 27.4 43.4 56.4 81.0 97.1 94.8 100.8 71.4 65.3 51.2 39.8 29.6
PONGAMIA GLABRA 27.4 43.4 56.4 81.0 97.1 94.8 100.8 71.4 65.3 51.2 39.8 29.6
PROSOPIS CINERARIA 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
TABEBUIA AOREA 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
TERMINELLIA CATAPPA 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
THESPESIA POPULNEA 21.3 33.8 43.9 63.0 75.6 73.8 78.5 55.6 50.8 39.9 31.0 23.1
SHRUBS (l/m2/day)
AGASTACHE MEXICANA 1.5 2.4 3.1 4.5 5.4 5.2 5.6 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.6
ATRIPLEX HALIMUS 1.5 2.4 3.1 4.5 5.4 5.2 5.6 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.6
ATRIPLEX SEMI BACCATA 1.5 2.4 3.1 4.5 5.4 5.2 5.6 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.6
BOUGAINVILLEA GLABRA WHITE 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
BOUGAINVILLEA GLABRA RED 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
CANNA INDICA 5.3 8.5 11.0 15.8 18.9 18.5 19.6 13.9 12.7 10.0 7.7 5.8
CRINUM ASIATICUM 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
GARDENIA 5.3 8.5 11.0 15.8 18.9 18.5 19.6 13.9 12.7 10.0 7.7 5.8
JATROPHA PANDURIFOLIA 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
HIBISCUS ROSA 5.3 8.5 11.0 15.8 18.9 18.5 19.6 13.9 12.7 10.0 7.7 5.8
IXORA COCCINEA 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
LEPTADENIA PYROTECHNICA 1.5 2.4 3.1 4.5 5.4 5.2 5.6 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.6
LEUCOPHYLLUM FRUTESCENS 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
LEUCOPHYLLUM GREEN CLOUD 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
MYRTUS COMMUNIS 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
MURRAYA EXOTICA 5.3 8.5 11.0 15.8 18.9 18.5 19.6 13.9 12.7 10.0 7.7 5.8
NERIUM OLEANDER RED 1.5 2.4 3.1 4.5 5.4 5.2 5.6 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.6
NERIUM OLEANDER VARIEGATA 1.5 2.4 3.1 4.5 5.4 5.2 5.6 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.6

DAILY WATER REQUIREMENTS
NAME Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
NERIUM OLEANDER WHITE 1.5 2.4 3.1 4.5 5.4 5.2 5.6 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.6
SALVADORA PERSICA 1.5 2.4 3.1 4.5 5.4 5.2 5.6 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.6
TABERNAEMONTANA
1.5 2.4 3.1 4.5 5.4 5.2 5.6 4.0 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.6
DIVARICATA
TECOMA STANS 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
TURNERA ULMIFORIA 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
TECOMA SMITHI 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
2
GROUND COVERS (l/m /day)
ALTERNANTHERA VERSICOLOR 2.8 4.4 5.7 8.2 9.8 9.6 10.2 7.2 6.6 5.2 4.0 3.0
CARISSA GREEN CARPET 2.2 3.5 4.5 6.5 7.7 7.6 8.0 5.7 5.2 4.1 3.2 2.4
EPIPREMNUM AUREUM 2.8 4.4 5.7 8.2 9.8 9.6 10.2 7.2 6.6 5.2 4.0 3.0
FICUS MICROCARPA GREEN

2.8 4.4 5.7 8.2 9.8 9.6 10.2 7.2 6.6 5.2 4.0 3.0
ISLAND
GAZANIA NIVEA 2.8 4.4 5.7 8.2 9.8 9.6 10.2 7.2 6.6 5.2 4.0 3.0
HYMENOCALLIS LITORALIS 3.2 5.1 6.6 9.4 11.3 11.0 11.7 8.3 7.6 6.0 4.6 3.4
IRIS ICON 2.8 4.4 5.7 8.2 9.8 9.6 10.2 7.2 6.6 5.2 4.0 3.0
RUELLIA CILIOSA 3.2 5.1 6.6 9.4 11.3 11.0 11.7 8.3 7.6 6.0 4.6 3.4
RHOEO DISCOLOR 2.8 4.4 5.7 8.2 9.8 9.6 10.2 7.2 6.6 5.2 4.0 3.0
SESUVIUM GREEN CARPET 2.2 3.5 4.5 6.5 7.7 7.6 8.0 5.7 5.2 4.1 3.2 2.4
WEDELIA TRILOBATA 2.8 4.4 5.7 8.2 9.8 9.6 10.2 7.2 6.6 5.2 4.0 3.0
SUCCULENTS (l/m2/day)
ADENIUM CELESUM 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
AGAVE AMERICANA MARGINATA 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
SANSEVIERIA TRIFASCIATA 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
ZAMIA FURFURACEA 3.4 5.4 7.0 10.1 12.1 11.8 12.6 8.9 8.1 6.4 5.0 3.7
GRASS (l/m2/day)
PANDANUS BAPTISTII VARIEGATA 3.7 4.7 6.1 8.0 9.6 9.4 10.0 9.6 8.8 6.9 5.4 4.0
PENNISETUM RUBERUM 3.7 4.7 6.1 8.0 9.6 9.4 10.0 9.6 8.8 6.9 5.4 4.0
PENNISETUM SETACEUM 3.7 4.7 6.1 8.0 9.6 9.4 10.0 9.6 8.8 6.9 5.4 4.0
PASPALUM VAGINATUM 3.7 4.7 6.1 8.0 9.6 9.4 10.0 9.6 8.8 6.9 5.4 4.0
For further information of landscape coefficient calculation refer to Appendix B.

4.3 Run-off
The rate at which a soil can absorb or take in water is called the infiltration rate. The rate at
which an irrigation system applies water is called the application rate. If the application rate is
higher than the soil’s infiltration rate, some of the applied irrigation water will collect on the
surface, creating a potential for run-off. If there is a path downhill, the water will not stand, but
will run-off carrying water away from where it was applied. Although the run-off may not leave
the field boundary, it can create a problem since the water no longer will be where it can
effectively provide the water the plants need. Runoff water is wasted water. It also wastes
energy, wastes topsoil, and can be a pollutant by carrying off sediments, fertilizer, and
pesticides.
Properly designed irrigation systems apply water at a rate low enough to allow all the water to
infiltrate into the soil without run-off. To avoid runoff, and depending on the slope, soil intake
rate and the precipitation rate of the station/zone, the base run time of irrigation may need to be
divided into multiple cycles (also called cycle starts or repeat cycles) with soak time between
the cycles. The number of cycle starts can be determined different methods. Each method is
presented in Part 7 - section 2, followed by determination of the run time of each cycle start and
soak time between cycles.
4.4 Leaching Requirement (LR)

Leaching requirement (LR) is a plant-specific parameter. It is a prescribed value of leaching, so
that root zone salinity does not exceed the threshold salinity tolerance of the plant in question.
This plant-specific LR is defined as:
Where:
 LR: Leaching requirement for an specific plant and water salinity as fraction
 ECiw: Conductivity of irrigation water in dS/m
 ECa: Maximum plant allowable conductivity of soil in dS/m
Therefore to maintain the soil salinity below the threshold which performance is reduced in
landscape plants LF must be equal or bigger to LR. The minimum irrigation water that allows
the appropriate performance of plants is:
Where:
 IW: Irrigation water in mm/day
 ETL: Landscape evapotranspiration in mm/day
 LR: Leaching requirements as fraction
The leaching requirement fraction LR can also be expressed as the height of water leached
below the root zone LRmm by applying the following formula:
Where:
 LRmm: Leaching requirements in mm/day
 ETL: Landscape evapotranspiration in mm/day
 LR: Leaching requirements as fraction
IRRIGATION WATER BUDGETING PAGE 40 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

4.4.1 Salt Tolerance by Landscape Plants

The salt tolerance of a plant is often defined as the plant’s inherent ability to withstand the
effects of high salts in the root zone or on its leaves without significant adverse effects. The
actual salt tolerance of a plant will vary, depending on the growth stage at which salinization is
initiated and the final level of salinity to which the plant is subjected.
Quite a few landscape plants can withstand small or moderate amounts of salt; many are listed
in Appendix C. We have included salt tolerance information for native plants to the extent that it
is available. The ECa values stated in the list can be used to calculate the leaching
requirements as per above methodology.
4.5 Irrigation Efficiency

The goal of irrigation design and operation is the efficient application of water to the landscape.
For overhead spray and rotor irrigation, the uniformity of application of water is largely
determined by the selection and spacing of the sprinkler heads. Additional factors are operating
water pressure, wind speed and wind direction. For drip/micro-irrigation applications, emission
uniformity is largely influenced by emitter location and spacing and emitter manufacturing
constraints. Both concepts can be included in the more general concept of irrigation efficiency
(IE). Refer to Section 3.B.iii. for definitions and design values of drip irrigation systems’
uniformity. Refer to Section 5.B.ii. for definitions and design values of sprinkler irrigation
systems’ uniformity.
4.6 Total Demand

Based on the previous concepts the total water to be applied can be calculated. The following
calculations must be carried out for each month of the year, as well for the yearly average, for
detailed water budgeting purposes. The value corresponding to the month of maximum
demand must be taken as design value for sizing the assets of the irrigation system.
4.6.1 Irrigation Water Requirements

4.6.1.1 Net Irrigation Water Requirement
The net irrigation water requirement (IWRnet) is that portion of the irrigation water that is stored
in the root zone and adds to the soil moisture reservoir so as to meet the plant water
requirement. For arid areas, where the rainfall can be ignored, equals to the landscape
evapotranspiration (ETL):
IWRnet = KL x ETo
Where:
 IWRnet: Net Irrigation Water Requirement in mm/day
4.6.1.2 Gross Irrigation Water Requirement
The gross irrigation water requirement (IWRgross or simply IWR) is the total amount of irrigation
water including the net plant water requirement plus any losses incurred in distributing and
applying the water, as well as extra water applied by the water manager (i.e. to meet leaching
requirements. Some of the water enters the root zone and adds to the soil moisture reservoir,
and some is lost to evaporation, runoff, deep percolation, wind drift, leaks or overspray outside
the target area; all of this is included in IWR.
As per leaching requirements (LR) and irrigation efficiency defined before the IWR can be
calculated from the following equation:

Where:
 IWR: Gross Irrigation Water Requirement in mm/day
 LR: Leaching requirements
 IE: Irrigation efficiency in %. Equals to DLH in sprinkler irrigation systems and to EU in
drip irrigation systems.
4.6.2 Irrigation Water Budget. Total Demand

The IWR is expressed as height of water over an unspecified area of landscape. For water
budget purposes the irrigable area (Airr) must be defined. The landscape is composed by
several features, some of them to be irrigated some of them not. For example a park is
composed mainly of soft landscape to be irrigated, but also of pathways, hard landscape,
fountains, etc. These features do not need to be irrigated, therefore shall not be considered as
irrigable area(s). Airr must include exclusively areas to be effectively irrigated by the irrigation
system.
The IWR, when converted from mm to volume, is the irrigation water budget (VIWR) and can be
calculated from the following equation:
Where:
 VIWR: Irrigation water budget expressed as m3 per period
 Airr: Irrigable area in m2
 N: Number of days in the period. For daily demand computation. N = 1
The irrigation water budget must be calculated daily, monthly and yearly. The plant water
requirement is typically based on historical reference ETo data, thus the calculations must be
made taking the ETo value of the relevant month. For the yearly value either the yearly average
ETo or the summation of the monthly VIWR values can be used.

5 ESTIDAMA CONSIDERATIONS. PRDM AND USDM

The Public Realm Design Manual (PRDM) was commissioned to guide the development of a
world-class public realm. The PRDM was adopted as the primary manual that shall be used in
all the public realms designs across the Emirate.
The Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual (USDM) was commissioned to address the needs
of the growing population and a desire to improve pedestrian facilities to create more walkable
and liveable communities. The USDM was adopted as the primary manual that shall be used
in designing all urban streets in the Emirate.
Both manuals are based on Estidama, the symbol of an inspired vision for governance and
community development. Estidama means in Arabic “sustainability”. It aims to create more
sustainable communities, cities, and global enterprises and to balance the four pillars of
Estidama, namely: environmental, economic, cultural and social.
Because of Abu Dhabi’s limited annual rainfall, hot climate, and the significant energy
embodied in potable water due to desalinization, water conservation is a priority for Estidama.
It is a distinct possibility that the UAE will become even drier due to the effects of global
warming. Coupled with projected population increases, the importance of accelerating water
conservation and reuse efforts is clear.
One of Estidama’s key initiative is the Pearl Rating System that aims to address the
sustainability of a given development throughout its lifecycle from design through construction
to operation. The Precious Water section of the Pearl Community Rating System: Design &
Construction includes the Community Water Calculator that should be used throughout the
entire design process. This calculator will help the development team to assess inputs and
flows of water to and from the project with a holistic perspective, and assist in identifying how
and where reductions in the use of potable water may be made.
Obtaining Pearl Rating can be accomplished following the guidelines of Estidama’ Pearl
Rating Building System; Community Rating System Design and Construction; Villa Rating
System Design and Construction. Landscape irrigation on this manual falls under the umbrella
of Community Rating System Design and Construction and the guidelines to attain Pearl
Rating are shown below. Complete guidelines in attaining Pearl Rating to a development is
shown in the Pearl Rating System for Estidama Community Rating System Design &
Construction.
It is responsibility of the landscape and irrigation designers to select the appropriate mix of
plants, hard landscape and irrigation system that fulfils the Estidama principles and guidelines
in general, and in particular the Minimum Prescriptive Irrigation Requirements from the Pearl
Rating System for Estidama Community Rating System Design & Construction. They can be
found in the Appendix D.
5.1 Liaising Irrigation Water Budget (VIWR) with Estidama

As defined above, the Average Irrigation Demand for Estidama calculations is based on the
area of the entire site excluding all water features, swimming pool areas and building plots
(AL). The VIWR, as defined in PART 4 - section 6.C, is referred to irrigable area (Airr). To
evaluate the total annual average irrigation demand of soft landscape area (I S) the following
procedure must be applied:
a) Obtain the average yearly value of reference evapotranspiration, in mm/day from the
drawings in PART 4 - Appendix A (EToyear)
b) Group the irrigable areas by function in public parks, streetscape and remaining
landscaping. Each type of landscape shall be evaluated separately
c) For each group calculate the yearly average Irrigation Water Requirements (IWRyear) of
05-PRDM & USDM PAGE 43 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

the different hydrozones for EToyear, as per methodology exposed in PART 4 – section
6.A.ii.
d) For each group calculate the average daily Irrigation Water Budget (VIWRyear) of the
different hydrozones for IWRyear, as per as per methodology exposed in PART 4 –
section 6.B.
e) Calculate the total annual average irrigation demand of soft landscape area (IS)
applying the following formula:
f) Calculate the Average Irrigation Demand as per as per methodology exposed in the
Pearl Rating System for Estidama Community Rating System Design & Construction.
Check the calculated value is below the Minimum Prescriptive Irrigation Requirements
g) The calculated Average Irrigation Demand for each group must be added and
compared with the Exterior Water Allowance (EWA)
If the Average Irrigation Demand does not fulfil the last 2 requirements the landscape and
irrigation system must be redesigned.
05-PRDM & USDM PAGE 44 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

6 IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
In the previous parts of this manual the basic concepts of irrigation and water requirements
have been defined. These concepts are essential for the definition of water requirements and
future planning. However for the detailed design of irrigation systems further concepts and
principles must be defined. In this part the detailed design of landscape irrigation systems from
the emitter to the control valve is presented.
When irrigating a landscape the first question is, do we water plants, or do we refill a soil
reservoir? The soil is a habitat for soil organisms and plant roots. It functions as a storehouse
for nutrients and a water reservoir. Soil properties are important for the proper operation and
management of irrigation systems. These properties include soil texture, infiltration rate
characteristics, water holding capacities and capillary movement. All these properties are
included in the Soil-Water-Plant relationships.
Once the appropriate rates for irrigation are defined, the hydraulic concepts of irrigation are
required. The design of irrigation systems is based on hydraulic principles. Affected
components include emitter selection, emitter spacing, design of laterals, sub-mains, flushing
and valves.
6.1 Soil-Water-Plant Relationships

Soil-water-plant relationships define a model of how water enters and moves within the
effective root zone, into the plant root system and back to the atmosphere. The model is not
absolute, as the amount of moisture that the soil can contain is not fixed, but actually changes
to a limited degree with soil temperature, plant health, soil conditions, and so forth. However,
the model is useful for understanding general principles of soil-water-plant relationships with
concepts that have been accepted for many years.
6.1.1 Soil Texture

Soil texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay found in the soil profile. It defines the
fineness or coarseness of a soil. Fine textured soils generally hold more water than coarse
textured soils. Medium textured soils actually have more available water for plant use than
some clay soils. The size and shape of individual soil particles such as sand, silt, or clay
describes the soil texture.
Table 6-1: Particle size classification
Material Diameter
Stones Greater than 250 mm
Cobbles 250 to 80 mm
Coarse gravel 80 to 12.5 mm
Fine gravel 12.5 to 2.0 mm
Very coarse sand 2.0 to 1.0 mm
Coarse sand 1.0 to 0.5 mm
Medium sand 0.5 to 0.25 mm
Fine sand 0.25 to 0.1 mm
Very fine sand 0.1 to 0.05 mm
Silt 0.05 to 0.002 mm
Clay Less than 0.002 mm
06-IRRIGATION SYSTEM PAGE 45 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Soil texture largely determines the amount of water that can be stored in a soil, as well as soil
infiltration rate and soil permeability. Soil infiltration rate is the rate at which water enters the
soil. Permeability is the rate at which water moves through the soil. A soil texture class is
defined by the relative amounts of sand, silt or clay in a particular soil.
The USDA Soils Manual includes the following general definitions of soil textural classes in
terms of field experience. These definitions are also specifically used in estimating soil-water
content by the feel and appearance method.
a) Sand:Sand is loose and single-grained. The individual grains can be readily seen and
felt. Squeezed in the hand when dry, sand falls apart when pressure is released.
Squeezed when moist, it forms a cast, but crumbles when touched.
b) Sandy loam: A sandy loam is soil containing a high percentage of sand, but having
enough silt and clay to make it somewhat coherent. The individual sand grains can be
readily seen and felt. Squeezed when dry, a sandy loam forms a cast that falls apart
readily. If squeezed when moist, a cast can be formed that bears careful handling
without breaking.
c) Loam: A loam is a soil having a relatively even mixture of different grades of sand, silt,
and clay. It is friable with a somewhat gritty feel, but is fairly smooth and slightly plastic.
Squeezed when dry, it forms a cast that bears careful handling, and the cast formed by
squeezing the moist soil can be handled freely without breaking.
d) Silt loam: A silt loam is soil having a moderate amount of find sand with a small
amount of clay. Over half of the particles are silt size particles. When dry, a silt loam
appears cloddy, but the lumps can be readily broken. When pulverized, it feels soft and
floury. When wet, the soil runs together readily and puddles. Either dry or moist, silt
loam forms a cast that can be handled freely without breaking. When moist and
squeezed between thumb and finger, it does not ribbon, but has a broken appearance.
e) Clay loam: A clay loam is moderately fine-textured soil that generally breaks into clods
or lumps that are hard when dry. When the moist soil is pinched between the thumb
and finger, it forms a thin ribbon that breaks readily, barely sustaining its own weight.
The moist soil is plastic and forms a cast that bears much handling. When kneaded in
the hand, clay loam does not crumble readily, but works into a heavy compact mass.
f) Clay:Clay is fine textured soil that usually forms very hard lumps or clods when dry and
is very sticky and plastic when wet. When moist soil is pinched between thumb and
finger, it forms a long flexible ribbon. Some clays that are very high in colloids are
friable and lack plasticity at all moisture levels.
g) Organic: Organic soils vary in organic matter content from 20 to 95 percent. They
generally are classified on the degree of decomposition of the organic deposits. The
terms muck, peat, and mucky peat are commonly used. Muck is well-decomposed
organic material. Peat is raw, un-decomposed, very fibrous organic material in which
the original fibres constitute all the material.
Table 6-2: Textural classes (the USDA soils manual)
Texture Sand % Silt % Clay %

Sand (S) 85 to 100 0 to 15 0 to 10
Loamy sand (LS) 70 to 90 0 to 20 0 to 15
Sandy loam (SL) 43 to 85 0 to 50 0 to 20
Loam (L) 23 to 52 28 to 50 7 to 27
Silt loam (SiL) 0 to 50 50 to 100 0 to 27
Sandy clay (SCL) 45 to 80 0 to 28 20 to 35
loam
Clay loam (CL) 20 to 45 15 to 53 27 to 40

Silty clay (SiCL) 0 to 20 40 to 73 27 to 40
loam
Sandy clay (SC) 45 to 65 0 to 20 35 to 55
Silt (Si) 0 to 20 80 to 100 0 to 12
Silty clay (SiC) 0 to 20 40 to 60 40 to 60
Clay (C) 0 to 46 0 to 40 40 to 100
Figure 6-1: Textural Classes (The USDA Soils Manual)
6.1.2 Soil Structure

Soil structure is the arrangement and organization of soil particles into natural units of
aggregation. These units are separated from one another by weak planes that persist through
cycles of wetting and drying and cycles of freezing and thawing. Structure influences air and
water movement, root development, and nutrient supply.

6.1.2.1 Soil Structure Types

Structure type refers to the particular kind of grouping that predominates in a soil horizon.
Single grained and massive soils are structure less. In single-grained soils, such as loose
sand, water percolates rapidly. Water moves very slowly through most clay soils. A more
favourable water relationship occurs in the soils that have blocky, granular and prismatic
structures. Plate-like structure in fine and medium soils impedes the downward movement of
water. Structure can be improved with cultural practices, such as conservation tillage,
improving internal drainage, liming or adding sulphur to soil, using grasses in plant rotation,
incorporating crop residue and adding organic material or soil amendments. Structure can be
destroyed by heavy tillage equipment or excess operations.
Texture, root activity, percent clay, percent organic matter and the warm and cold cycles all
play a part in aggregate formation and stability. Some aggregates are quite stable upon
wetting and others disperse readily. Soil aggregation helps maintain stability when wet, resist
dispersion caused by the impact from sprinkler and/or rain droplets, maintain soil intake rate
and resist surface water and wind erosion. Irrigation water containing sodium can cause
dispersing of soil aggregates. Clay mineralogy has a major influence on soil aggregation and
shrink-swell characteristics.
The following figure shows the soil structure types and their effect on downward movement of
water.
Figure 6-2: Soil structure types and their effect on downward movement of water
6.1.2.2 Soil Pore Space
Pore space allows the movement of water, air and roots. Sandy soils have larger pores but
less total pore space than silt and clay soils. Gravitational water flows through sandy soils
much faster because the pores are much larger. Clayey soils hold more water than sandy soils
because clay soils have a larger volume of small, flat-shaped pore spaces that hold more

capillary water. Permeability and drain ability of soils are directly related to the volume and
size and shape of pore space.
6.1.3 Water Movement in the Soil

Soil intake/water infiltration is the process of water entering the soil at the soil/air interface.
Water enters the soil through pores, cracks, worm and decayed root holes, and through
cavities introduced by tillage. Infiltrated water may evaporate again from the soil surface, may
be transpired by the plants or may percolate downward beyond the plant roots and contribute
to groundwater.
Water applied to the soil (by rain or irrigation) infiltrates the soil. If the rate of application
exceeds the infiltration rate, water will be ponding on the surface or moving over the surface
through runoff. The infiltration rate determines the amount of water entering the soil and
amount that will subsequently be stored in the root zone.
6.1.3.1 Infiltration
Soil water infiltration is the process of water entering the soil at the soil surface. Infiltration
rates change during the time water is applied, typically becoming slower with elapsed time.
Soil intake characteristics directly influence the length of irrigation run times that provides a
uniform and efficient irrigation without excessive deep percolation or run-off. For irrigation with
sprinklers, application rates vary according to the type of sprinkler or spray head. With impact
heads, application rates are much slower because water is not applied to the entire area of
coverage continuously. With each head rotation water is only applied to the ground surface at
a single point. With spray heads, the area of coverage is receiving water continuously, causing
much higher rates of application. Infiltration rates are affected by soil texture, compaction,
moisture content and slope. The following table provides average soil infiltration rates
according to the Soil Textural Classes.
Table 6-3: Average soil infiltration rates according to the Soil Textural Classes
Soil Textural Class Average Soil Infiltration Rate

(mm/h)
Clay 2.54
Silty Clay 3.81
Clay Loam 5.08
Loam 8.89
Sandy Loam 10.16
Loamy Sand 12.70
Sand 15.24
The following factors affect infiltration:

a) Soil water content: In dry soils, large differences in matric potential drive water into
the soil profile and soil is able to store more water than if the soil were initially wet. The
surface soil will gradually become saturated as irrigation continues and the intake rate
decreases to the steady infiltration rate, whether the soil was initially dry or wet
b) Soil sealing: Formation of a thin compact layer on the soil surface rapidly reduces the
rate of water entry through the surface. This layer results from a breakdown in soil
structure that is caused by the beating action of raindrops or drops from sprinkler
systems and by the action of water flowing over the soil surface. Sealing can be
prevented by protecting the soil surface with a mulch. Grasses or canopies that fully
cover the ground, intercept droplets, dissipate their energy and reduce sealing
c) Compaction: Hardpans impede water movement and reduce the infiltration rate. Deep
ploughing or sub-soiling helps to improve the water movement
d) Organic matter: Porosity remains high for long periods when organic material is made
available by the incorporation of crop residues. Organic matter will also help stabilize
the soil aggregates
e) Salinity: When salts accumulate in the soil, they will affect and deteriorate some soil
properties. Leaching the salts out of the soil profile will help to maintain the soil
structure and infiltration rate
f) Soil cracking: Preferential flow paths, such as cracks and wormholes, influence
infiltration and permeability. Water quality, for example suspended sediment, sodicity
and SAR, will affect infiltration because they affect the water surface tension
g) Slope: In planning irrigation systems, slope is important in determining the type of
irrigation system best suited for the site. It is important in determining optimum and
maximum water application rates. Potential runoff from sprinkler systems increases as
the slope increases, thus raising the opportunity for erosion to occur. To avoid runoff
from sprinklers, correction factors to infiltration rate for different slopes are introduced
during the design process
6.1.3.2 Deep Percolation and Surface Run-off
Deep percolation is the amount of water that penetrates beyond the depth of the root zone,
where it is no longer available to a growing plant. Percolation rate is determined by the
permeability of the soil or its hydraulic conductivity. Both these terms describe the ease with
which soil transmits water.
Water percolates mainly through large pores in a soil, therefore percolation depends on the
relative number and continuity of these pores. Soils with high porosity and coarse open texture
have high hydraulic conductivity. For two soils with the same total porosity, the soil with small
pores has lower conductivity than the soil with large pores, because resistance to flow is
greater in small pores. Soils with pores of many sizes conduct water faster if large pores form
continuous paths through the profile.
Surface runoff occurs when the water that has not penetrated the soil runs off and thus is no
longer available to the plants.
6.1.4 Effective Root Zone

The effective root zone (RZ) is the depth of soil from which plants can draw nutrients and
water. RZ is also called the active root zone, or simply root zone. In addition to plant water and
irrigation requirements and soil, the root zone depth is the third parameter to be considered
when preparing irrigation schedules.
Published data on the depth from where the plants extract most of their water differ greatly. As
a rule, for most field plants 40% of the water uptake takes place from the first quarter of the
total rooting depth, 30% from the second quarter, 20% from the third quarter and 10% from the
fourth quarter. ETL is not affected even when rooting depth is severely restricted, as long as
plants are sufficiently anchored and proper growing conditions, including available water,
nutrients, soil aeration, soil temperature and soil structure, prevail.

Figure 6-3: Root Zone Water Extraction Depth

While for surface irrigation systems there is a tendency to accept deeper root zone depths in
selecting root zone depths for pressurized systems, the decision is based on the majority of
feeder roots. Through this approach, water soluble nutrients such as nitrogen are directed to
the majority of feeder roots instead of being leached to depths of smaller concentration of
roots.
Knowing the plant water requirements, the type of soil and the root zone depth, the readily-
available moisture for the crop can be calculated, which is the amount of water that can be
extracted by the crop in the root zone without suffering water stress. Rooting depth and the
resulting total Available Water Holding Capacity control the length of time plants can go
between irrigations or effective rainfall events before reaching moisture stress. If more water is
applied than the root-zone soil reservoir can retain the soil becomes saturated. Water may be
lost to percolation below the root zone or run-off. Saturated soils lack oxygen necessary for
healthy plants.
6.1.5 Soil Moisture Holding Capacities

Soil is a reservoir. The soil profile consists of inorganic soil particles and organic materials.
The density or compaction of these materials affects the left over space known as pore space.
Pore space contains either air or water. The composition of soil particles affects the amount of
pore space. Measurements of soil moisture content range from saturation to oven dry.
6.1.5.1 Definitions
a) Saturation: 100% of the pore space is filled with water. All oxygen has been displaced.
Excess water drains, accumulates on the surface or runs off
b) Field Capacity (FC): This is the amount of water a well-drained soil holds after ample
irrigation or heavy rain, when the rate of downward movement due to gravity has
substantially decreased, usually one to three days after soil saturation. Generally fine
textured soil holds more water than course-textured soils. Because it may take a day or
two for saturated soil to reach field capacity, some of the water is available for plant
consumption
c) Permanent Wilting Point (PWP): This is the soil water content at which most plants
cannot extract sufficient water to prevent permanent tissue damage
d) Available Water Holding Capacity (AWHC): This is the amount of water held
between field capacity and permanent wilting point
e) Plant Available Water (PAW): This is the amount of water available to the plants

when at field capacity. It is expressed in mm and is based on the available water

holding capacity and the effective root zone depth
As the plants consume water, the soil particles hold onto the remaining available water with
greater tension, making it more and more difficult for the plants to extract. This can result in
increased stress. As the retained water falls to the permanent wilting point, the plants may
permanently wilt and die, since moisture below this amount is generally not available to the
plants.
Figure 6-4: Availability of soil moisture content
PAW is expressed in mm and is based on the available water holding capacity (AWHC) and
the effective root zone depth (RZ):
PAW = AWHC × RZ
Where:
 PAW = Plant available water in the root zone when at field capacity in mm
 AWHC = Available water holding capacity in mm/mm
 RZ = Average depth of effective root zone for the hydrozone in mm
For design purposes AWHC can be obtained from the following table. Actual AWHC of a soil
depends on soil chemistry and temperature, plant characteristics, etc. Rocky conditions
reduce the AWHC by 70%. Organic Content increases AWHC up to 10%. Compaction can
reduce AWHC by 20%. Therefore, the below values are estimates. More accurate values can
be obtained through laboratory analysis of existing soils.
Table 6-4: Design-available water holding capacity
Soil Textural Class Available Water Holding Capacity

(mm/mm)
Clay 0.17
Silty Clay 0.17
Clay Loam 0.18

Loam 0.17
Sandy Loam 0.12
Loamy Sand 0.08
Sand 0.06
Unfortunately there is no research on effective root zones of landscape plants. The root depth
for a hydrozone can also be established by observing several soil cores and determining the
average depth of root penetration into the soil profile.
6.1.5.2 Depletion
The PAW makes up the soil moisture reservoir and is very dependent on the soil type and
structure. The difference between the field capacity and the actual amount of water within the
root zone is called the soil water depletion or soil moisture depletion (SMD). The amount of
depletion determines both when to irrigate and how much. Ideally water should be added to
the root zone when the amount of depletion reaches a management-defined target called the
management allowable depletion (MAD). The amount of irrigation water to apply is the actual
depletion amount plus an additional amount to compensate for reasonable irrigation non-
uniformity in distributing the water within the root zone. The actual depletion amount can be
estimated from measurements of soil moisture or soil tension, or from cumulative atmospheric
evapotranspiration measurements.
The larger the target MAD, the more water is depleted from the root zone between irrigations.
This can potentially increase plant stress resulting in lowering plant evapotranspiration, since
plants transpire less water when under stress. Ultimately, the plant quality may suffer and the
plants may die under high MAD.
Management Allowable Depletion
Management allowable depletion (MAD) is the maximum percentage of PAW that the irrigation
manager allows to be extracted (depleted) from the soil before irrigation is applied. Usually the
value for MAD is chosen so that the plants can utilize water from the soil moisture reservoir
with little or no stress. See table below for recommended no-stress values (MADns) based on
soil texture class. Note that MADns can vary with the type of plant as well as with the type of
soil, since some plants, especially those with dense rooting systems, can tolerate drier soil
levels than other plant types. Any value of MADns greater than 50% should be tried with a
small area before being applied site-wide.
Table 6-5: Recommended no-stress values based on soil texture class
Soil Textural Class Maximum Allowable Depletion with No Stress

(%)
Clay 30
Silty Clay 40
Clay Loam 40
Loam 50
Sandy Loam 50
Loamy Sand 50
Sand 50
Moderate stress can be tolerated by most plants with little to no long term effects on health.
The increasing the management allowable depletion through deficit irrigation is a technique to

be applied only by experienced managers.

Allowable Depletion
Allowable depletion (AD) is the desired amount of plant available water (PAW) to be depleted
from the root zone before applying irrigation:
Where:
 AD: Allowable depletion of water from the root zone in mm
 PAW: Plant available water in the root zone when at field capacity in mm
 MAD: Management allowable depletion as %
6.1.6 Irrigation Interval

The irrigation interval (IN) is the number of days it takes for the accumulated Net Irrigation
Water Requirement (IWRnet) to reach the allowable depletion (AD) of the root zone. Since
irrigation is normally on whole day intervals, round the interval to the nearest whole number.
Round up to minimize the frequency of irrigation; round down to minimize plant stress:
Where:
 IN: Irrigation interval in days (whole days between irrigation events)
 AD: Target allowable depletion limit in mm
Irrigation interval depends on IWRnet, which varies with the climatic conditions. For design
purposes the highest value of IWRnet must be used. For management purposes as a minimum
IN shall be calculated on a monthly basis, to schedule the irrigation of each month.
6.1.7 Irrigation Run Time

Irrigation run time (RT) is the amount of time that a station/zone valve is activated (turned on)
as required to fulfil the irrigation water requirement for an irrigation interval:
Where:
 RT: Irrigation run time in hours
 IN: Irrigation interval in days (whole days between irrigation events)
 PR: Precipitation rate of the irrigation system in mm/h
Irrigation runtime depends on IWR, which varies with the climatic conditions. For design
purposes the highest value of IWR must be used. For management purposes RT shall be
calculated on a monthly basis, as a minimum, to schedule the irrigation of each month.
6.1.8 Irrigation Method

As explained before the irrigation method may affect the Soil-Water-Plant relationships in
different ways. The most relevant are the wetted area and the salt accumulation pattern. In this
section the overall influence of the irrigation method will be discussed.

6.1.8.1 Drip Irrigation Systems

The wetting pattern in drip irrigation systems are highly affected by the soil texture class.
Clayey soils, with small pores and low infiltration rates, make the vertical water movement in
the soil difficult, causing an increase of the horizontal wetted area. Sandy soils, with bigger
pores and high infiltration rates, allow a rapid vertical water movement in the soil, reducing the
horizontal wetted area. Therefore the soil texture class must be taken in consideration when
selecting the flow and the installation pattern of drippers.
Figure 6-5: The wetting pattern in drip irrigation systems as affected by the soil texture class
The near daily replenishment of the water used by the plants keeps the soil moist and very
near to or slightly above field water holding capacity. Irrigation should maintain a slight but
nearly continuous downward movement of moisture and salts for excellent short-term salinity
control. Salts also accumulate with localized irrigation. However, they accumulate at the soil
surface between emitters and at the outside edges of the area wetted by the water applicators,
even with high leaching ratios.
Figure 6-6: Salts accumulation with localized irrigation

With time, this salt accumulation at the soil surface and in the wetted fringe between emitters
can become appreciable, and is a hazard if the salt is then moved by rain into the root zone of
the plant.
Figure 6-7: Salts accumulation and rainfall impact

On the other hand, if rainfall is sufficient each season to leach the accumulated salts, no
problems should be anticipated. The most dangerous period is thought to be just after the first
rainfall when the surface salt has been moved down into the root zone but sufficient rainfall
has not yet fallen to move the salt below the root zone. It is recommended that regular
irrigation continues during a rain event or until 50–100 mm has fallen. If rainfall is insufficient,
supplemental leaching with the localized system may be needed.
Leaching by sprinklers or surface flooding after a season of localized irrigation has been
effective in removing accumulated salts. However, this may require a second irrigation system
and will require large quantities of additional water, but it may be necessary for continued good
soil health when utilizing relatively salty water and localized irrigation.
6.1.8.2 Sub-surface Irrigation Systems
As in drip irrigation systems the sub-surface irrigation systems are highly affected by the soil
texture class due to the same reasons. Clay soils tend to distribute the volume of water in
horizontal and sandy soils in vertical. Therefore the soil texture class must be taken in
consideration when selecting the flow and the installation pattern of emitters.
Figure 6-8: Impact of soil texture on Sub-surface irrigation

As aboveground drip irrigation the water flows in the soil following a radial pattern from the
lateral. The movement of water to the fringes of the wetted area allows the accumulation of
salts in the border of the wetted area. The main difference with aboveground drip irrigation is
that the soil surface is more affected by accumulation of salts. The upward movement of the
water in addition to the higher evaporation tends to concentrate salts on or near the surface.
Salt accumulation must be controlled by adequate rainfall or surface leaching. Sub-surface
irrigation cannot be used with poor quality water unless the soil is leached periodically by
natural rainfall or surface applied leaching water.
Figure 6-9: Impact of water quality on Sub-surface irrigation

As in drip irrigation systems a rainfall event may cause salinity problems through the leaching
of salts to the main root depth. However due to the lack of leaching of the surface salts during
the dry season rainfall events or yearly overhead irrigations are good for the control of salt in
the soil. In these cases the irrigation managers should turn on the sub-surface irrigation
system when it rains. According to experience the shallower the lateral, the lesser the amount
of water needed to carry the salts below the emitter for effective leaching.

6.1.8.3 Sprinkler Irrigation Systems

A well-designed sprinkler system will apply water with good uniformity and at rates low enough
to prevent run-off. If well managed, it will result in an excellent overall irrigation and adequate
and uniform leaching. The depth of water applied is controlled by adjustments in the duration
of application, sprinkler spacing and nozzle size. Wind can distort the water patterns and must
be considered.
Figure 6-10: Top View of lateral and side view of wetted soil under sprinkler irrigation
Salt tends to move along with the water as the water flows through the soil. The salts are
distributed uniformly in the horizontal direction. In the vertical dimension, however, the
shallower portions of the root zone contain less salt than the deeper portions, as greater
flushing of salts occurs at shallow depths than at the deeper soil depths. However, sprinklers
can cause leaf burn if the salts (sodium or chloride) concentrate excessively on the leaves as
water evaporates between rotations of the sprinkler. These salts are absorbed and may cause
toxicity. One of the concerns expressed about sprinkler use in hot arid areas is the evaporation
loss during sprinkling and the possible increase in salinity of the water that infiltrates the soil.
Figure 6-11: Salts distribution under sprinkler irrigation

Some practices to reduce the salinity problems associated to sprinkler irrigation systems are:
a) Irrigate at night: Night sprinkling is quite effective in reducing or eliminating both
sodium and chloride toxicity due to foliar absorption and has also reduced the problem
of foliar deposits. As humidity generally rises at night and winds decrease, the rate of
evaporation and concentration is reduced. Night irrigation has also been of benefit by
lowering night-time temperatures during very hot periods
b) Avoid periods of high wind: Hot, dry winds are a major factor that contribute to
concentration, absorption and deposition. Avoiding these periods for overhead
sprinkling minimizes the problem and avoids possible leaf burn caused by drift to
downwind crop areas. In some areas, this may require night irrigation
c) Control sprinkler drift: In hot, windy areas, the downwind drift from sprinkler irrigation
presents a risk. This drift, if it lands on adjacent plant leaves, is more concentrated than
the applied sprinkler water. To avoid drift during high risk periods requires sprinkling

during early morning, late evening and night hours when the winds are likely to be less
than in the middle of the day. Mist nozzles or high pressure impact sprinklers should be
avoided in windy areas where drift is likely to be a problem. Grouping sprinklers in
blocks is preferable to long widely spaced single rows if drift is likely to be a problem
d) Increase sprinkler rotation speeds: Slowly rotating sprinklers allow appreciable
drying on the leaves between sprinkler rotations. More frequent or continuous wetting
of foliage allows less drying of leaves and less absorption than intermittent wetting and
drying. A sprinkler head rotation of one revolution per minute or less is often
recommended
e) Increase rate of application: If soil water storage capacity and water infiltration rate
permit, a higher rate of application may reduce damage by reducing the total period of
crop wetting. This would reduce the severity of toxicity due to leaf absorption.
Increasing the application rate can be accomplished by enlarging the sprinkler orifices,
increasing the pressure, or reducing the spacing on the sprinkler system, but this might
require a costly change in sprinkler system design
6.2 Hydraulic Principles of Hydrozones

The hydraulic design of hydrozones is based on hydraulic theory. Nowadays the use of
computers and specialized irrigation software allows the exact calculation of the hydraulic
values of hydrozones. However some hydraulic data is required by the software, as well as
some basic concepts which can be useful in the planning and design of hydrozones. In this
section these matters will be addressed.
6.2.1 Friction Head Losses

Friction head losses (hf) are the result of friction along the pipe walls. Usually in the head
losses are calculated using the Darcy–Weisbach equation, which expressed in terms of flow
and internal diameter for full flow pipes has the following form:
Where:
 hf: Friction head losses of the pipe in m
 f : Friction factor, dimensionless
 L: Length of the pipe in m
 Q: flow through the pipe in m3/s
 g: gravity acceleration = 9,81 m/s2
 D: Inside diameter of the pipe in m
The friction factor, in its more general expression, is calculated from the Colebrook-White
equation:
Where:
 Re: Reynolds Number, dimensionless
 ks: Roughness coefficient in m
Even its universality this expression is difficult to evaluate, requiring several iterations to find
appropriate values of “f”. For smooth pipes, like the PE or PVC pipes that are used in laterals
and sub-mains, Blasius proposed the more simple formula:

The Blasius formula is valid for 3,000 < Re < 100,000. This range is perfectly suited for the
small diameters and reduced velocities that appear in laterals and sub-mains. As the Reynolds
number relates the velocity (related with Q), the hydraulic radius (D) and the viscosity the
Darcy–Weisbach equation can be rearranged as:
Where:
 ν: Kinematic viscosity of water in m2/s
Therefore the friction factor is reduced to a water temperature dependent factor. The Blasius
formula can also be expressed in units more usual for the design, as l/h for flow and mm for
diameter:
Where:
 C : Coefficient temperature dependent (see table below), dimensionless
 Q: flow through the pipe in l/h
 D: Inside diameter of the pipe in mm
Table 6-6: The Blasius formula “C coefficient” under various temperatures
T (°C) C T (°C) C
5 0.516 35 0.426
10 0.496 40 0.416
15 0.479 45 0.406
20 0.464 50 0.397
25 0.450 55 0.389
30 0.437 60 0.381
As it is shown the higher temperature the lesser head losses. For design purposes a reference
water temperature of 20 °C is commonly used (C = 0.464).
Another commonly used formula is Hazen Williams. In metric terms, Hazen Williams' formula
is given below:
Where:
 C : Coefficient depending on the material, dimensionless. For PE and PVC pipes a
value of 140 to 150 is commonly used.

6.2.2 Localized Head Losses

Localized head losses (hL) are generally the result of turbulence due to changes in streamlines
through fittings and appurtenances. There are several methods to estimate the localized head
losses.
6.2.2.1 Resistance Coefficient “K”
In the traditional method in network design these losses are calculated using the following
equation:
Where:
 hL: Localized head losses of the pipe in m
 K : Resistance coefficient, dimensionless
 V: Velocity in the pipe in m/s
The following table shows typical values of K coefficients.

Table 6-7: Typical values of “Resistance K coefficient”

Type of Fitting K Value
Entrances
Standard bellmouth 0.1
Pipe flush with entrance 1
Pipe protruding 1.5
Sluice gated or square entrance 1.5
Bends 90o
Medium radius (R/D= 2 or 3) 0.5
Medium radius (mitred) 0.8
Elbow or sharp angled 1.5
Bends 45o
Tees 90o
In-line flow 0.4
Branch to line or reverse 1.5
Contraction-Sudden
D2/D1= 0.8 0.18
D2/D1= 0.5 0.37
D2/D1= 0.2 0.49
Contraction-Conical
D2/D1= 0.8 0.05
D2/D1= 0.5 0.07
D2/D1= 0.2 0.08
Expansion-Sudden
D2/D1= 0.8 0.16
D2/D1= 0.5 0.57
D2/D1= 0.2 0.92
Expansion-Conical
D2/D1= 0.8 0.03
D2/D1= 0.5 0.08
D2/D1= 0.2 0.13
Gate valve fully open 0.25
Gate valve 3/4 open 1
Gate valve 1/2 open 5.6
Butterfly fully open 0.5
Swing non-return valve fully open 2.5
Globe valve fully open 10
Angle valve fully open 4.3
6.2.2.2 Equivalent Length

Some drip manufacturers use to express the localized head losses of insertion drippers in an
equivalent length of pipe (Le) where they are installed in. For design purposes, if there is no
manufacturer data, in-line insertion drippers the equivalent length for each dripper can be
computed as:
Le = 0.23 m
For insertion drippers the equivalent length for each dripper can be computed as:
Where:
 Le: Equivalent length of pipe for each dripper in m
Keller and Karmeli suggested the use of the following graph to evaluate the equivalent length.
Figure 6-12: Keller and Karmeli graph to evaluate the equivalent length
The equivalent length can be incorporated in the frictional head loss formula assuming a total
design length, the real one plus the summation of the equivalent legths:
LT = L + ΣLe
Where:
 LT: Total design length of pipe in m
 L: Real length of the pipe in m
 Le: Equivalent lengths of pipe for each dripper in m
6.2.2.3 Design Coefficient
Sometimes the localized head losses are evaluated increasing the design length (as written
before) or the flow by applying a design coefficient. The usual is to increase the design length
for head losses calculation applying a design coefficient KDL. This coefficient usually varies
between 1.1 and 1.4, depending on the number of emitters or derivations. In laterals, when
emitters are equally spaced and the head losses for the emitters are expressed in equivalent
length, KDL can be calculated as:
Where:
 KDL: design coefficient, dimensionless
 S: Distance between emitters in m
 Le: Equivalent length of pipe for each emitter in m
The head losses formula that includes frictional and localized head losses is expressed as:

Where:
 KDL: design coefficient, dimensionless
Some times to account the impact of head losses the design flow is increased by applying a
design coefficient KDQ. This coefficient usually varies between 1.03 and 1.1, based on
experience. The head losses formula that includes frictional and localized head losses is
expressed as:
Where:
 KDQ: design coefficient, dimensionless
6.2.3 Maximum Allowable Flow Variation in Hydrozones

According to the type of emitter, and to maintain acceptable irrigation efficiency, the difference
between the emitter which gives the maximum and minimum flow must be maintained
between acceptable limits. The flow variation in hydrozones is calculated by the following
formula:
ΔQ = qmax – qmin
Where:
 ΔQ: flow variation in l/h
 qmax: maximum flow of the emitter in l/h
 qmin: minimum flow of the emitter in l/h
It is more usual to express the flow variation as fraction of the average flow:
Where:
 Q: average flow of the hydrozone in l/h
 : average flow of the emitters in the hydrozone in l/h
Usually the maximum allowable flow variation in hydrozones is between 5 to 15 % (0.05 to
0.15 as fraction) of the average flow. For design purposes a maximum allowable flow variation
of 10 % (0.1 as fraction) must be achieved.
6.2.4 Maximum Allowable Pressure Variation in Hydrozones

The maximum allowable flow variation in hydrozones is correlated with the pressure variations
by the following formula.
Where:
 ΔQ: flow variation in l/h
 Q: average flow of the hydrozone in l/h

 ΔH: pressure variation in m

 H: average pressure of the hydrozone in m
 x: emitter exponent as defined in section 3.B.i
Most of the non-pressure-compensated emitters are turbulent (x = 0.5). Therefore assuming
the criteria of maximum allowable flow variation of 10 % (0.1 as fraction) the maximum
allowable pressure variation is:
In non-pressure-compensated emitters hydrozones the maximum allowable pressure variation

is the 20 % (0.2 as fraction) of the average pressure of the hydrozone.
In pressure-compensated emitters (x ≈ 0) theoretically the flow is constant and independent
from the pressure in the hydrozone. In practice the maximum allowable pressure variation is
limited by the mechanical characteristics of the laterals and emitters. The usual pressure
range for pressure compensated hydrozones is 10 to 25 m. Hydrozones out of these limits
must be justified with manufacturer data of emitters, laterals, connections and fittings.
6.2.5 Head Losses Distribution in Hydrozones

The maximum allowable pressure variation in hydrozones is related to the difference of height
and the head losses in laterals and sub-mains. For flat areas the head losses are the key
factor to ensure the desired irrigation efficiency. The head losses must be distributed between
the laterals and sub-mains, assigning the fraction of the maximum allowable pressure variation
to each one.
Keller and Karmeli suggested a head loss distribution for agricultural hydrozones irrigated by
drippers. According to their criteria the 45 % of the pressure must be lost in the sub-mains and
the 55 % in the laterals. This criterion is acceptable in regular and nearly square hydrozones
but does not suit the requirements of long and narrow hydrozones typical in streetscape and
medians.
To assess the head losses distribution it is defined the shape coefficient (SC) of the hydrozone
as:
Where:
 SC: Shape coefficient, dimensionless
 LL: Length of the laterals in m
 Ls: Length of the sub-main in m
The distribution coefficient (DC) is defined as:
Where:
 DC: Distribution coefficient, dimensionless
 ΔHL: Head loss of the lateral in m
 ΔHH: Head loss in the hydrozone in m
The distribution coefficient is related to the shape coefficient and the distance between laterals
by the following expressions.
For laterals supplied from one side:

For laterals supplied from the middle:
Where:
 SC: Shape coefficient, dimensionless
 SL: Distance between laterals in m
Therefore head losses distribution is:
For laterals: ΔHL = DC x ΔHH
For sub-mains: ΔHs = (1 – DC) x ΔHH
Where:
 ΔHL: Head loss of the lateral in m
 ΔHs: Head loss of the sub-main in m
 ΔHH: Head loss in the hydrozone in m
6.2.6 Head Losses in Laterals and Sub-mains

In laterals and sub-mains the emitters or derivations are usually placed at fixed intervals. The
head loss caused by friction in a pipeline with multiple outlets along its length is less than the
head loss caused by friction in a pipeline without outlets, because of the decreasing discharge
along the length of the pipeline. To easily evaluate the head losses in these pipelines friction
factors can be used. The friction factors (F) are incorporated in the head losses formula in the
following way:
Where:
 F: Friction factor, dimensionless
6.2.6.1 Equally Spaced Emitters/Derivations. Christiansen’s Friction Factor (F)
The estimation of head loss caused by friction in pipelines with multiple outlets requires a
stepwise analysis starting from the most downstream outlet, working upstream and computing
the head loss caused by friction in each segment. Christiansen developed a friction factor (F)
to avoid the cumbersome stepwise analysis. Computing the head loss in a pipe considering
the entire discharge to flow through the entire length and multiplying by factor F allows the
head loss through a single diameter pipeline with multiple outlets to be estimated.
Factor F was derived assuming the following:
a) No outflow at the downstream end of the pipeline
b) All outlets are equally spaced (constant outlet spacing)

c) All outlets have equal discharge

d) The distance between the pipe inlet and the first outlet is equal to the outlet spacing
Figure 6-13: Christiansen friction factor outlet spacing

Factor F is a function of the friction formula used and the number of outlets. Christiansen’s
factor F can be written as:
Where:
 F: Friction factor, dimensionless
 m: Head loss formula exponent: m = 2 for Darcy –Weisbach; m = 1.75 for Blasius; m=
1.85 for Hazen-Williams
 N: Number of outlets along the pipeline, dimensionless
6.2.6.2 Grouped Emitters/Derivations
Sometimes the emitters are grouped in regular spacing i.e. to irrigate trees by drip irrigation. In
this case the factor F requires some modifications and a new friction factor for grouped outlets
(Fg) is defined. Factor Fg assumes the following:
a) No outflow at the downstream end of the pipeline
b) All groups of outlets are equally spaced, either in the group (Se) either between groups
(Sg)
c) All outlets have equal discharge
d) The distance between the pipe inlet and the first outlet is equal to the spacing between
groups (So = Sg)
Figure 6-14: Modified Christiansen friction factor spacing between groups

The spacing ratio (r) is defined as:
Grouped outlets friction factor F can be written as:
Where:
 Fg: Grouped outlets fiction factor, dimensionless
 r: spacing ratio, dimensionless

 F: Equally spaced outlets friction factor, dimensionless. It must be computed with the
formula from the previous section for N/n (number of groups) and N (total number of
outlets)
 N: Total number of outlets along the pipeline, dimensionless
 n: number of outlets per group, dimensionless
6.2.6.3 Continuous Flow Distribution. Porous Pipes
Porous pipes distribute the flow continuously along the pipeline without emitters. In this
particular case it is assumed N is infinite. The friction factor for continuous flow (Fc) can be
calculated with the following formula:
Where:
 Fc: Friction factor for continuous distribution, dimensionless
6.3 Design of Drip irrigation

Drip irrigation is a technique in which water flows through a filter into special drip pipes, with
emitters located at different spacing. Water is distributed through the emitters directly into the
soil near the roots through a special slow-release device. If the drip irrigation system is
properly designed, installed, and managed, drip irrigation may help achieve water
conservation by reducing evaporation and deep drainage. Compared to other types of
irrigation systems such as overhead sprinklers, water can be more precisely applied to the
plant roots. In addition, drip can eliminate many diseases that are spread through irrigation
water. Drip irrigation is adaptable to any irrigable slope and is suitable for most soils.
Advantages
a) The evaporative component of evapotranspiration is reduced, as only a limited area of
the soil is wetted. This is more prevalent with young solitary trees
b) The very frequent irrigation attainable through drip irrigation systems results in more
diluted salts in the soil moisture solution and pushes (leaches) these salts to the sides
of the wetted volume of the soil. Hence, water of higher salt content can be used with
these systems
c) The moisture availability to the plant at low soil tension results in faster growth and
better quality
d) Since fertilizers can be injected into the system in a controlled manner, fertilizer losses
can be substantially reduced under drip irrigation
e) The controlled water and fertilizer application, attainable with drip irrigation, makes
these systems more environmentally and health friendly
Disadvantages
a) Drip systems are prone to clogging because of the very small aperture of the water
emitting devices. Hence the need for proper filtration and, at times, chemigation
b) The movement of salts to the fringes of the wetted area of the soil may cause salinity
problems through the leaching of salts by rain to the main root depth. This can be
avoided if the system is turned on when it rains, especially when the amount of rain is
not enough to leach the salts beyond the root zone depth
c) Rodents, dogs and other animals in search of water can damage the lateral lines
d) For landscapes of very high population density, the system may be uneconomic
because of the large number of laterals and emitters required

The most frequent shortcomings of drip systems are:

a) Insufficient numbers of emitters, improper placement, and flow rates not proportional to
plant needs
b) Higher water usage plants may need more drip emitters than desert-adapted plants of
the same size
c) Salvaged plants, particularly trees, may require more drip emitters during their recovery
period. The additional emitters should be removed or relocated away from the trunk
after establishment
d) Drip emission points on steep slopes should discharge into mini-basins to prevent
runoff and soil erosion
e) Drip emission points on steep slopes should predominantly be placed uphill of the plant
f) Placing emission points up slope allows run-off to be captured by the roots
g) Drip emission points feeding water to new plants should be located midway between
the edge of the root ball and the base of the plant .Watering directly at the base of
plants can cause root rot
h) Drip emission points should be placed above ground or have vacuum relief valves
placed at the high points of the laterals. Dirt and debris can be drawn into emitters
when laterals drain after the watering cycle. Only drippers especially designed for sub-
surface irrigation are allowed for sub-surface irrigation
i) Drip emission points should be placed to water the mature root zones of the plants
j) Relocate the root ball emission points away from plants as they mature
6.3.1 Type of Drippers

Emitter selection is a combination of objective and subjective judgements. The following are
some of the major emitter characteristics that affect the system efficiency and should all be
taken into consideration during the emitter-selection process.
a) Emitter discharge exponent
b) Discharge pressure relationship to design specification
c) Stability of discharge-pressure relationship over a long time
d) Manufacturer coefficient of variation
e) Range of operating pressure
f) Susceptibility to clogging
g) Type of emitter connection to lateral and head losses
In terms of mechanism applied to dissipate pressure emitters can be a long-path type, the
tortuous (labyrinth) and the short-path type, the orifice type and the vortex type. Long-path
type emitters are characterized by laminar flow. Tortuous path emitters have relatively long
paths and some of them may look similar to ordinary long-path emitters. However, their path is
shorter; their path cross-section is larger and the flow regime is almost fully turbulent. Vortex
emitters have a flow path containing a round cell that causes circular flow. They are less
susceptible to clogging. A combination of vortex and tortuous path is common in some of the
modern emitters.
Long-path, short-path and orifice emitters can be pressure compensating, delivering almost
constant flow over a wide range of pressures, providing high uniformity and longer run on any
topography. This feature allows to maximize the amount of drip emitters on a single drip lateral
while maintaining an even flow rate from each emitter.
Another characteristic of emitters is their ability to flush. There are two types of self-flushing
emitters. On-off flushing emitters flush for only a few moments each type the system is started
and again when it is turned off. Continuous flushing emitters are constructed so that they can
eject large particles during operation.

Emitters are also classified as on-line or in-line depending on their connection to the lateral.
Figure 6-15: Types of Drippers

Figure 6-16: In-line and on-line emitters
Table 6-8: Types of Drip Emitters and their Common Applications
Types of Drip Emitters Common Applications

- Vegetable and annual flower gardens
Orifice
- Temporary irrigation systems
- Vegetable and annual flower gardens
Vortex
- Temporary irrigation systems
Laminar Flow - Residential and commercial landscapes
Turbulent Flow - Residential and commercial landscapes
Diaphragm - Residential and commercial landscapes
6.3.2 Dripper Discharges

The discharge and number of emitters per plant must be assigned based upon the plant type
and size and the soil type. Together with the spacing of the emitters in the laterals and the
spacing between laterals defines the application rates that must be in line with the soil type
and plant water requirements.
6.3.2.1 Pressure versus Discharge
Manufacturers must provide pressure versus discharge graphs and equations for adequate
irrigation design. The discharge versus pressure relationship of an emitter can be expressed
by the following equation:
Where:

 q: emitter discharge (l/h)

 Kd: discharge coefficient that characterizes each emitter
 H: emitter operating pressure
 x: emitter discharge exponent
The emitter discharge exponent (x) is a measure of the slope of the q (Y- axis) versus H (X-
axis) curve. The lower the value of x, the less the flow will be affected by pressure variations.
For fully compensating emitter, x = 0, which means that the flow is not affected at all by
pressure variations. Fully turbulent emitters like orifice, have an x value of 0.5 and vortex type
emitters have an x of about 0.4. The exponent of tortuous-path emitters is 0.5 to 0.7, while the
exponent of long path emitters is 0.7 to 0.8. Most of the actual non pressure-compensating
emitters in the market are fully turbulent (x = 0.5).
Table 6-9: Flow Regime and Emitter Type
Flow Regime Emitter Exponent (x- Emitter Type

value)
0.0 Fully Pressure-compensating
0.1
Variable Flow Path
0.2
Partially Pressure-
0.3 compensating
Vortex Flow 0.4 Vortex Emitters
Fully Turbulent Flow 0.5 Orifice Flow, Tortuous Path
Mostly Turbulent 0.6

Long or Spiral Path
Flow 0.7
0.8
Mostly Laminar Flow Microtube
0.9
Fully Laminar Flow 1.0 Capillary Flow
6.3.2.2 Temperature versus Discharge
The temperature in a drip irrigation lateral is different from the air temperature. When the
laterals are exposed to the sun, the temperature can rise substantially. The increase in
temperature reduces the viscosity of water, thereby increasing the discharge of long-path
emitters. For a long-path emitter with x = 0.8, the increase in discharge is 1% for every 2°C
increase in temperature. For a tortuous-path emitter with x = 0.6 the increase in discharge is
about 1% for every 4°C increase in temperature. As a rule, vortex type emitters tend to provide
lower discharges with a rise in temperature. The rise in temperature can also cause
dimensional changes in the flow passages of some emitters thus affecting the discharge.
In the case of pressure compensating emitters, the higher temperatures cause changes in the
characteristics of the materials of which they are made.
6.3.2.3 Uniformity Standards
American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) defines the manufacturer’s coefficient of
variation (CV) as a measure of the variability of discharge of a random sample of a given
make, model and size of emitter, as provided by the manufacturer and before any field
operations or aging has taken place. This is determined through a discharge test of a sample
of 50 emitters under a set pressure at 20°C. According to the below table it is only allowed an
overall CV rating of the selected drippers of “Excellent”.

Table 6-10: Classification of drippers according to coefficient of variation
Point Source
Pressure
Classification Pressure Line Source
Non-
Compensating
compensating
Excellent < 0.03 < 0.05 < 0.05
Good 0.03 - 0.05 0.05 - 0.10 0.05 - 0.10
Fair 0.05 - 0.10 0.10 - 0.15 0.10 - 0.15
Poor > 0.10 > 0.15 > 0.15
Emission uniformity (EU) is generally determined by measuring the total discharge volumes
from emitters and comparing the differences (as statistical variation) in these total volumes.
EU is based on the emitter exponent and the coefficient of variation (CV), both values
available from manufacturer data. Emission uniformity (EU) is calculated from the following
equations:
Where:
 EU: Emission uniformity in %
 n: The number of emitters per plant. A minimum value for n is 1
 CV: Manufacturer’s coefficient of variation expressed as a decimal (e.g., a CV of 5% =
0.05 decimal)
 qmin: Minimum emitter flow rate for the minimum pressure in the system
 qavg: Design, emitter flow rate for the design pressure in the system
 Pmin: Minimum pressure in the system
 Pavg: Design pressure in the system
 x: emitter exponent
The basis of the EU formula is the ratio of the minimum to the average emission rate. It is
based on the principle that, because of the limited wetted area within the system, it is more
important to be concerned about under-irrigation than over-irrigation. Next table provides the
recommended values of EU.
Table 6-11: Emitters recommended values of Emission uniformity
EU
Spacing Slope
Emitter type Topography Range
(m) (%)
(%)
Uniform 90 –
<2
Point-source on perennial steep 95
> 4.0
plantations 85 –
Undulating >2
90
Point-source on perennial Uniform 85 –
< 2.5 <2
plantations or semi- steep 90

permanent plantations
80 –
Undulating >2
90
Uniform 80 –
<2
Line-source on annual or steep 90
All
perennial plantations 70 –
Undulating >2
85
Irrigation systems should be designed so that the drip emitters have an Emission Uniformity of
at least 80% at time of installation. To ensure good uniformity, the following guidelines are
recommended:
a) Where the terrain varies more than 1.5 m in elevation, laterals must have pressure
compensating emitters. Elevation changes cause significant changes in water pressure
b) Pressure must not vary more than 20% along the hydrozone. Water pressure can be
significantly lower at the end of long pipe runs. Water pressure can drop quickly if there
is excessive flow in the lateral
c) Systems that have hard water should not use orifice or vortex type emitters.
Calcification, mineral build-up, and plugging can occur to a greater extent in emitters
with rigid internal parts
6.3.3 Emitter Spacing

The irrigation system should be designed to meet the changing water requirements of the
landscape and the expansion of root zones as it matures. The number of emitters per plant
should be assigned based upon the plant type and size and the soil type. The system should
be capable of meeting the maximum daily water requirement for the mature plant size. The
water delivery rate should be proportional to the type of plant and its size.
Usually manufacturers recommend emitter spacing according to the plant and soil type. The
spacing can be checked by the following procedure.
6.3.3.1 Wetted Area
The area wetted by an emitter (Aw) is the average horizontal area wetted within the top 30 cm
of the root zone depth. It depends on the soil, topography, emitter flow rate and total volume of
the irrigation. It is advisable to carry out simple field test or check similar existing irrigation
systems in order to establish this value. In absence of locally available data the following
values can be used.
Table 6-12: The area wetted by an emitter for various soil textural classes
Soil Textural Class Area wetted by one emitter Aw (m2)

Sand 0.5 – 2
Loam 2–6
Clay 6 – 15
The wetted radius (rw) should be obtained from field tests or, in case of assuming the values of
the above table, applying the following formula:
Where:
 rw: Wetted radius in m
 Aw: Wetted area by one emitter in m2

6.3.3.2 Overlap
Overlapping of the wetted areas is a recommended practice. As the salts accumulate in the
fringes of the wetted areas overlapping reduces this effect, due to the lesser fringe area. The
overlap (O) can be defined as:
Where:
 O: overlap in %
 ro: Lengh of overlap in m
Figure 6-17: Emitters overlapping of the wetted areas
A minimum overlap of 15 % is recommended while a maximum overlap of 50% is assumed

due to economic factors. The overlap reduces the wetted area of one emitter due to part of it is
shared with the neighbour emitter. The overlap coefficient (OC) is defined as:
Where:
 OC: overlap coefficient
 Awo: Wetted area by overlapped emitters in m2
The following table relates O and OC:

Table 6-13: Emitters overlap coefficient
Overlap (%) Overlap coefficient Overlap (%) Overlap coefficient

(OC) (OC)
0 1.000 35 0.914
5 0.995 40 0.896
10 0.987 45 0.876
15 0.976 50 0.856
20 0.963 55 0.934
25 0.948 60 0.812
30 0.932 65 0.789

6.3.3.3 Spacing
The emitter spacing (Se) can be obtained applying the following formula:
Where:
 Se: emitter spacing in m
 O: overlap in %
6.3.3.4 Checking for Infiltration
Once defined the emitter spacing a final check of application rate versus infiltration must be
made. The average infiltration rate must be over the application rate of the emitter. Therefore
the following condition must be fulfilled:
Where:
 IR: average infiltration rate in mm/h
 Q: average flow of the emitter in l/h
In case this condition is not satisfied either the flow of the emitter, either the overlap must be
reduced.
6.3.4 Lateral Row Spacing

Lateral row spacing is directly related to spacing of plants. Spacing of drip line depends upon
the landscape planting plan and the type of emitter used. The wetted area covered by an
emitter should be considered as basis in determining the row interval of drip line. Usually
manufacturers recommend lateral and emitter spacing according to the plant and soil type.
The lateral row spacing can be checked by the following procedure.
6.3.4.1 Percentage of Wetted Area
The percentage of wetted area (Pw) is the average horizontal area wetted within the top 30 cm
of the root zone depth in relation to the total irrigated area. Pw is a decision parameter based
on the plant type and the experience. For trees a minimum of 33 % for widely spaced and a
maximum of 67 % for closer spaced is accepted. For hedges with closely spaced bushes Pw is
close to the 100%. However site investigations are always preferably in establishing the most
suitable value.
6.3.4.2 Number of Emitters per Plant
Once fixed the previous parameters the number of emitters per plant can be easily calculated:
Where:
 Np: Number of emitters per plant
 Pw: Percentage of wetted area in %
 Aplant: Area per plant in m2

6.3.4.3 Lateral Spacing

Laterals row spacing is based on plants spacing in trees and shrubs. The decision of laying 1
or 2 laterals per plant row must be taken based on the plant row spacing, number of emitters
per plant and the desired percentage of wetted area. Irrigation designers must fix the lateral
spacing based in their experience and the site conditions.
In drip irrigation of surfaces, like ground covers or turf, there is no plant spacing. In this case
the lateral spacing and the emitter spacing use to be the same. The minimum overlap required
for a 100% wetted area is 60%.
6.3.4.4 Precipitation Rate
The precipitation rate (PR) of the drippers selected should be calculated to determine if the
rate will apply enough water during acceptable operating times to meet the irrigation
requirement. The average precipitation rate is expressed in mm/h:
Where:
 PR: average precipitation rate in mm/h
 q: emitter discharge (l/h)
 S: average emitter spacing in m
 L: Lateral spacing in m
6.3.5 Sectioning
Different irrigation methods must be separated. Sprinklers, bubblers, microsprays, drip, and
subsurface irrigation must be operated from separate valves as the emitters have different
application rates. Even if the area is irrigated by the same type of emitter other constrains such
as spacing of emitters, soil type or plant water requirements may affect the irrigation
application time. When sectioning the landscape in hydrozones the following considerations
must be taken into account:
a) Separate valves should be assigned to hydrozones with different application rates,
emitters, pressure requirements, or irrigation schedule
b) Separate valves should be assigned to plant groups with different watering needs
c) Separate desert-adapted plants from non-desert-adapted plants
d) Separate trees from shrubs and groundcovers. Shrubs and groundcovers under trees
may be an exception in that the whole area is being watered at once
e) Separate valves should be assigned to planting areas with widely different sun
exposures. Shaded areas are typically north and east exposures for a distance of 3 to
5 m for one story buildings and 6 to 9 m for two story buildings. During the spring, fall,
and winter, shaded areas use significantly less water
f) Separate valves should be assigned to planting areas near pavement, reflected light,
and south and west sun exposures. Plants in hot, bright areas use significantly more
water
Other site-specific factors should be considered:
a) Separate valves should be assigned to planting areas that have significantly different
soil types. Different soil types have different water holding capacities
b) Separate valves should be assigned to plants in potting soil or in containers. Potting
soil will dry out much quicker than native soil. Plants in containers typically have
restricted root systems and may need to be watered more frequently
c) Separate valves should be assigned to plants on slopes. Several short cycles may be
required to avoid run-off
d) It may be more convenient to section landscape areas that are separated (isolated) by

walls, fences, roads, or driveways
6.3.6 Pipe Size and Length

When sizing laterals and sub-mains diameter sizes and lengths, the following factors must be
considered:
a) Pipe should be sized so there is no more than a 20% drop in water pressure from the
beginning to the end of the lateral as uniform pressure improves emission uniformity;
the only exception is the use of pressure-compensating drippers
b) Pipe should be sized so the flow velocity within the pipe is less than 1.5 m/s. Excessive
velocity can damage system and causes excessive friction loss
c) In order to achieve the high degree of uniformity, the allowable pressure variation
within a hydrozone should not exceed ∆H= 2 m, with the exception of hydrozones with
pressure-compensating emitters. In this case the maximum allowable pressure in the
hydrozone is 25 m and the minimum pressure the specified by the manufacturer
d) Only pipes made in PE or PVC are allowed in the design of hydrozones, with PE pipes
being more preferred
6.3.7 Flush Cups and Flush Valves

Flush caps or flush valves must be placed at the ends of all irrigation laterals. There must be a
means of flushing debris from the pipe to reduce emitter clogging. The minimum design
velocity in laterals for effective flushing must be 0.5 m/s.
Flush cap and flush valve installations should be designed and installed in a way that allows
quick location and easy access for maintenance. Flushing device must be installed inside a
valve box.
6.4 Design of Subsurface Irrigation

Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) is similar to surface drip irrigation, but has drip lines that are
buried beneath the surface. Although many surface drip systems have lines buried up to a few
centimetres deep, SDI is normally defined as a system that is “permanent”, that is, the drip
lines are not taken up every year.
Before the design of an SDI system is done, it must be determined that the intended site is
suitable for SDI. These considerations include factors important to all irrigation systems, as
well as some factors which are particularly important to the success of an SDI system. These
factors include adequate water supply, acceptable water quality, type of soil, and appropriate
topography. Another consideration is management which is critical for SDI systems in which
drip lines are out of sight.
The design of an SDI system is similar to the design of other drip irrigation systems, with
additional consideration given to system flushing and traffic. Proper design of a SDI system
will ensure uniformity of water application, as well as reduced operation and maintenance cost.
Advantages
a) Allow all normal maintenance work, including mowing of grass and cultivation
b) Nutrients, some insecticides and, in some instances, herbicides, can be distributed
directly to the subsurface root zone in the soil of areas being irrigated
c) Growth of weeds and unwanted plants are minimized and cultivation requirements
optimally minimized
d) Optimized soil-water-plant relationship that is conducive to much better growth with
less water applied
e) Evaporation is substantially eliminated
f) Pipes are out of the way of people and machinery, and water, along with fertilizer when
used

g) Water seeps from the underground pipe, and by capillary action and absorption
spreads through the root system, maintaining a constant moisture level throughout the
area of treatment
h) Capable of efficiently supplying water and fertilizers to the root zone of plants, without
soil structure damage
i) Attaining a steady, slow-weeping application of water, feeding a capillary absorption
distribution action through soil through needed periods of water irrigation
j) Safely irrigate waste water and avoiding human contact
k) Vandalism is eradicated and the application of irrigation water can occur any time of
the day
l) There is no runoff which results in reduced soil erosion or wasted water
Disadvantages
a) Tendency to encourage build-up of salts in the fringe of the wetted zone, especially if
b) Tendency to clogging
c) Skill management requirement in identifying blockage, emitter spacing and depth of
lateral pipes suited to a particular vegetation and soil type and class
d) The flow indicator is only the parameter to determine when a particular section is
working or not working
e) Difficulty in monitoring performance and measurement of uniformity
f) SDI requires a heavy initial investment
6.4.1 Type of Subsurface Irrigation Systems

There are several configurations and equipment used in this type of system.
a) The In-line flexible tubing buried underground. This type of system comprises of
drip tube with factory installed pressure compensating emitters buried beneath the
ground. Hydraulic design calculation is similar to above ground drip irrigation system.
Features of this type includes:
 The built-in emitters are equipped with anti-root penetration that hinders the root
intrusion to the drip tube to avoid clogging
 The inline emitter diaphragm has a pressure-regulating diaphragm with a spring
action allowing it to self-rinse if there is a plug at the outlet hole
 The inline emitter inlet is raised off the inside tube wall to minimize dirt intrusion
 Low profile emitter design that reduces in-line pressure loss, allowing longer lateral
runs, simplifying design and reducing installation time
 Fitted with a pressure-compensating emitter to provide a consistent flow over the
entire lateral length ensuring higher uniformity for increased reliability in the
pressure range of 0.6 to 4 bar
 A flow indicator must be installed for every sections of sub-surface irrigation
system to determine their working conditions. This indicator must be installed in a
location that is accessible and easily seen
 There are several types of flexible drip tubes with factory installed pressure
compensating emitters of different discharges and specifically designed for
subsurface drip irrigation systems
b) Porous pipe buried underground (perforated). This type of equipment for
underground irrigation system has a porous wall (perforated) opening that allows water
to seep freely to the ground. The perforated openings are about 0.60 mm and can pass
a 30 mesh screen buried 10” beneath the surface
c) Underground In-line irrigation laterals “sandwiched” between two geotextile
membranes which will help spread the moisture laterally. This is most applicable to
sandy soil with high permeability and low water holding capacity

d) Porous pipe sandwiched” between two geotextile membranes which will help spread
the moisture laterally
6.4.1.1 Sandwiched Systems
Sandwiched systems allow higher spacing due to the presence of the geotextile sheets. They
come in 2 types:
a) Full coverage: Geotextile covers the entire ground. As such the geotextile sheets are
similar to a fine textured soil where horizontal water movement is enhanced and
spacing between laterals in less dependent of the soil texture. This system is not
recommended for shrubs and trees as it hinders root development
b) Partial coverage: Geotextile sheet extends just few centimetres beyond the pipe. The
purpose of the sheet is to spread water uniformly along the pipe length, similar to
porous pipes, and protection from roots. Horizontal movement is enhanced and contact
with the soil is increased. However the native soil still affects water movement and
coverage
Figure 6-18: Sandwiched sub-surface irrigation systems
6.4.2 Discharges
The discharge characteristics of in-line irrigation laterals are the same as aboveground drip
irrigation.
Porous pipes are small-sized (about 16 mm) thin-walled porous flexible hoses made from PE
fibres, PVC, ABS or rubber. The operating pressure is very low (around 0.5 bar) with also very
low flow rates (around 0.8 l/h·m).
6.4.3 Burial Depth

Ideally laterals should be placed just above the root zone, but deep enough to prevent
capillary rise of water to the surface. For turf placement should be deep enough to prevent
damages during verticut of grass. Lateral systems are generally installed at shallower depth on
coarse textured soil and slightly deeper for fine textured soil.
It is recommended to place laterals 10 to 15 cm below the ground level. Plants with a deeper
root zone may allow deeper burial depths, but never exceeding 20 cm. Manufacturers use to
have their own recommendations, but simple field tests at different burial depths offers the
best data for the final decision. The burial depth shall be consistent throughout the length of
the lateral.

6.4.4 Spacing
Spacing of emitters and laterals are similar to aboveground drip irrigation systems. Same
checks can be done for sub-surface irrigation. One of the main applications is the irrigation of
turf and groundcovers the following; the following spacing between emitters and lateral (cm x
cm) are typical for 100% wetted area.
Table 6-14: Spacing of emitters and laterals for sub-surface irrigation
Soil Class
Sandy Clay Silty
Emitter flow Sandy Loam Clay
Loam Loam Clay
(l/h)
20 x 20 x 30 x 50 x
1.0 NA NA
20 30 40 50
25 x 25 x 30 x 40 x 60 x
1.5 NA
25 25 30 40 60
25 x 30 x 30 x 30 x 40 x 75 x
2.0
25 30 30 40 60 75
25 x 30 x 30 x 30 x 50 x
2.3 NA
30 30 30 40 60
30 x 40 x 40 x 40 x
3.4 NA NA
40 40 40 60
For sandwiched systems with better horizontal distribution:
Table 6-15: Spacing of emitters and laterals for sandwiched systems with better horizontal distribution
Soil Class
Sandy Clay Silty
Emitter flow Sandy Loam Clay
Loam Loam Clay
(l/h)
20 x 30 x 50 x 60 x
1.0 NA NA
30 40 50 75
25 x 30 x 40 x 50 x 60 x
1.5 NA
25 30 40 60 75
30 x 30 x 30 x 40 x 50 x 75 x
2.0
30 30 40 60 75 75
30 x 30 x 30 x 50 x 60 x
2.3 NA
30 30 50 60 75
40 x 40 x 40 x 50 x
3.4 NA NA
40 40 50 60
6.4.5 Layout
Sub-surface systems must be installed in a loop arrangement. This configuration allows
pressure equalization throughout the hydrozone and the flushing of the laterals. It is essential
to place a pressure gauge or a flow meter at the inlet to the network. The pressure gauge will
reflect any change in pressure caused by possible blockages. The same effect is detected by
a change of flow for a flow meter but at a higher cost.

Figure 6-19: Sub-surface systems loop arrangement
The following factors must be taken into account in layout design:

a) Tubing shall be 5 to 10 cm away from hardscape or other planting zones
b) Laterals should be oriented so that the emitters face the top to minimize clogging from
particulates that accumulate along the bottom of the lateral
c) Lateral lines should be spaced equally for even distribution of water
d) Install an air/vacuum relief valve at high point in the system to avoid back siphoning
materials into the emitters
e) In general manual flush should be installed at the midpoint of the layout or to the lowest
portion in the area. However, in hydrozones with pressure compensating emitters and
high head losses in the sub-main pipe (above 5 m), the manual flush is preferably
located at the most far point, to allow the effective flushing of the laterals connected at
the end of the sub-main
f) Install chemicals injection point downstream the control valve in case the laterals are
no fitted with root protection systems
6.4.5.1 Trees on Turf Areas
It is recommended that trees planted in grassy areas should be irrigated on a different
hydrozone and with a separate system than the turf grass. This is particularly true with
subsurface drip because over time, tree roots could push the buried sub-surface drip lines up
to the surface. Also, trees are more valuable than grass, so if the system for the grass area
needs to be turned off to avoid water consumption, then a separate system for the trees can
still be operated to maintain health. Sometimes it is too costly to have separate systems for
turf and trees. In these cases, although the tree and turf grass are on the same zone, the
buried drip-line should be placed far enough away from the trunk so that tree roots do not push
the drip-line to the surface.

Figure 6-20: Sub-surface systems - Trees on Turf Areas arrangement

6.4.5.2 Curved Edges
When there are curved shapes in the landscape, designer must avoid drip-line rows that follow
the curved edges of the design. Designers must lay out as many straight lines as possible to
simplify the installation and to ensure good uniformity in the irrigation.
Figure 6-21: Sub-surface systems - Curved Edges arrangement

6.4.5.3 Slopes
In slopes irrigation water may move through the soil and accumulate at low points. Laterals
should always be aligned perpendicular to the slopes. Slopes that are less than 3% do not
require any special design consideration. When the slope is equal to or steeper than 3%,
lateral water flow in the soil can be significant. In this case the following practices must be
followed:
a) Laterals should run perpendicular to the slope whenever possible
b) If not possible laterals must run with slight downhill slopes
c) Lateral row spacing should be normal spacing within the top two thirds of the slope
d) Lateral row spacing should be 25% greater within the bottom one third of the slope

Figure 6-22: Sub-surface systems – accommodation for slope
When working in landscapes with elevation differences of 1.5 metres or more within a
hydrozone zone, it is best to use pressure compensating drippers to equalize pressure
differentials created by the elevation differences. The sub-main and the flushing pipes must
have air valves at its highest point. Emitters with anti-siphon mechanism should be used on
slopes where low line drainage could cause wet areas in the lowest areas of an irrigation zone.
6.4.6 Sectioning
Sectioning recommendations for drip irrigation systems are applicable to sub-surface irrigation
systems.

Pipe size and length recommendations for drip irrigation systems are applicable to sub-surface
irrigation systems.
6.4.8 Flush Pipes and Flush valves

Flush valves must be placed at the ends of all irrigation laterals, directly or through a flush
pipe. There must be a means of flushing debris from the pipe to reduce emitter clogging. As
rule of thumb the size of the flush pipe uses to be same DN or one DN less than the sub-main
pipe. However the minimum design velocity in laterals for effective flushing of 0.5 m/s must be
ensured.
Flush valve installations should be designed and installed in a way that allows quick location
and easy access for maintenance. Flushing device should be installed inside a valve box.
Besides the flush valves all the flush pipes must have appropriate air valve to avoid siphoning
and clogging.
6.4.9 System Longevity

6.4.9.1 Root Intrusion
Emitter plugging caused by root intrusion can be a major problem with sub-surface systems,
but can be minimized by chemicals and irrigation management. Chemical based control

techniques include the use of herbicides, either slow release growth retarding compounds
embedded into emitters and filters or periodic injection of low concentration solutions into the
irrigation stream, or injection of other chemicals, such as fumigants, into the irrigation stream.
It is reported that the application of Trifluralin (Treflan®) at a rate of one teaspoon per ha per
year is adequate for the prevention of root intrusion. According to the UK Environment Agency
Trifluralin appears to have a low toxicity for mammals and birds and so may not be as acutely
harmful to terrestrial wildlife as some other pesticides. No significant global impacts are
considered likely. Periodic injection of phosphoric acid and chlorine can also modify the
environment immediately adjacent to emitters and reduce root intrusion.
When injecting chemicals the entire system should be thoroughly flushed after each injection
event. Some systemic pesticides and soil fumigants can also be safely injected. This
technique has the potential to minimize chemical exposure of workers and environment
contamination, to reduce the cost of pesticide rinse water disposal, and to improve precision of
application to the desired target (e.g. root pests). However, a high level of management with
system automation and feedback control is required to minimize chemical movement to the
ground water when chemicals are used.
Emitter design may also affect root intrusion. Smaller orifices tend to have less root intrusion
but are more susceptible to plugging by particulate matter. Some emitters are constructed with
physical barriers to root intrusion. Root intrusion appears to be more severe where emitters
are located in areas of preferential root growth, such as along seams of thin walled tubes.
However, root intrusion problems appear to be greater for systems that are not chemically
treated.
Irrigation management can influence root intrusion by controlling the environment immediately
adjacent to the emitter. High frequency pulsing that frequently saturates the soil immediately
surrounding the emitter can discourage root growth in that area for some plants but not others.
Conversely, deficit irrigation, sometimes practiced to increase quality or maturity or to control
vegetative growth, can increase root intrusion because of high root concentrations in the
emitter area.
6.4.9.2 Filtration
Requirements for filtration for sub-surface systems are more stringent than those of normal
drip systems. In addition, irrigation of landscapes with treated sewage effluent will certainly
incorporate some organic matters which will promote growth of algae inside laterals. For this
reason, the use of screen filters only will not provide adequate protection. Instead, media filters
or as a bare minimum disc filters, should be used.
The minimum recommended mesh size is 140 (100 microns) for sub-surface drip irrigation and
200 mesh (75 microns) for porous pipes. Filters should be serviced regularly and as soon as
significant pressure drop is observed across.
For large systems with dedicated pump rooms, filtration requirements are as follows:
Primary filtration
 Media/sand filters with self-flushing capability. If the source of water is groundwater
then a sand separator should be installed upstream the media/sand filter
 Self-flushing screen filter with a minimum mesh size of 120. The self-flushing
mechanism should be triggered by a pressure differential across the filter exceeding a
certain pre-set pressure. In the event of failure of the self-flushing system, then pumps
should not be allowed to operate
Secondary filtration
 Y Strainers with 150 mesh placed in the valve boxes upstream the solenoid valve
For smaller systems such as streetscapes or median irrigation systems, filtration requirements
are as follows:

 Disc filter with a mesh opening of 150 should be installed at the mainline
 Y Strainers with a mesh size of 150 should be placed in the valve boxes upstream the
solenoid valve
6.4.9.3 Flushing
Flushing of the entire network must be performed regularly and using water velocity exceeding
that of normal irrigation, to flush away deposited sand particles. A minimum velocity of 0.5 m/s
at the end of laterals is required for effective flushing. This entails directing the system
pressure towards the lateral undergoing flushing by manually closing other valves. In addition,
flushing should be performed after servicing the filter system.
6.4.9.4 Use of Recycled Water
The major challenge for wide use of recycled and/or wastewater in sub-surface irrigation is the
economical treatment and filtration of these waters to reduce emitter clogging and removal or
deactivation of pathogens. The addition of mild phosphoric acid will prohibit algae formation as
well as root intrusion. Such addition must be performed at least once per season or upon
identification of a blockage. Filtration with disc filters or media filters is essential to prevent
blockages resulting from organics.
6.5 Design of Sprinklers

Sprinkler irrigation is the most popular and common landscape irrigation method in the world.
Water is distributed through the emitters in the form of spray or mist over the soil, similar to
rain. Compared to other types of irrigation systems, water can be applied to large areas in a
very cost-effective way.
Advantages
a) Cost effective solution for the irrigation of large areas of turf and ground covers
b) Usually requires very low maintenance and training for its management
c) The size of the nozzles requires minimum filtration
d) The same system can be used for leaching of salts in the root zone
Disadvantages
a) In arid climate the losses by evaporation reduces the efficiency of the system
b) Salt accumulation in leaves and flowers may produce toxicity when using recycled
water
c) Higher application rates may produce higher water losses due to run-off, especially in
sloppy landscapes
d) In windy conditions the drifting of the sprinkler reduces the uniformity of the irrigation
and may overspray side roads or hard landscape
e) Not suitable for fertilizers application
f) Requires higher flows, increasing the pipe sizes required if compared with other
irrigation methods
When selecting the proper sprinklers for a project, a number of factors should be considered.
Some of these factors are:
a) Size and shape of the areas to be watered: The size and shape of the areas to be
irrigated often determine what type of sprinkler will be used. The goal is to select the
type of sprinklers that will cover the area properly using the least number of sprinklers
b) Types of plant material to be irrigated: The type of plant material to be irrigated can
also dictate which type of sprinkler is to be used. Lawns, shrubs, trees and ground
covers may all require different types of sprinklers
c) Water pressure and flow available: The available water pressure and flow limit is the
designer’s criteria for equipment selection. Each type of sprinkler has a performance

range for proper operation and these ranges must fit within the available flow and
pressure criteria, both of which are a function of the water supply
d) Local environmental conditions: Areas with special climatic conditions will require
special sprinklers. Windy areas may demand low-angle sprinklers that keep the water
near the ground where it resists being blown away. Excessive summer heat in arid
climates may need either higher flow sprinklers or multiple irrigation cycles with
standard sprinklers to maintain the plant material
e) Soil type and the infiltration rate: The sprinkler’s application rate cannot exceed the
soil’s ability to accept water. Low application rate sprinklers may be required to adjust
the rate of water application to the intake rate of the soil. Also, low application rate
sprinklers are usually needed on slopes to reduce the potential for run-off and erosion
f) Compatibility of the sprinklers: Sprinkler compatibility is particularly important when
laying out laterals or circuiting sprinklers into groups that will be served by the same
valve. One of the most important rules in circuiting sprinklers is to avoid mixing different
types of sprinklers together on the same valve whenever possible. When sprinklers
with varying precipitation rates are connected together over-watering one area to
sufficiently water another is unavoidable. Even the same type of sprinklers may require
separate valving to match up water application with the rest of the sprinklers. Today,
matched precipitation-rate sprinklers are available. These units discharge proportional
flows of water that match the arc or part of a circle they cover. A full circle sprinkler
discharges twice the flow of a half circle sprinkler and a quarter circle sprinkler
discharges half of what the half circle unit does. Matched precipitation allows the same
type of sprinklers, no matter what arc they cover, to be circuited on the same valve and
deliver the same application rate
6.5.1 Types of Sprinklers

There are a number of types of sprinklers and irrigation devices. Each sprinkler type has a
particular range of applications for which the designer would specify them. The main types of
equipment are:
a) Spray sprinklers
 Shrub spray sprinklers
 Pop-up spray sprinklers
b) Rotating sprinklers
 Impulse or impact sprinklers
 Pop-up gear drive sprinklers
6.5.1.1 Spray Sprinklers
Spray sprinklers are required for smaller landscaped areas, for those areas with enclosed
borders requiring tightly controlled spray, for areas with dense tree growth that would
significantly hinder a rotating sprinkler’s coverage and for areas that have mixed sections of
plantings that require differing amounts of water.
Spray sprinklers generally emit single or double sheets or fans of water in a fixed pattern.
These patterns are usually particular part of a circle or arc.

Figure 6-23: Spray sprinklers patterns

The most common patterns are full circle, three-quarter circle, two-thirds circle, half circle, one-
third circle and quarter circle. In addition to the arcs, some specialty spray patterns like center
strips, side strips and end strips are available. Also available is the “variable arc nozzle”, a
hybrid spray nozzle intended to handle the occasional odd-shaped, in-between area. This type
of nozzle allows the designer to adjust the arc of coverage from 0 to 360°.
Stream sprays are other types of spray sprinkler that use fixed arcs of coverage. But instead of
emitting a sheet or fan, they distribute water in numerous, individual fingers. Because spray
sprinklers have an operating range of approximately 1,0 to 2,1 bar and throw water across a
radius of 1,5 to 6,7 m, they are most often used for irrigating small areas, or for projects that
have lower available water pressures.
Fan spray sprinklers distribute water fairly quickly, with application capability of 25 to 102
mm/h. The designer must keep this in mind on tight, fine-grained soils, or sloping ground that
may not accept water quickly. Stream sprays have a more suitable range for these
applications, with precipitation rates from about 8 to 38 mm/h.
Figure 6-24: Fan spray sprinklers

Shrub spray sprinklers and pop-up spray sprinklers often use the same nozzles, but they are
mounted on their respective body types. With the availability of 15 and 30 cm pop ups, some
shrub areas near walkways, stairways and sidewalks utilize these units as pop-up shrub
sprinklers. The sprinklers pop down after operation, reducing the potential for vandalism and
increasing pedestrian safety.

6.5.1.2 Rotating Sprinklers

Rotating sprinklers are available in riser-mount configuration for irrigating larger shrub and
ground cover areas, and in pop-up versions for watering turf grasses. Rotating sprinklers use
various means for converting a portion of the flow and pressure passing through them into
“drive” energy to turn the sprinkler.
In general, rotating sprinklers have a single nozzle or pair of nozzles that revolve to distribute
water over the area of coverage. Part circle units have a reversing or shutoff mechanism to
avoid watering outside their arc pattern. Instead of fixed arcs of coverage, most part circle
rotating sprinklers are adjustable from about 20 to 240°, and many can be switched to the 360°
(full circle) setting. Full-circle-only units are also available.
Higher operating pressures are common for rotating sprinklers compared to spray sprinklers.
Available in a wide range of sizes, most rotating sprinklers on the market today operate
somewhere in the 1.7 to 6.9 bar range. The distance of throw is much greater than for spray
sprinklers. Rotating sprinklers can throw from about 6 m minimum for the small units to well
over 30 m of radius for larger units. It should be noted that the flow demands for large radius
sprinklers are much higher. Discharges of 1 to 23 m3/h or more span the wide variety of flows
for rotating sprinklers.
Figure 6-25: Rotating sprinklers

Despite their large water flow, rotating sprinklers usually apply water much more slowly than
spray sprinklers because the water is spread out over greater areas. The precipitation rates for
these large sprinklers run more in the 6 to 51 mm/h range. This makes rotating sprinklers
appropriate for slopes, tight soils, and other areas where slower application rates are desired.
The most easily recognized type of rotating sprinkler is the impact sprinkler. Using a side-
driving lever to create rotation, you can mount the impact sprinkler on a riser above the plant
material where the stream will be unobstructed over its long radius of throw. In a large, open
lawn area, rotor pop-ups can irrigate vast areas with substantially fewer sprinklers than spray
sprinkler irrigation would require. Like a pop-up spray sprinkler, rotor pop-ups retract after
operation to be out of the way of mowing equipment and foot traffic.
The large radius sprinklers are usually more economical, and energy and water efficient for
large-area irrigation, where their streams are uninterrupted and allowed full coverage. Fewer
sprinklers, fewer fittings, and less trenching are definite advantages of rotating sprinklers
compared to spray sprinklers.
6.5.2 Discharge of Sprinklers

Manufacturers must provide pressure versus discharge graphs and equations for adequate
irrigation design. The discharge versus pressure relationship of a sprinkler is the same as for
drippers:

Where:
 q: sprinkler discharge (l/h)
 Kd: discharge coefficient that characterizes each sprinkler
 H: sprinkler operating pressure
 x: sprinkler discharge exponent
As the discharge through nozzles of the sprinklers is fully turbulent the discharge exponent
has a value of x = 0.5.
6.5.2.1 Types of Nozzles
Manufacturers may provide different types of nozzles with different flows, radius of throw, etc.
Together with the spacing and the operating pressure is the key decision for an efficient
irrigation.
The arc or pattern of coverage is usually diagrammed for quick reference so the designer can
see if the needed pattern is available in that particular series of sprinklers or nozzles. The
model number of the sprinkler or nozzle is called out so it can be specified, by number, in the
legend of the irrigation plan. The operating pressure range of the unit is also noted so that the
designer will know the pressure requirements for the performance desired. This range is
usually the minimum to maximum pressures under which the sprinkler will deliver good
distribution of water throughout the entire area of coverage.
When selecting a nozzle it is advisable to avoid using the lowest pressure since usually this is
the pressure that corresponds to low distribution uniformity values. The effect of pressure on
the water distribution from a sprinkler is shown in the following figure.
Figure 6-26: The effect of pressure on the water distribution from a sprinkler
6.5.2.2 Uniformity of Precipitation
When a sprinkler is tested to determine its distribution rate curve (often abbreviated as DRC),
the sprinkler is placed at a given point and containers are positioned at equal intervals along a
leg of the expected radius of coverage. The sprinkler is operated for a predetermined amount
of time and then the water in each container is measured to determine how well the sprinkler
distributed the water.

Figure 6-27: Sprinkler distribution rate curve test
The resulting data, when plotted on a graph, should ideally look like a 30° slope coming down
from the sprinkler location, a wedge. In the case of a full circle sprinkler, the graph would look
like a cone with the sprinkler location at the centre and the sloping sides indicating less and
less water being measured as the distance increases from the sprinkler. Finally, where the
sprinkler radius came to an end, there would be a container far enough from the sprinkler to
have no measurable water.
Figure 6-28: Sprinkler distribution rate curve

DRCs can be obtained from manufacturers or they can be obtained from an independent
testing agency. Understanding the DRC also allows the comparison of sprinkler, pressure and
nozzle combinations to determine which combination has the potential to apply water with the
greatest efficiency.
One metric used to compare DRCs is the Distribution Uniformity (DU). The distribution
uniformity is measured by comparing the average of the lower quarter of the samples with the
overall average of samples. Good distribution uniformity is indicated by the average values of
the lower quarter being similar to the overall average.
The lower quarter distribution uniformity (DULQ) is calculated with the following method:
a) Step 1: Order the catch-can volumes in a list from smallest to largest
b) Step 2: Separate out the catchment values for the quarter of the cans containing the
least amount of water. Calculate the average catchment volume of these cans (VLQ)
c) Step 3: Calculate the average catchment volume for all the cans (including the low
quarter) (Vavg)
d) Step 4: Calculate the lower quarter distribution uniformity (DULQ) as a percentage:

Next table can be used to assign a qualitative rating to the lower quarter distribution uniformity
(DULQ) for overhead irrigation systems according to sprinkler system characteristics of
“excellent, very good, good, fair, and poor” based on the type of sprinkler head actually used in
the station/zone. It is only allowed an overall lower-quarter distribution uniformity rating of
“Excellent”. The table can be used as a guideline for initial planning and design purposes in
addition to use in system performance evaluation.
Table 6-16: Rating to the lower quarter distribution uniformity for overhead irrigation systems
according to sprinkler system characteristics
Very
Excellent Good Fair Poor
Type of zone Good
(%) (%) (%) (%)
(%)
Fixed Spray 75 65 55 50 40
Rotor 80 70 65 60 50
Impact 80 70 65 60 50
While DULQ is a good indication of sprinkler hardware performance, it does not always
accurately reflect soil moisture uniformity within the root zone. This is because of the tendency
of soil moisture to migrate horizontally. An improved representation of soil moisture uniformity
for scheduling purposes is the lower-half distribution uniformity. The lower-half distribution
uniformity (DULH) can be calculated from DULQ by applying the following formula:
DULH = 38.6 + 0.614 × DULQ
Where:
 DULH: lower-half distribution uniformity in %
 DULQ: lower-quarter distribution uniformity in %
6.5.3 Spacing
One of the main reasons for carefully selecting the sprinklers is so they can be accurately
plotted on the plan. Once the designer chooses the equipment to use, proper spacing is the
next critical step. The site information will usually dictate what spacing pattern makes those
arcs of coverage fit into the planting areas.
The area under the first 60% of the sprinkler’s radius is generally sufficiently irrigated to grow
vegetation without the need for an overlapping sprinkler. Beyond this 60% line, the amounts of
water, diminishing with distance, become less and less effective and eventually will not
support plants. The maximum spacing recommended, therefore, is where the sprinkler is
located, so its 60% of radius line meets the 60% line of its neighbour. In cases where very
coarse soil, high winds, low humidity or high heat inhibit effective irrigation, closer spacing is
recommended.
Figure 6-29: Sprinkler spacing

Head-to-head, or 50% sprinkler spacing, is the most common spacing used in landscape
irrigation.

Figure 6-30: Head-to-head Sprinkler spacing

Where winds are a threat to good coverage, sprinkler spacing as close as 40% may be
required. When sprinkler spacing is stretched, turf grass will exhibit dry spots within the area of
the spacing pattern. These weak spots may show up as lighter green turf, yellowing or brown
foliage or dead plant material. When the system is installed and this problem of “stretched”
spacing shows up, the project owner often overwaters the rest of the areas trying to make up
for the lack of water in the weak spots.
There are three main types of sprinkler spacing patterns and a number of variations to adapt
these patterns to special situations.
6.5.3.1 Square Pattern
The square pattern, with its equal sides running between four sprinkler locations, is used for
irrigating areas that are square themselves, or have borders at 90° angles to each other, and
that confine the design to that pattern. Although the square pattern is the weakest for proper
coverage if not used carefully, enclosed areas often rule out the use of other patterns.
The weakness in square spacing coverage is caused by the diagonal distance between
sprinklers across the pattern from each other. When the sprinklers are spaced head-to-head
along the sides of the square pattern, the distance between sprinklers in opposite corners of
the pattern is over 70% spacing. This 70% diagonal stretch across the square pattern can
leave a weak spot at the centre. The wind may move the weak spot slightly away from the
centre and summer heat may make the weak spot quite large if it is a common climatic
condition for the site.
Figure 6-31: Square pattern Sprinkler spacing

To minimize the effects of wind trouble when using the square pattern, closer spacing (which
requires more sprinklers) is recommended, depending on the severity of the wind conditions.
The recommendation for low or no wind (0 to 5 km/h) is 55% spacing, for medium winds (6 to
11 km/h) is 50% spacing and for high winds (12 to 19 km/h) is 45% spacing.
6.5.3.2 Triangular Pattern
The triangular pattern is generally used where the area to be irrigated has irregular boundaries
or borders that are open to over spray, or do not require part-circle sprinklers. The equilateral
triangle pattern, where the sprinklers are spaced at equal distances from each other, has
some advantages over square spacing.
Because the rows of sprinklers are offset from adjacent rows to establish the triangular
pattern, the weak spot that could be a problem in square spacing is absent. In most cases, the
sprinklers can be spaced further using triangular spacing than with square spacing. This
additional distance between sprinklers often means fewer sprinklers will be required on the
project. Fewer sprinklers on the site means less equipment cost for the project, less
installation time and lower maintenance costs over the life of the system.
Figure 6-32: Triangular pattern Sprinkler spacing

The dimensions of a spacing pattern are often labelled “S” and “L.” “S” stands for the spacing
between sprinklers and “L” stands for the spacing between the rows of sprinklers or laterals. In
an equilateral triangular spacing pattern, the distance “L” (the height of the triangle) is the
sprinkler spacing “S” x 0.866. There is no unequally stretched spacing like the diagonal line in
square spacing. Because of this factor, the spacing recommendations of an equilateral
triangular pattern are somewhat less restrictive for windy conditions. The recommendation for
low or no wind (0 to 5 km/h) is 60% spacing, for medium winds (6 to 11 km/h) is 55% spacing
and for high winds (12 to 19 km/h) is 50% spacing.
6.5.3.3 Staggering the Patterns
Combinations of the various patterns mentioned so far may be used on the same area of a
project to adapt to special conditions. If the designer is laying out sprinklers for a lawn area, for
instance, and comes across a tree or row of shrubs, a staggered spacing pattern to adjust for
the obstacles can be used. By staggering the pattern from square or rectangular to a slightly
tilted parallelogram or to triangular shape, the degree of coverage can be maintained even
though the pattern doesn’t match the rest of the area. After positioning the sprinklers to
surround or pass through the area of the obstructions, the designer can return from the
staggered pattern to the original spacing pattern.

Figure 6-33: Combinations of the various patterns Sprinkler spacing

6.5.3.4 Precipitation Rate
The precipitation rate (PR) of the sprinklers selected should be calculated to determine first if
the rate exceeds the soil’s infiltration rate (which it shouldn’t) and, secondly, if the rate will
apply enough water during acceptable operating times to meet the irrigation requirement
(which it should).
The average precipitation rate is expressed in mm/h. A simple formula is used to calculate
precipitation rates for sprinklers using the area inside the sprinkler spacing and the litres per
hour being applied to that area. The formula is:
Where:
 PR: precipitation rate in mm/h
 q: sprinkler discharge (l/h)
 S: sprinkler spacing in m
 L: sprinkler row spacing in m
6.5.3.5 Checking for Infiltration
As mentioned before, in designing a sprinkler system the sprinkler precipitation rate should not
exceed the infiltration rate of the soil. Moreover, a correction of the precipitation rate is
recommended in order to avoid run-off in sloping land. Once defined the sprinkler spacing a
final check of precipitation rate versus infiltration must be made. The corrected average
infiltration rate, due to slope conditions, must be over the precipitation rate. Therefore the
following condition must be fulfilled:
Where:
 IR: average infiltration rate in mm/h
 PR: precipitation rate in mm/h
 SF: slope factor according to the following table
Table 6-17: Slope factor in designing a sprinkler system
Slope (%) Slope Factor (SF)

0–5 1.00
6–8 0.80
9 – 12 0.60
13 – 20 0.40
> 20 0.25
In case this condition is not satisfied either the flow of the sprinkler must be reduced, or the
spacing must be increased.
6.5.4 Sectioning/Zoning
Sectioning recommendations for drip irrigation systems are applicable to sprinkler irrigation
systems.

In general pipe size and length recommendations for drip irrigation systems are applicable to
sprinkler irrigation systems. Some specific recommendations for sprinkler systems layout of
laterals and valves are:
6.5.5.1 Locating Valves and Laterals
Laterals size and length depends on the valve location and the allowable head losses.
Locating the valves and lateral piping is the next part of the design process. Here are some
factors that will help guide the placement of these components:
a) Valves should be accessible for maintenance and servicing. Valves installed below
ground should be housed in valve boxes and not buried directly in the ground.
b) The valves and/or valve boxes should be located where they will not interfere with
normal traffic or use of the area.
c) Manual valves need to be located where the system owner can conveniently reach
them for operation, but not where the sprinklers will douse the operator.
d) Where possible, the valve serving a group of sprinklers should be at the centre of the
group to balance the flow and size of lateral pipe.
e) Normally, a valve should be the same size as the lateral line it serves. Even under
special conditions, the valve should not be sized more than one nominal size smaller or
larger than the largest size of its lateral.
f) Valve and main line locations should be kept in mind when circuiting sprinklers and
drawing in lateral pipe routes.
g) Main line pipes are the most expensive pipes; minimize the length of the main line pipe
route were possible.
h) If convenient, the main line and lateral lines can share the same trench in some areas
of the project to reduce labour costs. To minimize the possibility of damage from over
sprinkle, the main line should have adequate cover.
Straight Line Lateral Circuit
The straight line lateral circuit, where the valve is located at the extreme end of the line, is the
least optimal of all lateral designs. There are several other lateral circuit configurations that
could reduce the size of the pipe required while supplying the same number and type of
sprinklers. Pressure differences between the sprinklers on the extreme ends of the lateral are
the greatest in this method. This can cause large variations in discharge and performance
between the sprinklers.

Figure 6-34: The straight line lateral circuit for sprinklers

Split-length Lateral Circuit
The split-length lateral circuit, where the valve is located in the centre of the line of sprinklers,
has several advantages over the straight line lateral circuit. The total flow for the circuit is split
in half, which can often reduce the size of pipe required and balance the pressure losses
throughout the circuit. Balanced loss reduces variation in sprinkler performance because of
more uniform pressure availability.
Figure 6-35: The split-length lateral circuit for sprinklers
6.6 Section Total Demand

Once defined the layout of laterals and sub-mains the total demand for each section is found
by summation of all the emitters’ flow that each section serves. As the emitters must have the
same characteristics the section total demand for calculation is:
Where:
 Q: section flow in l/h
 : emitter average discharge (l/h)
 n: number of emitters served by the section
6.7 Valve Selection

Manufacturers must provide head loss data for each size of valve in the way of graphs, tables,
Kv or Cv values. When selecting valves the following must be considered:
a) The flow through the fully open valve must not produce a head loss greater than 10%
of the static pressure available in the main line or 0.3 bars, whichever is lower
b) The valve should either be the same size as the largest pipe in the lateral/sub-main it

serves, or no more than one nominal size smaller than that pipe
c) The valve should not be larger than the pipes in the lateral/sub-main, unless a high
flow (equivalent to a larger size pipe) results from a split lateral/sub-main
d) The valve must be fitted with pressure reducing device. The ratio between upstream
maximum pressure and the setting pressure must not exceed 3:1
e) Occasionally, dealing with low pressures to begin with, designers will look for ways to
reduce pressure loss. There must be a minimum pressure loss through most types of
automatic valves. The valves use this pressure differential to open and close. Lack of
data in the manufacturer’s performance chart is an indicator that the valve should not
be used at the high or low flows in question
6.8 Design of Irrigation Mains

Layouts for the downstream systems are to be designed in accordance with recognised best
practice for irrigation system engineering. Principal design considerations include operational
flexibility, ease of maintenance, and minimising head loss. Avoiding head loss is especially
critical in the case where irrigation systems are fed directly from a pressurized TSE distribution
network, and an important objective is to ensure that the best possible pressure is available at
the solenoid valve for the secondary system.
Pipework layouts need to be closely coordinated with the landscape layouts and with other
underground utilities, and as far as possible positioned clear of obstructions, trees etc. in case
future access to the pipe is required. The irrigation mains should be arranged to give optimal
short and direct routings to the solenoid valves from the point of connection. Selection of
pipework materials will depend upon project budget and the design life of the irrigation.
Irrigation main line designs are to be submitted with supporting calculations giving the basis for
sizing of the irrigation pipework. Consideration will be given to flow, head loss and other
relevant considerations. It is also recommended to take into account possible or likely future
landscape developments within the area and make appropriate allowance within the
calculations of flow for the irrigation mains in particular.
6.8.1 Total Demand for the Entire Area

The total demand for the entire area served by main must be calculated by the summation of
the flows of all the hydrozones working simultaneously downstream the mains. Therefore the
expected operating scheduling must be defined to assess the design flows.
6.8.2 Main Line Pipe Size

Sizing of the irrigation mains should take account "worst case" operational flow conditions
where a number of solenoid valves are open simultaneously. To take into account possible or
likely future landscape developments within the area or changes in the operating schedule the
design flow must be increased by a minimum factor of 1.3. The maximum flow velocity of 1.5
m/s should not normally be exceeded, and loss of head should be kept to a minimum.

7 OPERATING SCHEDULING
Water demands in an irrigation water system are directly related to the type of landscape and
irrigation pattern. The irrigation pattern includes the irrigation timing and irrigation rates. They
are both subject to a seasonal variation, meaning that more irrigation water will be required in
summer than in winter. The irrigation scheduling should aim to achieve a reasonably constant
demand over the operating cycle of each irrigation system. An annual irrigation program with
monthly or seasonal irrigation schedules must be submitted as part of the design.
An irrigation schedule is meant to bring all requirements together to control how long and how
often systems should operate. The schedule is the basis for programming the irrigation
controller. The needs of the landscape are combined with the capabilities of the irrigation
system. Then any site-specific limitations must be considered. An irrigation scheduler may
need to make adjustments and compromises to deal with inadequacies of the irrigation
system.
A station is an output of the irrigation controller that can be programmed to work at specific
times. Each valve-in-head of hydrozones must be connected to a station. The area covered by
one station is called station zone.
The schedule must be based on plant water need and changing weather conditions. The
frequency of irrigation per week and/or the run time of each station zone must be based on the
plant type (species factor), microclimate, plant density, soil type, slope, microclimate exposure,
root zone depth, watering window, and other factors. The frequency of irrigation must be
based on allowing the soil moisture to deplete to an allowable depletion limit. Scheduling
should supply no more than the amount of water needed to bring the soil moisture back to field
capacity plus the leaching requirements.
7.1 Irrigation Requirements

The irrigation requirements must be calculated according to the design criteria stated in PART
4 of this manual. The type of landscape, water quality, local climate conditions and application
efficiency must be properly assessed to design and construct highly efficient irrigation
systems.
7.1.1 Peak Demand

The water peak demand for designing the irrigation system must be based on consumption
rates of plants for the maximum requirements month, 100 % irrigation intensity and at plants
maturity stage. Calculations for each month of the year must be done to assess the peak
demands, but also the expected variations along the year for an optimal operating schedule.
7.1.2 Available Pressure/Flow in the System

The data gathered on site plays an important role in designing irrigation system. These include
determining the pressure, water meter size, service line, service line length and type of service
line pipe. System pressures and capacity must be determined following below procedures:
a) When available, pump station historical and instant pressure and flow must be
obtained from the DMAT SCADA system
b) Local conditions must be assessed with flow meters and pressure gauges. Whenever
is possible the measurement points must be located in existing chambers
c) Flows measurements can be obtained with portable clamp on flow meters.
d) Pressure measurements may require tap-offs on the existing pipework
e) The instant flows / pressures must be recorded each 15 minutes for 1 week, as
minimum
07-OPERATING SCHEDULING PAGE 98 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

A hydraulic model of the whole service area must be produced. The existing system must be
calibrated using data recorded on site. According to the expected demands initial assessment
of the capacity of the system can be carried out. The final operating schedule must be tested
on the model to check its feasibility and/or propose remedial works to satisfy the future
working conditions.
7.2 Avoiding Run-off

In previous sections of this manual the criteria to avoid run-off based on the appropriate
selection of the precipitation rate is provided. However sometimes it is not possible to select
precipitation rates below the infiltration rate of the soil, especially with existing systems. In
these cases the appropriate scheduling on irrigation might allow the use of higher precipitation
rates by splitting the total run time in several cycles.
To avoid run-off, and depending on the slope, soil infiltration rate and the precipitation rate, the
run time (RT) may need to be divided into multiple cycles (also called cycle starts or repeat
cycles) with soak time between the cycles. The number of cycle starts can be determined by
the “observation” method or the “basic infiltration rate” method. Each method is presented
below, followed by determination of the run time of each cycle start and soak time between
cycles.
7.2.1 Observation Method

The “observation” method is the preferred method of determining the number of cycle starts
(Ncs) because it integrates the precipitation rate with slope and soil characteristics. Begin by
observing the landscape while irrigating a representative hydrozone. Note the total elapsed
time until runoff (RTrunoff) is visible. Divide this run time into the base run time for the interval
(RT) and round up to determine the whole number of required cycle starts (Ncs):
Where:
 Ncs: Whole number of cycle starts (Ncs ≥ 1)
 RT: Run time for the interval in hours
 RTrunoff: Elapsed run time until runoff occurs in hours
Many controllers do not allow more than 3 or 4 cycle starts. When selecting a controller the
number of allowable cycle starts must be sufficient to avoid run-off. Depending on soil and
other site conditions, run-off may not always be a limiting factor. In that case, only one cycle
start is required.
7.2.2 Basic Infiltration Rate Method

For relatively flat hydrozones only, the number of cycle starts can also be determined with the
“basic infiltration rate” method. The basic infiltration rate is the rate at which water percolates
into the soil after infiltration has decreased to a low and nearly constant value. This method is
conservative (for relatively flat landscapes) because the basic infiltration rate in section 1.C.i is
based on the nearly steady-state infiltration rate of the soil at its lowest value.
The following equations can be used to estimate the number of cycle starts (Ncs). For the case
in which the precipitation rate (PR) is less than or equal to the basic infiltration rate (IR),
corrected by the slope factor (SF), the number of cycles starts is 1. When PR is greater than
IR the number of cycle starts can be estimated with the following equation:
Where:

 Ncs: Whole number of cycle starts (Ncs ≥ 1)

 PR: Precipitation rate in mm/h
 IR: Average infiltration rate in mm/h
 ASA: Allowable Surface Accumulation depending on soil class and slope in mm.
Values according to field observations or the following table.
Table 7-1: Allowable Surface Accumulation depending on soil class and slope
Soil Textural Allowable Surface Accumulation (mm)

Class 0-3 % 4-6 % 7-12 % 13 % <
Clay 5.1 4.1 3.0 2.0
Silty Clay 5.3 4.3 3.3 2.3
Clay Loam 5.8 4.8 3.6 2.5
Loam 6.6 5.3 3.8 2.8
Sandy Loam 7.4 5.6 4.1 3.0
Loamy Sand 8.1 5.8 4.6 3.3
Sand 8.9 6.4 5.1 3.6
7.2.3 Run Time of Each Cycle Start

The run time of each cycle start (RTcycle) is calculated from the whole number of cycles (Ncs)
and the base run time (RT):
Where:
 RTcycle: Run time for each cycle in hours
 Ncs: Whole number of cycle starts
7.2.4 Soak Time Between Cycle Starts

Soak time is the amount of time the applied irrigation water is allowed to soak into the soil
between cycle starts (i.e., exclusive of the run time). The soak time must be higher than run
time of each cycle start (RTcycle). When the number of cycle starts (Ncs) is one, then no soak
time is required. When Ncs is greater than one, and for relatively flat hydrozones, the soak time
between cycle starts (STcycle) is defined by the following equation:
Where:
 STcycle: Soak time following each cycle start in hours; for relatively flat landscapes only,
exclusive of the cycle run time, in hours
 IR: Average infiltration rate in mm/h
 ASA: Allowable Surface Accumulation in mm

Alternatively, use the observation method to determine the soak time of hydrozones with
slopes. Run a cycle or two and allow the water to infiltrate into the soil between cycles. Allow
infiltration to occur for a period of time that is greater than the cycle run time. Then run another
cycle. If excessive run-off or ponding is visible before the cycle finishes, then increase the
soak time between cycles. Sloped areas should have longer soak times than flatter areas.
7.3 Scheduling Constraints

Ideally, the landscape is irrigated only when the soil moisture content is near the allowable
depletion limit by varying the irrigation interval instead of the run time. This minimizes the
frequency of irrigation while encouraging a healthier root system. Practically, however, this
goal may not be achieved due to one or more of the following constraints, among others:
a) The irrigation interval must accommodate “no water” days that are required for mowing,
other regularly scheduled maintenance activities, or “extra water days” following
fertilizing
b) The irrigation interval is fixed because of mandatory water purveyor restrictions that
allow irrigation only on certain days of the week, on a specific time interval, or within a
specific watering window
c) The actual soil moisture content is unknown because of inaccuracies in estimating
effective rainfall or plant evapotranspiration
d) Since irrigation occurs normally on whole day intervals, rounding of an optimum
interval to a whole day may mean that the target allowable depletion limit is not
achieved
7.4 Sectioning/Zoning the Service Area

Different irrigation methods must be separated. Sprinklers, bubblers, microsprays, drip, and
subsurface irrigation must be operated from separate schedules. When sectioning the service
area the following considerations must be taken into account:
a) Separate schedules should be assigned to hydrozones with different application rates,
emitters, pressure requirements, or irrigation schedule
b) Separate schedules should be assigned to plant groups with different watering needs.
c) Separate trees from shrubs and groundcovers. Shrubs and groundcovers under trees
may be an exception in that the whole area is being watered at once
d) Schedules must group hydrozones with equal irrigation intervals and run times along
the year
7.5 Design the System to Operate 14 Hours per Day

It is important to calculate the operating time for various types of hydrozones to be installed on
the project during the design stage. There is a need to know if the circuits in the project can
meet the required time available for irrigation. The type of emitter used, time available for
irrigation, how emitters are circuited and the number of valves that can run at the same time
are critical concerns to deal with during the course of design stage.
The irrigation systems must be designed to irrigate the whole designed area in a maximum
time of 14 hours. The newly designed system must be incorporated into the service area
hydraulic model. The operating schedule must be tested together with the actual system in
order to assess its adequacy for the existing system. A sample of operating schedule is shown
in the next table.

Table 7-2: A sample of operating schedule
IRRIGATION CONTROLLER 1 IRRIGATION CONTROLLER 2 IRRIGATION CONTROLLER 3 IRRIGATION CONTROLLER 4

STA. VALVE TIME OF TIME VALVE STA. VALVE TIME OF TIME STA. STA. VALVE TIME OF TIME STA. STA. VALVE TIME OF TIME STA. TOTAL
NO. NO. OPERATION MIN. GPM NO. NO. OPERATION MIN. GPM NO. NO. OPERATION MIN. GPM NO. NO. OPERATION MIN. GPM LPS
1 SV1 6:00-6:20AM 20 110 1 SV7 6:00-6:20AM 20 80 1 SV13 6:00-6:20AM 20 95 6:00-6:20AM 20 98 383.00
2 SV2 6:20-6:40AM 20 105 2 SV8 6:20-6:40AM 20 95 2 SV14 6:20-6:40AM 20 85 6:20-6:40AM 20 98 383.00
3 SV3 6:40-7:00AM 20 105 3 SV9 6:40-7:00AM 20 85 3 SV15 6:40-7:00AM 20 105 6:40-7:00AM 20 98 393.00
1 DV16
4 SV4 7:00-7:20AM 20 90 4 SV10 7:00-7:20AM 20 85 4 SV16 7:00-7:20AM 20 105 7:00-7:20AM 20 98 378.00
5 SV5 7:20-7:40AM 20 95 5 SV11 7:20-7:40AM 20 95 5 SV17 7:20-7:40AM 20 95 7:20-7:40AM 20 98 383.00
6 SV6 7:40-8:00AM 20 85 6 SV12 7:40-8:00AM 20 105 6 SV18 7:40-8:00AM 20 95 7:40-8:00AM 20 98 383.00
7 DV1 8:00-10:00AM 120 125 7 DV6 8:00-10:00AM 120 85 7 DV11 8:00-10:00AM 120 95 2 DV17 1:00-10:00AM 120 85 390.00
8 DV2 10:00-12:00PM 120 85 8 DV7 10:00-12:00PM 120 110 8 DV12 10:00-12:00PM120 105 3 DV18 10:00-12:00PM 120 95 395.00
9 DV3 12:00-2:00PM 120 105 9 DV8 12:00-2:00PM 120 100 9 DV13 12:00-2:00PM 120 105 4 DV19 12:00-2:00PM 120 75 385.00
7.6 Clustering of Valves

Valves should be grouped into irrigation clusters. An irrigation cluster is a grouping of plants
with similar water (and environmental) requirements. The primary consideration when
establishing clusters is plant type. The next key factor is rooting depth and soil type. Exposure
and slope conditions can also be considered. Now assign clusters to programs in the
controller. There may be times with complex landscapes that there may be more clusters than
are available on the controller. This may require using a controller with more capabilities or
adding another controller. In some cases clusters can be combined into a one program. When
this occurs scheduling decisions must be made based on the worst-case condition and use
station run-time to make adjustments. Hydraulic limitations of the system may require that
stations be grouped in different programs.
The clustering of valves is usually done to reduce the number of irrigation controller, time of
operation and maximizing the flow but not to exceed the system capacity. However, this may
increase the mainline size. Several irrigation controllers can run more than one solenoid valve
in a single station.
7.7 Total Number of Valves to Work Simultaneously

When clustering valves in a service area it must be taken into account that the flow per
program must be as close as possible to the average flow of the service area, in order to
operate the pump station as close as possible to its best efficiency point.

8 IRRIGATION SERVICE CORRIDOR

8.1 Utility Corridors – Utility Corridor Design Manual (UCDM)
The service corridors for irrigation system must be based on UCDM where it defines the Right-
of Way (ROW) of various families of streets based on the land use context within
developments. It defines the location and width of the various utilities envisages to be
constructed within the streets of new urban developments in the Emirates. UCDM must be in
congruous with:
a) Abu Dhabi Urban Street Design Manual
b) Abu Dhabi Public Realm Design Manual
c) Building Code
d) Utility Corridor Mapping Specification
The application of UCDM to new developments:

a) Provides standard arrangements for the installation of utilities within the Right-of Way
of the streets
b) Avoid clashes and interferences to other utilities ensuring timely installation of utilities;
c) Minimizes traffic, service disruption and avoid damage to adjacent utilities during
installation and / or repair and maintenance of utilities
d) Provides easier coordination between utility service providers, regulatory authorities
and consultants which will minimize the time for approving the utility disposition details
/ drawings
UCDM must be used in conjunction with all other design manuals currently applicable in the
Emirates of Abu Dhabi.
8.2 Irrigation Corridor Requirements

8.2.1 Irrigation Pipe Corridor Width Requirements
Pipe corridor width requirements are based on the pipe material and / or pipe diameter.
Generally, irrigation pipes are either ductile iron pipes, PVC or HDPE pipes. Irrigation pipe
diameters vary depending on the landscape scheme which may vary from one land use
context to another.
The UCDM provides corridors for larger diameters to provide flexibility for the designer in
providing a primary supply / transmission main through the development. The larger corridors
are only permitted on wider streets or in open spaces. The pipe corridor width requirements for
the different pipe diameters are:
Table 8-1: The pipe corridor width requirements for the different pipe diameters
Pipe Diameter (mm) Pipe Corridor Width (mm)

150 500
200 550
300 680
400 1000
500 1200
08-IRRIGATION SERVICE CORRIDOR PAGE 103 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

600 1300
700 1400
800 1500
900 1600
1000 1800
8.2.2 Irrigation Appurtenances

Irrigation system appurtenances mainly include isolation valve chambers. However, other
types may be used on primary supply mains, such as washout valve chambers, and air vent
chambers.
All details must be in accordance with Municipality and DMAT standards and typical details,
with the exception of surface finishes, which shall be in accordance with the requirements of
the USDM and Public Realm Manual. External chamber dimensions shall be limited to 1.5 m
for all pipes with diameters less than or equal to 300 mm and must not exceed 2.2 m for larger
diameters.
For valve chambers on the main line at intersecting pipes, the chamber must be designed for
single valve installation so as to reduce the chamber dimensions. In instances where two
valves shall be installed at a T connection, each valve shall be installed in a separate chamber
before the street intersection.
8.2.3 Irrigation Corridor

The minimum primary irrigation corridor width must be equal to the width required for the pipe
installation. The maximum allowed corridor width is determined by the outer dimensions of the
largest chamber required for the pipe to be installed.
In instances where the street ROW is limited, the irrigation chambers must be allowed to
encroach on the corridor of the adjacent utility provided the pipe / cable corridor width of the
adjacent utility is maintained.
In most cases, the irrigation chamber is allowed to encroach on the tree corridor or the storm
water inlet corridor. Based on the same principles outlined for other utilities, chambers /
appurtenances of adjacent utilities must be allowed to encroach on the irrigation corridor
provided the required pipe corridor width is maintained. The pipe and chamber corridor widths
required for the primary irrigation system for the different street families are:

Table 8-2: The pipe and chamber corridor widths required for the primary irrigation system for the
different street families
The number of irrigation corridors per street is determined by the number of tree corridors
required. With regard to secondary supply lines, these shall be installed above the irrigation
pipe within the same corridor.
8.2.4 Irrigation Pipe Depth

The depth of irrigation pipes must be in accordance with the requirements of DMAT / ADSSC.
The minimum depth for primary lines must be 1,000 mm over the crown of the pipe. For
secondary lines the minimum depth for primary lines must be 600 mm over the crown of the
pipe. In all instances, the irrigation pipe shall be installed below water pipes with a minimum
vertical clearance of 300 mm. In cases where an irrigation pipe crosses over a water pipeline,
especially at house connections and at intersections, all pipes shall be encased in concrete or
installed within a sleeve.
8.2.5 Special Arrangements

Although the foregoing corridor requirements can accommodate most irrigation
appurtenances, a few appurtenances / chambers might require special arrangements /
considerations, such as washout chambers.
It is recommended that such chambers be installed, whenever possible, within parks,
landscaped areas and open spaces.
8.2.6 Location of the Irrigation System Corridor

A minimum clear distance of 1.0 m shall be maintained between the irrigation / TSE corridor
and any potable water corridor. This distance can be reduced to 0.8 m if a third utility
separates the water from the irrigation / TSE corridor.
Irrigation corridors shall not be allowed under the carriageway unless there is no available
space under the sidewalk and / or block paved surfaces. However, it is preferable to place the
corridor as close as possible to any landscaping strip / tree corridors.
8.3 Selecting/Identifying service corridors

Step 1 – Identify Context and Street Families

Step 2 – Confirm Utility Requirements

Step 3 – Select Applicable Cross Section
Step 4 – Adjust and Finalized Utility Corridor
8.3.1 City Context

Within a city context, the USDM defines the development as mixed-use central business
districts (CBD) having high-density neighbourhoods and a high level of pedestrian activities. In
this land use context, buildings are typically seven storey or higher. An access lane within this
context is defined as a service road from the rear of buildings intended for garage / parking
access as well as for garbage collection and other building services / maintenance operations.
8.3.2 Town Context

Within a town context, the USDM defines development as mixed-use areas with medium
levels of pedestrian activity, where buildings are typically three to six storeys. Similar to the city
context, an access lane within this context is defined as a service road.
8.3.3 Commercial Context

The USDM defines the commercial context as areas throughout the city intended to provide a
variety of working, shopping and service options and convenience. An access lane within this
context is defined as a service road, similar to the town and city contexts.
8.3.4 Residential Context

Within a residential context, the USDM defines the development as areas that provide a
variety of housing opportunities, allowing for densities varying from villas to multi-dwelling
residential buildings. The access lane in a residential context is intended to provide vehicular
access to villas and multi-dwelling residential buildings. Based on this definition of the access
lane, all villas and residential buildings bound by an access lane will be serviced by utilities
from the access lane.
8.3.5 Industrial Context

Within an industrial context, the USDM defines the development as areas for businesses that
have potential to create adverse visual or other impacts to adjoining public and residential
properties. Uses include light industries such as warehousing and distribution with support
commercial services and ancillary office space. This context however, does not include heavy
industry zones, since such land uses may require wider ROWs, wider travel lanes and in
particular special types / capacities of utilities. Heavy industry zones will be treated on a case-
by-case basis. Nevertheless, it is expected that trucks will make up a larger proportion of
vehicles in the industrial context.
8.3.6 Utility Reservation Widths Summary Table

The user should refer to the UCDM for utility corridor width requirements for other utilities as
specified in PART 8: IRRIGATION SERVICE CORRIDOR, 1 Utility Corridors – Utility Corridor
Design Manual (UCDM).

9 PIPE NETWORK
9.1 Network Configuration
The required layout of all mains will depend very much on local circumstances, but in all cases
consideration must be given to the following:
 Reliability of supply
 Good access for maintenance
 Provision and location of line valves, air valves, washouts and flow meters
 Adverse ground conditions and difficult terrain
 Risk of damage to and from trees and tree roots
 Pipe materials and corrosion protection systems in aggressive or contaminated soils
 Minimum gradient. The recommended minimum gradient is 1/500
 Utility corridors
 Crossing of roads, rivers and railways
 Adoption of shortest practical route
 Location of other services, buildings and structures
 Telemetry, control and metering
 All design pressures
 Earth loads
 Traffic loads
 Ease of operation and maintenance. Whenever possible mains should be located to
allow easy vehicular access for repair and maintenance.
 National and local planning, environmental protection
 Risk of damage to and from other utilities, works and apparatus
 For buried pipes the minimum depth of cover
 The maximum depth of cover for ease of repair
9.1.1 Branched Systems

The size of the main line in this distribution system decreases the further from the source
because demand decreases. The design of a branched system is generally straightforward,
where the direction of water flow in all pipes and the flow rate can be readily determined.
One of the advantages of a branched system is generally lower costs. The disadvantages are:
 A main break will cause all downstream consumers to be out of service.
 It results in poor chlorine residuals and aging of water in low demand areas.
 During high demands, the velocities are faster, hence head losses are higher.
Branched systems are recommended for local distribution networks.
9.1.2 Looped Systems

A distribution network is looped when there are only few or no pipe dead-ends, such that water
09-PIPE NETWORK PAGE 107 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016
can move through the system freely. The advantages of a looped system are:
 The lower water velocities in the main reduce head losses, resulting in greater
capacity.
 Main breaks can be isolated, minimizing service interruptions to consumers.
 Usually better chlorine residual content is achieved.
The disadvantage is generally more costs because of the need for more pipes to create the
loops.
A major transmission design consideration is to ensure that if any section of the distribution
main fails or needs repair, that section can be isolated without disrupting service to all or a
great number of users in the network.
Looped systems are recommended for the secondary distribution network to the reservoirs.
9.2 Material Selection

Transmission main piping systems vary in size and complexity but they all have the same
basic purpose, which is to deliver water from the pumping station to storage reservoir or direct
pumping into the distribution network mains. Transmission main pipework can be either
exposed (normally inside the pump stations, chambers …etc.) or buried.
A variety of pipeline materials are available to be used for the transmission pipes. Factors to
be considered in the selection of pipe (whether exposed or buried) include the following:
 Familiarity or preference of DMAT and conformance with existing pipe materials
 Properties of the fluid; corrosive or scale-forming properties
 Service conditions; pressure, corrosive atmosphere for exposed piping, soil loads,
bearing capacity and settlement, external loads, and corrosion potential for buried
piping
 Availability; sizes, thicknesses, fittings
 Properties of the pipe; strength, reliability, corrosion resistance, fluid friction resistance
 Economics; required life, maintenance, life-cycle cost (capital and maintenance),
repairs, salvage value …etc.
Pipes can be classified as rigid, semi rigid (ductile iron) and flexible (GRP, PVC, PE, steel). As
flexible pipes, and to a lesser extent semi-rigid pipes, derive their support primarily from
passive soil pressure, care in selection and control of backfill is required. Rigid pipes deflect
little and carry external loads in ring bending.
Characteristics of plastic pipes change with time therefore long-term values for PVC and PE
piping systems should be used. The same is true with regard to the operating temperatures
and these pipes should be de-rated for temperatures above 20° C.
Due consideration should be given to internal and external corrosion. Protection from external
corrosion should be used in areas where corrosive or contaminated soils are prevalent or
when pipelines leave the soil environment. This is especially true in the coastal environment or
other harsh environments. Metal pipes should be evaluated for and, if appropriate, be
protected against corrosion due to stray electrical currents in the soil. This is most often found
when such pipes are near or cross other pipelines that are protected by impressed current.
Without bias or prejudice to any pipe material, a general review of available pipe materials
followed by recommended use, is presented below.
9.2.1 Ductile Iron Pipes

Ductile iron pipes and fittings up to DN 2000 are covered under BS EN 545. Installation of DI

pipe is covered by BS 8010 Section 2.1.

Spigot-socket, plain ended and welded-on flange pipes shall be Kg, fittings without branches,
e.g. bends and tapers K12 and tees K14. Pipes and fittings with spigot and socket joints shall
be capable of the deflections without leakage as shown in Table 9.2 below. Restrained pipes
and fittings shall be used where necessary. Flanged pipes shall be to PN 16. The nominal pipe
size range is from DN 80 to DN 2000.
The standard external coating of DI pipes should comprise zinc coating followed by a coating
of bitumen paint and a layer of protective tape wrapping system with 25% overlap. In extreme
conditions other coatings or cathodic protection should be considered.
The internal lining must be Polyurethane, Polyethylene or fusion bonded epoxy lining in
accordance with BS EN 598.
Recommended Use
DI pipes are recommended for valve chambers and pumping stations’ piping regardless of the
manifold diameter.
9.2.2 Steel Pipes

Steel pipes, bends and specials are covered by BS EN 10224. It applies to pipes to BS EN
10216 and BS EN 10217 and dimensions to BS EN 10220 and BS EN 10217. For station
piping design BS EN 13480 or ANSI 31.3 piping codes must be followed.
External and internal surfaces of pipes and specials shall be protected against corrosion by
coating and lining. The external protection must be fusion bonded epoxy, polyethylene,
polyurethane and paints. Small diameter pipes can be galvanised. For pumping station
manifolds spun mortar lining shall not be used. Fusion bonded epoxy or other approved linings
shall be used instead.
Recommended Use
In general steel pipes may be considered inside pumping stations and where installed above
ground.
9.2.3 Polyethylene Pipes (HDPE)

Polyethylene pipes are covered by prEN 12201 (Draft European Standard), WIS 4-37-17 and
a comprehensive reference is included in the Manual for PE Pipe Systems, 2002 edition, by
Water Research Centre and British Plastics Federation's Pipes Group, The material used for
their production shall be high performance polyethylene PE100 (PE third generation), which
has a minimum required 50-year strength (MRS) of 10 MPa, They are classified by nominal
outside diameter and Standard Dimensional Ratio (SDR),which represents the ratio between
the nominal outside diameter and the minimum wall thickness (SDR=OD/e), For pressure
applications and UAE climatic conditions, pipes of SDR 11 and SDR 17 (17.6) only shall be
considered, The nominal pipe size range is from DN 90 to DN 1000, The approved jointing
method for PE is fusion jointing (electrofusion and butt-welding), Fusion jointing of PE pipes
produces a fully restrained pipeline string and therefore thrust blocks and anchorages are
normally not required, A typical self-bending radius for SDR 11 and SDR 17.6 is 25 times the
pipe OD,
With the safety factor of 1.25 commonly accepted in the water industry, the maximum
continuous pressure for a 50-year service life and at 20°C is 16 bar for SDR11 pipes and 10
bar for SDR 17 pipes, Where a system is to be operated at temperature in excess of 20°C
then it must be de-rated in respect of the maximum operating pressure or service life, or a
combination of both, For UAE conditions the median (TSE) temperature of 35°C has been
adopted and in order to maintain the service life of 50 years the maximum continuous
operating pressure has been reduced to 12,8 bar for SDR 11 pipes and 8 bar for SDR 17
pipes.

Recommended Use
In general HDPE pipes must be used for buried distribution mains. A large selection of HDPE
fittings, injection moulded in particular exists for pipes of 315mm OD and smaller. For pipes
above 450mm OD the choice is limited and the available fittings are only segment welded and
machined. In this case stub end flanges and DI fittings are preferred.
9.2.4 uPVC Pipes

uPVCpipes and fittings are covered by BS EN 1452 and a comprehensive reference is
included in the Manual for PVC Pressure Pipe Systems, 2002 edition, by Water Research
Centre and BPF's Plastic Pipes Group.
uPVCpipes are high performance pipes, made substantially of poly vinyl chloride (PVC), They
are classified by nominal outside diameter and nominal pressure, uPVC PN16 pipes are
recommended to be used for irrigation systems, For this pressure rating available sizes are up
to 500 OD, uPVCpipes are subject to de-rating for temperatures above 20°C, uPVCpipes are
degraded by ultraviolet light therefore must not be exposed to sunlight, in hot climates in
particular.
Recommended Use
In general uPVCpipes must be used only in local distribution and irrigation application
systems. They are ideally suited for buried conditions. Maximum recommended pipe size is
315 OD.
9.2.5 GRP Pipes

GRP pipes are designed to BS 5480 and installed to BS 8010 Section 2.5. Their stiffness shall
not be less than 10,000N/m2. The nominal pipe size range is from DN 150 to DN 2500.
Recommended Use
In general GRP pipes can be used for distribution mains laid underground. The recommended
pipe sizes are from DN 350 to DN 2000. HDPE is preferred and must be used in new projects.
9.3 Hydraulic Design

Hydraulic calculation must be carried out in order to demonstrate that the system will:
 Satisfy the estimated demand
 Operate at acceptable velocities
 Operate within the required pressure range
In addition, the design pressure and the maximum design pressure must be established at
appropriate points in the system.
Network analysis must be considered as a means of investigating the complex relationship
between the system configuration, demands, pressures and flows in a network. The analysis
may be a mathematic model of a simplified representation of the network. The objectives of
the analysis must be clearly identified as they will determine the type of model required in
terms of the details included and whether a static (snapshot or point in time) or a dynamic
(simulation) model is appropriate.
Models should be calibrated over a range of conditions with snapshots representing high,
average and low demand conditions. For better results and for the modelling of time
dependent parameters calibration should be for a 24 hour simulation period.

9.3.1 Design Flow

Transmission main design demand is dependent on the system scheme.
 For direct pumping to the distribution system with no reservoir, the transmission main
must be designed for a maximum flow equivalent to the peak hour demand for the
design year increased by a minimum peak factor of 1.3
 For systems with a storage reservoir, the transmission main to the reservoir must be
designed for a maximum flow equivalent to the average day demand for the design
year increased by a minimum peak factor of 1.3
9.3.2 Design Velocity

The sizing of the diameter should be such that the flow velocity will be in the range of 0.7 m/s
at minimum flow and 2.0 m/s under peak flow. The velocity can rise up to 2.5 m/s in
emergency scenarios.
Single pump discharge pipes should be sized such that the discharge velocities in these pipes
will be in the range of 1.8 to 3.5 m/s and suction headers should be sized to achieve a velocity
in the range of 1.2 to 2.0 m/s.
9.3.3 Energy Losses

The pipeline hydraulic design must include the calculation of the system static head and
friction and minor losses along the pipeline from the pump suction pipe all the way to the final
discharge point. Subsequently, the system curve is developed by adding the static head to the
friction and minor losses at varying flows to plot the curve for the total head against the flow.
Figure 9-1: Various losses for consideration in pipeline hydraulic design
For fluid flow between two points:
Where:
 z: static head
 P/γ: pressure head
 v2/2g: velocity head

 TDH: Total Dinamic Head (if there is a pump)

 hf: friction losses
 hL: localized losses
The maximum allowable system losses (hf + hL) are 12.5 % of nominal operating pressure.
9.3.3.1 Friction Head Losses
Friction head loss is the loss of pressure caused by water flowing through the pipe in a
system. Flow in pipes are usually turbulent and the roughness of the inside walls of pipes have
a direct effect on the amount of friction loss. Turbulence increases and consequently friction
loss increases with the degree of roughness. Friction losses are dependent on the flow rate,
the pipeline diameter, roughness, and length. The commonly used formulas for computation of
head loss due to friction losses are:
 Hazen-Williams formula
 Darcy-Weisbach formula
Hazen-Williams and Darcy-Weisbach are most commonly used and result in a good degree of
accuracy. In metric terms, Hazen Williams' formula is given below:
Where:
 C : Coefficient depending on the material, dimensionless.
Table 9-1: Hazen Williams' formula “Coefficient C” for different materials
Pipe Diameter (mm)
Type of Pipe
25 150 300 600 1200
Coated cast iron (smooth and new) 133 138 140 141
30 years old
Slight degree of attack 106 112 117 120
Moderate degree of attack 90 97 102 107
Appreciable degree of attack 70 78 83 89
Severe degree of attack 50 58 66 73
60 years old
Slight degree of attack 97 102 107 112
Moderate degree of attack 79 85 92 96
Appreciable degree of attack 58 66 72 78
Severe degree of attack 39 48 56 62
Galvanised iron 120 133
Epoxy or polyurethane coated ductile iron 129 142 145 148 148
Coated asbestos cement (smooth and new) 149 150 152
Spun cemented-lined (clean) 149 150 152 153
Smooth pipe (including lead, copper, PE and PVC; 140 149 150 152 153
clean)
In metric terms, the Darcy-Weisbach formula is:
Where:

 f : Friction factor, dimensionless

The friction factor, in its more general expression, is calculated from the Colebrook-White
equation:
Where:
 Re: Reynolds Number, dimensionless
 ks: Roughness coefficient in m
Table 9-2: Darcy-Weisbach formula“Roughness coefficient” for different materials

Ks (mm)
Type of Pipe
Good Normal Poor
Old tuberculated irrigation main
Slight degree of attack 0.6 1.5 3
Moderate degree of attack 1.5 3 6
Appreciable degree of attack 6 15 30
Severe degree of attack 15 30 60
Galvanised iron 0.06 0.15 0.3
Epoxy or polyurethane coated ductile iron 0.03 0.06 0.15
Asbestos cement 0.015 0.03
Spun cemented-lined (e.g. cement-lined DI) 0.03 0.1
MDPE or HDPE 0.06
Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) 0.06
PVC(with spigot-socket joints @6-9 meters intervals) 0.06
9.3.3.2 Localized Head Loses

Head losses also occur at valves, tees, bends, and other appurtenances within the piping
system. These losses, called localized head losses or minor head losses, are calculated using
the following equation:
Where:
 K : Resistance coefficient, dimensionless
 V: Velocity in the pipe in m/s

Table 9-3: Minor head losses calculation – “Resistance coefficient”
Type of Fitting K Value

Entrances
Standard bellmouth 0.1
Pipe flush with entrance 1
Pipe protruding 1.5
Sluice gated or square entrance 1.5
Bends 90o
Bends 45o
Tees 90o
In-line flow 0.4
Branch to line or reverse 1.5
Contraction-Sudden
D2/D1= 0.8 0.18
D2/D1= 0.5 0.37
D2/D1= 0.2 0.49
Contraction-Conical
D2/D1= 0.8 0.05
D2/D1= 0.5 0.07
D2/D1= 0.2 0.08
Expansion-Sudden
D2/D1= 0.8 0.16
D2/D1= 0.5 0.57
D2/D1= 0.2 0.92
Expansion-Conical
D2/D1= 0.8 0.03
D2/D1= 0.5 0.08
D2/D1= 0.2 0.13
Gate valve fully open 0.25
Gate valve 1/2 open 5.6
Butterfly fully open 0.5
Swing non-return valve fully open 2.5
Globe valve fully open 10
Angle valve fully open 4.3
*Note that for valves it is advisable to obtain manufacturers data on head losses. System head calculations would
normally be carried out using valve open figures.
9.4 Structural Design

9.4.1 Internal Forces
Pipelines must be designed for maximum flow, no-flow and transient conditions. In the case of
transient conditions the amplitude and frequency must be estimated. Pipelines must be
designed to withstand a transient pressure of 80 kPa below atmospheric pressure
(approximately 20 kPa absolute pressure). The design pressure and the maximum design
pressure shall be determined. Test pressure must be taken into consideration.
9.4.2 External Forces

The external forces to be taken into account must include:
 Backfill loads (vertical and horizontal forces due to earth load)
 Surcharge (traffic loads)
 Groundwater
 Transient loads (earthquakes or vibrations)

 Self-weight of the pipe and weight of the water at least for DN 1,000 and above
 Any other forces arising from installation or the consequences thereof including pipes
on local supports
9.4.3 Temperature Range

Pipelines must be designed for continuous operation over the anticipated temperature range of
the water to be supplied. Loads arising from any temperature difference between installation
and operation must be taken into account. Attention must be paid to the effects from external
temperature conditions in aboveground pipes.
9.4.4 Unbalanced Thrust

Forces are exerted at valves, changes in direction and diameter, branches and blank ends.
These forces must be compensated by an adequate number of restrained joints, thrust blocks
or other anchorages. Where thrust blocks are to bear against the soil the safe bearing
pressure must be determined. The possibility of shear failure, sliding and potential disturbance
of the thrust block by subsequent excavation must be considered.
Wherever possible, blocks must take the form of a cradle wedged against the undisturbed
trench side and design based on the safe bearing pressure of the ground.
 The minimum friction safety factor must be 1.5
 The minimum sliding safety factor must be 2.0
 The minimum overturning safety factor must be 2.0
9.4.5 Design Requirements

The designer must state the assumptions related to the forces mentioned above and
additionally all the assumptions relevant to the structural design of the pipeline which must at
least include:
 Geometric dimensions of the trench or embankment (width, depth, etc.)
 Embedment and backfill conditions
 Trench support conditions
 Characteristics of native soil and embedment material
Pipeline protection
Protection slabs or ducts must be designed where required.
Minimum Cover
In general the following minimum depths must be considered:
 Pipeline without protection 1.0 m (depth to top of pipe)
 Pipeline with protection 0.5m (depth to top of protection)
Design pressures
The designer must specify for the system the design pressure(s) (DP), maximum design
pressure(s) (MDP) and system test pressure(s) (STP) considering all relevant flow conditions.
In general, the pressure in the system should not exceed 600 kPa. MDP is the maximum
operating pressure of the system fixed by the designer considering future developments, and
including surge, where:
 MDP is designated MDPa, when there is a fixed allowance for surge
 MDP is designated MDPc, when the surge is calculated
For all pipelines, STP must be calculated from MDP:

 Surge calculated:
STP = MDPc + 100 kPa
 Surge non-calculated; the lesser of the following two expressions:
STP = MDPa x 1.5
STP = MDPa + 500kPa
All the pipeline components like line anchors, thrust blocks and other restraining structures
and joints must be designed accordingly.
9.4.6 Unforeseen Ground Conditions

In the event of unforeseen ground conditions arising during installation, the design must be
reconsidered.
9.5 Reference Manuals

The following manuals and codes can be used as reference for the design of pipelines. In any
case the designer must be responsible of the assumptions and methodology used in the
design.
Pipelines
 AWWA M11 Steel Pipe: A Guide for Design and Installation
 AWWA M23 PVC Pipe Design and Installation
 AWWA M41 Ductile-Iron Pipe and Fittings
 AWWA M45 Fiberglass Pipe Design
 AWWA M55 PE Pipe - Design and Installation
 ANSI 31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquids and Slurries
Station Piping
 BS EN 13480 Metallic industrial piping
 ANSI 31.3 Process Piping

10 VALVES
10.1 General
Valves are some of the most important apparatus used in the operation of irrigation systems.
There are different types of valves and each type has different function in the operation of the
water system.
Valves are classified by the type of their closure member such as gate, globe, butterfly, ball,
diaphragm and check.
Valve functions can be defined as ON/OFF service, flow control, prevention of reverse flow,
pressure control, regulation, pressure relief and air valves. Their primary function, however, is
to control the flow. Valves must also be able to withstand the pressure variations of the
systems in which they are used.
In general, face-to-face dimensions of the selected valves must conform ISO 5752.
10.2 Types of Valves

10.2.1 Gate Valves
Gate valves use a wedge-shaped disk or gate as the closure member operating perpendicular
to the flow; it is raised to open and lowered to close the valve. They are used fully opened or
closed only. It should not be used for continuous flow control service (partly open), as the gate
will vibrate and quickly become damaged and subject to wire drawing caused by the velocity of
the liquid flowing past the disk.
10.2.2 Globe Valves

Globe valves are so named due to the globular shape of the valve body. Globe valves are
used where flow control, pressure control and/or frequent operation is desired. Their design
deliberately restricts flow, so globes should not be used where full, unobstructed flow is
required. There are three basic types of globe valve:
 The standard globe valve
 The angle globe valve
 The needle valve
Angle valves are identical to standard globe valves in seat design and operation. The basic
difference is that the body of the angle valve acts as a 90° elbow, eliminating the need for a
fitting at that point in the system. Angle valves also have less resistance to flow than the
combination of globe valves and the fittings they replace. Needle valves are intended to
provide precise flow control.
10.2.3 Butterfly Valves

A butterfly valve has a wafer-shaped body with a thin rotating disk as the closing device. Like
the ball valve, the butterfly operates with a one-quarter turn from fully opened to fully closed.
The disk is always in the flow path, but since it is relatively thin, it offers little restriction to the
flow. Butterfly valves are generally selected for ON/OFF service. They are easily adapted to
power actuation and are generally less expensive than equivalent sizes of gate and globe
valves.
10.2.4 Ball Valves

Ball valves utilize a ball with a hole drilled through it as the opening/closing device. It is a
10-VOLVES PAGE 117 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

quarter-turn valve. The ball seals by fitting tightly against resilient seat rings on either side.
Flow is straight through, and pressure loss depends on the size of the opening in the ball
(port). Ball valves are generally selected for ON/OFF service. They are easily adapted to
power actuation and are generally less expensive than equivalent sizes of gate and globe
valves.
10.2.5 Diaphragm Valves

Diaphragm valves use a rubber, plastic, or elastomer diaphragm to seal the stem. The
diaphragm not only seals the stem but forms the closure element. This valve has been used
extensively in flow and pressure control, and maintenance is extremely simple.
10.2.6 Check Valves

Check valves automatically prevent the reversal of flow. Basic types are the swing check, lift
check, ball check, and wafer check designs. Butterfly valves are generally selected for pump
discharge protection.
10.2.7 Air Valves

Air valves in pipeline systems serve two primary functions. The first is the release of
accumulated air that comes out of solution within a pressurized pipeline. This air will result in
bubble formation, which will gather at localized high points along the pipeline profile. This air
accumulation will occur when the bubble’s buoyancy is greater than the energy to convey the
bubble with the liquid. The air valve used to release this free air is known as an air release
valve.
The second function of an air valve is to admit air into the system when the internal pressure
of the pipeline drops below atmospheric pressures. By admitting air into the pipeline as the
internal vacuum condition develops, the magnitude of the vacuum pressure can be reduced
and as a result help prevent the pipeline from experiencing excessive deflection and/or
collapse as well as help prevent the formation of a full vacuum condition in which vapour
cavities may form from the fluid vaporizing. The air valve used in this situation is an air and
vacuum valve. The air and vacuum valve is also used to discharge large volumes of air from
the pipeline system when the pipeline is initially filled and after water column separation.
Air valves consist on a float that automatically closes or opens an orifice when the water
enters or exits the valve. Air valves may combine inflow (vacuum), outflow (discharge) or air
release function in the same valve.
10.3 Valve Selection

In general, valves are rarely selected based on pressure drop through the valve fully open but
rather for their suitability in service. Calculations are not needed since established equivalent
lengths of pipe for each type of valve are sufficiently accurate for determination of the
approximate pressure drop through the valve.
There may be occasions where precise determination of the pressure drop through any valve
would be desired, such as in cases where pressure drop must be kept to a minimum or the
exact determination of the pressure drop is necessary. This is done by using the standard
measure of valve flow, the coefficients Kv or Cv. These coefficients are determined by the
valve manufacturer using actual flow tests. With the Kv or Cv known, the pressure differential
can be found.
Kv value is defined as the rate of flow of water in m3/hr at 4°C at a pressure drop of 1 bar
across the valve. Thus for a given Kv and Q the pressure drop across a valve is calculated as:

Where:
 Kv : valve coefficient
 Q : flow through the valve in m3/h
 ΔP: pressure drop in bar
Cv value is defined as the rate of flow of water in US gallons per Minute at 15°C at a pressure
drop of 1 psi across the equipment.Thus for a given Cv the Kv value is calculated as:
Kv = 0.86488 · Cv
Manufacturer data must be considered when selecting and sizing valves. The following
general items must be considered in selecting valves.
 Temperature: The valve bodies, trim, and operating parts must be capable of
withstanding the highest temperature expected during sustained normal and transient
operating conditions
 Pressure: The valve must be rated for the highest transient pressure that might be
expected
 Shutoff: The degree of allowable shutoff must be known. No leakage must be allowed.
 Valve operation: It must be determined whether the valve be used only for ON/OFF
use or for throttling
 Pressure drop: Allowable pressure drop must be established and the size selected
 Velocity: The velocity of the fluid through the valve must be considered to avoid
cavitation in any operating condition
10.4 Actuators
There are three operating methods for valve actuators: multi-turn (used for gate, globe, and
diaphragm valves), quarter-turn (used for ball, and butterfly valves), and linear (used for gate,
diaphragm, and globe valves). The valves can either operate manually or be power actuated.
10.4.1 Manual Operation

Manually operated valves must be used when the valve is easily accessible, does not require
automatic operation, or is operated infrequently.
Multi-turn valves use hand wheels, gears, or levers. The most common is the hand-wheel. If
the operating effort is too high for a hand-wheel, a gear box could be installed. Quarter-turn
and linear valves use a lever.
In general, manually operated valves with a size ≥ DN 350 must be provided with a gearbox
for easier operation
10.4.2 Power Actuators

Power actuators are used where valves are remotely located, frequent operation is required,
or automatic operation is necessary due to system considerations. In general, power actuators
must be provided for:
 Isolation valves > DN 450, function open / closed
 Control valves, function in accordance requirements
 Automated valves, function open / closed
Depending on the type of valve, the actuator will be required to deliver output for rotary or
linear motion. This may be for ON/OFF (fully opened to fully closed) service, or stroke
functions such as those required to keep a valve partially open, or a combination of both.

The power source must be capable of exceeding the torque requirements needed by the
actuator by an adequate safety factor. In the case of throttling, a detailed analysis may be
required. Actuators are classified by their source of power: electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic. In
general, only electric actuators must be used.
Electric Actuators are the most commonly used power source. They can be solenoid or motor
operated:
 Solenoid operation is generally limited to smaller lines, ON/OFF service, and systems
in which the water hammer produced by quick closing can be easily attenuated
because of the systems’ low pressure and velocity requirements.
 Motor-operated actuators tend to be bulky and slow, particularly when large gear
reduction is used to increase torque. Their advantage is that the torque output is
constant throughout their stroke, and their response is linear. For critical systems, there
must be an emergency power supply.
10.4.3 Operating and Torque Considerations

The following factors require consideration in the selection of an actuator:
 Valve type and size: The valve-operating torque results from the inherent size and
characteristics of the valve itself and the type of seat. The amount of torque necessary
to overcome static imbalance must be obtained from the manufacturer
 Pressure drop: The operating torque increases with an increase in pressure drop
across the valve. A valve operating at full-rated pressure will require significantly more
operating torque than one operating at a low-pressure drop. Depending on the source
of pressure, it is probable that the pressure differential will vary throughout the valve’s
entire stroke. This condition is important if the actuator torque output must be carefully
matched with that of the valve
 Service operating conditions: Actuators for ON/OFF service will be selected only on
breakaway torque. For quarter-turn valves requiring throttling, calculating the torque is
more complicated because additional torque is required to counterbalance the
momentum of the flowing fluid. Unbalanced forces generate “hydrodynamic torque.”
The actuator torque output must be well above the operating torque to achieve smooth
operation
 Seat material: Most valves have a metal closure member sealing on a soft seat made
of elastomers. Metal-seated valves may require as much as 50 per-cent more seat
material as needed for soft seat valves that may require additional torque
 Bidirectional seating: If operating conditions require the reversal of flow, additional
torque may be required for seating
 Failsafe operation: With the automatic failsafe operation, the energy necessary to
close or open the valve requires a larger size actuator than one without a failsafe
requirement
 Closing / opening time: In accordance to the operation requirements, but must not
exceed 0.25 sec/mm hub
 Cycling rate: Electric actuators cycling in excess of 10 per-cent of their duty cycle
(operating for 1 cycle and resting for a time equivalent equal to 9 cycles) are
considered to have high operating rates. An extended duty motor must be obtained for
this condition
 Stem orientation: Orientation of the valve stem in a position other than vertical will
require mounting in a manner that may cause stem seal leakage or galling due to side
thrusts induced by an overhung load on the actuator. The use of heavy-duty couplings
and mounting brackets will minimize these problems
10.5 Valves’ Function

Valves can be classified according to their function as follows:

10.5.1 Isolation Valves

The most common valve in the irrigation system is the isolation valve, which can be manually
closed to block the flow of water. As the term “isolation” implies, the primary purpose of these
valves is to provide means of turning off a portion of the system. Well-designed water
distribution systems have isolation valves throughout the network. Also, isolation valves are
used in the pump stations to isolate the individual pump and equipment or the complete pump
station. Isolation valves include gate valves (the most popular type), butterfly valves, globe
valves, and ball valves.
10.5.1.1 Line Shut-off Valves
The location of isolating valves (shut-off valves) must be planned to facilitate shut-off in an
emergency, for maintenance, repair, replacement, or additions. Isolating valves should be
installed on all branches as close as possible to the main. The distance and location of shut-off
valves should be fixed according to local conditions. In general, the intervals between shut-off
valves must not exceed:
 In principal distribution mains 2km
 In secondary distribution mains 0,5 - 1km
The following items must be considered in selecting valves:
 In general, on mains up to and including DN 600, gate valves should be used for
isolating purposes
 For mains larger than DN 600 butterfly valves should be considered
 Gate valves larger than DN 400 must be equipped with a by-pass to overcome the
problem of opening a valve against unbalanced heads. It is also acceptable for the gate
valve to be between five-eighths to three-quarters of the size of the pipeline. In such
cases properly designed tapers should be used to minimize the head losses
 Butterfly valves and gate valves are not intended for controlling the rate of flow or
pressure of water through a pipe. In this cases globe valves are preferred
10.5.1.2 Equipment Isolation Valves
Pumps, control valves, flow meters, instrumentation, air valves, etc. must be completely
isolated from the main pipeline for maintenance, emergency, repair and replacement. In
general, the following provisions must be followed:
 In-line equipment, such as network control valves and flow meters, must have isolating
valves upstream and downstream
 Off-line valves and instrumentation, such as air valves, pressure gauges or quick relief
valves, require only one isolating valve located upstream
 Booster pumps and pumps supplied by reservoirs which maximum water level is above
the pump baseplate level must have isolating valves upstream and downstream
 Wet well pumps, borehole pumps and self-priming pumps supplied by reservoirs which
maximum water level is below the pump baseplate level must have isolating valves at
the discharge side

 In general, gate valves should be used for equipment isolation purposes
 For small diameters (up to DN80) ball valves may be used
 These valves are not intended for controlling the rate of flow or pressure of water. In
case of combined function (i.e. isolating and flow control) globe valves are preferred

10.5.2 Reverse Flow Prevention Valves

Reverse flow prevention valves, also called check valves, are used to ensure that water can
flow only in one direction through a pipeline, Any water flowing backwards through the valve
causes it to close, and it remains closed until the flow once again begins to go through the
valve in the forward direction. In general, the following provisions must be followed:
 Check valves must be provided at the discharge of each pump
 Check valves must be provided at the connection point between main distribution and
local distribution network, to avoid recirculation of water
 Check valves must be provided in surge vessels fitted with bypass

 Check valves must avoid slamming after flow stoppage
 In some cases combined function (i.e. reverse flow prevention and pump control) is
allowed. In this cases globe valves are preferred
10.5.3 Air Release and Vacuum Valves

Most systems include special air release valves to release trapped air during system
operation, and air/vacuum valves that discharge air upon system start-up and admit air into the
system upon system draining or in response to negative gauge pressures. These valves are
often found in system high points, where trapped air settles, and at changes in grade, where
pressures are most likely to drop below ambient or atmospheric conditions. In general air
valves must be double function (inflow/outflow) fitted with a small purge for automatic air
release under operation. Air valves must be installed at the following locations:
 In general air valves must be installed at 0.8km intervals as a maximum
 Air valves must be installed at pipeline high points to provide air outflow while the
pipeline is filling, automatic air release of air pockets during normal operation and for
air inflow and vacuum protection while the pipe is draining
 Air valves must be located next to line valves when the closing of the line valve creates
a high point in either the upstream or the downstream piece of the pipeline
 Air valves must be installed in abrupt increases of downslope
 Air valves must be installed in abrupt decreases of upslope
 Air valves must be installed at the beginning and end of long horizontal/near horizontal
runs
 Air valves must be installed in pump discharge
 Air valves may be installed in other locations as per hydraulic and surge studies
 In general, the nominal size of air valves must be selected according to the following
schedule
Table 10-1: Selection of nominal size of air valves
Main line size (DN) Air valve size (DN)

150 mm through 250 mm 80 mm
1200 mm through 1800 mm 250 mm or 2 x DN 200 mm
10.5.3.1 Air Release under Operation
The selection of air valves must take into account a value of 2% of the maximum design flow-
rate, based on 2% solubility of air in water. The valve must release the air at maximum design
pressure.
10.5.3.2 Air Outflow
The air outflow from the pipeline to the atmosphere must take into account the following
design cases:
 Pipeline filling flow given by the pump station / network. In general, a maximum filling
velocity of 0.3 m/s is advised
 Air outflow during surge scenarios
The selection of air valves must take into account a maximum allowable differential pressure
of 0.139 bar between the pipe and the atmosphere for outflow.
10.5.3.3 Air Inflow
The air inflow from the atmosphere to the pipeline must take into account the following design
cases:
 Pipeline draining flow given by the expected design as per section 5.D.i
 Air inflow during surge scenarios
The selection of air valves must take into account a maximum allowable differential pressure
of 0.345 bar between the atmosphere to the pipeline for inflow.
10.5.4 Washout valves

Washout valves allow the draining of pipelines in emergency, for maintenance, repair,
replacement, or additions. Washout valves also allow flushing of pipelines during operation.
Washout valves must be installed at the following locations:
 In general, wash-out valves must be installed at 1 km intervals as a maximum
 Washout valves must be installed at pipeline low points to provide complete draining of
the pipeline
 Washout valves must be located next to line valves when the closing of the line valve
creates a low point in either the upstream or the downstream piece of the pipeline
 Washout valves may be located at other locations for maintenance purposes
Washouts must be designed together with air valves, according the following parameters:
 In general, washout valves must be gate valves or ball valves
 Washouts must be located between 2 air valves
 Maximum velocity in the drain pipe = 4.5 m/s. Wear valves or orifices plates must be
provided to limit the velocity in the pipework, if necessary
 Washouts must be designed to achieve a minimum velocity of 0.6 m/s in the main pipe
during flushing
 Maximum time to drain the section of the pipeline affected by the washout must be 4 h
(14,400 s)
 Air valves must be designed for pipeline draining, according to the maximum draining
flow of the washout
 In general, the nominal size of washout valves must be selected according to the
following schedule

Table 10-2: Selection of nominal size of washout valves
Main line size (DN) Washout valve size (DN)

10.5.4.1 Flushing Flow

The flushing flow (qf) can be calculated by the following formula:
Where:
 qf : flushing flow, in m3/h
 d : inside diameter of drainage pipe, in mm
 MDP: maximum design pressure, in bar
 K : Sum of individual K-factors for the components of the drainage pipework,
dimensionless
10.5.4.2 Maximum Draining Flow
The maximum draining flow (qdr), which must be used to size air valves for pipeline draining,
can be calculated by the following formula:
Where:
 qdr : maximum draining flow, in m3/h
 d : inside diameter of drainage pipe, in mm
 h1 : head of water above drain pipe at start of discharge, in m
 h2 : head of water above drain pipe at end of discharge, in m
 ΔP: differential pressure, in bar
 K : Sum of individual K-factors for the components of the drainage pipework,
dimensionless
10.5.4.3 Draining Time
Sufficient drain stations must be provided to limit the draining time of the section affected to a
maximum of 4 h (14,400 s). The draining time can be obtained applying the Torricelli’s formula
as follows:

Where:
 t : draining time, in s
 A: Surface area of the water in the pipeline, in m2
 K : Sum of individual K-factors for the components of the pipework, dimensionless
 a : Cross sectional area of the drainage pipework, in m2
 g : gravity constant = 9.81 m/s2
 h1 : head of water above drain pipe at start of discharge, in m
 h2 : head of water above drain pipe at end of discharge, in m
 ΔP: differential pressure, in bar
The water surface takes the form of an ellipse during draining, which minor axis is equal to
pipe diameter. The pipe slope affects the major axis. The surface area (A) is computed as:
Where:
 A: Surface area of the water in the pipeline, in m2
 D : inside diameter of main pipeline, in m
 δ : angle of slope, in degrees
10.5.5 Automated Valves

The automated valves are electric operated valves controlled by automation systems.
Automation systems control the irrigation schedule, reservoir filling, etc. In general, the
following provisions must be followed:
 Hydrozones must have automated valves combined with pressure control function
 Inlet to reservoirs must have automated valves combined with flow control function
 Pumps may have automated valves combined with pump control function if soft starter
or variable frequency drives is not provided.
 Automatic self-cleaning filters must have automated valves for flush cycle control. The
manufacturer of the filters use to provide the required valves and automation system

 In general, automated valves located out of pump stations, such as hydrozone valves,
must be solenoid operated. Diaphragm (up to DN 200) or globe valves (above DN 200)
are preferred
 When the pressure in the system is low (below 1.5 bar) hydraulic valves (diaphragm
and some globe valves) must be avoided. In case of low pressure and combination
function (i.e. ON/OFF and flow control) needle valves are preferred
 In general, automated valves located in pump stations must be motor operated
10.5.6 Pressure Reducing Valves

Pressure reducing valves (PRVs) throttle automatically to prevent the downstream hydraulic
grade from exceeding a set value, and are used in situations where high downstream
pressures could cause damage. It can be used to separate pressure zones. In general, the
following provisions must be followed:
 Hydrozones, must have valves fitted with pressure control function
 Pressure reducing valves must be provided at the connection point between main
distribution and local distribution network, to avoid excessive pressures in the local
network

 In general, pressure reducing valves must be pilot operated. Diaphragm (up to DN 200)
or globe valves (above DN 200) are preferred
 The ratio between upstream maximum design pressure and the setting pressure must
not exceed 3:1
 Minimum flow scenarios require special consideration. Cavitation must be avoided in
any operating condition
10.5.7 Pressure Sustaining Valves

Pressure sustaining valves (PSVs) throttle automatically to prevent the upstream hydraulic
grade from dropping down a set value, and are used in situations where high downstream
flows could cause damage in the upstream system. In general, the following provisions must
be followed:
 Pressure sustaining valves may be provided at the connection point between main
distribution and local distribution network, to avoid drop down of pressure in the
distribution network due to high flows in local network.
 Pressure sustaining valves may be provided at the pump station discharge, to avoid
working of pumps out of curve due to high flows in network or flushing cycles of filters.
This situation is very usual in small pump stations (design flow 100 m3/h or below)

 In general, pressure sustaining valves must be pilot operated. Diaphragm (up to DN
200) or globe valves (above DN 200) are preferred
10.5.8 Differential Pressure Valves

Differential pressure valves throttle automatically to create a pre-set difference of pressure
between the upstream and downstream hydraulic grade. It can be used to maintain the best
efficiency point of pumps or separate pressure zones when the upstream pressure is very
high. In general, the following provisions must be followed:
 Differential pressure valves may be provided in networks as first stage of pressure
reducing, when the ratio upstream/downstream pressure is over 3. Additional PRV may
be required to set the downstream pressure to the desired value
 Differential pressure valves may be provided at the discharge of diesel booster pumps,
connecting the upstream sensing point to the discharge of the pump and the
downstream sensing point to the suction of the pump respectively. By-pass
arrangement is also possible. This method of pump control is energy inefficient; other
pump control methods are preferred
 In general, differential pressure valves must be pilot operated. Diaphragm (up to DN
200) or globe valves (above DN 200) are preferred
 The ratio between upstream maximum design pressure and the downstream pressure
must not exceed 3:1
10.5.9 Flow Control Valves

Flow control valves (FCVs) throttle automatically to prevent the downstream flow from

exceeding a set value. Significant deviation from designed flow range might disrupt water
supply or even damage system components. Appropriate design, placement, and use of flow
control valves protect the system from excessive flow. In general, the following provisions
must be followed:
 Flow control valves must be provided at the inlet of reservoirs, to avoid excessive
supply flows that could affect the distribution network
 Flow control valves may be provided at the discharge of pumps to prevent cavitation.

 In general, flow control valves must be pilot operated. Diaphragm (up to DN 200) or
globe valves (above DN 200) are preferred
 When the pressure in the system is low (below 1.5 bar) motor operated needle valves
are preferred
10.5.10 Quick Relief Valves

Quick relief valves (QRVs) relieve excessive system pressure above the pre-set value. It
immediately responds to a rise in system pressure by fully opening. In general, the following
provisions must be followed:
 Quick relief valves may be provided at any part of the network, to avoid excessive
pressure peaks
 Quick relief valves must be provided at the discharge manifold of small and medium
sized pump stations

 In general, quick relief valves must be pilot operated. Diaphragm (up to DN 200) or
globe valves (above DN 200) are preferred
 The sizing of quick relief valves is detailed in PART 16

11 VALVE CHAMBERS
11.1 General
The following items must be considered in siting and design of valve chambers:
 Siting of chambers in carriage ways should be avoided; they should be preferably in
the road verge or in the footway, utility corridors must be respected
 All chambers must be designed of reinforced concrete or of solid concrete blocks
 Foundations to chambers must be of concrete and must finish flush with the chambers
sides unless specifically otherwise required
 The bottom of the chamber must have a minimum slope of 2%
 The bottom of the chamber must have suitable sump holes covered by aluminium
grating cover to allow drainage soak away, with the exception of air valve chambers
 A GRP ladder for access must be provided in chambers of more than 1.0 m of height
 Entry to deep manhole chambers (> 2.5 m of height) must be by means of one or more
caged ladders.
 Two flexible joints, with a "rocker pipe" should be provided on either side of the
chamber to avoid damaging pipework in case of differential settlement. Such joints are
not required in the case of PE pipe which is flexible in itself
 There should be sufficient working space and clearances inside valve chambers,
proper access arrangements and gravity ventilation by employing vent pipes
 A minimum clearance of 500 mm from the walls of the chamber to the equipment must
be provided
 A minimum clearance of 500 mm from the walls of the chamber to the joints must be
provided
 A minimum clearance of 400 mm from the floor of the chamber to the invert level of the
pipe must be provided
 All chambers must have a removable cover with lifting hooks for easy installation and
repair. The chamber construction and cover must facilitate the lifting of equipment
 All pipework within valve chambers must be carbon steel or ductile iron and the
transition from one type of pipe material to another should be done directly outside the
valve chambers
 In cases where non-restrained pipe systems are used the chamber must be designed
to take the full thrust when the valves are closed. In such cases pipework must be fixed
to the chamber walls by means of puddle flanges
 All the equipment must be easily dismantled. Appropriate dismantling joints must be
provided
 All the equipment must be properly fixed and supported. Thrust blocks and supports for
valves, elbows, tees, etc. must be provided
11.2 Flow Meter Chamber

 In general, flow meter locations must facilitate the day to day system monitoring and
allow the ability to calculate the water balance
 Flow meters outside pumping station buildings, and associated data loggers, must be
housed in suitable, underground concrete chambers
 Equipment that may create flow disturbances, such as isolation valves or reducers,
must not be placed next to flow meters. The minimum distances from manufacturer’s
data sheets must be respected
 In general, flow meters chambers must be composed by an electromagnetic flow
meter, associated data loggers, dismantling joint and pipework.
11-VOLVES CHGAMBERS PAGE 128 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

 Isolating valves located upstream and downstream the flow meter must be provided in
separate chambers. In such cases the provisions for line shut-off chamber must be
followed
 The flow meter must be anchored on the upstream side having a dismantling joint on
the downstream side that permits its removal
 If the size of the flow meter is smaller than the pipeline properly designed reducers
must be used to minimize the head losses. In general, the reducers must be placed
outside the chamber
 Flow meters designed for flows above 10,000 m3/day require in-situ wet calibration, as
per RSB Wastewater Monitoring Code. Provisions must be taken into account to allow
the in situ wet calibration.
11.3 Line Shut-off Valve Chamber

 In general valve locations must facilitate the maintenance of the irrigation system
 Valves outside pumping station buildings must be housed in suitable, underground
concrete chambers
 In general, diameter of the valve should be same than the diameter of the pipeline. If
the size of the valve is smaller than the pipeline properly designed reducers must be
used to minimize the head losses. The reducers must be placed outside the chamber
 In general, line shut-off valve chambers must be composed by a gate valve (up to DN
600) or butterfly valve (above DN 600), dismantling joint and pipework
 The valve must be anchored on the upstream side having a dismantling joint on the
downstream side that permits its removal
11.4 Air Valve Chamber

 Air valves should be placed inside purpose built chambers
 Air valves outside pumping station buildings must be installed in a reinforced concrete
chamber, with two air vents
 The ground of the chamber must be gravel to allow effective drainage of water leaking
from the valve orifices
 In general, air valve chambers must be composed by an isolating ball valve (up to DN
80) or gate valve (above DN 80), double function air valve with automatic air release
and pipework
11.5 Washout chamber

 The washout concrete chamber must consist of dry and wet well
 The wash out assembly must include an invert level tee, a 90° elbow, a manual gate
valve and a dismantling joint, housed in the dry well
 The drain pipe with blind flange must terminate in the wet well. The discharge of water
must take place in the wet well. The wet well must be fitted with a lockable cover and a
ladder
 The wet chamber must be approximately 0.5 m lower than the dry well to enable
overflow without flooding of the dry chamber
 Depending on the available space the washout chamber will either be separate from
the main transmission pipeline, i.e. perpendicular or integral, with it
11.6 Turn-out chamber

 Turn-out chamber must be provided for direct feeds from the distribution network
 The turn-out assembly must include an tee, a manual gate valve, a pressure reducing
diaphragm valve (up to DN 200) or globe valve (above DN 200) and a dismantling joint.
Combined function, i.e. PRV and FCV, is allowed under justification

 The valve must be anchored on the upstream side having a dismantling joint on the
downstream side that permits its removal
 Depending on the available space the turn-out chamber will either be separate from the
main transmission pipeline, i.e. perpendicular or integral, with it
 Where flow meter is required for the direct feed it must be located in a separate
chamber at a minimum distance recommended by the manufacturer of the flow meter.
In such cases the provisions for flow meter chamber must be followed
11.7 Control Valve chamber

 Control valve assembly must include 2 manual gate valves upstream the control valve,
a control valve diaphragm (up to DN 200) or globe (above DN 200) type and the
required dismantling joint. Combined function, i.e. PRV and FCV, is allowed under
justification
 In general, the valves must be anchored on the upstream side having a dismantling
joint on the downstream side that permits its removal
 Depending on the available space the isolating valves located upstream and
downstream the control valve may be provided in separate chambers. In such cases
the provisions for line shut-off chamber must be followed
11.8 Access Covers

Access covers should meet the requirements of BS EN 124. In general the following classes of
DI covers will be applicable:
 CLASS D400 - heavy duty, for streets and roads.
 CLASS C250 - medium duty, for sidewalks, gullies, parking areas accessible for lorries.
 CLASS B125 - light duty, for sidewalks, parking areas only accessible to passenger
cars.
The covers should preferably be medium duty, unless they are subject to vehicular traffic.
Wherever appropriate, Aluminium covers with locking devices shall be used, e.g. in grassed
areas.

11.9.1 Internal Forces
Chambers must be designed to withstand the maximum design pressure, transient pressure
and test pressure of the pipeline.
11.9.2 External Forces

The external forces to be taken into account must include:
 Earth pressure loads (vertical and horizontal forces due to earth load)
 Surcharge (traffic loads)
 Groundwater
 Transient loads (earthquakes or vibrations)
 Self-weight of the chamber, equipment and pipework
 Any other forces arising from installation or the consequences thereof including pipes
on local supports
11.9.3 Temperature Range

Chambers must be designed for continuous operation over the anticipated temperature range

of the water to be supplied. Loads arising from any temperature difference between installation
and operation must be taken into account.
11.9.4 Unbalanced Thrust

Forces are exerted at valves, changes in direction and diameter, branches and blank ends.
Adequate thrust blocks or anchorages must compensate these forces. The possibility of shear
failure, sliding and potential disturbance of the chamber by subsequent excavation must be
considered.
 The minimum friction safety factor must be 1.5
 The minimum sliding safety factor must be 2.0
 The minimum overturning safety factor must be 2.0
11.9.5 Design Requirements

The designer must state the assumptions related to the forces mentioned above and
additionally all the assumptions relevant to the structural design of the chamber that must at
least include:
 Geometric dimensions of the chamber
 Embedment and backfill conditions
 Characteristics of native soil and embedment material
Minimum Height
In general the chamber cover external surface must be at a minimum height of 0.4 m over the
finished ground level.
11.9.6 Unforeseen Ground Conditions

In the event of unforeseen ground conditions arising during installation, the design must be
reconsidered.

12 PUMPING STATIONS
12.1 Pumps
Pumps are devices used to transfer liquids from point A to point B with pressure to overcome
the resistance along its path including the static head (height difference between the two
points), the pipe and pipe fittings friction losses. The pump transfers the liquid by its impeller
rotation that forces the liquid around it out of the pump's discharge port. The partial vacuum
created, allows the natural air pressure to force liquid up the suction pipe, and into the suction
(inlet) side of the pump to replace the displaced liquid. When the liquid hits the rotating
impeller, energy of the impeller is transferred to the water, forcing the water out (centrifugal
force). The liquid is displaced outward, and more water can now enter the suction side of the
pump to replace the displaced liquid.
12.1.1 Pump Type

There are several types of pumps and for proper pump type selection, it is important to
understand the different types of pumps, their applications, design differences and the
procedures used to operate and maintain them.
The most suitable pumps for TSE are centrifugal pumps as these are the only pumps which
will provide both the head and flow normally required. Large multistage pumps are often
constructed in a similar manner but they can also be constructed with solid "stage casings"
which are assembled along the shaft, this is the common arrangement for the smaller pumps.
For high head duties a pump can be constructed with multiple impellers on a common shaft.
Internal passages are provided to direct the discharge from each impeller to the inlet of the
next; each impeller increases the delivery head without increasing the flow. These pumps are
known as multistage pumps. In a similar manner two impellers can be arranged back to back
on a common shaft each with a separate suction but with both discharging to the same outlet,
the flow from each impeller is combined with no increase in head. These pumps are known as
double entry pumps. Due to the impeller configuration double entry pumps have a casing
constructed in two parts split along the shaft axis.
Large multistage pumps are often constructed in a similar manner but they can also be
constructed with solid "stage casings" which are assembled along the shaft, this is the
common arrangement for the smaller pumps.
12.1.2 Pumps Connection

Pumping stations includes several pumps that can be connected in one of two connection
arrangements, in series or in parallel. When one pump is connected behind the other; i.e. the
first pump discharge connects to the second pump suction, the installation is called a series
connection. A series connection will yield discharge equivalent to one pump, but the head is
approximately equal to the sum of the individual heads of the pumps in the system. When
pumps are connected beside one another; i.e. all pumps discharge are connected to a main
discharge header, the pump connection is called a parallel system. All the pumps will be giving
the same pressure as they will be working against the same external head. But the total Q will
be the sum of all pumps discharges. This is a common arrangement for all pump stations.
12.1.3 Number of Pumps

The number of pumps to be installed depends on the station capacity and the range of flows;
average and peak flows. The maximum discharge rate from a pumping station, when all duty
pumps and rising mains are in use should be slightly greater than or equal to the maximum
incoming flow to the station. Pumps must be selected with head-capacity characteristics that
12-PUMPING STATIONS PAGE 132 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

correspond as closely as possible to the overall station requirements. Standby capacity is

required so that should any of the pumps in the station be inoperable due to routine
maintenance or mechanical failure, the operation of the station can still be maintained. For
instance, in a station where a single duty pump provides the duty output, a second pump of
equal capacity is mounted. Where three duty pumps of equal capacity are required to meet
the maximum design flow conditions, a fourth pump of similar capacity is provided as standby.
In larger and critical pump stations with four or more pumps it is common to have two standby
pumps can be considered.
It is not desirable to have pumps of different sizes for operation and maintenance reasons,
unless the flow ranges vary widely throughout the day. To cater for slow build-up of flow in the
early years of operation, phased installation of pumps, or the use of a smaller diameter
impeller should be considered.
Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties for the full range of flows the use of
variable speed drives must be considered. However due to the additional heat generated in
the motor, the approval of the pump manufacturer must be obtained before variable speed
drives are used.
12.1.4 Pump Selection

12.1.4.1 Required Pump Operational Points
In order to accurately predict the performance of a pump in a specific application, the total
head losses including static, dynamic and minor losses must be considered. Based on the
system design requirements, pipe material and size selection and pipeline fittings installation
arrangement the calculation of the system hydraulic losses and the development of the system
curve is performed as explained in PART 9 Pipe Network. Pump design heads must be
determined from the sum of static head, dynamic head and all friction heads.
Accordingly, the required pump or pumps (in multiple pump installations), operational points
must be determined to select the appropriate pumps. Pumps must be designed and must be
suitable for continuous and intermittently operation.
12.1.4.2 Pump Performance Curve
Pump performance curves are available for each pump model where the pump flow range is
plotted against the head. The Best Efficiency Point is the point at which effects of head
(pressure) and flow converge to produce the greatest amount of output for the least amount of
energy. The pump performance curves describe the factors that affect its performance. They
are usually expressed graphically with the rate of discharge Q as abscissa and the other
factors plotted as ordinates such as the head and the net positive suction head (NPSH).
Typical pump performance curves are shown in below figure. The diagram shows that as the
pump discharge increases, the power required to drive the pump increases. However the
pump efficiency behaves both proportionately and inversely with the capacity of the pump
much like a parabolic curve. The pump efficiency increases as the capacity is increased up to
a certain point. The efficiency then decreases from that point even as the capacity continues to
increase. The performance curves reflect standard testing. Pump manufacturers typically
calculate performance curves using a pressure gauge and a flow meter connected to the
discharge port. For any anticipated total head, the discharge capacity can be determined.
The pump duty point is where the pump performance curve and the system curve cross. It
shows the flow that a particular pump will deliver through the pipework system at a particular
total head at the pump duty level.
In multiple pump installations, it is essential that the operating conditions of a single pump
running are carefully checked to ensure that the pump will operate at maximum and minimum
static heads satisfactorily, and without risk of cavitation.
The duty point must be used when considering the suitability of alternative pumps for a

particular duty by comparing the efficiency and power requirements for each pump at the duty
point.
Figure 12-1: Pumping System Characteristics

Pump design flow rates must be determined from the range of working requirements with an
additional allowance of 10% at maximum design flow. The pump performance characteristic
must be stable at all flow rates between closed valve and open valve and must be steep
enough to permit satisfactory operation in parallel with other pumps where required.
12.1.4.3 NPSH, Vibration, Cavitation and Noise
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is used to check the pumping installation for the risk of
cavitation.
Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapour bubbles in a liquid. Vapour bubbles are
formed when the static pressure at a point within a liquid falls below the pressure at which the
liquid will vaporise. When the bubbles are subjected to a higher pressure they collapse
causing local shock waves, if this happens near a surface, erosion can occur.
Cavitation will typically occur in the impeller of a centrifugal pump, where it can cause noise
and vibration as well as affecting the pump efficiency. If allowed to persist it can lead to
damage to the pump or even breaking away of foundations.
NPSH is the minimum total pressure head required in a pump at a particular flow/head duty. It
is normally shown as a curve on the pump performance sheet. The NPSH calculation formula
is;
NPSH = Pa – Vp + Hs – Fs
Where:
 Pa = atmospheric pressure at liquid free surface
 Vp = vapour pressure of liquid
 Hs = height of supply liquid free surface, above eye of pump impeller
 Fs = suction entry and friction losses
In order to avoid cavitation, the NPSH available must be at least 1m greater than the NPSH
required by the selected pump at all operating conditions and not exceed 80% of
manufacturer's recommendations at run-out operating conditions.
When calculating NPSH, absolute values for atmospheric and liquid vapour pressures are
used.
12.2 Pump Station Arrangement

12.2.1 General
Wet well/dry well pumping stations arrangement is most commonly used for irrigation pump
stations. For the most compact arrangement, a close-coupled pump can be mounted
horizontally with the discharge upward; however this results in the motor being low in the dry
well and at risk from flooding.
The most common arrangement is for a vertical pump shaft with the motor above. This will
require a bend between the suction valve and the pump suction. The bend must be fitted with
a handhole and valve to enable the pump to be drained prior to maintenance. Further bends
may be required to direct the pump or manifold discharge upwards. Where space allows,
installation of the discharge manifold at the pump level, with the discharge directly through the
side wall must be considered.
Pipes must be sized to achieve sensible velocities, and the risk of cavitation through
insufficient NPSH must be considered when designing suction pipework. Pumps must be
selected to ensure satisfactory operation when only one pump is operation in a new rising
main.
The pump station must incorporate and not limited to the following main features:
 Normally, two sumps with 2 duty and 1 standby pump for each sump, for the ultimate
flow
 For each pump, two gate valves at the pump suction and discharge pipes for pump
isolation and non-return valve at the discharge pipe to prevent reverse flow back
through the pump when stopped;
 Flow meter at the discharge main header with two isolation gate valves
 Air / Vacuum valve on the main discharge header
 Surge protection equipment (according to design calculations)
 Operation level controls
 Crane for equipment maintenance
 Pump room ventilation
12.2.2 Dry Well

Dry well design must incorporate the following features:
 The pumps must be installed with minimum of 800 mm space between them to allow
access for maintenance and repair;
 The pump distance from the wall will be set by the length of the protruding stub pipe,
suction valve and pump inlet pipe with a minimum space of 800mm;
 Consideration must also be given to access around the pumps and valves. Platforms
and walkways must be installed to provide access to all equipment at a suitable level
for safe operation, maintenance and repair;
 Careful thought must be given to the shipping route for equipment removal and
installation;

 Access to the dry well and machinery must be by staircase so that tools and equipment
can be carried in and out safely;
 Lifting arrangements for the pumps and valves must be provided;
 The dry well floor must slope gently towards the wall and then to one side where a
sump pump must be installed to keep the floor as dry as possible;
 The sump pump must be installed in a small well, large enough to accommodate the
pump
12.2.3 Wet Well

The wet well design must incorporate the following features:
 Wet wells must be designed to provide a uniform steady flow of water into any pump
without creating swirl or entraining air. Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads,
vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency, it can also result in local vortices that introduce air into the pump also
leading to fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and premature failure;
 The water surface in the wet well must be as free from waves and turbulence as
possible to provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic level controls;
 At the designed stop level there must still be sufficient water surface area without
obstructions to provide a good echo return;
 Wet wells must be designed so that the dimensions satisfy the requirements for the
minimum volume to avoid excessive pump starts;
 The pump suction pipes must be installed through the wet/dry wells walls with a
downward bend and bellmouth to position the pump suction to the required level to wet
well floor;
 There must be sufficient space between the bellmouths to prevent interaction between
the pump suctions.
12.2.4 Wet Well Pump Stations

Additionally to the above items, the wet well pump station design must incorporate the
following features:
 Submersible pumps must be suitable for operation when either partially or wholly
submerged
 The pumps must be equipped with a hoisting chain, guide rail and guide shoes
 The design of the pump assembly must be such to enable hoisting out of the chamber
without the necessity to enter the well for disconnecting the pump.
 When being lowered into the well the pump must automatically connect to the
discharge pipe.
12.2.5 Suction Arrangement

The pump intake must be designed according to the latest version Hydraulic Institute standard
ANSI/HI 9.8 “Pump Intake Design”. Some recommended configurations are shown below for
reference. The following items must be considered in the design:
 The system between the reservoirs and the pumps must be continuous without a break
to atmosphere. The suction head on the pipes must be directly related to the reservoir
level
 When the reservoir operating level is above the pump suction level isolating valves
must be provided for each pump
 Non-self-priming pumps must be installed with flooded suctions side or, if not possible,
with automatic priming devices/units
 Level Pressure sensors / relays must be installed on the suction side of the pumps to
signal the pumps to trip in the event of a set maximum negative pressure being

exceeded
Figure 12-2: Pump intake design considerations
12.2.6 Discharge Arrangement

 In general the design must maintain a fixed pressure head to allow pump speed / flow
characteristics to develop
 Each pump must have a gate valve and a check valve at the discharge side
 Pressure sensing / relays, air valve, quick relief valve, flow meter and Motor operated
valve must be installed on the discharge main. Valves and flow meter may be located
in chambers outside the main pump station building
12.2.7 Access
The following items must be considered in the design:
 Openings must be sufficient to afford suitable access for men and equipment over all
pipe entries and exits to facilitate inspection
 All opening must be fitted with lockable covers
 Ladders must be provided at each access openings
12.2.8 Ventilation
 A ventilation system operating with 100 % outdoor air as supply must be designed
 Supply air volumes and exhaust air volumes must be balanced to ensure a positive
pressure inside the entire buildings in order to avoid that sand, dust, etc. is drawn into
the building via doors and other openings and gaps
 Outdoor air intakes and exhaust air outlets to outside must be designed with suitable
sand trap louvers
 The minimum air changes per hour must be 10 for dry well arrangement and 15 for wet
well arrangement
 Air exchange in wet wells must be achieved by the odour control ventilation system
 The control system of the entire ventilation systems must allow for the following
operational conditions:
o Individual manual switched on/off

o Automatic switched off by the fire alarm system where required as per
specifications under fire alarm and fire protection system and by Civil Defence
Authority
o Manual switched off/on by the fireman switch via an override panel installed closed
to the central fire alarm panel where required as per specifications under fire alarm
and fire protection system and by Civil Defence Authority
12.2.9 Vibration
 Foundations, base plates and other supports for pumps must be designed to be
capable for absorbing, without any shift and without any transfer to surroundings, the
forces, torques, critical speed frequencies, resonance, etc. caused by this equipment
 Transfer of vibration and noise from the pumps to the connected pipe work, cabling,
etc. and vice versa must be avoided by adequately designed measures
 The pump design, for directly coupled pumps and for pumps with the impeller
assembled directly at the motor shaft, must be such that the natural vibration frequency
of the pump/motor set is at least 25% higher or lower than the operation vibration
frequency when finally installed in the field
12.2.10 Noise


 As most plants are located within residential areas, special emphasis must be paid to
avoid nuisance to public by noise released by the plant under full and partial operation
as well as under shut-down conditions at all weather situations
 The maximum noise emission of the plant must not exceed a sound pressure level of
45 dB(A) during the day and 35 dB(A) during the night (from 22h to 6h) measured
outside the plant at a distance of 15 m to the boundary wall or fence surrounding the
installations provided the ambient sound-pressure level is at minimum 3 dB(A) lower
than the above limit levels at complete plant shut down.
12.3 Automatic Self-cleaning Screen Filters

Automatic self-cleaning filters provide for continuous filtration of liquids in pressurised systems.
The filter removes debris from water by creating a velocity increase between the edge of the
piston and the filter basket. This causes a local pressure reduction which ‘vacuum cleans’ the
basket as the piston travels up and down. Debris are removed via the flushing valve. The
control system starts the automatic cleaning sequence before blinding reduces the flow rate.
Cleaning can also operate on a pre-set timer or can be computer controlled. The following
items must be considered in the design:
 Automatic self-cleaning screen filter must be provided at the pump head
 Cleaning must be effected by hydraulically powered suction scanner automatically
activated when the pressure across the filter reaches 0.5 bar
 The maximum velocity through the net screen area (excluding screen wire area) must
be 0.3 m/s. In any case the maximum velocity through the total screen area (including
screen wire area) must be 0.9 m/s
 Flushing line must be connected to the nearest surface water drainage. If it is not
possible, connection has to be made to a soak pit
 Capacity of the filter must be 1.5 times the system capacity at 0.2 bar maximum
pressure loss
 Primary stage filtration must be performed by a one piece perforated PVC coarse
screen
 Secondary stage filtration must be provided by a stainless steel screen with 65 – 140
micron mesh size, according to the requirements of the emitters downstream. Refer to
PART 2 – Section 3 for filtration requirements
 Only flat screens are allowed
 The filter must clean itself automatically at 2.5 bars without the need for an external
energy source
 The filter must provide uninterrupted flow and also provide filtration during the flushing
cycle
 Fine screen elements must be easily replaceable without requiring any changes to be
made in the construction of the elements of the cleaning system or the need to remove
the filter from the pipeline
 Filter must have isolation valves in the suction as well on delivery side for easy
maintenance. The controller for the filters must be equipped with timer and pressure
differential control unit
 Pressure gauges must be connected to suction and delivery side of each filter
 The pumps must be designed to safely supply the design flow plus the flushing flow of
the filters. Pressure sustaining valves downstream the filters may be required to avoid
cavitation of pumps during filters’ flushing
12.4 Electric Design

The structure containing the electrical equipment must be above ground. In buried and semi
buried arrangements a separate above ground building must be considered.
12.4.1 Motors
Care must be taken in selecting the type of electric motor with regard to the characteristics of
the driven load and the starting method. Where motors are to be used in conjunction with
variable frequency drives they must be designed for such applications or suitably de-rated.
The complete drive system must be matched to ensure compatibility. The following items must
be considered in the design:
 All motors must be of the squirrel cage induction type suitable for operation with a
400V, 3-phase, 50Hz, supply
 The continuous maximum rating of a motor must be a minimum of 15% above the
calculated maximum power requirements under all conditions of operation
 Consideration must be given to providing thermistors for temperature protection on all
motors rated above 11kW
 Where the motors are installed vertically they must be specifically designed for that
purpose with adequately rated end thrust bearings
 Motors must be protected to IP54 class F, as a minimum
 Motor cooling systems must be designed to withstand the maximum load at most
severe climatic conditions
12.4.2 Starters
The use of soft starters and VFD’s are recommended to avoid surge pressures in scheduled
start/stop of pumps. The following items must be considered in the design:
 Direct on-line starter is allowed for motors up to 4 kW
 Star/Delta starter is allowed for motors up to 11 kW
 Soft starters and variable frequency drives are mandatory for motors above 11 kW
12.4.3 Variable Frequency Drives (VFD)

Variable frequency drives are used in applications requiring speed and torque control, this type
of motor control is required in applications such as pressurised irrigation networks, where the
network pressure is used as the control variable to modify the speed of the pumps. VFDs
convert the incoming fixed frequency 3-phase AC power supply into variable voltage and
frequency to control the speed of the motor. The selection of the suitable VFD size must be
according to the following criteria:
 Operating voltage
 Motor peak current
 Ambient temperature (site temperature)
For irrigation pumping applications the most suitable type of VFD must give both variable
torque and variable speed. In normal applications AC drives with Pulse Width Modulation are
recommended. The manufactures guidance on the selection of the particular VFD must be
sought for applications above 300kW for LV applications, and for all sizes of HV application.
12.4.4 Motor Control Centre (MCC)

Motor control centre panel forms the link between the electrical loads such as motors and
actuator valves, and the power generation source. The design of the MCC must take into
consideration the following points:

Total Connected Load

The control panel size and design needs to cover the demand of the total load connected
including the standby load as well.
Short Circuit Level
The short circuit level calculation carried out according to the total connected load and power
source from local authority electricity network. Care must be taken in the design stage to
control the fault level. If the total connected load is too high then the load to the switchgear can
be split into two or more assemblies to reduce the fault level.
Type of Coordination
Electrical components coordination provides two types of protection. Manufacturer tests
components such as contactor, circuit breaker, all together must confirm what will happen
under short circuit conditions.
Form of Internal Separation
The form of separation must be according to BS EN 61439-1 or suitable equivalent. In case of
multi incomer and outgoing (starters/feeders) form-4 must be considered for ease of carrying
out maintenance without interruption to other equipment in case of isolation of a particular
feeder.
Bus Bar Rating
The bus bar rating must be suitable to carry the total connected load as mentioned previously,
consider any future loads by increasing the size of the bus bars and suitability of extension at
both ends.
Type of Starter
The designer must consider the above sections in the design.
Protection Device
The designer must categorise the entire load connected to the switchgear according to its
critical status in the process and its effect on operator safety. Some of the protection types that
can be used are as follows:
 Short circuit protection: This type of protection is required to protect the equipment
against Short circuit which can be caused by insulation failure or damage, or by
incorrect switching operation
 Overload protection: This type of protection is required to protect the equipment
against overload current which present due to operational over current present for
excessive period of time or if the equipment (motor/cables) are incorrectly sized, over
current will raise the (motor winding / cable) temperature above the permissible level
and shorten its service life
 Under/over voltage protection: This type of protection is required to protect the
equipment against over/under voltage which is present due to main power supply
instability (transformer taping change/load fluctuating ) or unstable supply from standby
generator due to large load connected , faulty governor or voltage regulator. This type
of protection can be applied at the main incomers of the switchgear by special relay to
sense the voltage supply and trip the main incomers if the set limits are exceeded
 Phase losses/phase reversal protection: This type of protection is required to protect
the equipment against phase loss from the main supply or phase reversal which can
happen in the event of main supply reconnection or reconnection of the motor after
service. This type of protection can be applied at the main incomers of the switchgear
or motor feeder by a special relay to sense the phase status (direction/availability) and
trip the main incomers/feeder if a fault occurs
 Earth leakage protection: This type of protection is required to protect the equipment

and personnel in the event of indirect contact, additional protection in the event of
single phase direct contact, earth fault protection and protection against fires resulting
from earth fault leakage current. This type of protection can be applied at the
switchgear outgoing feeders (motor/distribution board/other loads)
 Motor protection relay (electronic relay): This type of protection is used to protect
the motor against many faults that can affect the motor operation and safety, the
required protection type can vary according to the motor application (critical/ normal)
and size (cost wise). This type of protection can be applied at the motor terminals. The
following type of protection can be achieved by motor protection relay:
o Over/Under current
o Phase losses/ unbalance/reversal
o Ground fault
o Locked rotor
o Motor stall
 Interlocking Facility: An Interlocking facility is required where more than one incomer
is used in the switchgear. The interlock facility must guarantee the safety of operation
by not allowing, under any conditions, the connection of two different incomers to the
same bus bar section (transformer/transformer) or (transformer/generator) or main bus
bars with the bus coupler closed.
 Cable Entry: Cable entry to the MCC can be:
o Bottom entry (suitable for MCC fixed at the top of the cable/MCC trench)
o Top entry (suitable for MCC fixed in the below ground location with cables such as
feeders and incomers installed at ground level or above the MCC top level.
12.4.5 Power Factor Correction Capacitors

 Power Factor Correction Capacitors (PFCC) must improve the overall power factor of
the plant/equipment to 0.93 lagging (or better)
 PFCC must be designed for automatic centralised operation for site-wide Power Factor
compensation by employing multiple steps
 The enclosure must be of equal height of the associated MCC and located adjacent to
it or at other suitable location within the MCC room
 The PFCC enclosure must be fitted with forced ventilation fan and louvers as
necessary. The IP rating when fitted with forced ventilation must be at least IP43
 The PFCC enclosure must be sized to accommodate an additional spare step of equal
rating for future use
 The design of the PFCC must take into account any harmonic filter installations
connected to the same power distribution system so as to avoid any LC resonance with
these and any upstream transformer reactance.
12.4.6 Earthing
All the metallic parts must be earthed. The design must specify appropriate earth connection
between metallic parts separated by rubber joints. Earthing must be designed as per latest
ADWEA regulations and achieve the following objectives:
 To maintain high operational availability of electrical installation
 To eliminate the problems often caused by undesired potential difference between
different parts of an installation leading to malfunctioning, damage to installation and
human lives
 To provide segregated earthing system as follows:
o Electronic earth "Clean Earth"
o Electrical safety earth and panels steelwork earth "Dirty Earth"
o Telephone system earth

o Lightning protection system earth

 The earthing system must be designed to include the following as a minimum:
o Preventing voltage discharge to earth
o Protecting persons and property
o Protection against occurrence of over voltages due to transients and spikes
o Protection against discharge of static electricity
o Protection against lightning
o Protection against stray currents
o Facilitating supervision and measurement
12.4.7 Lightning
 The protector must be designed that it must neither interfere nor restrict the systems
normal operation. It must not:
o Corrupt the normal mains power supply
o Break or shutdown the power supply during operation
o Have an executive earth leakage current
 Protection must be rated for a peak discharge current of no less than 10kA (8/20-
microsecond waveform)
 The protector must limit the transient voltage to below equipment susceptibility levels.
In general, the peak transients let-through voltage must not exceed 600V for protectors
with a nominal working voltage of 230V
 The peak transient let-through voltage must not be exceeded for all combinations of
conductors:
o Phase to Neutral
o Phase to Earth
o Neutral to Earth
 Lightning system shall consist of:
o Air terminal system
o Downstream conductors with test links
o Earth terminal system
12.4.8 Lighting
 Lighting installations must be designed to provide the illumination levels to suit the site
orientation. They must conform to CIBSE or other national approved standard
 Lighting levels must be measured at a plane 1,000mm above finished floor level (or
above walkway levels in pump chambers and dry wells). Two-way switching must be
provided for areas where access may be gained via two physically separate doors
 Emergency lighting shall provide illumination levels in accordance with BS5266 or
equivalent
 At least 30% of all lighting fittings shall be emergency light fittings
 Emergency lights must be wall-mounted twin lamp units (with battery back-up)
arranged to give at least 4 hours illumination in the event of mains power supply failure
12.4.9 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

 The UPS must be designed and manufactured “standalone” for automatic operation
 The UPS must be designed to supply clean, uninterrupted power to the loads
 The design of UPS must take account of continuous load capacity, de-rating for non-
linear loads and ambient temperature conditions

 The UPS must be sized to supply all instrumentation and control equipment, including
but not limited to, control and computer room hardware, mimic, annunciation,
telecommunication systems and emergency lighting etc., where applicable.
12.4.10 Cables
 All LV cables must be 600/1000V-grade copper single/multi cores
 Where a neutral conductor is required, it must be in the form of a core of the same
section as the other cores, i.e. separate neutral cables are not permitted
 The Contractor must ensure that each cable is of sufficient rating for its normal and
fault conditions
 Cables shall be sized considering following:
o Laid in ground/air/duct
o Depth of laying for cables laid direct in the ground/duct
o Temperature of the ground/air
o Group rating factors
o For single core cables – laid flat or in trefoil formation
o Thermal resistivity of soil (for cable laid direct in ground/duct)
o Allowable voltage drop
 The earthing conductor must be of adequate cross sectional area and be either one
core of a multicore cable or a separately run single-core cable. The use of conduit and
water pipes in any part of the earth continuity conductor must not be permitted
 The general routeing of cables must be indicated on the Drawings but the final routes
and duct locations must be agreed with DMAT before any work in connection with the
cable installation is commenced

12.5.1 General
In all aspects, including health and safety, the national design and construction standards and
requirements must apply. These must be based on the acceptable probability that the
structure will remain fit for the use for which it is intended throughout its design life. This
involves calculation at limit states.
12.5.2 Limit states

Ultimate limit states which require consideration include:
 Loss of equilibrium of the structure or any part of it, considered as a rigid body;
 Failure by excessive deformation, rupture, or loss of stability of the structure or any part
of it, including supports and foundations
Serviceability limit states which require consideration include:

 Deformations or deflections which affect the appearance or effective use of the
structure (including the malfunction of machines or services) or cause damage to
finishes or non-structural elements
 Cracking which is likely to affect adversely the appearance or durability of the structure
 Vibration which causes damage to the pump station or to its components, or which
limits its functional effectiveness
 Excessive stress which is likely to lead to loss of durability

12.5.3 Actions
The structural design must take into account the effects of permanent, variable and accidental
actions. The reservoir and its compartments must be designed for both the full and empty
conditions.
Permanent actions include:
 The dead load of the structure
 The load of the operational equipment and plant (e.g. pumps and pipework)
 The load of any additional installations
Where applicable:
 The pre-stressing load
 The earth load and earth pressure
 The load and pressure of the groundwater at its lowest assumed level
 Any imposed displacement
 Shrinkage
 Creep
Variable actions include:
 The wind loads
 The loads due to maintenance
Where applicable:
 The load and pressure of the groundwater at its highest assumed level
 Transient loads in the vicinity of the structure
 The loads at the time of construction
 Temperature variations both inside and outside the pump station, taking into account
climatic extremes and seasonal or operational variations in the temperature of the
stored water
 The thermal gradient between parts of the structure exposed to differing climatic
conditions.
Variable actions not defined must be specified by the designer.
Accidental actions include, where applicable, earthquakes and other accidental actions such
as vehicle and aircraft impact etc.
12.5.4 Further provisions

 The stresses must be calculated under the relevant load combinations using
appropriate structural design methods. The calculations are normally carried out using
the assumption of linear elastic behaviour of materials. Where necessary, shell and
plate effects and the interaction of the walls with the subsoil must be taken into account
 When the execution methods include construction phases, during which the stability
and resistance conditions can be different from those of the completed structure, the
appropriate limit states must be checked
 In pump stations whose walls retains water (i.e. buried pump stations with high water
table), to ensure durability and water tightness of concrete, the crack width must be
limited to the extent required by local conditions and its location in the structure, and
through suitable selection of reinforcement content, steel stress and bar diameter

13 RESERVOIRS
13.1 General
The purpose of service reservoirs is to store the necessary amount of water required for
irrigation supply in the area concerned. To achieve this, their functions include:
 To equalize the difference between water intake and output and to cover peaks in
demand
 To maintain the required pressure in the water distribution systems
 To keep stocks in reserve in case of interruptions in the distribution systems
Important decision criteria are:
 Security of supply and water quality
 Overall cost of construction, operation and maintenance
 Integration into the irrigation supply system
 Town and landscape planning
The above-mentioned criteria can be achieved by elevated service reservoirs, water towers or
by low level service reservoirs with pumping systems.
 In general, service reservoirs must be designed as buried, semi-buried or above
ground structures
 The construction of an elevated service reservoir is advisable if suitable high ground
level is available
 The construction of a water tower may be considered where the necessary ground
elevation at a suitable point near the supply area is not available for an elevated
service reservoir
 A pumping station with a low ground level service reservoir above ground is the most
common option Measures to ensure continuity of power supply must be taken
Service reservoirs are mainly constructed from reinforced or pre-stressed concrete. They may
also be constructed using steel, glass fibre reinforced plastics or other appropriate materials.
13.2 Functional Requirements

13.2.1 Capacity
The capacity of the service reservoir depends upon the functions the service reservoir is
required to fulfil and its operating regime within the distribution system.
The capacity must be based around the normal equalization (balancing) volume plus a safety
reserve. The operation of a reservoir is normally based on the equalization of the water inflow
and outflow over a set period of time. Storage based on equalization over a twenty four hour
period is typical but longer periods of time may be required. Storage periods must be the
minimum consistent with providing adequate continuity of supplies.
Safety reserves must be based on the assessment of the risk and likely duration of operating
malfunctions of the inlet main, the supply source works, pumping stations, control systems,
and the consequences of such failures. For a service reservoir supplied by a single source
through a long inlet main with minimal standby plant it is recommended to provide a larger
safety reserve than for a service reservoir supplied by several inlet mains within an
interconnected system with full standby plant.
Consideration must be given to the phased extension of the reservoir as the demand
increases as an alternative to its initial construction at its ultimate capacity.
13-RESERVIORS PAGE 146 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

13.2.2 Water Quality

General
Service reservoirs must be designed, constructed and operated to prevent contamination or
other chemical, physical and biological changes that are detrimental to the water quality.
Materials
Materials which meet appropriate test requirements and which will not cause the stored water
to fail to comply with the requirements of appropriate Abu Dhabi regulations must be used in
the structure of the water compartments and in the surfaces in contact with the stored water.
Concrete and cement mortars generally satisfy this requirement but special care must be
taken if additives are used. In order to facilitate subsequent cleaning and to avoid bacterial
growth, internal surfaces must be as smooth and pore-free as possible. This can be achieved
by high quality concrete finishes or by the application of suitable coatings or linings. All metallic
parts vulnerable to corrosion must be protected.
Water circulation
Stagnant zones must be minimized. This can be achieved by suitable design of the physical
shape of the water compartments and the arrangement of inlet and outlet pipework for the
particular storage capacity.
Ventilation
Ventilation facilities are required in the water compartments in order to permit air movement
caused by changing water levels. This may be achieved by natural or forced ventilation.
Measures must be taken to safeguard and control the quality of the air entering or leaving the
service reservoir.
Prevention of contamination
Service reservoirs must be designed to prevent the ingress of external water or other
contaminants either through the structure or any opening, entrance or pipework. Permanent
exposure of the water to daylight must be avoided. Entrances and ventilation equipment must
also be designed so that the water cannot be contaminated. Design may specify that openings
must not be positioned directly above the free water surface. Wherever positioned they must
be arranged in such a way that no extraneous matter is able to enter the compartment and
that all external interference is impeded.
Temperature effects
There must be no unacceptable alteration to the stored water caused by heat or cold. Thermal
insulation measures may need to be taken to avoid adverse effects on the stored water, the
structure and the associated equipment. The thermal insulation measures for service
reservoirs must be appropriate for the local climatic conditions, the operating requirements and
in order to minimize condensation within the water compartments.
Maintaining water quality
Facilities to allow the sampling of water, without entry by personnel, must be provided for each
compartment, and if specified for the inlet and outlet pipes.
13.2.3 Operation
Access and security
Service reservoir sites must be provided with access for routine visits and repair work.
Facilities must be provided to permit cleaning of each compartment independently. Access to
the water compartments, control buildings and all functional equipment must be designed for
safety, including that of personnel, and for ease of operation. Openings must be dimensioned
so as to permit entry for materials and equipment for cleaning, maintenance and repair.

Access to the reservoirs must always be restricted and controlled. Arrangements must be such
that the minimum number of openings are provided into the water compartments. The
compartments may be accessed from the control building or, subject to suitable safeguards,
from the roof.
Due regard must be paid to the security of service reservoirs with respect to acts of terrorism,
vandalism and other unlawful activity. Measures must be taken to deter, detect and delay
intruders. Demarcating fencing around the service reservoir will deter entry in low risk areas.
Where risks are high the provision of security fencing and monitoring systems must be
considered. Unmanned service reservoirs should be visited frequently and consideration
should be given to intruder detection systems, camera surveillance, audible alarms and high
intensity lighting. The joint use of service reservoir sites with third parties and/or the general
public should only be considered in exceptional circumstances.
General arrangement
Service reservoirs must normally comprise at least two compartments. Full height separation
walls are preferable between compartments to prevent deterioration and contamination of the
water in the operational compartment whilst cleaning or repair is carried out in tile other
compartment. Inlet, outlet, overflow and washout pipework, the necessary valves, and if
specified by the designer, flow meters and level measuring devices, must be provided for each
water compartment. The type and arrangement of the valves will depend upon the
configuration of the distribution system. If necessary, under floor and perimeter drains must be
provided.
One water compartment reservoir can suffice where another service reservoir is available for
the same supply area or where the water supply can be maintained by other operational
measures (e.g. pumping and/or temporary supply from a different area) to enable the service
reservoir to be taken out of use for cleaning or maintenance work.
The service reservoir must be integrated into the landscape. Consideration must be given to
embankments, the roof covering, tree and shrub planting and other landscaping measures but
care must be exercised in the selection of species (root intrusion).
Overflow
The overflow of each compartment must be of adequate dimensions to permit the free escape
of excess water and must normally allow for the discharge of the maximum inflow capable of
being delivered to the service reservoir. There must be no isolation valves on the overflow
system. In certain cases where overflow pipe capacity cannot be provided for maximum inflow,
emergency inlet control measures must be provided. The overflow arrangements must not
permit the contamination of the stored water. The overflow should not be permanently
connected to a sewer except where this is unavoidable, in which case special attention must
be given to checking the capacity of the sewer, and preventing the backflow of foul water and
gases from the sewer.
Monitoring
Service reservoirs must be monitored and controlled. All necessary operational data must be
recorded. The designer must specify if visual inspection facilities are required to observe the
water in each compartment.
Power supplies
Consideration must be given to providing permanent and emergency power supplies to service
reservoir sites.
Lightning protection
Lightning protection arrangements must be provided for all water towers, and must be
considered for all service reservoirs.

13.3 Design Requirements

13.3.1 Water Tightness
Reservoirs must be designed to be watertight. This can be achieved using various methods,
either singly or in various combinations as described below:
 Structures where water tightness is obtained by the nature of the structure itself, which
is typically achieved by reinforced or pre-stressed concrete structures. In addition it is
possible to improve the impermeability of the concrete by the inclusion of additives or
the application of surface treatments
 Structures where water tightness is achieved by the structure itself, to which a coating
has been added
 Structures where water tightness is achieved by the addition of a waterproof coating, or
lining which may either be bonded to, or independent from, the supporting structure
For structures using prefabricated component parts, water tightness may be achieved using
the above techniques. Special attention must be paid to construction and movement joints,
pipes or ducts passing through structural elements and other features subject to water
pressure. This must include the use of appropriate water stops and sealants.
13.3.2 Structural Design

General
In all aspects, including health and safety, the national design and construction standards and
requirements must apply. These must be based on the acceptable probability that the
structure will remain fit for the use for which it is intended throughout its design life. This
involves calculation at limit states.
Limit states
Ultimate limit states which require consideration include:
 Loss of equilibrium of the structure or any part of it, considered as a rigid body;
 Failure by excessive deformation, rupture, or loss of stability of the structure or any part
of it, including supports and foundations
Serviceability limit states which require consideration include:
 Deformations or deflections which affect the appearance or effective use of the
structure (including the malfunction of machines or services) or cause damage to
finishes or non-structural elements
 Cracking which is likely to affect adversely the appearance, durability or water tightness
of the structure
 Vibration which causes discomfort to people, damage to the service reservoir or to its
components, or which limits its functional effectiveness
 Excessive stress which is likely to lead to loss of durability
Actions
The structural design must take into account the effects of permanent, variable and accidental
actions. The reservoir and its compartments must be designed for both the full and empty
conditions.
Permanent actions include:
 The dead load of the structure
 The load of the operational equipment and plant (e.g. pumps and pipework)
 The load of any additional installations

Where applicable:
 The pre-stressing load
 The earth load and earth pressure
 The load and pressure of the groundwater at its lowest assumed level
 Any imposed displacement
 Shrinkage
 Creep
Variable actions include:
 The load and pressure of the water in the reservoir
 The wind loads
 The loads due to operation of the reservoir
 The loads due to maintenance
Where applicable:
 The load and pressure of the groundwater at its highest assumed level
 Transient loads in the vicinity of the structure
 The loads at the time of construction
 Temperature variations both inside and outside the reservoir, taking into account
climatic extremes and seasonal or operational variations in the temperature of the
stored water
 The thermal gradient between parts of the structure exposed to differing climatic
conditions.
Variable actions not defined must be specified by the designer.
Accidental actions include, where applicable, earthquakes and other accidental actions such
as vehicle and aircraft impact etc.
Further provisions
 The stresses must be calculated under the relevant load combinations using
appropriate structural design methods. For those parts of the structure designed to
retain water and for serviceability limit state verifications the calculations are normally
carried out using the assumption of linear elastic behaviour of materials. Where
necessary, shell and plate effects and the interaction of the reservoir with the subsoil
must be taken into account
 When the execution methods include construction phases, during which the stability
and resistance conditions can be different from those of the completed structure, the
appropriate limit states must be checked
 For water towers, the effects of deformation of the supporting structure must be
considered. For tall, slender towers, and for calculating dynamic stresses due to wind
or earthquakes, the transitional and rotational inertia of the structure must be
considered. The effect of the movement of the stored water on the structure, if
significant, must also be considered
 To ensure durability and water tightness of concrete the crack width must be limited to
the extent required by local conditions and its location in the structure, and through
suitable selection of reinforcement content, steel stress and bar diameter

13.4 Water Towers

Water towers are necessary in areas of flat topography in order to provide sufficient pressure
for delivery into the distribution system. Because of construction constraints they provide
limited water storage and are not an economical solution. The use of water towers must be
avoided. The following items must be considered in the design:
 The designer must produce a structure that is aesthetically acceptable to the
concerned Authorities, bearing in mind that it will become a landmark in the area it
serves
 Ancillary equipment including pipework, ladders, instrumentation and booster pumps, if
required, must be hidden in the shaft
 The construction materials must be concrete or steel
 The optimum depth/diameter ratios must be determined for each location having regard
to the pumping economy and a need to avoid large pressure fluctuations in distribution
that may be caused by drawdown or filling in excessively deep tanks
 Water tower must be equipped with inlet, outlet, overflow/drain pipes and ventilation.
 There must be a proper access for maintenance and repair
 There must be a lightening arrester and aircraft warning lights in accordance with the
civil aviation authority's requirements
13.5 Ground Tanks

Ground tanks are either located on high ground or low ground with a pumping system.
Depending on the requirements, low level reservoirs can be buried, semi-buried or above
ground. Ground tanks must be constructed from reinforced or pre-stressed concrete.
13.5.1 Arrangement
 Low level - above ground tanks with pump station are preferred
 Wherever required, low level - buried or semi-buried tanks may be allowed
 In general the tank must be composed by two equal compartments
 The compartments must be connected through the suction header of the pump station.
Isolation valves for each reservoir must be provided for maintenance
 When connection through suction header is not possible the compartments must be
connected through holes at the bottom of the separation wall. Isolation penstocks must
be provided for maintenance. The minimum hole area must be 1 m2
13.5.2 Shape and Depth

Ground tanks must be generally built with two compartments so that one can be drained for
maintenance without having to put the whole reservoir out of service. Ground tanks can either
be circular or rectangular in plan. For a two compartment rectangular reservoir the most
economical plan shape is when its length (measured perpendicular to the division wall is) is
1.5 times its breadth (measured parallel to the division wall). These proportions may require
alteration due to site conditions. The following items must be considered in the design:
 Rectangular or square shape is preferred, depending on plan area of allocated site
 The tank must have a sloping floor to outlet at a gradient between 1/70 to 1/200
 The preferred internal height is 3m
 The roof must be supported on columns to suit structural design
13.5.3 Capacity
In the case of balancing storage the required size must be calculated based on peak diurnal
variations in the distribution system, source production capacity, and the mode of operation
(either continuous pumping for select period of time or by "call-on-demand" through use of
reservoir level control switches).
In the case of a local reservoir fed from a single source the recommended volume is two (2)
times the system's average day demand. If space is not available this volume can be reduced
to a day's demand.
13.5.4 Inlet Arrangement

 Two compartment tanks must have a splitting chamber to provide separate feed, to
each compartment with appropriate valves and fitting
 One compartment tank must have a single chamber feed pipe with appropriate valves
and fitting
 The feeding of each compartment must be connected to the tank at the top water level
 Each compartment must have a control of the inflow through valve with remote
operation at SCADA centre. Automated needle valves are recommended
 The tank must have a separate chamber in the main inflow pipeline for a flow meter, as
a minimum. Two compartment tanks may require separate flow meters
 Whenever required strainers or screens must be provided at the inflow to protect
valves and flow meters
13.5.5 Overflow and Washout

 The overflow level must be 100mm above top water level, connected to outfall and
designed to be capable of passing maximum design inflow
 The overflow must have neither valve nor other constriction
 Washout must be located at floor level in bell mouth shape and connected to same
outfall
 Washout must be usually 300mm diameter
 The washout must be installed at outlet end of reservoir with a manual valve
13.5.6 Access
 Staircase access to roof with hand-railing must be provided where necessary (semi
buried and aboveground tanks)
 Each compartment must have water level check facilities
 Openings must be sufficient to afford suitable access for men and equipment over all
pipe entries and exits to facilitate inspection
 All opening must be fitted with lockable covers
 Ladders must be provided at each access openings
13.5.7 Ventilation
150mm diameter pipe with integral deodoriser and mosquito mesh provided for every 400m² of
roof must be provided.
13.5.8 Water Level Indication

Manometer tube 80mm diameter fixed to outside of reservoir wall with flip-type colour
indicators must be provided. Other instrumentation for automated control of the pump station
is required. Refer to PART 14 for further details.

13.6 Design Life

The design life for properly maintained concrete and steel storage tanks is typically assumed
to be about fifty years. Any other type of storage tank that does not have the historical
longevity of these tanks needs to be evaluated on life cycle cost basis before being considered
for use. Refer to PART 19 – Section 4 for further details.

14 INSTRUMENTATION
14.1 Sensors
14.1.1 Level Measurement
a) Level measurement can be classified into different types as listed below:
 With regards to installation location:
 Open Vessel (atmospheric pressure)
 Closed Vessel (pressurized)
 With regards to installation method:
 Suspended type
 Flanged type
 With regards to measured value display location and powered or mechanical
 Mechanical Site Gauge
 Electrically powered level transmitters
 With regards single point or continuous measurement
 Continuous measurement
 Point level measurement
 With regards principle of measurement:
 Float type
 Conductive electrode
 Vibrating reed
 Magnetic Float
 Ultrasonic time of reflection
 Radar time of reflection
 Hydrostatic pressure
 Site glass with magnetic flaps
 Counter weight and float mechanical site gauge
b) Type of measuring principle and their recommended applications
 Tanks/reservoirs must have the following instruments:
o For continuous level measurement:
 Ultrasonic type level transmitter installed on the tank roof via flanged
connection.
 The tank/reservoir must be provided with a cast-in flange.
 The sensor head must be flanged type to allow bolted connection.
 If the tank/vessel has obstructions inside that do not allow ultrasonic type
sensors to be used, then Hydrostatic type sensor may be used.
14-INSTRUMENTATION PAGE 154 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

 The Hydrostatic sensor must be installed via flanged connection at the base of
the tank below the zero level datum of the tank (in the scour sump pit) with an
isolation valve.
 For both types of sensors, the sensor transmitter must be located at ground
level to provide local measurement. If the location of the sensor dictates that
very long sensor cables are required for such arrangement, and such cable
lengths are not available in the market, then the transmitter may be located next
to the sensor on the tank/reservoir roof. For this case, an additional local
indication at the ground level must be provided.
o For point level measurement:
 Conductive electrode or float type level switches installed on the tank roof via
flanged connection
 The tank/reservoir must be provided with a cast-in flange
o For electrode sensors, the sensor head must be bolted to the cast-in flange.
o For float type sensors, the floats’ suspension cable/chain must be hooked to the
roof slab. This arrangement must be easily accessible from the roof for adjusting
the length of the float, removing and replacing.
o For site level reading
 Site glass with magnetic flaps must be provided on the side of tanks/reservoirs
which are completely above ground.
 For partially buried and completely buried tanks/reservoirs, counter weight and
float mechanical gauge must be provided.
 For partially buried tanks the indicator dial must be located next to the
Ultrasonic/Hydrostatic sensor transmitter/indicator.
 Fuel tanks must have the following instruments:
o For continuous level measurement:
 Ultrasonic type level transmitter installed on the tank roof via flanged
connection.
 The tank must be provided with a welded flange.
 The sensor head must be flanged type to allow bolted connection.
 If the tank has obstructions inside that do not allow ultrasonic type sensors to
be used, then Hydrostatic type sensor may be used.
 The Hydrostatic sensor must be installed via flanged connection on the roof of
the tank.
 For both types of sensors, the sensor transmitter must be located at ground
level to provide local measurement.
 Magnetic float type level switches installed on the tank roof via flanged
connection.
 The tank must be provided with a welded flange.
 Site glass with magnetic flaps must be provided on the side of tanks which are
completely above ground.
 For partially buried and completely buried tanks, counter weight and float

mechanical gauge must be provided.

 For partially buried tanks the indicator dial must be located next to the
Ultrasonic/Hydrostatic sensor transmitter/indicator.
 The site level reading must be near the filling point for the tank.
 Drain sumps with pumps must have the following instruments:
 Conductive electrode or float type level switches installed via brackets bolted to
the side wall of the sump.
 For float type sensors, the floats’ suspension cable/chain must be hooked to the
wall bracket. This arrangement must be easily accessible from the ground level
for adjusting the length of the float, removing and replacing.
 Where, major pumps are located, an additional flood level switch must be
provided in addition to the pump control switches. This must be mounted at
25mm below finished floor level in the sump. This switch must be used to raise
flood alarm, stop the major pumps and cut the mains supply to all equipment
which may be susceptible to submergence.
Level sensor types and their characteristics and usage:
Table 14-1: Level sensor types and their characteristics and usage
Type of Open tank/atmospheric Closed/presu Field Remote Point Continuos

instrument pressure vessel rised vessel indication indication level measurement
Float X X X
Conductive
X X X X
Electrode
Vibrating Reed X X X
Magnetic Float X X X X
Ultrasonic time of
X X X X X
reflection
Radar time of
X X X X X
reflection
Hydrostatic
X X X X X
pressure
Possible if
Site glass with
X X X fitted with X
magnetic flaps
transmitter
Counter weight and Possible if
float mechanical X X X fitted with X
site gauge transmitter
14.1.2 Flow Measurement

a) Flow measurement can be classified into different types as listed below:
 With regards to installation location:
o Open Channel
o Closed Conduit (pipe)
o Threaded type
o Flanged type
o Mechanical Site Gauge

o Electrically powered flow transmitters

o Continuous measurement
o Flow switch measurement
o Differential pressure type
o Ultrasonic type
 Doppler-Effect
 Transit Time
o Electromagnetic type
o Weir type
o Parshall Flume type
b) Type of measuring principle and their recommended applications:
 Pressurized water pipeline:
o For continuous flow measurement:
 Electromagnetic type flow transmitter installed on the pipeline via flanged
connection.
 The pipeline must be provided with a welded flange.
 For flow meters of diameter 300mm and above a dismantling joint and support
must be provided. The supports must be on the flanges and not the body.
 The sensor transmitter must be located at ground level to provide local
measurement.
 For existing pipelines, where installation of electromagnetic type flow transmitter
requires major interruption to water supply, ultrasonic transit-time clamp-on type
sensors must be considered.
 Partial flow/gravity flow water pipeline:
 Ultrasonic-Doppler effect type flow transmitter installed on the pipeline via
flanged connection.
 The pipeline must be provided with a welded flange.
 For flow meters of diameter 300mm and above a dismantling joint and support
must be provided. The supports must be on the flanges and not the body.
measurement.
 Partial flow/gravity flow water channel:
 For existing channels where installation of weir or partial flume is not feasible,
Ultrasonic-Doppler effect type flow transmitter installed on channel walls/floor.
 For new channels, weir or partial flume type with ultrasonic level transmitter.
 For both cases the sensor transmitter must be located at ground level to
provide local measurement.
 Pressurized air pipeline:
 Differential pressure type flow transmitter installed on the pipeline via flanged
connection.
 The pipeline must be provided with a welded flange for installation of orifice
plate.

 On either side of the orifice plate flanged or threaded bosses must be provided
for sensor tubing connections.
 The tubing must be sloped to allow condensation to be drained easily during
maintenance. Sufficient additional connections and valves must be provided for
calibration.
Flow sensor types and their characteristics and usage:
Table 14-2: Flow sensor types and their characteristics and usage
Closed
Closed
Open conduit Field Remote Point Continuos
Type of instrument conduit
channel (gravity/non- indication indication level measurement
(presurised)
full bore)
Differential
X X X X
Pressure
Ultrasonic
X X X X X X
Doppler Effect
Ultrasonic
X X X X
Transit Effect
Electromagnetic X X X X
Variable Area X X X
Paddle Switch X X X X X
Turbine X X X X
Weir X X X X
Parshal Flume X X X X
14.1.3 Pressure Measurement

a) Pressure measurement can be classified into different types as listed below:
 With regards to installation:
o Absolute pressure (measured against vacuum as reference point)
o Gauge pressure (measured against atmospheric pressure as reference point)
o Threaded type
o Flanged type
o Mechanical Site Gauge
o Electrically powered pressure transmitters
o Continuous measurement
o Pressure switch measurement
o Mechanical (Bourdon tube type)
o Electronic transducer (capacitive type)
b) Type of measuring principle and their recommended applications:
 Pressurized water pipe:
o For continuous pressure measurement:
 Capacitive type pressure transmitter installed on the pipe via threaded or
flanged boss connection.
measurement.
 Bourdon tube pressure switch installed on the pipe via threaded or flanged boss

connection.
 Bourdon tube pressure gauge installed on the pipe via threaded or flanged boss
connection.
 Pressurized chemical/fuel pipe:
o The methods of measurement for water pipe must apply, however the point of
connection to the main process must be provided with a chemical seal diaphragm.
 Water Pump discharge side:
connection to the main process must be provided with a snubber.
o For high speed pumps, positive displacement pumps, etc. where vibration from the
pumps effect the instrument readings; separate supports bolted to vibration-free
surfaces must be provided for the sensors.
 Positive Displacement Chemical Pump discharge side:
connection to the chemical line must be provided with a snubber or a pulsation
dampener.
 Pressurized tank/vessel:
connection to the tank/vessel must be provided with a chemical seal diaphragm if
the tank/vessel contains chemicals.
 For all installations, i.e. pipes, pump discharges, tanks/vessels, etc. the tubing and
valve arrangement must allow for flushing and isolation from main process connection.
Pressure sensor types and their characteristics and usage:
Table 14-3: Pressure sensor types and their characteristics and usage
Type of Field Remote Point Continuos

instrument indication indication level measurement
Pressure
X
Gauge
Pressure
X X X
Switch
Pressure
X X X
Transmitter
14.1.4 Quality Measurement

a) Quality measurement can be classified into different types as listed below:
 Conductivity
 Residual Chlorine
 Turbidity
 pH
b) Sensors must be retractable insertion type at the following locations (except Residual
Chlorine):
 Pipelines
 Inlet to Tanks/Reservoirs
 Outlet of Tanks/Reservoir
c) Residual Chlorine sensors must be flow cell type installed in Water Quality Analyser
rooms located near the sampling points.
d) All sensor transmitters must be located near the sensors on ground level. The sensors

must be installed in the valve chambers. Sufficient sensor cable lengths must be
provided to allow connection of sensors to transmitters.
e) Residual Chlorine
 The analyser unit must consists of flow cells, sensors, transmitter, associated
pipework, valves, cabling, etc. all factory pre-fitted on a stainless steel back panel. The
sensor must measure Total Chlorine which is Free Chlorine plus Combined Chlorine.
 The unit must have a pH sensor to correct for changes in the pH based on the pH/Free
Chlorine disassociation curve.
 The sensor must be a three electrode amperometric type whereby the anode is split
into two parts to provide stable measurement and longer electrode life. The measuring
electrode must be gold, the reference electrode must be silver with silver halide and
the counter electrode must be stainless steel. The method of measurement must be
reagent-free and continuous in accordance with US EPA Method 334.0.
 The sensors must be digital type which allows plug and play capability whereby they
can be calibrated in the lab and plugged into the controllers at the analyser racks
without any additional calibration, settings, software configurations, etc.
 The analyser unit must have self-diagnostics alerts to advise on servicing requirements
due to changes in process and warn of pH and chlorine calibration deviations. A non-
contacting sample flow sensor must be incorporated to provide alarm for insufficient
flow. All warning must be easily configurable.
 The sensor characteristics must be as follow:
o Measurement range: 0 to 10ppm
o Lower limit of detection: 90ppb
o Resolution: 0.001ppm
o Accuracy:
 Free Chlorine: ±3% of reference test (DPD Method) at constant pH less than
7.2 (±0.2 pH Unit)
 Free Chlorine: ±10% of reference test (DPD Method) at stable pH less than 8.5
(±0.5 pH Unit from the pH at calibration)
 Total Chlorine: ±10% of reference test (DPD Method) at stable pH less than 8.5
(±0.5 pH Unit from the pH at calibration)
 Total Chlorine: ±20% of reference test (DPD Method) at stable pH greater than
8.5
o Repeatability: 30ppb or 3%, whichever is greater
o Response times: 140 seconds or less for 90% change at a stable temperature and
pH
o Total chlorine: 100 seconds or less for 90% change at a stable temperature and
pH.
o Sampling time: Continuous
o pH range of sample: 4 to 9 (integrated pH sensor to be provided for correction)
o Sample temperature: 5 ºC to 45 ºC (internal temperature compensation to be
provided)
f) Conductivity
 The measuring principle of the sensor must be based on induction and conduction. An
alternating magnetic field generated in a primary coil must induce a current in the
process media. Whereby, the strength of the induced current will be proportional to the
ion concentration and thus the conductivity of the media. The current flow in the media
must generate another magnetic field in a secondary coil which is then measured to
determine the conductivity.

 The sensors must be installed into the pipelines using a stainless steel retractable
assembly. The retractable assembly must allow insertion and retraction of sensor
without the need to isolate or interrupt the main pipeline flow. This must be achieved by
isolation valves on the retractable assembly which must allow the sensor to be
retracted without allowing the medium in the pipeline to escape.
 The retractable assembly must be installed on the pipeline in such a way as to allow
accurate measurement and must be able to sustain the maximum pressure rating of
the process.
g) pH Analyser
 The sensor must have an electrode with a glass membrane which supplies an
electrochemical potential dependent upon the pH value of the medium. This potential
must be generated by the selective penetration of positive hydrogen ions (H+) through
the outer layer of the membrane which causes an electrochemical boundary layer with
an electrical potential. The measured value of the electrical potential gives a measure
of the pH. A reference electrode must be provided as well.
 The sensors must be installed into the pipelines using a stainless steel retractable
assembly. The retractable assembly must allow insertion and retraction of sensor
without the need to isolate or interrupt the main pipeline flow. This must be achieved by
isolation valves on the retractable assembly which must allow the sensor to be
retracted without allowing the medium in the pipeline to escape.
the process.
h) Turbidity
 The turbidity measurement must be based on the measurement of light scattered by
suspended particles when a light beam is shone through the medium. The amount of
scatter gives a measurement of the turbidity of the medium.
 The sensors must use a dual-beam infrared/scattered light photometer to measure
turbidity. An LED light source must transmit a beam of infrared light into the medium at
an angle to the probe face. The scattered light must be detected by a pair of
photoreceptors in the sensor face.
 A backscatter photoreceptor must be provided to accurately measure suspended
particles.
 The sensors must be insertion type installed into the pipelines using a stainless steel
retractable assembly. The retractable assembly must allow insertion and retraction of
sensor without the need to isolate or interrupt the main pipeline flow. This must be
achieved by isolation valves on the retractable assembly which must allow the sensor
to be retracted without allowing the medium in the pipeline to escape.
the process.
i) Analyser Rack
 Analyser racks must be completely factory assembled units whereby all sensors,
sensor holders, flow cells, piping, isolation/control/pressure reducing valves, cabling,
transmitters, etc. are pre-installed by the manufacturer in the factory.
 The racks must be floor standing units with ready field connection points for samples
piping, drain, flushing water, signal/data cables termination junction box, power cables
junction box, etc. Field piping and cabling must be kept to a minimum. All power,
control and signal cables from the transmitter units must be neatly routed to junction
boxes mounted on the rear of the rack in separate PVC cable conduits/trunkings, i.e.
power cables, control cables and signal cables must not be mixed in the same

conduit/trunking. Each transmitter unit must be provided with a fused power switch
above the transmitter unit.
 The complete rack including frames, back panel, stiffeners, tundish, etc. must be
stainless steel construction. All piping and valves must be PVC. Cable junction boxes
must be die-cast aluminium. All bolts, nuts, cable conduit and pipe brackets/holders
must be stainless steel.
 Racks which are more than 3 meters in length must be transported to the site as
separate shipping units and assembled at site by the instrument vendor.
14.2 Compatibility to SCADA

All instruments which can provide remote indication, i.e. instruments with transmitters must be
able to communicate with a central control system via one of the following communications
protocols:
 HART
 Profibus
 Foundation Fieldbus
 Modbus
The choice of protocols to be used must be determined by the designer based on the existing
control system communications capability if it is a refurbishment or extension project. If it is a
new project, the communication system must be one that is suitable for interfacing with the
existing SCADA System.

15 CONTROL SYSTEMS
15.1 Control Philosophy
15.1.1 Pump Control
a) The Designer must establish the type of control required for the pumping station at the
beginning of the project
b) Pumps can be controlled based on the source and destination tank/reservoir levels
c) Pumps can also be controlled based on the flow or pressure generated at the
discharge or both depending on the requirement
d) Source and destination tank/reservoir level control can be used for transmission pumps
which are used for conveying water from one location to another location. For this
application, the pumps can be fixed speed pumps
e) Flow and/or pressure control can be used for distribution pumps which serve a network
with a number of off-takes, whereby the network pressure and/or flow need to be
maintained at a set point. For this application, the pumps must be variable speed
driven pumps
f) In addition to level, pressure and/or flow control the following minimum interlocks are
necessary for safe operation of the pump:
i. Dry run protection, this can be detected by the following methods:
1. Suction tank/reservoir low level, via level instrument in the suction
tank/reservoir
2. Suction pressure low level, via pressure switch or pressure transmitter on the
pump suction pipe or suction manifold
3. Suction flow low, via flow meter on the suction pipe
4. Non-return valve not opened, via proximity or limit switch
5. No discharge flow zero, via flow meter or switch on pump discharge pipe
ii. Pump run-out condition; this can be detected by the following method:
1. Discharge flow very high (depending on the pump curve), via flow meter on the
pump discharge
iii. Blocked discharge or closed discharge valve, this can be detected by the following
methods:
1. Non-return valve not opened, via proximity or limit switch
2. No discharge flow zero, via flow meter or switch on pump discharge pipe
iv. Pump/Pump Motor Bearing temperature, this can be detected by the following
method:
1. Temperature sensors such as PT 100 embedded in the bearing housing
v. Pump/Pump Motor vibration, this can be detected by the following method:
1. Vibration sensors such as accelerometers embedded in the pump/motor casing
or bearing housing, depending on where the measurement is to be taken
15.1.2 Tank/Reservoir Level Control

a) Tanks/reservoirs can be controlled based on the level of water in them
b) The water level signal can be obtained from the tank/reservoir level sensors. The
measured value can be used to control the inlet/outlet valves to regulate the level
c) Tank/reservoir level can be measured using the methods described in PART 14 –
Section 1.A
d) The inlet valve can be either a normal open/close valve or a control valve which
modulates based on a control signal. The modulating type valve is normally a flow
control valve which regulates the level in the reservoir based on either the
incoming/outgoing flow or the level in the tank/reservoir
15-CONTROL SYSTEMS PAGE 163 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

e) The modulating valve can be used to maintain a set level in the tank/reservoir or used
for drawing a set amount of water from a distribution network
15.2 Communication System

15.2.1 Fieldbuses
IEC 61158 describes the standard for field busses. It is divided into six parts. The table below
lists these parts and the contents:
Table 15-1: Standard for fieldbuses
IEC 61158 Contents OSI Layers
61158-1 Introduction
61158-2 Specification and definition of services Layer 1 Physical
61158-3 Service definition Layer 2 Data link
61158-4 Protocol definition Layer 2 Data link
61158-5 Service definition Layer 7 Application
61158-6 Protocol definition Layer 7 Application
15.2.2 Different Fieldbuses

A number of different media can be used for communications such as: copper cable, fibre
optics, infrared transfer or radio technology. Due to different need, different fields of application
and some major manufacturer’s own solutions there are currently several bus systems
available. The table below lists the most common fieldbuses:
Table 15-2: The most common fieldbuses
Communication
Field bus Developed by Standard Topology Media Max. Range
method
Master/slave
EN Twisted
PROFIBUS Bus, 100m at 12
SIEMENS 50170/IEC pair or
DP/PA Star,Ring Mbit/s
1158-2 fibre
Peer to peer
Phoenix DIN19258 Twisted

400m/segment
INTERBUS-S Contact, Ring pair or Master/slave
EN 50254 128 km total
Interbus Club fibre
Master/slave
ISO 11898 Twisted 500m (speed
DEVICENET Allen-Bradley Bus Multi master
ISO 11519 pair dependent)
Peer to peer
Master/slave
25-100m Multi master
CAN OPEN Echelon Corp. CiA Bus (speed
dependent) Peer to peer
Multicast
Twisted
CAN In. 10/100 Base T
ETHERNET IEEE 802.3 Bus, star pair or Peer to peer
Automation 100 m
fibre
MODBUS DEC, Intel Twisted 450 m per

Bus Peer to peer
PLUS Xerox pair segment

Communication
Field bus Developed by Standard Topology Media Max. Range
method
EN 1434-3 Twisted
MODBUS RTU Modicon Bus 1000 m Master/slave
ICE870-5 pair
DATA Multi master

Twisted
HIGHWAY Allen-Bradley Bus 3000 m
pair Peer to peer
PLUS
15.2.3 Galvanic Isolation

One of the most common causes of communication errors is the problem with potential
differences between interconnected equipment. This can be eliminated with galvanic isolation
of the interface.
15.2.4 Transient Suppression

Industrial equipment is often exposed to interference generated by high power cables, reactive
loads and different forms of transients.
15.2.5 Power Supply

It is important to have a reliable power source in industrial equipment. UPS supply is
recommended to be used with a backup time depending on the expected down time of power
failure.
15.3 SCADA System

A. Each pumping station location must be provided with a PLC and RTU
B. Both PLC and RTU must be installed within the same cubicle. The cubicle door must
have a door mounted HMI which must be connected to the PLC and RTU via Ethernet
switches.
C. In normal operation the PLC must control the station. When the PLC fails the RTU
must take over control seamlessly
D. The cubicle must be fully assembled by one system integrator
E. The IO signals to/from the PLC and RTU must be connected to the field equipment via
signal splitters
F. The PLC and RTU design must be of modular construction. Single board PLC and
RTUs can be used where the IO counts are low
G. The signal splitters, PLC and RTU must be provided with 25% spare IO capacity above
the design requirement. This must include the IO terminal blocks, wiring from terminal
blocks to signal splitters, PLC and RTU
H. The PLC and RTU must be able to provide the following:
1. Data acquisition from field equipment (digital and analogue)
2. Data recording and tagging (time and date)
3. Sequence of events recording
4. Alarm management (prioritise) including reporting by exception
5. Handling data received from control centres
6. Data processing (including math outputs and software routines functions)
7. Initiating commands (digital and/or analogue outputs) and software routines (pump
sequence control)
8. Self-diagnostics
9. Communications and control including route selection
10. Programming and diagnostics via control centre, and RTU configuration and
maintenance units
11. An intelligent, rule-based adaptive system is required to minimize false alarms and
nuisance alarms
12. Compliant and supporting with DNP3 communication protocol
I. PLC and RTU Hardware requirements
1. Digital Inputs
i. The digital inputs must comprise voltage-free and earth-free contacts.
Changes of state in the digital inputs must be reported to the main
processing module for further processing. The inputs must be configurable
from a down-loadable database
ii. Digital inputs may be single point, double point or multi-point. The
interpretation of states for single or double point inputs must be
configurable
iii. The maximum contact resistance (closed contacts) of a digital input must
be better than 180 Ω. The minimum contact resistance (open contacts) of
a digital input must better than 50 kΩ. Isolation between inputs and
incoming 240 V a.c. power supply must be greater than 1000 V a.c. peak
and greater than 1000 V d.c. Isolation between inputs and all other
PLC/RTU interfaces must be greater than 500 V a.c. peak and greater than
500 V d.c.
2. Digital Outputs
i. The digital output module must provide volt-free relay contact outputs
configurable for either normally open or closed in the de-energized state.
The rating of the relay contacts must be 100 mA at 24 V D.C. for a
inductive load, or 500 mA at 55 V, 50 Hz a.c. for a resistive load. The relay
must be rated for a minimum of 106 operations. The relay driver circuit
must be capable of monitoring by the PLC/RTU for correct operation
ii. Each digital output must be configurable between continuous and pulse
modes. In continuous mode, the digital output must be set to a particular
state and remain there until set to the opposite state. In pulse mode, the
digital output is set to the energized state for a pre-programmed time which
must be a minimum of 2 s. The time must be user configurable for each
pulse mode output. The mode and time information must be down-
loadable from the LCC
iii. Isolation between outputs and incoming power supply, and outputs
and all other PLC/RTU interfaces must be as for digital inputs specified
above
3. Analogue Inputs
i. On all mains powered PLC/RTUs, the analogue input loop supplies must
be provided externally. The zero and scaling facilities must be software
configurable by the user
ii. The common mode noise rejection ratio must be greater than 80 dB,
measured at 50 Hz ±1%. The series mode noise rejection ratio must be
greater than 40 dB, measured at 50 Hz ± 1%. A minimum of 12 bit
analogue to digital conversion must be used providing a minimum
resolution of 1 in 4,096. The overall conversion accuracy measured from
the PLC/RTU terminals must be linear and better than 0.15% of full
scale under operating conditions
iii. The maximum input impedance on any current channel must be 250 Ω.
The cross-talk must be better than 50 dB at 50 Hz ±1% between any
channels, and there must be no electrical connection between current
loops
iv. The analogue inputs must be either hardware or software configurable
between the following input ranges, and the:
a) 0-5 V and 1-5 V D.C. on voltage channels.
b) 4-20 mA d.c. on current channels.
v. Isolation between inputs and incoming 240 V a.c. power supply must be

greater than 1000 V a.c. peak and greater than 1000 V d.c. Isolation
between inputs and all other PLC/RTU interfaces must be greater than 500
V a.c. peak and greater than 500 V d.c. The channel to channel isolation
must be greater than 500 V a.c. peak and greater than 500 V d.c.
4. Analogue Outputs
i. The analogue outputs must be 4-20 mA. The integrity of loop signal must
be continuously monitored and if the loop impedance exceeds the drive
capability, the fault must be reported to the corresponding control centre
ii. The analogue output must be capable of driving in to 0-1200 ȍ
independently on each channel. Each analogue output must have a
minimum resolution of 12 bits. The minimum overall conversion accuracy
must be ±0.2% of full scale over the operating temperature and relative
humidity range stated elsewhere in the Technical Specifications. The
settling time must be better than 100 ms
iii. Each analogue output must be capable of withstanding indefinitely short
circuiting or open circuiting, and provided with transient protection.
Isolation between outputs and incoming power supply, and outputs and all
other PLC/RTU interfaces must be as for analogue inputs specified above
J. Software requirements
1. The software must be of modular construction, developed using
structured design techniques, and conform to IEC 61131-3 standard. Where
possible, standard library software modules must be utilized
2. Programming
i. The user must have the capability within the software to monitor inputs,
control outputs using logical sequences, derive data from monitored
analogue and status data, manipulate data (real or derived) such that the
department can operate and monitor the entire system in accordance with
the requirements and intent of this specification
ii. The PLC/RTU must be capable of executing a program created by the
user in a high-level language (such as graphical ladder logic program
or structured text) and down-loaded remotely by the use of the
communications back-bone
iii. For ease of commissioning and maintenance, it must be possible to store
PLC/RTU programs within non-volatile memory (e.g. Flash) such that the
programs are loaded on power-up of an uninitialized PLC/RTU. However,
application program changes must be changeable without the need to
change PLC/RTU hardware (EPROMS, etc.)
K. Data recording and storage
1. Analogue variables
i. Sufficient capacity must be provided to store in a fully tagged form the
instantaneous, maximum, minimum and averaged value of each analogue,
as well as pulse inputs at each PLC/RTU
ii. The period between samples must be configurable, typically 15 minutes for
which storage must be available for a minimum of 7 days. It must be
possible to increase the sample rate to a maximum of every minute. The
RTU must contact the corresponding control centres to initiate the transfer
of the stored data when the memory allocated to analogues has been 80%
utilized since last read by the corresponding control centre. The PLC/RTU
must have filtering capabilities on percentage of changes on data
2. Events
i. Sufficient memory capacity must be provided to store in fully time-
tagged form, all events (including alarms). The memory must be sized to
allow a minimum of 20 events per input and output from a PLC/RTU or a
1000 events total, whichever is greater, per 24 hours. 7 days of storage
must be available at each PLC/RTU. When the event storage is 80% full,

the PLC/RTU must contact the corresponding control centres to initiate the
transfer of the stored data
3. Profiles
i. It must be possible to store daily analogue profiles for alarm purposes for
25% (with a minimum of two) of the analogue inputs at the PLC/RTU
ii. Profiles must be structured and utilized as described elsewhere in this
specification. Profiles must be down-loaded from the corresponding control
centre. The profiles must normally be down-loaded daily or on request
4. PLC/RTU Database
i. PLC/RTUs must be capable of receiving and storing for operational control,
through user sequence programs, tabular data such as look-up tables for
control regimes. This data must be stored in PLC/RTU database. The
database must be possible to be downloaded from the corresponding
control centre remotely
5. Memory Expansion and Allocation
i. Memory allocations for data storage must be dynamic and not tied to a
particular input or output. Memory allocated to user functions must be
configurable
ii. Memory allocated to data storage should be used in the form of a circular
buffer such that the oldest data is over-written by the newest data once the
buffer is complete. All data must remain available to the corresponding
control centre or remote logger users until it is over-written in this way,
irrespective of the number of times it has been read by any device
6. Data and Event Tagging
i. Data and events for local storage and subsequent transmission from the
PLC/RTU must be tagged with the time and date at the PLC/RTU
7. Alarm Tagging
i. Each alarm must be tagged in its originating PLC/RTU with a source
identifier and the time and date of occurrence. Likewise, the time and data
of the alarm returning to normal must also be recorded in the PLC/RTU for
use in the corresponding control centre
L. Alarms and events
1. General
i. The SCADA system must be able to detect/generate the following types of
alarms at the RTUs:
2. Status alarms
i. Each change to status or derived status must generate an event which, if so
configured, must be reported as an alarm. It must be possible to assign a
separate time delay to each status point for which an event has to persist
before being reported as an alarm. This delay must be configurable from 0
to 900 s
3. Analogue Value Alarms
i. Each analogue must have a minimum of four thresholds or limits. If an
analogue or derived value transgresses any one of these limits, an event
must be generated which must be able to be reported as an alarm. Each
threshold transgress must be a separate alarm e.g. high-high, high, low,
low-low. However, whether the alarm state is higher or lower than the
threshold must be configurable such that any threshold could be a high or
low alarm as required. It must be possible to assign a separate dead band
to each analogue point which must apply to all four associated thresholds. It
is desirable that separate dead bands should be assigned to each threshold
for each analogue point

4. Profile Alarms
i. Profile alarms must be provided to test analogue values against diurnal
profiles, i.e. a series of thresholds variable with time. The facility must test
analogue values (e.g. a level) against a profile of thresholds and must
report alarms when the value transgresses the threshold after a value
and time dead band period
ii. Profile alarms must take the form of up to four discrete threshold points
(high-high, high, low and low-low), the values of which must be determined
at a configurable interval, typically every 15 minutes, over a 24 hour
period. This must constitute a single daily profiles. The PLC/RTU alarm
management process must compare down-loaded profiles with the
measured system parameter and produce an alarm if a violation
exists. Normal dead band facilities must be applied in this case
iii. Profiles must be down-loaded manually or automatically. There must be an
option to down-load the previous week’s validated data, for each day of the
week, with assigned values for each (e.g. 15 minutes) increment. Seven
days profile data must be stored at the corresponding control centre and the
system must maintain between 24 and 48 hours of profile data in the
PLC/RTU. As a default, on failure to receive an updated profile the
PLC/RTU must revert to the start of the existing profile
iv. Users must be able to create profiles by copying logged or
archived validated operational data to form a single ‘baseline’ for a set of
profile thresholds, i.e. one value for each 15 minutes interval. The
system must generate the thresholds above and below the baseline
profile over the profile duration from either a global difference or a fixed
percentage deviation of the full scale, e.g. high-high must be ±5%, high
+3%, etc.
v. The user must be able to edit the baseline profile and the threshold levels
for each interval in order to fine tune the profile. It must not be acceptable
to require users to enter every individual threshold point at each interval
5. Rate of change alarms
i. There must also be the facility to generate alarms on the exceeding of a pre-
set change of value with time. It must be possible to define alarms on any
of:
a) Rate of rise
b) Rate of fall
c) Minimum rate of change required, i.e. alarm on no change when an
instrument has failed
ii. Rate of change alarms must also be definable for pulse count values
6. Alarm Suppression
i. The SCADA system must have facilities within the PLC/RTU to prevent the
occurrence and subsequent reporting of “nuisance” and spurious alarms. A
privileged user must be able to suppress alarms for a single point and for
the complete PLC/RTU. Facilities must also provide such that a primary
alarm which is followed by consequential secondary ones can be flagged
with an identifier to suppress the secondary alarms when the primary
occurs
ii. PLC/RTUs must record failed attempts at communications with a
corresponding control centre. This data must be part of the PLC/RTU data
polled by the corresponding control centre and used to report and record
communications failures to the system manager
7. Mains Failure
i. In the event of a mains failure and after expiry of the battery back-
up, the operating software must provide an orderly shutdown of the
PLC/RTU

ii. Upon restoration of supply, the PLC/RTU must restart in an orderly,

operationally safe manner by performing self-check routines in readiness to
continue as required by the user’s programmed instructions without
intervention
iii. Upon the detection of failure and restoration of mains power, the PLC/RTU
must send an appropriate message to the corresponding control centre

16 SURGE SUPRESSION
16.1 Introduction
Surge (or water hammer) is an oscillating pressure wave generated in a pipeline during
changes in the flow conditions. There are four common causes of surge in a pipeline include:
 Pump starting
 Pump stopping/power failure
 Valve action
 Improper operation of surge control devices
The most likely one of these is the sudden stopping of all pumps caused by a power failure.
Hydraulic surges and transients (water hammer) are dependent on a number of factors,
including main size, length, profile and materials of construction. Pipe pressure tests and
thrust restraint should be based on the maximum transient conditions, including an appropriate
factor of safety.
There are a variety of ways to provide surge control. Methods include open surge tanks,
pressurised surge tanks, surge anticipator valves, vacuum relief valves, regulated air release
valves, optimising main size and alignment, electric soft start/stop and variable speed drives
for pumps, electric interlocks to prevent more than one pump from starting at the same time,
slow opening and closing valves, and increasing the polar moment of inertia of the rotating
pump/motor assembly. A combination of methods may be necessary and care must be taken
in the design so that the addition of a protection device does not cause a secondary water
hammer equal to or worse than the original design could cause. Reliability of the surge
protection facility is important.
Where appropriate, redundancy should be provided for essential equipment such as vacuum
relief valves. Adequate alarms should be provided on surge tanks and similar components to
give operators early warning. Consideration should be given to preventing the pumping system
from operating if the surge protection facilities are not operable.
16.2 Surge Analysis

Surge pressures have caused so much damage and reduced the life expectancy of so many
systems that an analysis is stipulated in most in-house design guides, most pipeline design
codes and industry standards.
Actually specialist surge programs are the only globally acknowledged method of analysing
surge pressures, manual techniques have been shown to be unreliable for complicated
systems. Therefore a surge analysis must be carried out, unless the system is simple.
To carry out the surge analysis accurate data from manufacturer of equipment is required. In
early stages of design the equipment to be installed may not be completely defined. In such
cases typical data can be used. In any case the surge analysis must be confirmed afterwards
with the manufacturer data and settings of the installed equipment.
The load cases to be analysed within the framework of the surge analysis must be the worst-
case scenarios producing the maximum and minimum pressures during the following
operating sequences, as a minimum:
 Scheduled or unscheduled control valve closure at endpoints
 Scheduled or unscheduled line valves closure
 Scheduled or unscheduled safety valves closure
 Power failure at pump stations
16-SURGE SUPRESSION PAGE 171 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

 Scheduled system start-up

 Scheduled system shutdown
Generally, the maximum and minimum pressures occur as the consequence of the transient
event that produces the most significant flow changes.
Worst case scenarios must be presented and show if the system is capable of handling the
most critical conditions. Graphs and tables must be provided for each calculation, including but
not limited to:
 Equipment, pipeline and operational data
 Envelope of minimum and maximum pressures occurring during the simulation period
for every point along the profile
 Flow versus time at each relevant point, such as pump stations, surge suppression
equipment, air valves, control valves, etc.
 Static pressure versus time at each relevant point, such as pump stations, surge
suppression equipment, air valves, control valves, etc.
 Total air volume versus time in the surge vessels
 Air inflow/outflow versus time through air valves
 Water outflow versus time through quick relief valves
In general, the surge analysis must prove:
 The surge suppression equipment is adequate to protect the irrigation system in all the
scenarios
 The maximum and minimum pressures are within the operational limits of all the
equipment
 The performance of the surge suppression equipment is in line with the manufacturer
data
 Setting of valves, vessels, starters, etc. are safe in all scenarios
 No cavitation occurs in the pipelines
16.3 Surge Suppression Systems

Surge suppression could be achieved using one of the following preferred systems. The most
appropriate device will depend on the individual circumstances of the installation:
 Quick relief valve
 Pressure vessel with bladder
 Soft starters or variable frequency drives
Air valves should not be used as a method of surge control, but their operation under surge
conditions must be carefully considered. Air inflow into the irrigation system must be avoided
as much as possible.
16.3.1 Quick Relief Valve

The quick relief valve is designed or set to open at a predetermined set pressure to protect the
equipment from being subjected to pressures that exceed their design limits. When the set
pressure is exceeded, the relief valve becomes the "path of least resistance" as the valve is
forced open and a portion of the fluid is diverted through the auxiliary route. Once it reaches
the valve's reseating pressure, the valve will close.
Quick relief valves are adequate for small to medium sized pump stations with a supply
extension no longer than 2 km. For valve sizing the following formula can be applied:
Where:

 A: orifice area, in cm2

 Qr: required flow capacity, in m3/h (from surge analysis)
 K: effective coefficient of discharge, dimensionless (typically between 0.6 and 0.85
depending on the manufacturer)
 Kw: backpressure correction factor (from manufacturer, but can be estimated from the
following graph assuming: Backpressure percentage = 100·P2/P1)
 Kv: viscosity correction factor (assume 1 if unknown or use the following graph using
estimated Reynolds’ number)
Figure 16-1: Backpressure correction factor

Figure 16-2: Viscosity correction factor
 P1 : set pressure + overpressure – inlet pressure loss, in bar absolute

 P2 : backpressure, in bar absolute
16.3.2 Surge Vessels

Pressure vessels for surge suppression are tanks partially filled with a gas (air or nitrogen).
Usually the liquid is contained in a bladder with gas on the outside to prevent the liquid
absorbing the gas or coming into contact with the inside of the pressure vessel and this is the
preferred type. The bladder material should be carefully selected for use in the conditions
experienced in Abu Dhabi. Refilling is usually from a high-pressure cylinder and care should
be taken to avoid over pressurisation of the bladder Bladders should not lose pressure in
normal operation, but they can fail leading to absorption of the gas into the liquid and a drop in
pressure.
Vessels without a bladder are charged with air pressure from an air compressor, either
manually or automatically. There is therefore additional machinery and an additional
maintenance requirement. This type of surge vessel is not recommended.
On pump start-up, liquid enters the vessel compressing the gas until it equals the liquid
pressure. When the pump stops the gas pressure forces liquid back out into the pipe system,
both actions slow the rate of pressure change, which reduces the peak surge pressure.
The following items must be considered in designing surge vessels:
 Horizontally arrangement is preferred
 The outlet pipe must be in line with the pipe to which is connected. The diameter must
be the 60% of the main pipe as a minimum
 The connection to the main pipe should be in an angle of 45°
 A check valve must be fitted to the surge vessel outlet pipe, to allow unrestricted flow
into the pipeline
 A bypass around the check valve, fitted with an orifice plate to restrict the flow back into

the vessel must be provided

 Isolating valves must be also provided for maintenance of the vessels
 The compressed air system must be capable of maintain the desired volume of air in
the surge vessel with a maximum oscillation of 5%
 Surge analysis with reliable software must be carried out for the design of surge
vessels systems.
Surge vessels are adequate for any pump stations but its cost advises its use in big pump
stations with long action range.
16.3.3 Soft Starters and VFD

Soft starters and VFD are effective systems for surge suppression originated by scheduled
start/stop of pumps.
When full-line voltage is applied to start a motor that is directly coupled to the shaft, the pump
is accelerated from zero to full speed quickly, often in less than ¼ second. This means that the
flow from the pump also increases from zero to total capacity just as fast. As a result, the large
change in flow over a short period of time can result in high- and low-pressure surges and
cavitation as the system seeks equilibrium, which can have unwanted effects.
If the period of time when flow changes from zero to 100 per-cent can be increased, surge can
be reduced. This can be achieved by reducing the amount of accelerating torque delivered by
the motor. Less accelerating torque means less force to turn the load and more time required
to change the speed of the pump. This can be accomplished by using a soft starter or VFD to
slowly ramp the voltage applied to the motor from zero to full voltage over a pre-set time
(typically adjustable from 2 to 30 seconds).
Soft starters and VFD systems are recommended to eliminate pressure transients resulting
from start/stop pump cycles.

17 SUBSOIL DRAINAGE
17.1 Introduction
The following sections provides general background on subsoil drainage; however, once
STORM WATER AND SUBSOIL DRAINAGE SYSTEMS MANUALS are issued by ADM,
Consultants should refer to relevant ADM STORM WATER AND SUBSOIL DRAINAGE
SYSTEMS MANUALS for all issues related to subsoil drainage rather than Part 17.
Soil is a porous medium consisting of liquid, gas and solid materials which provide the crops
with essential water, oxygen, and nutrients. Unless both the supply of water and oxygen are
maintained, the nutrient uptake by plants is reduced. Saturated soils do not provide sufficient
aeration for crop root development, and can be an important source of plant stress.
Proper control of salinity and alkalinity can be accomplished only in well-drained soils.
Leaching water must be able to pass through the soil profile to move excess salts out of the
root zone, an accomplishment not possible without free drainage. Conversely, a high water
table creates a condition wherein capillarity moves salts into the root zone and deposits
them there. That is why artificial drainage of poorly draining soils has become integral to
maintaining a profitable crop production system. Some of the less tangible benefits of
drainage are the reduction or elimination of mosquito and insects breeding grounds and
improvement of public and private roads and structures, which results in lower road
maintenance costs.
The three most common techniques used to drain excess water are: surface drainage,
subsurface drainage, and tubewell drainage.
Surface drainage removes surplus water from fields by means of ditches or canals also
termed as open drains. This type of drainage is adapted to farms where the land is flat and
the subsoil is heavy and infiltration rate is low. Therefore it is intended to eliminate ponding
and prevent prolonged saturation by accelerating flow to an outlet without causing siltation or
soil erosion. Surface drainage may be used alone or supplemented with subsurface
drainage.
Subsurface drainage consists of perforated pipes and collector systems installed
underground at depths varying from 1.8 to 3.0 m. Excess groundwater enters the perforated
field drain and flows by gravity to the open or closed collector drain. The marked advantage
of subsurface drains over surface ditches is that drains can be placed where needed without
cutting the land into relatively small, irregularly shaped fields. Subsurface drains remove wet
spots, so that the whole field can be planted and cultivated and the crop harvested when
conditions are right for operations over most of the field. Properly installed subsurface drains
should require little maintenance.
Tubewell drainage is a technique for controlling water table elevation and salinity in
agricultural areas. It consists of a group of wells spaced with sufficient overlap of their
individual cones of depression to control the water table at all points in the area. These
systems are only suited to soils of high transmissivity whereby spacing between individual
wells is considerable. Some of the advantages of tubewell drainage include less earthwork
and better handling of topography. Similar to surface and subsurface drains, a collector
system is required to convey water to a disposal/re-use site.
Two waterlogging situations exist in Abu Dhabi. In the first situation, a shallow and saline
water table renders the soils unproductive as a result of deposition of migrating salts on the
surface. Soils are heavy and flocculated as a result of the presence of Sodium. The local
term for these soils is “Sabkha”. In the second situation, soils of good quality overlay a heavy
and confining layer. Water ponding is visible in depressions. For both situations, the most
appropriate drainage system is subsurface drainage. This is mainly due to the low
17-SUBSIOL DRAINAGE PAGE 176 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016
transmissivity of the parent soils whereby a dense network of open channels or tubewells is
needed to effectively control water table elevation. This is the general situation. However it is
recommended to examine each situation separately and decide on the most appropriate
drainage system. Both drainage system types are discussed herein.
The main components of a subsurface drainage system are the field drains, collectors, main
drainage line or canal and discharge outlet (or collection sump). This situation is illustrated in
Figure 17-1.
Field drains
Collectors
Collection Sump
Main drain
Figure 17-1: Main Components of Subsurface Drainage System

Field drains are perforated pipes with a filter envelope consisting of gravel and/or geotextile
membrane. Perforations extend around the entire pipe periphery. These pipes are laid in
mild grades and discharge drainage water in collector lines.
Collector lines are generally perforated pipes of a larger size. Perforations increase the
collection capacity of the system particularly when located at the periphery of the field.
Main drainage lines are normally plain pipes collecting water from field collectors and
discharging water into a common sump or dedicated outlet. It is common to find manholes
on main drainage lines particularly at locations where future connections are envisioned.
17.2 Basic Principles of Subsurface Flow and Drainage

Design
Soil water movement is governed by changes in piezometric head and soil hydraulic
conductivity. The rate of fall or rise of the water table is also affected by the spacing of
drains. Since water must move greater distances horizontally than vertically to reach the
drain, the horizontal hydraulic conductivity is the more important. The hydraulic conductivity
of most soils decreases with depth. This affects the shape of the flow lines and the rate of
rise or fall of the water table.
Water inflow into drainage lines occurs throughout the drain line periphery. Depending on
soil physical properties and topography, inflow can be greater from one direction. Such a
situation is encountered for interceptor lines placed on a slope whereby water gradient
upstream of the pipe is greater. As illustrated in Figure 17-2, significant inflow also occurs
from the bottom of the pipe. A common misconception is that flow into drainage pipes is only
vertical and only from the top of the pipe. This has led to drainage pipe perforations being
wrongly located only on the top of the pipe thus eliminating any inflow contributions from the
bottom and rendering drainage systems less effective.
Drainage pipes are specified and sized based on expected outflow. Over-sizing a drain pipe

whenever the pipe is not running at full capacity will not improve the effectiveness of the
system. Instead it will lower the flow velocity and may cause silts to deposit and eventually
clog the pipe. Likewise, there is no direct relationship between spacing and pipe sizes:
larger pipes do not necessarily imply greater drain spacing. As a matter of fact, increasing
drain spacing beyond that necessary can only slow down the rate of fall of the water table
regardless of the drainage pipe size.
Soil surface
Critical depth
Water table
Flow lines
Field drain Field drain
Impervious layer
Figure 17-2: Water Flow to Drains

A critical parameter in design of drainage system is the height of the water table midway
between two consecutive pipes. Experience in Abu Dhabi has shown that water table at this
point must be at least 20 cm below the plantation root zone. For the streetscape in Abu
Dhabi this is equivalent to approximately 40 – 50 cm below soil surface. For date palms in
the streets medians, water table must be at least 1 m below the surface.
Another parameter related to drainage design is the time required for water table to drop
from one level to another. Again, experience in Abu Dhabi has shown that specifying a time
of drop anywhere between 90 days and 120 days will result in adequate pipe spacing and an
effective drainage system. Such a system is sized based on the steady state outflow of
drainage water rather than on initially high discharge levels occurring immediately following
system installation. It must be cautioned that a very rapid water table drop, say in one
month, will result in closely spaced drains with a higher cost that risk drying out soils during
summer time.
17.3 Planning and Implementing Drainage Projects

Planning and implementing a drainage project may be part of a national, regional, or local
development plan. Depending on the activities to be performed during the planned
development process, a number of phases can be discerned. Planning an effective drainage
system takes time and requires consideration of a number of factors, including:
 The location and extent of the problem
 The origin of excess water
 Extent of soil problems such as salinity and sodicity
 Is there a surface or subsurface drainage problem
 Can excess water be disposed by gravity or is pumping required
 Can engineering problems be expected
 The general layout of the main drainage line
The first step is to conduct a reconnaissance study. Its main objective is to make an
inventory of the problems and to formulate possible alternative solutions. Field surveys and
investigations are conducted to prepare the drainage plan in more detail. The feasibility of
the proposed project is then determined based on its technical and economic merits.

The reconnaissance study comprises the desk and field research needed to obtain a general
knowledge of the development potential of the project area. A great degree of reliance is
placed upon existing data or on indirect sources of information. Field work is usually a
complementary step.
Concept design is the next step after the reconnaissance phase. Design involves setting out
various alternatives and performing an economic and technical feasibility analysis to select
the most appropriate alternative along with a budget estimate. The selected alternative is
then subjected to detailed design procedures whereby the final drawings and specifications
are produced ahead of implementation.
These Phases are discussed in the following paragraphs.
17.3.1 Reconnaissance Study

Data collected during a drainage reconnaissance study involve basic data, such as
topography, hydrology, geology, soil and land use. A description of the collected data
follows.
Topography: Whenever available, topography map on a scale between 1: 50,000 and
1:100,000 showing contour lines of the land surface is an indispensable tool in
reconnaissance drainage surveys. The map should show all topographic and physiographic
features relevant to drainage: houses, roads, cultivated land, natural drainage areas, canals,
ditches, waste land and natural vegetation. The available data may vary in their degree of
detail and accuracy. This is where a few field trips are undertaken to get a better appraisal of
the nature of the problem.
The topography of the area governs such matters such as the alignment and slope of main
drainage lines, collectors and field drains, the selection of the drainage outlet. A thorough
analysis of topographic data reveals the direction of natural drainage or the concentration
points of flow.
On a 1:100,000 maps, contour lines are often presented at 5.0 to 10.0 m intervals. In flat
areas this might not be adequate and intervals of 1.0 m, or even less, are required. This
information would be particularly useful in delineating the extent of areas to be drained.
Drainage design difficulties are encountered especially when natural slopes are less than
0.05 % particularly in view of the need to keep subsurface drainage lines at a reasonable
depth.
Ideally, accurate actual topography data are provided, in addition to topography maps. As
mentioned earlier, groundwater movement is governed by variations in piezometeric head. A
piezometeric contour map can then be produced using topography data overlain on water
elevation data. This latter map is the most useful tool for designing drainage systems.
Whenever topography maps are not readily available, a simple GPS survey coupled with
field observations and discussions with farmers might prove quite helpful. GPS devices are
not very accurate as they rely on ambient barometric pressure to determine elevation. For
this reason, the survey of the entire area must be completed in a single trip. The survey grid
must be sized at 300x300 m2 as a maximum.
Hydrology: surface and groundwater hydrology should be considered concurrently
particularly in arid regions. This is due to the high variability of rainfall, high evaporation
rates, high salinity of surface water, soil moisture, and groundwater. Parameters such
rainfall, evapotranspiration, depth-to-water, and water quality are also included in the
analysis to delineate piezometric contours and subsequently flow patterns. Sample
piezometric contours are presented in Figure 17-3.

Figure 17-3: Sample Piezometric Contour Map along with Flow Direction
Geology: As geological conditions can cause drainage problems, a geological map of the
region is most useful in delineating problem areas. The geological map should be
supplemented by a number of cross sections showing the lithological sequence. For reasons
of economy and efficiency, bores of 5-10 meters provide adequate information on the soil
profile and depth-to-water status.
Soils: A soil map at a scale between 1:50,000 and 1:100,000, based on a systematic soil
survey, will supply plenty of data on the project area soil resources. Special attention should
be given to the conditions of the upper rootzone (0.0 to 0.5 m): its workability, water holding
capacity, erodibility and infiltration rate. Factors to be studied in the lower rootzone (0.3 to
1.2m) are the effective soil depth, layers that would restrict water percolation, and water
holding capacity.
The depth of soil observation in systematic soil surveys is generally limited to 1.5 m. Data on
soil stratification and the hydraulic conductivity of the shallow substratum (1.5 to 5.0 m)
should be acquired. Particular attention should be given to the following issues:
 Whether the soil is homogeneous or layered
 The depth to the impervious base
 The presence or absence of a pervious or highly pervious horizon at or below the drain
depth (1.5 to 2.5 m)
 The depth to the water table and the zone in which it fluctuates
 The salinity of the groundwater
Land Use: Actual land use determines the degree of drainage required, type of drainage
system and even alignment of individual field drains. Historical cropping patterns and future
expansion plans are considered in setting out the scope of drainage. For irrigated projects a
reliable estimate of water losses should be made as data pertaining to the application
efficiency of the irrigation system or irrigation losses are rarely available.
17.3.2 Construction near Utilities

Abu Dhabi is serviced by public and private utilities such as telephone, electric transmission
lines, pipelines, and a network of roads. In designing and constructing a drainage system, it
is extremely important to locate utilities (especially buried electric and telephone lines) near
the drainage project. Many utilities are well marked, but some are not.
If a buried utility line or a highway is to be added to an area, the designer should obtain
information about the engineering design work. This information is needed to ensure that the
installation will not interfere significantly with present and future public work. Whenever
possible, installing drain lines across buried cables, pipelines, and other facilities must be
avoided. It is advised to keep the number of crossings to a minimum (by installing special

lines called interceptor lines parallel to the facilities). The owner authority of the pipeline or
cable can provide its exact location and depth. Perhaps this authority can also provide
information on special construction requirements and supervise work in the vicinity of the
line.
17.3.3 Concept Design

Designing an effective drainage system is a complex task. Each aspect of a surface or
subsurface drainage system is dependent upon several variables. For example, the size of a
drain in a subsurface system is dependent upon, among other things, a drainage coefficient,
the size of the area to be drained, the grade of the drain, and the internal roughness of the
drain.
Furthermore, a decision about one aspect of a drainage system may narrow the choices
available for other aspects. For example, an early decision about the grade necessary to
drain the area may determine the choices of drain size. Therefore, in designing a drainage
system, one must work back and forth between several aspects to meet all the conditions of
a particular drainage problem.
Data collected during the reconnaissance phase are analyzed and results are used as
background for the concept design. The general alignment of field drains, collectors and
main line are determined from the topography. The spacing of field drains is determined in a
trial and error procedure whereby the time required to lower the water table is evaluated in
relation to pipe spacing and depth. The system capacity and pipe discharge are calculated
based on the previous steps. As most drainage design procedures are based on humid
regions, which is not the case of Abu Dhabi, a number of checks are necessary to adjust
calculated values and particularly pipe sizing and spacing. A very common mistake is to
have pipe spacing either too dense or pipe sizes too large to achieve the desired results.
17.3.3.1 Topography and System Layout
Field topography and outlet location/elevation are typically the major factors considered in
planning drainage system layout, with topography greatly influencing what layout alternatives
are possible. Although there may be many possible layout alternatives for a given field
(Figure 17-4), specific drainage goals should be evaluated to find the best layout. These
goals include removing water from an isolated problem area, improving drainage in an entire
field, intercepting a hillside seep, and so on. Designers should approach system layout and
drainage needs in a broad, comprehensive manner, anticipating future needs where
possible. Even if a drainage system is installed in a phased approach, system planning
should not be piecemeal. Additions to a system will be much easier to make if the
established mains are already large enough and located appropriately.
Parallel Herringbone
Double main Targeted
Figure 17-4: Various Drainage System Layout Alternatives

When selecting a layout pattern for a particular field or topography, field drains should be
oriented with the field's contours as much as possible. This way, laterals can "intercept"

water as it flows down-slope. Collectors, on the other hand, can be positioned on steeper
grades, to facilitate the placement of laterals (Figure 17-5).
Desirable: laterals are aligned Undesirable: laterals cross

piezometric contours
with piezometric contours
Figure 17-5: Alignment of Field Laterals with Contours
17.3.3.2 Drain Spacing, Depth and Grading
There is a definite relationship between depth and spacing of drains. For uniform soils, the
deeper the drains, the wider the spacing and vice versa. Average pipe spacing for soils of
different textures are presented in Table 17-1.
Table 17-1: Soil Properties and Pipe Spacing
Soil Texture Hydraulic Conductivity Spacing
Class (m/day) (m)
Clay Very slow 0.03 9 – 15
Clay loam Slow 0.03 – 0.12 12 – 21
Average loam Moderately slow 0.12 – 0.49 18 - 30
Fine sandy loam Moderate 0.49 – 1.52 30 – 37
Sandy loam Moderately rapid 1.52 – 3.05 30 – 60
Peat and muck Rapid 3.05 – 6.10 30 – 90
Irrigated soils Variable Variable 45 - 200
As Abu Dhabi agricultural soils are irrigated soils, the last row in the above table should be
adopted.
Drainage pipes must be placed at depths varying between 1.8 and 2.7 meters below soil
surface with a desirable starting depth at 2 m below soil surface. Experience has shown that
subsurface drainage placed at around 2 m below soil surface creates a downward gradient
for water thus preventing the upward capillary movement of water even when water table is
constant at 1 m below soil surface. This latter figure represents the maximum acceptable
height of the water table mid-point between two consecutive field drains. In rare instances, a
depth of more than 2.7 m below soil surface is justifiable.
For economy and efficiency, grades for field drains must vary between 0.1 percent (1 m per
1,000 m) and 0.3 percent (3 m per 1,000 m). The minimum acceptable flow velocity is 0.5
m/s. A lower flow velocity will cause silt and sand to settle and eventually the blockage of
drain pipes. Vertical deviations from design of more than 10 % should not be allowed.
17.3.3.3 Determining Discharge from Field Drains

With reference to Figure 17-6, the discharge of spaced drains can be computed using the
following formulas:

2KH (d  H / 2) L
For drains placed above the impermeable layer: Q
S
4 KH 2 L
For drains placed on the impermeable layer: Q
S
With Q representing the total discharge (L3/T), and K the hydraulic conductivity weighed over
the affected soil profile in (L/T) and L is the drain pipe length (L), d, is height above
impermeable surface, H is the initial height of water above the centerline of the drains, and S
is spacing between consecutive drains as illustrated in Figure 17-6.
Calculated discharge using any of the two formulas above can be checked using the product
of the drainage coefficient and the area served by the respective field drain:
Q = L* S* drainage coefficient
Soil surface Soil surface
Water table Water table

at time T o at time T o
d
H H
Water table Z Water table Z
at time T 1 at time T 1
Field drains Field drains
d
Impervious layer
S Impervious layer
S
Field drains placed on the impermeable layer Field drains placed above the impermeable layer
Figure 17-6: Placement of Field Drains with Respect to the Impermeable Layer
17.3.3.4 System Capacity and Drainage Coefficient
To protect plants, a subsurface drainage system must be able to remove excess water from
the upper portion of the active root zone. The selected drainage system capacity should
provide the desired amount of water removal per day, commonly referred to as the "drainage
coefficient." Experience in drainage systems in Abu Dhabi has shown that this figure is
often between 4 and 8 mm of water removal per day at steady-state operation of the
drainage system. Initial drainage coefficient may reach up to 20 mm per day.
Outflow from the drainage system is equal to the drainage coefficient multiplied by the area
contributing to the drainage. Field drain pipe flow is equal to the drainage coefficient
multiplied by the area served by the pipe. The length of this area is the length of the field
drain whilst the width is the field drain spacing. Past experience has shown that maximum
flow from a field drain ranged between 15 – 20 liters/hour/meter of field drain for spacing of
75 – 80 m. These figures can be used to double-check the numbers calculated using the
formulas presented in the next paragraph.
17.3.3.5 Pipe Sizing
The size of field drain normally depends on the pipe material, the drainage area, the
drainage coefficient, and the grade of the drain. For plastic pipes, the most common size is
110mm or 4 “. The pipe size can actually be determined from a modified version of the
Manning equation:
d  116 * qn / S 1/ 2 
3/ 8
Where:
 d = pipe diameter in mm
 q = flow in liters per second

 S = pipe slope in m/m

 n = pipe roughness coefficient (0.015 for PVC and PE)
For example: if a PVC field drain has a total length of 360 m, calculated flow of 1.7 l/s and a
slope of 0.2 percent, the pipe internal diameter is calculated at 94 mm. This corresponds to
a pipe size of 4 inches.
17.3.3.6 Pipes
The three predominant pipe materials are polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and to a minor extent polypropylene (PP). HDPE pipes come in plain
or corrugated forms. The dark colored PE is more affected by high temperatures than light
colored PVC. Consequently the risk of deformation of PE pipes is greater than for PVC
pipes. Advantages of corrugated pipes include:
 Greater resistance to outside pressure for the same amount of plastic material. As the
cost of plastic pipe is approximately proportional to its weight, this means lower cost
 Greater flexibility for coiling and machine-installation
Corrugated PE pipes are manufactured in long rolls that can be installed on circular drums
for automated trencher installation. Slots or holes are cut in the valley portion of the
corrugations. The height of corrugations ranges between 5 % of the pipe diameter and 8 %
for large diameters. Water enters through the bottom of the corrugations.
Perforations come in circular or rectangular shapes. Rectangular perforations are 0.6 to 2 m
long and 0.6 to 1 mm wide. Circular perforations are in the range of 3 mm in diameter. The
openings are evenly spaced around the circumference of the pipe and must provide a
minimum opening area of 2,000 mm2 per meter of pipe.
17.3.3.7 Envelopes
A drain envelope consists of material placed around pipe drains to perform one or more of
the following functions:
 Filter function: to prevent or restrict soil particles from entering the pipe where they may
settle and eventually clog the pipe
 Hydraulic function: to provide a medium of good permeability around the pipe and thus
reduce entrance resistance
 Bedding function: to provide all-round support to the pipe in order to prevent damage
resulting from soil load
The first two functions provide a safeguard against the two main causes for poor drain-line
performance: siltation and high flow resistance in the vicinity of the drain. The formulation of
functional criteria for envelopes is complicated by a dependence on soil texture and
installation conditions. Despite considerable research efforts, firm quantitative criteria are not
available. It should be noted that an envelope, in spite of its general positive effect, is no
guarantee against poor drain-line performance, particularly if the pipes were installed under
wet conditions.
17.3.3.8 Envelope Materials
A wide variety of materials are used as envelopes for drain pipes, ranging from organic and
mineral material, to synthetic material and mineral fibers.
Organic material is mostly fibrous, and includes peat, coconut fiber, and various organic
waste products like straw, chaff, heather, and sawdust. Mineral materials are mostly granular
material such as gravel, slag of various kinds (industrial waste products), or fired clay
granules. Synthetic materials may be in a granular form (e.g. polystyrene) or in a fibrous
form (e.g. nylon, acryl, and polypropylene). Glass fiber, glass wool, and rock wool, all
mineral fibers, are also used.

Envelope materials are applied in bulk, as thin sheets, or as more voluminous 'mats'.
Bulk application is common for gravel, peat litter, various slags, and granules. The classical
method is to spread the material after the pipe has been laid in the trench, so that the
material will protect the top and the sides of the pipe. A complete surround (e.g. with gravel)
is achieved by first spreading gravel on the trench bottom, then laying the pipe, and again
spreading gravel.
Thin sheets are commonly used with corrugated plastic pipe as a pre-wrapped envelope.
They may consist of glass fiber or synthetic fibers, which are also known as geotextiles.
More voluminous mats of up to about 10 mm thick normally consist of fibrous materials,
whether organic materials, synthetic fibers, or mineral fibers. These mats are often used as
pre-wrapped envelopes with plastic pipes.
17.3.3.9 Envelope Requirements in Relation to Soil Characteristics
Qualitative guidelines for designing drain envelopes mainly consider soil texture.
Straightforward rules can be given for fine- and coarse-textured soils. For soils in the
intermediate texture classes, there is considerable uncertainty.
Fine-textured soils with a clay content of more than about 0.25 to 0.30 are characterized by
a high structural stability, even if being worked under wet conditions. Thus, with trencher-
installed pipe drains, no problems are to be expected and an envelope is not required.
Coarse-textured soils free of silt and clay, on the other hand, are permanently unstable, even
if undisturbed. Thus, soil particles are likely to wash into the pipe, both from the trench
backfill and from the undisturbed soil below the pipe. There is a need for a permanent
envelope, completely surrounding the pipe, only as an effective filter, because there is no
high entrance resistance. A thin geotextile envelope is probably the best solution here.
Soils of intermediate texture are less simple. In the finer-textured soils of this category (clay
contents between 0.10 and 0.30), the trench backfill will remain stable and of good
permeability, provided installation is done under dry conditions and trench backfill was
properly compacted. In those cases, even without an envelope, no problems will arise. If,
however, the pipes were installed under wet conditions both drain sedimentation and a high
entrance resistance could follow. Hence an envelope would be needed.
At the coarse-textured side of the intermediate soils (soils with a clay content below 5% and
high silt content), the trench backfill is likely to be as unstable as the undisturbed soil below
the pipe. In addition, the trench backfill may become poorly permeable through a re-
arrangement of the soil particles. Therefore, an envelope which completely surrounds the
drain, fulfilling both filter and hydraulic functions, is always needed in these soils.
17.3.3.10 Trench and Gravel Envelope Dimensions
The trench shall only be wide enough to safely install pipe utilizing backfill materials with
proper compaction. Increasing the trench width increases the soil load on the pipe. Trench
width must be at least 50 mm wider than the pipe on each side for plow installation and 75 to
150 mm on each side for open trench installation to allow sufficient bedding to support the
pipe. If fine material cannot be placed alongside and over the pipe, a wider trench should be
considered or special bedding material supplied.
In general, the trench width should be equal to three pipe diameters. A gravel bedding
beneath the pipe should be anywhere from 50 mm to 100 mm depending on the hydraulic
conductivity of the soil beneath the pipe. A larger bedding is placed whenever more flow is
anticipated from the bottom of the pipe.

As for the height of gravel above the pipe, it should also be equal to one pipe diameter.
However, the height of gravel is generally increased whenever the drainage pipe is
embedded into the impermeable layer. In these situations gravel is added until it reaches
the more permeable soil. This situation is illustrated in Figure 17-7.
Impervious layer
Figure 17-7: Sizing of Trench and Gravel Envelope

17.3.3.11 Gravel Envelopes
The standard procedure for the design of gravel envelopes is to match the particle-size
distribution of the soil with the particle-size distribution of the gravel. Several sets of design
criteria to prevent base soil invasion into the envelope and the pipe drain have been
developed. In these standards, the underlying requirements are that the envelope should
fulfill both the filter and the hydraulic function, that particles from the envelope itself should
not move through the perforations into the drain in significant amounts, and that the
envelope should not contain very coarse particles which could possibly damage the pipe
during placement.
Gravel is available in many countries and has proven to be a suitable envelope if properly
installed. Nevertheless, although modern drainage machinery has facilities to install gravel
automatically under and around the pipe, it remains a costly and difficult operation because
of uncertainties about gravel specifications and gravel shape (rounded or angular).
A gravel envelope is considered well graded when all particle sizes from the largest to the
smallest are present. To determine whether a material is well graded, coefficients describing
the slope and the shape of the gradation curve are defined as follows:
D60
Coefficient of uniformity, Cu 
D10
Coefficient of curvature, Cc 
 D30 
2
D10 D60 
Where D60, D30 and D10 are the respective diameters corresponding to 60%, 30%, and 10
% finer particles in the particle-size distribution curve.
A well graded envelope material will have a coefficient of uniformity greater than 4 for gravel
and greater than 6 for sands. In addition, the coefficient of curvature must be between 1 and
3 for both gravel and sand. Table 17-2 shows the gradation relationship between the base
material and gravel envelope for most soils. These relationships have been found to work
satisfactorily under the low-head conditions found near agricultural drains.

Table 17-2: Design Criteria for Gravel Envelopes

Base soil Lower limits (mm) Upper limits (mm)
limits for Percentage passing Percentage passing
D60 (mm) 100 60 30 10 5 0 100 60 30 10 5 0
0.020-0.050 9.52 2.0 0.81 0.33 0.3 0.074 38.1 10.0 8.7 2.5 - 0.59
0.050-0.100 9.52 3.0 1.07 0.38 0.3 0.074 38.1 12.0 10.0 3.0 - 0.59
0.100-0.250 9.52 4.0 1.30 0.40 0.3 0.074 38.1 15.0 13.1 3.8 - 0.59
0.250-1.000 9.52 5.0 1.45 0.42 0.3 0.074 38.1 20.0 17.3 5.0 - 0.59
17.3.3.12 Synthetic Envelopes
Many of the drawbacks of gravel envelopes can be overcome with the use of synthetic
envelopes. Synthetic envelopes are envelopes made of synthetic geotextiles, usually thin
synthetic fabrics or thicker fibrous material, or both, often selected to function as a filter.
Fibers are of variable size, with some larger fibers intertwined in the mat in a random
manner.
Several criteria have been developed based on the opening size of the envelope. A rule of
thumb is that the envelope opening should be equal to the O90 value of the soil particles.
The O90 value is the average diameter of soil particles in a fraction 90 % of which is retained
in a standardized sieving test.
Although synthetic envelopes are presented as alternatives to gravel envelopes, it is quite
common to use both. Synthetic envelopes are normally wrapped around the drainage pipe
and gravel surrounds the synthetic envelope. The advantage is that gradation of the
envelope material is automatically achieved. Larger soil particles are thus held by the gravel
filter whilst finer silt is blocked by the synthetic fabric. The disadvantage is that a higher
resistance to flow is formed.
There are situations where synthetic filters should not be used. In particular, synthetic filters
should not be used whenever the silt content of the parent soil exceeds 40 %. High silt
content is known to clog the pores of these filters. Likewise, synthetic filters should be
avoided in the presence of high salinity waters or water containing hydrocarbons. High
salinity waters can form an impermeable crust of salts around the filter in the dry season
while hydrocarbons compound to form greasy substances. Both effects will block the filter
pores.
17.3.3.13 Pipe Connections
There are two types of connections: blind junctions and manholes. Blind connections are
direct connections between field drains and collectors by means of "T" connections. It is
recommended to have the field drain inflow at a somewhat higher level that the collector (a
drop of about 0.1 m). Blind junctions can be provided with special arrangements so that the
field drains can be cleaned by flushing without having to excavate and dismantle the
connection as illustrated in Figure 17-8.
Manholes are located in pipe drains to serve as junction boxes, silt and sand traps,
observation wells, discharge measurement facilities, entrance to the drain for maintenance,
and to permit easy location of the drains. Manholes are not required at every junction of
closely spaced drains. They are not required at grade changes if the grade becomes
steeper.

Soil surface
Metal sheet detectable

with a metal detector
End cap
Collector
Drop-off "T"
connection
Field drains
Figure 17-8: Blind Connection between Field Drains and Collectors and Flushing arrangement
The general practice is to install manholes only at major connections of collectors with main
drainage lines. Manholes are installed where system expansion is anticipated, such as the
upstream point of the main drainage line.
Manholes should extend a minimum of 200 mm and a maximum of 600 mm above the
natural ground surface for easy recognition. A typical manhole design is illustrated in Figure
17-9.
Ground Surface 300 - 600 mm
900 - 1,100 mm
Standrad precast reinforced

concrete
All joints to be grouted
Flow
Sand Trap
Figure 17-9: Typical Manhole Design

17.3.3.14 Sump Design
The sump is a cylindrical reservoir for temporary storage of outflow drainage water. The
main steps in the design of a drainage sump and pumping plant are:
a) Determining maximum inflow into the sump
b) Determining volume and type of storage required
c) Determining pumping rate
d) Selecting the pump and power unit
The maximum drainage inflow into the sump can be determined using a variety of
techniques. A maximum can be estimated by multiplying the product of the maximum

drainage coefficient, which is 8 mm/day for Abu Dhabi by the drainage area. So if an area of
100 hectares is drained, then the maximum drainage outflow, expected at the drainage
sump is 8,000 m3/day and the flow is 333 m3/hour. It should be noted here that immediately
after installation of the drainage network, the drainage coefficient can be much higher than 8
mm/day. However, it is not advisable to oversize the pumping plant on the basis of initial
discharge which will probably not last long enough before reaching a steady state varying
between 4 and 8 mm/day.
A second technique to estimate maximum inflow is based on calculation of flow from
individual field drains. Using the same symbols illustrated in Figure 17-6, inflow estimates
are calculated using the following formulas:
2KH ( d  H / 2)
For drains placed above the impermeable layer: Q  CA
S2
4 KH 2
For drains placed on the impermeable layer: Q  CA
S2
Where A is the drained area, and C is a relationship between possible discharge and
probable discharge calculated using:
1
C
0.00054 A  0.7795
Unfortunately, neither of the parameters K, H, and d is constant for large areas. For this
reason, weighed values must be used throughout.
The last technique for estimating drainage outflow, in situations where irrigation is the only
source of recharge, is to estimate the drainage volume as a fraction of the irrigation volume.
This fraction is commonly taken as 10 percent. The volume thus calculated represents the
steady-state outflow from the drainage system.
The recommended approach for Abu Dhabi would be to use all the above techniques and
crosscheck results.
The minimum and maximum water levels and the depth of the sump must be determined as
follows:
 The drainage pipe should be about 3 m above the bottom of the sump
 The maximum water level should be just at the top of the drain pipe discharging into
the sump
 The minimum water level should be anywhere from 0.6 to 1.2 m above the bottom base
of the sump
The size of the sump is determined from the number of start and stop cycles of the pump.
Each cycle consists of equal pump running and standing times. The number of these cycles
is best limited at 4 cycles per hour, i.e. 15 minutes per cycle. The pump capacity is kept at a
minimum by specifying a flow rate which would empty the accumulated water in the sump in
7.5 minutes. As mentioned earlier, accumulated water in the sump is that volume of water
accumulating between the top of the drainage pipe and the 0.6 to 1.2 m above the bottom of
the sump. The sump is commonly a cylindrical storage reservoir.
To illustrate the above procedure, assume a drainage outflow of 2,000 liters per minute.
This flow discharges a volume of 30,000 liters or 30 m3 in 15 minutes. Assuming a minimum
water height of 0.6 m above the bottom of the sump, or 2.4 m below the top of the pipe.
Using the pipe sizing equation presented above, the discharge drainage pipe would have an
outside diameter of 400 mm maximum water height is just above the inlet of the pipe. The
sump radius is thus calculated:

(2.4+0.4) x  x R2 = 30 m3 R = 1.85 m

The pump flow rate is also calculated: Q = 30/15 = 2 m3/min or 120 m3/hr.
It is always advisable to install a corrosion-resistant water meter at the outlet of the pump to
monitor periodic drainage outflow.
An expensive alternative to using pumps with floats and subsequent start and stop cycles is
to use an inverter (or variable frequency drive), coupled with a depth sensor. The depth of
the water in the sump can be set and the rotational velocity of the pump is adjusted
accordingly. Such a system is more suitable for water table control as the water depth in the
sump is adjustable and reflects general water table level. A side benefit is that drainage
outflow can be measured directly. However, economic analyses will seldom favour such a
system.
17.4 Drainage Installation

Pipes should be moved with bucket type equipment & a sling or with a forklift. The sling
should wrap around the pipe at the 1/3 points on the pipe and care should be taken not to
drop or drag the pipe. Products should be stored in a flat area free of large rocks & debris.
Pipe with bell ends should be stored so as to not damage the bells. If stacked, the bells must
be stacked in alternate directions so the bells are not pressing against each other &
flattening them.
For a pipe drain to be effective, it should be placed in a dry trench where the main base
material remains undisturbed. This can only be accomplished by dewatering the base
material.
Using a modern trenching machine, corrugated lightweight plastic pipe, and backfilling
behind the trencher, there is seldom a need for dewatering. However, when the base
material is highly unstable the trencher shield may no prove effective in preventing the
missing of base material with the envelope. This may cause the drain to malfunction.
When necessary, stabilization of drain beds can be accomplished with coarse gravel. In
some instances, this method will require over-excavation. Stabilizing materials should
conform to the following gradation:
 Retained on the 5-inch screen 0 percent
 Retained on the 4-inch screen 0 to 20 percent
 Retained on the 3/4-inch screen 20 to 50 percent
 Passing No. 4 (4.76 mm) screen Less than 8 percent
The finished bed for all pipes should be smooth, free of material under the bell and spigot
assembly. Trenches that have been inadvertently over-excavated should be refilled with
brought to grade with envelope material. When the bell-and-spigot type joint is used, the bell
should always be upstream. Pipe sections should be lowered into the trench manually or
with equipment, not drug, dropped or rolled into the trench. To avoid damage, belled pipe
should be joined using a “push piece” which is a short length of the same pipe & pushed to
together with a backhoe bucket. Pipe & fittings should be clean for proper assembly & fit.
Pipe sections should be held in place by mechanical or other means until the next pipe
section is ready to be placed. Any pipe which is broken or cracked should be discarded.
During placement of the pipe, the water level in the trench should not exceed 50 percent of
the pipe diameter above the invert of the pipe. Water may be moved removed from the
trench by permitting it to flow through previously installed pipe. A screen cover should be
placed over the exposed end of pipe until the next pipe section is installed. This screen
should have a maximum mesh opening of 1/8 inch.

Corrugated plastic pipe requires special precautions during laying operations. The bedding
material must completely surround the pipe. The strength of the pipe depends on the
bedding material in addition to the design of pipe corrugations. Care must be taken to keep
the pipe from stretching more than 5 percent. Any greater stretch could cause deformation
of the corrugations and permit collapse of the pipe during backfilling of the trench. Plastic
pipes tend to float in water, so the trench should be backfilled as fast as possible after pipe
installation.
17.5 Maintenance
In general, subsurface drainage systems have low maintenance requirements and can be
operated several years with no problems. However, small deposits of silt often greatly
reduce the capacity of a surface drainage system and cause partial or complete failure of it.
For this reason, it might be necessary to flush the system through inserting a high velocity
flushing spray inside the lines to remove deposits. This operation is needed whenever the
drainage outflow, monitored through the sump water meter, has declined for no obvious
reason.
Flushing is normally done from the downstream end of the drainage pipe. Water is pumped
inside the drain through a hose which is inserted into the drain outlet. The spray nozzle
produces one forward jet and several backward jets. As such sediments in the drain are
loosened and flushed through water flow.
The standard equipment comprises a pump with a hose mounted on a reel. The pump is
driven by the tractor power-take-off. Flushing units are classed based on the pressure
output of the pump:
 Low pressure: up to 20 bars. Recommended for sandy soils
 Medium pressure 20 to 50 bars. Recommended for medium textured soils
 High pressure: over 50 bars. Recommended for fine textured soils
The normal discharge of these pumps ranges between 3 – 4 l/s. Pipes are normally made of
PE or reinforced rubber with lengths reaching up to 300 m. The backward pressurized flow
of the nozzle is used to push the hose inside the drain pipe.
Flushing is effective in removing clay and silt deposits. For sandy soils it is recommended to
run a flushing operation every few other meters.
17.6 Tubewell Drainage Design

Tubewell drainage is a technique of controlling the water table and salinity in agricultural
areas. It consists of pumping, from a series of wells, an amount of groundwater equal to
drainage surplus.
Tubewell drainage is not new, but it is not widely used. Early attempts to utilize tubewell
drainage for land drainage and salinity control were performed in U.S.A, former U.S.S.R. and
extensively at the Indus Plain in Pakistan.
Tubewell drainage cannot simply be regarded as a substitute for subsurface drainage. The
success of tubewell drainage depends on many factors, including the hydrogeological
conditions of the area, the physical properties of the aquifer to be pumped, and those of the
overlying fine-textured layers.
Enough water has to be removed from the aquifer to produce the required drop in hydraulic
head, and, for vertical downward flow, the hydraulic conductivity of the overlying layers must
be such that the watertable in these layers responds sufficiently quickly to the reduced head
in the pumped aquifer. Additionally, skilled personnel are required to operate and maintain
the tubewells, and monitor water tables and quality of the pumped water.

17.6.1 Tubewell Drainage Versus Other Subsurface Drainage Systems

Tubewell drainage primarily differs from other subsurface drainage systems in the form
excess water is removed from the underground. Tubewell drainage removes excess water
by pumping from a series of wells drilled into the aquifer to a depth of up to several tens of
meters. The pumped water is then discharged into pipe network or open surface drains.
Some certain strengths and limitations stand out through comparison between tubewell and
subsurface drainage systems. Some of the major advantages of tubewell drainage are:
 The total length of pipe network is considerably less with tubewell drainage than with
the other subsurface drainage systems
 On undulating land with local depressions that have no natural outlets, the pumped
water is generally disposed of through pipelines connecting the various wells.
Excessive earth-moving is thus avoided, because no deep canals or ditches need to be
dug through topographic ridges
 The water table can be lowered to much greater depth through tubewell drainage than
do the other subsurface drainage systems. This enables storage of greater portion of
excess water before it has to be removed, whilst in arid and semi-arid regions a deeper
watertable reduces salinization of the soil
 For the hydrogeological conditions, where the deeper layers are much more pervious
than the layers close to surface, utilizing of tubewell drainage is more convenient to
reduce the artesian pressure that is often present
Tubewell drainage also has certain disadvantages. To mention a few:
 It is more costly to maintain and operate the pumped wells
 When the watertable rises to the surface, rapid lowering of the water table is essential
to protect the vegetation which has only a limited tolerance to waterlogging. This
implies a high drainage rate (i.e. a dense network of wells). Although, spacing the wells
farther apart and continuous pumping may reduce the investment costs, but this in turn
will raise the cost of operating and maintaining the wells
 The spacing of the wells and successful application of the tubewell drainage depends
on the favorable hydraulic characteristics of the soil (i.e. if the transmissivity of the
aquifer is fairly high)
 Where the artesian pressure in aquifer is too high or where seepage is excessive,
tubewell drainage may not be technically and economically feasible
17.6.2 Physical and Economic Feasibility

The hydrogeological conditions of the area are the primary factors to justify the physical and
economical feasibility of the tubewell drainage. For an effective draining, a continuous
aquifer capable of transmitting water towards the pumped wells needs to underlie the whole
area. For unconfined aquifers, this means that both the hydraulic conductivity and the
thickness of the aquifer (whose product is the aquifer's transmissivity) must be high enough
to ensure an economic spacing and yield of the wells.
For semi-confined aquifers, a further condition is that the hydraulic resistance of the
overlying aquitard should not be too high. Finally, the quality of the groundwater can play an
important role in the economics of tubewell drainage.
Other factors to be considered in the selection procedure are the availability and cost of
energy and the timely replacement of pumps and engines after their economic lifetime.
17.6.3 Basic Equations

The pattern and the spacing of the individual wells will determine the water level in the well
field and the drawdown of the water level in the individual wells. Lowering of the water table
sufficiently and uniformly requires proper placement of the wells. Drainage equations of two

regular configured patterns for tubewells are presented in the following sections: Briefly,
these patterns are:
 A triangular pattern is hydraulically the most favorable well-field configuration, with a
maximum area to be drained by one well and with no extra drawdown induced by
neighboring wells. The disadvantage of a triangular configuration is that more length of
collector drains is required to transport the water to the main collectors
 A rectangular pattern, in which wells are placed along parallel collector drains. For
this well -field configuration, a minimum length of collector drains is required. The
disadvantage of a rectangular configuration is that interference from neighboring wells
will cause extra drawdown to occur in the wells, leading to somewhat higher pumping
costs
17.6.4 Well Field in a Triangular Pattern

The individual radii of influence hardly overlap when the wells are placed in a triangular
pattern as illustrated in Figure 17.10. The simplifying assumption is made that the
drawdown and the discharge of each well will not be affected from neighboring wells, and
therefore, theory of a single well can be used.
Figure 17-10: Wells Located in a Pattern of Equilateral Triangles (Well Spacing

)
In a drainage well-field, there is a direct relationship between the discharge rate of the well,
the recharge rate of the aquifer by percolation, and the area affected by pumping. The
decline of the water level due to pumping is determined by the discharge rate of the well and
the permeability and thickness of the aquifer. The discharge rate and the drawdown in the
well are important factors in calculating the pumping costs of well drainage. In an unconfined
aquifer, the steady-state flow through an arbitrary cylinder at a distance r (Qr) from the well is
given by:
Where:
 radius of influence of the well (m)
 distance r from the well (m)
 recharge rate of the aquifer per unit surface area (m/d)

According to Darcy’s law, Qr equals to algebraic product of the cylindrical area of flow and
the flow velocity. Hence, the discharge at distance r from the well can also be expressed by:
Where:
 hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer (m/d)
 hydraulic gradient in the aquifer at distance r (-)
 distance r from the well (m)
 h : height of water above the well at distance r
To calculate the drawdown in a well field when the wells are placed in a triangular pattern
following equation can be utilized. From the Figure 17-10, it can be seen that the distance L
between the wells is equal to .
Where:
 saturated thickness of the aquifer before pumping (m)
 drawdown due to radial flow towards the pumped well (m)
 radius of well (m)
Example 1
In an irrigated area where average deep percolation rate from excess irrigation water is
estimated as 2 mm per day. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is K= 25 m/d. The
thickness of the water-bearing layer is H= 25m. The radius of each well is r w= 0.1 m. Wells
are to be placed in a triangular pattern, with a spacing of 1000 m. The required pumping rate
and drawdown of each well can be calculated through above-mentioned formulas as follows:
The discharge rate of each well is calculated as follows:
Substituting this value into equation gives:
The drawdown in each well is thus 4.6 m.
17.6.5 Well Field in a Rectangular Pattern

The formulas of the triangular pattern are not applicable for rectangular configuration, which
are formed in parallel lines at a distance B apart. The spacing of the wells along the lines is
L, where L is considerably smaller than B as presented in Figure 17.11.

Figure 17-11: Rectangular Well Field Configuration

Wells in Parallel Series a Distance B Apart. Well Spacing within the Series is L with L<<B.
In such a situation, if the recharge on the land surface is uniform and flow towards the wells
has attained a steady state, the discharge of each well can be written:
Where:
 discharge rate of each well (m3/d)
 recharge rate of the aquifer per unit surface area (m/d)
 distance between the parallel lines (m)
 spacing of the wells along the lines (m)
For radial flow the drawdown is expressed as:
The equation can be used to calculate the head loss in a well field when the wells form a
rectangular pattern. Such a pattern is recommended when surface drains in parallel lines
already exist in the drainage area.
Example 2
The same area described in Example 1 with irrigated area where average deep percolation
rate from excess irrigation water is estimated as 2 mm per day. The hydraulic conductivity of
the aquifer is K= 25 m/d. The thickness of the water-bearing layer is H= 25m. The radius of
each well is rw= 0.1 m. This time, it is supposed that the surface drains are situated 2,000 m
apart. Assuming the same pumping rate, the distance between the wells and drawdown in
each well is calculated as following:
According to the equation, the distance between the wells is:
Substituting the appropriate values into the drawdown equation gives:

The drawdown in each well is thus 5.6 m.
17.6.6 Semi-Confined Aquifers

Semi-confined aquifer, whose overlying layer is aquitard, is replenished by percolating rain
or excess irrigation water. Depending on the recharge rate and the hydraulic resistance of
the aquitard, a difference in head between the free watertable in the aquitard and the
piezometric level of the aquifer will develop.
Under steady-state conditions, the same recharge rate will replenish the underlying aquifer.
So, equations for both triangular and rectangular pattern placement can also be used to
calculate the head loss in a well field when the pumped aquifer is semi-confined.
17.6.7 Design Procedure

The design of a tubewell drainage system depends on a number of physical, technical,
practical, and economic parameters. In the design procedure, the following elements can be
distinguished: design considerations, well-field design, well design, and design optimization.
These elements are described in the following sub-sections.
17.6.8 Design Considerations

Important design considerations are the design discharge of the tubewells, the tubewell
operating factor, the annual drainable surplus, and the peak drainage requirement. When
applicable, a distinction will be made between autonomous and design factors,
Tubewell Design Discharge
The design discharge rate depends on the autonomous and design factors summarized
below. Autonomous factors are:
 The design should be based on the most economic pump capacity. If larger pumps are
installed, fewer pumps will be required, which generally results in lower investment
costs. On the other hand, larger capacity pumps result in higher drawdowns and thus
higher energy costs. Determining pump capacities on a purely economic basis could
lead to very high pumping rates. There are, however, several practical constraints to
these high pump capacities
 The selection of pumps and engines should be based on their availability on the local
market; spare parts, especially, should be locally available
 A policy of reducing the number of different pump sizes may be another major
constraint on the choice of the pump capacity
 A well with a very high pump capacity may serve a very large area that exceeds the
spacing determined by other factors. If such a well were to be out of order for a
prolonged period, the neighbouring wells would be overburdened, and proper drainage
of the area would be impossible
Design factors are:
 The annual drainable surplus and the peak requirements. The maximum tubewell
capacity will influence the distance between the wells or the maximum spacing in the
well field. Hence, for a given operating factor, the drainable surplus would be the
determining factor for the discharge rate of the well
 The horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity and the thickness of the aquifer, and
the vertical resistance of the aquitard, determine the drawdown for a given discharge
rate and the expansion of the cone of depression

 Screen and casing specifications, together with the discharge rate, determine the
entrance velocity of water flowing through the screen, which has a maximum value in
order to ensure a maximum lifetime for the well
Tubewell Operating Factor
The tubewell operating factor is the number of actual operating hours of the well per 24
hours, expressed as a fraction. The tubewell operating factor largely depends on
autonomous factors, but also on a design factor like the peak drainage requirement. It will
not be possible to operate all wells continuously over an extended period. Time will be lost
during maintenance, inspection, and repairs, stoppage due to power failures, etc. Social
factors like the presence or absence of a pump operator will also influence the possible
operating factor of the wells.
Annual Drainable Surplus
The annual drainable surplus of an area is the annual discharge, in mm/day, required to
maintain the design water-level criteria. It depends on many factors and one of the essential
factors is the depth at which the water table is to be controlled. The design water table depth
depends on:
 The quality of the water table.
 The capillary rise potential of the soil
 The type of cultivation
 The type of drainage system
Peak Drainage Requirement
To maintain a stabilized water table in tubewell drainage, the system ought to be based on
the maximum expected recharge. This, however, would result in excessive investment costs.
If the system were to be based on a continuous discharge to drain the annual drainable
surplus at a constant rate, the water table would fluctuate throughout the year. This variation
can be reduced by adjusting the monthly tubewell operating factor. This means higher
operating factors during the periods with higher recharges and lower operating factors during
the periods with lower recharges.
17.6.9 Well Field Design

Well Distance Calculation Procedure
The operating factor and the discharge rate determine how much water will be pumped by
one tubewell. In combination with the drainable surplus, they determine the drainage area
per tubewell and thus also the number of tubewells required for the total drainage area. This
can be expressed in the following equation:
Where:
 drainage area per well (ha)
 discharge rate of the well (m3/d)
 drainable surplus (mm/d)
 tubewell operating factor (-)
The total number of wells required can be found by dividing the total drainage area per
tubewell.

Well Field Configuration

For a triangular well field configuration, the distance between the wells for a selected
discharge rate can be calculated by:
And for a rectangular well field configuration with wells placed along the parallel main drains
is:
Where
 the distance between the wells (m)
 the distance between the lines of wells (m)
Example 3
An irrigated area of 2500 ha which has an annual drainage requirement of 480 mm. the
drainable surplus is thus 1.5 mm/d. the maximum running hours of pump per day are taken
to be 15 hours, thus the tubewell operating factor, tw, equals to 0.63.
Given the availability of pumps and spare parts, and a policy of reducing the number of
different pump size, it has been decided to use three different pump capacities: 100, 200,
and 300 m3/h.
The area drained per well for a discharge rate of 200 m3/h is calculated as:
Substituting this value of Aw, into Equation gives the spacing of tubewells in a triangular well-
field configuration.
Substituting the value of Aw, into Equation gives the spacing of tubewells in a rectangular
well-field configuration. (Assume that spacing between the main drains to be 5,000 m.)
Table 17-3. lists the drainage area per well and the distances between the wells for both
well-field configurations and for the above-mentioned three pump capacities.
Table 17-3: Well Spacing for Different Pump Capacities and Well-field Configurations
Pump Capacities Area per Well Well Spacing
(m3/h) (ha) Triangular Rectangular (m)
(m)
100 100 977 200 x 5,000
200 200 1,382 400 x 5,000
300 300 1,693 600 x 5,000

17.6.10 Well Design

Knowing the discharge rate of the well and having data on lithology and aquifer
characteristics (plus the dimensions and properties of available screens and casings), we
can design a well. The principle objectives of a properly designed tubewell are:
 Pumping of water at the lowest cost
 Pumping of water that is free of sand
 Minimum operation and maintenance costs
 A long and economic lifetime.
A good well design depends on many factors, some of which are discussed below. Figure
17-13 shows a typical tubewell design.
Considerations for WeIl Depth
The total depth of a tubewell is determined by the lengths of the pump housing, production
casing, screen section, and sand trap. The following points should be considered:
 The length of the pump housing should be chosen so that the pump remains below the
water level in the well, for the selected discharge rate, under all conditions, and over
the total lifetime of the well
 The length of the production casing (i.e. the section of blind pipe between the bottom of
the pump housing and the top of the aquifer) depends on the actual thickness of the
aquitard overlying the aquifer. The production casing is not required in unconfined
aquifers at shallow depth where the pump housing penetrates deep enough into the top
section of the aquifer
Considerations for Well Diameter
The diameter of the well depends on the following:
 In the upper section, on the diameter of the pump housing and some angular space,
say 25 mm, all around the casing
 Below the pump-housing, on the diameter of the production casing, if required
 In the screen section, on the diameter of the screen. Twice the thickness of the gravel
pack should be added to this value. For reasons of construction, the minimum
thickness of the gravel pack should be 75 mm
 The diameter of the sand trap is usually the same as that of the screen section

Figure 17-12: Typical Design of a Tubewell

The length of the screen section depends on the required total screen length and the total
length of sections of blind pipe to case off unproductive layers in the aquifer;
The length of the sand trap is usually of the order of a few meters.
Screen Section
A screen has to perform the following functions in a well. It should:
 Support the wall of the well against collapse
 Prevent sand and fine material from entering the well during pumping
 Secure a low head loss of water flowing through the slot openings and through the
screen
 Provide resistance to chemical and physical corrosion by the pumped water
To achieve the above, the screen should have the following properties:
 A large percentage of open area to minimize the head loss and entrance velocity
 Sufficient column strength to prevent collapse
 Non-clogging slots
 Be resistant to corrosion
 A minimum encrusting tendency
The prime concern is that the screen material should be resistant to chemical and
microbiological corrosion and degradation in contaminated and uncontaminated waters. The
screen should be durable enough to withstand installation and well development and last for
the entire designed operation period. The screen material should conform to ASTM
Standard D5092.
PVC and stainless steel are the most commonly used well screen materials. However, in
some situations, other materials, such as Teflon® may meet project objectives.
All PVC screens, casings, and fittings are typically Schedule 40 or 80 and shall conform to
ASTM Standards F480 or D1785.
Stainless steel well screen is typically Type 316. The stainless steel well screen must have

flush threaded joints, sealing “O” rings of compatible material with the project objectives, and
conform to ASTM Standard A312/A312M. Brainard-Kilman (1990)1 indicates stainless steel
316 has improved resistance to sulfuric and saline conditions and better resistance to stress-
corrosion. However, stainless steel may be sensitive to chloride ion, which can cause pitting
corrosion, especially over long term exposures under acidic conditions (U.S. EPA, 1987)2.
A Teflon® well screen must have flush threaded joins, sealing Teflon® “O” rings, and conform
to ASTM Standard D4894 or D4895. All materials should be as chemically inert as technically
practical with respect to the site environment. Comparisons of materials are presented in
Table 17-4
Table 17-4: Comparisons of Well Screen Materials3
Characteristic Stainless Steel Schedule 40 PVC Teflon
Strength Use in deep wells to Use when shear and Low-strength capabilities limit deep-
prevent compression compression strength are well construction
and closing of screen not critical
and/or riser
Weight Relatively heavier Light-weight Relatively light
Cost Relatively expensive Relatively inexpensive Expensive
Corrosivity Deteriorates more Non-corrosive. May Nearly totally resistant to chemical
rapidly in corrosive deteriorate in presence of and biological attack, oxidation,
water, particularly when high concentrations of weathering and ultraviolet radiation
exposed to H2SO4 ketones, anomatics, alkly
sulfides or some
chlorinated hydrocarbons
Ease of Use Difficult to adjust size or Easy to handle and work Fairly easy to handle and work with
length in the field with in the field the field
Preparation for Should be steam Never use glue fillings. Should be steam cleaned if not
Use cleaned if organics will Pipes should be threaded wrapped by manufacturer and if
be subsequently or pressure fitted. Should organics will be subsequently
sampled be steam cleaned when sampled
used for monitoring wells
is not certified clean
Interaction with May sorb organic or May sorb or release Almost completely chemically inert;
Contaminanats inorganic substances organic substances may react to halogenated
when oxidized compounds and sorption of some
organic compounds. Except in the
case of very low yield wells which
preclude purging prior to sampling,
these reactions are unlikely to cause
significant sample bias
Gravel Pack
The application of a gravel pack is recommended in the following formations:
 Fine sandy alluvium and aeolian sand aquifers
 Alternating formations of fine, medium, and coarse sediment
1
Brainard-Kilman Drill Company, 1990 Catalogue, Stone Mountain, GA.
2
Groundwater Handbook, EPA/625/6/87/016, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, 1987.
3
Monitoring Well Design and Construction Guidance Manual, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Bureau of Water Facilities, 2008.

 Poorly cemented sand stone continuously losing fine material during pumping and
giving no support to the screen because of the formation does not fill up the angular
space between the screen and the borehole wall supporting the screen immediately
after the screen has been installed
Sand Trap
The sand trap is the section of blind pipe at the bottom of the screen section. Its function is
to store sand and silt entering the well during pumping. The length of the sand trap is usually
of the order of a few meters (2-6 m) and the diameter is usually the same size that of the
screen section.
Pump
The following factors determine the selection of the pump:
 The required discharge rate
 The required head to be delivered by the pump. This head is made up of three parts:
o The difference between the elevation of the discharge pipe into the drain and the
natural surface level
o The water-level depth inside the pumped well
o Head losses due to friction and turbulence in the discharge pipelines between the
pump and the drain;
 The efficiency of the pump
 Pump durability. To keep maintenance and replacement costs to a minimum, the pump
should be resistant to wear and to the corrosive action of the drainage water that will be
pumped
 In wells where the maximum water-level depth below the pump during pumping does
not exceed 5 - 7 m, a suction pump, generally a centrifugal type of pump, can be used.
With deeper water levels during pumping, deep-well submersible pumps are required
Operating conditions being equal, the more efficient the pump, the lower the power
requirements for pumping, and hence, the lower the pumping costs. Pump efficiency
therefore becomes an important consideration when a pump is being selected because
pumping costs usually play an important role in the economic viability of tubewell drainage.
Pump efficiency depends on the head-discharge relation and varies from one type of pump
to another, and sometimes from manufacturer to manufacturer.
Pump material selection and hence the properties of the pumped fluid and operating
conditions must be given full attention. In conjunction with the high salinity of pumped fluid,
the following pump metallurgies, presented in Table 17-5., provided with cathodic protection
is suggested to help prevent pitting during non-operational periods of the pump.
Table 17-5: Comparisons of Pump Metallurgies
Option 1 Option 2 Option3

Casing 316L SS / CF-8M Al-Bronze Duplex Alloy ASTM
A890
Impeller 316L SS / CF-8M Ni-Al-Bronze Duplex Alloy ASTM
A890
Shaft 316L SS / Nitronic Nitronic 50 Duplex Alloy 2205
50
Bearings Bronze / Rubber Bronze / Rubber Bronze / Rubber
Bolting 316 SS Monel Duplex Alloy 2205
Keys 316 SS Monel or Duplex Alloy 2205
Nitronic

17.6.11 Borehole Maintenance

The performance of a well usually declines after some years of operation, resulting in higher
drawdowns and higher pumping costs. The well is in need of rehabilitation when the specific
capacity of the well (i.e. the yield of the well per meter drawdown) becomes so small that the
pumping costs increase or the discharge rate of the well can no longer be maintained.
Every type of well requires its own maintenance program. To evaluate the performance of a
well, the following checklist can be performed:
 The static water level in the well
 The pumping rate and the water level expressed as specific capacity, and the ratio of
the pumping rate and the drawdown after a specified period of pumping
 The sand content of the pumped water
 The total depth of the well
 The original specific capacity of the well
The major causes of a reduction in well performance are:
 A reduced well yield due to chemical encrustation or clogging of the screen due to
bacteriological activity
 Plugging of the formation around the well screen by fine particles of clay and sand in
the pores
 Pumping of sand due to poor well design or corrosion of the well screen
 Collapse of the well screen due to chemical or electrolyte corrosion of metal well
screens
17.6.12 Pump Maintenance

Sound operation of pumps and engines is a prerequisite to pump water from a tubewell the
most economic. For pumps to operate properly under less than ideal physical and chemical
conditions, and especially when pumping brackish and saline drainage water, they must be
properly maintained.
Decreases in discharge rates are caused by the wearing of parts in the pump and by
leakage in the pipes bringing the water to the surface. Following checklist can be performed
to determine the condition of the pumping unit in vertical turbine and submersible pumps:
 Deviation of the water pressure and the discharge rate of the well from the original
design curve of the pump
 Unusual sound like a higher bearing-noise level
 Excessive vibration
 Any change in the ampere or voltage load to the pump
 Any cracking or uneven settling of the floor around the pump
 Sand in the pumped water
Sand pumping causes the abrasion of pump bowls, which leads to failure of the pump. Sand
pumping results from:
 Over-sized slots in screens
 Over-sized filter pack
 Corrosion of the well screen
 Inadequate development of the well
Too high entrance velocities, causing the transport of sand from the formation towards the
well.

18 VALUE ENGINEERING
18.1 General
The following sections provides general background on value engineering (VE); however,
once a VE MANUAL is issued by ADM, Consultants should refer to relevant ADM VE
MANUAL for all issues related to VE rather than Part 18.
The value engineering methodology is a systematic process used by a multidisciplinary team
to improve the value of a project through the analysis of its functions. Value is defined as a fair
return or equivalent in goods, services, or money for something exchanged. Value is
commonly represented by the relationship:
Value = Function/Resources
Where function is measured by the performance requirements of the customer and resources
are measured in materials, labour, price, time, etc. required to accomplish that function. A
value methodology focuses on improving value by identifying alternate ways to reliably
accomplish a function that meets the performance expectations of the customer.
The Value Methodology (VM) uses a six-phase process executed in a workshop format with a
multidisciplinary team where all the parts involved in the project must be represented. VM
focuses on improving Value by identifying the most resource efficient way to reliably
accomplish a function that meets the performance expectations of the customer. With this
process, the Value Team identifies the essential project functions and alternative ways to
achieve those functions, and then selects the best alternatives to develop into workable
solutions for value improvements.
18.2 Methodology Overview

The VM Job Plan provides the structure for the activities associated with the Value Study.
These activities are further organized into three major stages:
a) Pre-Workshop preparation
b) VM Workshop
c) Post-Workshop documentation and implementation
18-VALUE ENGINEERING PAGE 204 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Figure 18-1: The VM Job Plan
18.3 Pre-Workshop
Prior to the start of the workshop, the team must be tasked with reviewing the most current
documentation on the project development. This must be done to familiarize the team with the
project plan and to prepare them for asking questions of the project stakeholders during the
project presentations at the beginning of the workshop. Other pre-workshop activities include:
a) Coordinating workshop logistics and communicating those to the various participants
b) Providing guidance on presentation content for the project introduction
c) Scheduling workshop participants and assigning tasks to ensure the team is prepared
for the workshop
d) Gathering necessary background information on the project and making sure project
documentation is distributed to the team members
18.4 VM Workshop
The VM workshop must be an intensive session during which the project plan must be
analysed to optimize the balance between functional requirements and resource commitments
(primarily capital and O&M costs). The VM Job Plan must include the execution of the
following phases during the workshop:
a) Information Phase
b) Function Analysis Phase
c) Creative Phase
d) Evaluation Phase
e) Development Phase
f) Presentation Phase

18.4.1 Information Phase

At the beginning of the workshop, it is important to understand the background of the project.
The overview and subsequent project analysis must provide information on the following
topics:
a) Rationale why this project is necessary
b) Project objectives that have governed the proposed design
c) Rationale for the proposed design configuration
d) Explanation of design features, criteria, and assumptions
e) Value Study constraints
f) Project cost
As a part of this workshop, the team must review some items. The review must verify the
reasonableness of the:
a) Estimated quantities
b) Estimated unit costs
c) Estimated contingencies
d) Mark-ups for overhead, profit, bonds, etc.
e) Overall project cost
This must be done to ensure that the value team have reliable data to use as the basis for cost
comparisons of alternatives.
18.4.2 Function Analysis Phase

Function Analysis is the heart of the VM process and is the key activity that differentiates the
VM process from other problem solving or improvement practices. During the Function
Analysis Phase of the VM Job Plan, functions are identified that describe the expected
outcomes of the project under study. Function Analysis also defines how those outcomes are
expected to be accomplished by the design.
18.4.2.1 Function Determination
Defining functional requirements for the project allows to be sure that the facility, as planned,
would fulfil the needed purposes. The entire project must be analysed to determine what
functions are being accomplished by the current plan. Required functions must be retained.
During the Function Analysis Phase, the Value Team must use various function analysis
techniques to analyse the project. This analysis will help the team to confirm its understanding
of the overall project objectives and will analyse the functions of key project elements. The
Value Team Leader must lead the team through an in-depth discussion of the possible
functions of each key project element to clearly and precisely identify the purposes of each.
18.4.3 Creative Phase

This step in the VM process must involve generating ideas using creativity techniques. The
team must record all ideas regardless of their feasibility. In order to maximize the Value
Team’s creativity, evaluation of the ideas must not be allowed during the creative phase. The
team’s effort must be directed toward a large quantity of ideas. These ideas will be later
screened in the Evaluation Phase of the workshop.
The creative ideas generated by the team must be carefully reviewed, as there may be other
good ideas not developed by the team because of time constraints. These should be further
evaluated or modified to gain the maximum benefit for the project.
18.4.4 Evaluation Phase

In this phase of the workshop, the team must select the ideas with the most merit for further
development. After an initial vote, the Value Team Leader must assess how many ideas could

be developed into Value Alternatives within the remaining duration of the workshop. From this
assessment, all ideas with a certain number of votes must be selected for development.
However, prior to the final selection, all of the ideas must be revisited collectively by the Value
Team to ensure that those selected by the voting process truly represented the best ideas for
development. The criteria used for selection must be:
a) The inherent value, benefit and technical appropriateness of the idea
b) The expected magnitude of the potential cost savings, both capital and life cycle
c) The potential for DMAT acceptance of the idea
This evaluation process is designed to identify those ideas with the greatest potential for value
improvement that can be developed into Value Alternatives within the time constraints of the
workshop and the production capacity of the team.
The remaining ideas must be eliminated from further consideration by the team; however, the
ideas not developed should also be reviewed, as there may still be other good ideas not
developed by the team because of time constraints or other factors. These could be further
evaluated or modified to gain the maximum benefit for the project.
To further ensure the Value Team is focused on developing the best ideas, a mid-point review
meeting must be conducted with the Value Team Leader and DMAT representatives. This
mid-point review will allow DMAT to identify any fatal flaws in the ideas that might not be
apparent to the Value Team but are apparent to DMAT project team because of their greater
institutional knowledge of the project. These fatal flaws may be technical, operational, political,
etc.
18.4.5 Development Phase

During the Development Phase of the workshop, each idea must be expanded into a workable
alternative to the original project concept. Development consisted of preparing a description of
the value alternative, evaluating advantages and disadvantages, and making cost
comparisons. Each alternative must be presented with a brief narrative to compare the original
concept and the alternative concept. Sketches and brief calculations must be also developed,
if needed, to clarify and support the alternative.
18.4.6 Presentation Phase

The last phase of the workshop is the presentation of the Value Alternatives. The Value Team
must describe each Value Alternative and the rationale that went into its development. This
must be followed by answering the audience’s questions.
18.5 Post-Workshop
The Post-Workshop activities of the Value Study must consist in preparing the Value Study
Reports and coordinating with DMAT to help them make decisions regarding the acceptance
of the value alternatives.
After the conclusion of the workshop Preliminary Report must be submitted to DMAT for
review. Upon receipt of the report, DMAT’s project team will analyse each Value Alternative.
The project team will provide a response to management either recommending incorporation
of the Value Alternative into the design or presenting reasons for rejection.
Upon completion of the review, a meeting must be held between DMAT’s project team and the
Value Team Leader for resolution of any outstanding questions and for making decisions
regarding the appropriate implementation action for each Value Alternative and Design
Suggestion.

19 ECONOMICAL AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

19.1 General
While economic analysis is useful in justifying the DMAT investment in terms of economic
viability, it should also be considered as a major tool in designing landscape operations. There
is a scope for better integrating social and economic considerations in the overall project
design. It is essential to carry out an economic analysis of projects so DMAT is aware of the
actual economic cost of landscape irrigation, its social impact and the appropriate levels of
future expenditure.
The economic analysis has to follow a sequence of interrelated steps. The following figure
shows a flowchart for the economic analysis of a water supply project.
Figure 19-1: A flowchart for the economic analysis of a water supply project
19-ECONOMICAL & FINANCIAL ANALYSIS PAGE 208 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016
19.2 Design Life

The minimum design life shall be as follows:
a) Pipelines 60 years
b) Structures 30 years
c) Mechanical and Electrical Equipment 15 years
d) Instrumentation 5 years
19.3 Identification and Quantification of Cost and Benefits

In estimating the economic costs, some items of the financial costs are to be excluded while
other items, which are not part of financial costs, are to be included. The underlying principle
must be that project costs represent the difference in costs between the without-project and
the with-project situations.
Some of the cost are directly related to the irrigation and must be considered in the analysis:
a) Initial costs, purchase price (pump, system, pipes, auxiliary services)
b) Installation and commissioning cost (including training)
c) Energy costs (predicted cost for system operation, including pump driver, controls, and
any auxiliary services)
d) Operation costs (labour cost of normal system supervision)
e) Maintenance and repair costs (routine and predicted repairs)
f) Downtime costs (loss of production)
g) Decommissioning / disposal costs (including restoration of the local environment and
disposal of auxiliary services)
Other cost items and the way they are to be treated in project economic analysis, are as
follows:
a) External Costs: Environmental costs arising out of a project activity, such as water
table build up, is an instance of such costs. It may be necessary to internalize this
external cost by including all relevant effects and investments like subsoil drainage
costs and effects in the project statement
b) Opportunity Cost of Water: If, for example, a landscape irrigation project uses water
diverted from agriculture, the use of this water for landscape will result in a loss for
farmers. These costs are measured as the opportunity cost of water which, in this
example, equals the “benefits foregone” of the use of that water in agriculture
c) Depletion Premium: In irrigation projects where the source of water is ground water
and the natural rate of recharge or replenishment of the aquifer is less than its
consumptive use, the phenomenon of depletion occurs. In such cases, significant cost
increase may take place as the aquifer stock depletes; the appropriate valuation of
water has to include a depletion premium in the economic analysis
d) Depreciation: The stream of investment assets includes initial investments and
replacements during the project’s life. This stream of expenditure, which is included in
the benefit-cost analysis, will generally not coincide with the time profile of depreciation
and amortization in the financial accounts and as such, the latter should not be
included once the former is included
Robustness and redundancy is an essential part of the design of works as obtaining spare
parts at a later date and changes to network locations can be problematic. Minimising capital
expenditure resulting in a works that will require a lot of maintenance is not what is required.
Civil works cost estimates may be built up using local rates and allowing further margins for
overhead and profit of any overseas involvement.
Major mechanical and electrical equipment cost estimates can be obtained from international
suppliers of equipment. Allowances must be made for shipping costs, installation, overhead
and profit and local agents’ costs. These can more than double the base price.
Cost estimates should also allow for the consideration of:

a) Project complexity
b) Levels of competition
c) Current and international workload
d) Unusual project scope
e) Operations expenditure
f) Operations expenditure (OPEX) covers the following aspects:
 Labour
 Power
 Maintenance and spares
Maintenance costs should be agreed with DMAT based upon the value of the asset cost.
19.4 Valuation of Economic Costs and Benefits

Once the costs, including external effects, have been identified and quantified, they must be
valued. Decisions must be based on financial prices. To appraise the consequences of their
decisions on the national economy, benefits and costs are to be valued at economic prices.
Therefore, the (financial) market prices are to be adjusted to account for the effects of
government interventions and market structures.
a) Transfer payments - taxes, duties and subsidies incorporated in market prices of goods
and services
b) Official price of foreign exchange where government controls foreign exchange
markets
c) Wage rates of labour where minimum wage legislation affects wage rates
d) Commercial cost of capital where government controls the capital market
19.5 Least-cost and Cost-effective analysis

The selection of the least-cost alternative in economic terms from the technically feasible
options promotes production efficiency and ensures the most economically optimum choice.
The options related to the technical measures may include:
a) Different designs and technologies
b) Different scale (large-scale or small-scale) and time phasing of the same project
c) The same project in different locations
Once the alternatives are identified, the next step is to estimate the entire life-cycle costs
(initial capital costs and future operating and maintenance costs) for each option, first in
financial prices and then in economic prices by applying appropriate shadow price conversion
factors.
Finally, the discounted value of the economic costs for each option is to be worked out using
the economic discount rate. On this basis, the alternative with the least economic cost can be
selected. The different methodological approaches are explained in this chapter.
Once the least-cost alternative has been selected, the preliminary project cost estimates are
typically worked out in greater detail by the engineer. The following main categories are
distinguished:
a) Investments
b) Operation and maintenance
c) Re-investments during the life cycle
The project costs must be calculated on an annual basis.
19.5.1 Life Cycle Costs (LCC)

The life cycle cost (LCC) of any piece of equipment is the total “lifetime” cost to purchase,
install, operate, maintain, and dispose of that equipment. Determining LCC involves following
a methodology to identify and quantify all of the components of the LCC equation.
Irrigation assets often have a lifespan of 15 to 30 years. Some cost elements will be incurred
at the outset and others may be incurred at different times throughout the lives of the different
solutions being evaluated. It is therefore practicable, and possibly essential, to calculate a
present or discounted value of the LCC in order to accurately assess the different solutions.
This analysis is concerned with assessments where details of the system design are being
reviewed. The designs must be compared on a like-for-like basis, and the analysis must
consider all significant differences between the solutions being evaluated.
Finally, the designer must consider maintenance or servicing costs, particularly where these
are to be subcontracted, or spare parts are to be provided with the initial supply of the
equipment for emergency stand-by provision. Whatever is considered must be on a strictly
comparable basis. The life cycle cost can be evaluated by the following formula:
LCC = Cic + Cin + Ce + Co + Cm + Cs + Cenv + Cd
Where:
 LCC: life cycle cost
 Cic: initial costs
 Cin: installation and commissioning cost
 Ce: energy costs
 Co: operation costs (labour cost of normal system supervision)
 Cm: maintenance and repair costs (routine and predicted repairs)
 Cs: down time costs (loss of production)
 Cenv: environmental costs
 Cd: decommissioning/disposal costs
19.5.2 Net Present Value

Net Present Value (NPV) or Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) calculations are a method of
comparing capital and operations costs over a period to determine which has the lowest
overall value. In essence, all costs are reduced back to present day prices.
Capital costs for expenditure in the first year, Year 0, are the actual costs whereas costs for
future capital expenditure, e.g. phased construction or replacement of plant, are represented
by the sum which invested now would build up to the capital sum needed in the future.
Operations costs are represented by the present day sum that invested now will enable the
annual running costs to be paid and reduce to zero at the end of the term.
A discount rate is chosen on which to base the assessment. Normally this is between 3% -
7%. A sensitivity analysis can be done at different discount rates if required. Inflation may be
considered.
The period of the NPV calculations should be at least 20 years. Replacement life of items
should be agreed in advance with DMAT but in general computer hardware should be allowed
for every 5 years, machinery 15 years and civil structures 30 years. In all but the most
sensitive calculations there is no need to consider residual values i.e. the remaining value of
the item at the end of the term under consideration.
The NPV may be calculated according to the following equation:
Where:
 N: total number of years
 t: year of the cost
 Ct: cost of year “t”
 r: discount rate
19.6 Sensitivity and Risk Analysis

Future values are difficult to predict and there will always be some uncertainty about the
project results. Sensitivity analysis is therefore undertaken to identify those benefit and cost
parameters that are both uncertain.
Sensitivity analysis is a technique for investigating the impact of changes in project variables
on the base-case (most probable outcome scenario). Typically, only adverse changes are
considered in sensitivity analysis. The purpose of sensitivity analysis is:
a) To help identify the key variables which influence the project cost and benefit streams.
Key variables to be normally included in sensitivity analysis include water demand,
investment cost, O&M cost, water tariffs, availability of raw water and discount rates
b) To investigate the consequences of likely adverse changes in these key variables
c) To assess whether project decisions are likely to be affected by such changes
d) To identify actions that could mitigate possible adverse effects on the project
Sensitivity analysis needs to be carried out in a systematic manner. To meet the above
purposes, the following steps are required:
a) Identify key variables to which the project decision may be sensitive
b) Calculate the effect of likely changes in these variables and calculate a sensitivity
indicator and/or switching value
c) Consider possible combinations of variables that may change simultaneously in an
adverse direction
d) Analyse the direction and scale of likely changes for the key variables identified,
involving identification of the sources of change.
The information generated must be presented in a tabular form with an accompanying
commentary and set of recommendations. Proposed changes in key variables must be well
explained. The sensitivity analysis must be based on the most likely changes. Some typical
changes in key variables are:
a) An increase in investment cost by 20 present
b) An increase in costs of operation and maintenance by 20 per-cent
c) A delay in the period of construction by one year
The results of the sensitivity analysis must be summarized, where possible, in a sensitivity
indicator and in a switching value.
 A sensitivity indicator shows the percentage change to the percentage change in a
selected variable. A high value for the indicator indicates project sensitivity to the
variable
 Switching values show the change in a variable required for the project decision to
switch from acceptance to rejection
For large projects, and those close to the cut-off rate, a quantitative risk analysis incorporating
different ranges for key variables is recommended. Measures mitigating against major sources
of uncertainty must incorporated into the project design, thus improving it.
19.7 Sustainability of Project

For a project to be sustainable, it must be both financially and economically viable. Assessing
sustainability must include:
a) Undertaking financial analysis at both the DMAT level and the project level (i.e.,
covering the financial liquidity aspect of the project at both levels)
b) Evaluating the project’s fiscal impact, i.e., whether DMAT can afford to pay the level of
O&M costs that may be necessary for the project to survive
20 COMPUTER MODELLING
20.1 General
A hydraulic model is a mathematical approximation of a real-world system which replicates the
behaviour of the actual (or proposed) system. It is mainly used as a tool for water irrigation
network planning, design and operation.
Hydraulic models have become a necessity for analysing the behaviour of complex irrigation
systems. Building a hydraulic model is a thorough and complex process that may be carried
out manually or through the use of existing spatial databases stored in GIS or CAD packages.
The following data are necessary to build a hydraulic model regardless of the modelling
software used:
a) Characteristics of the network elements (pipes, pumps, tanks, valves)
b) Water demands assigned to nodes (temporal variations required in EPS)
c) Topographical information: elevations assigned to nodes
d) Operational Data (e.g. mode of pump operation, valve status, control valve setting,
reservoir level etc.)
Before building the model, it is necessary to gather information describing the main physical
and topological characteristics of the network. In general, the Asset Information Management
System (AIMS) irrigation geo-database is used to extract the basic elements and their
properties to generate the data sets to start the modelling. The standard format that is used to
collect all the graphical and alphanumerical properties of the most relevant elements is the
shape file. The shape files are exported directly from the Geo-database. Because the Geo-
database stores the data on the thematic layers linked together geographically, it is easy to
select the required elements by geographic areas or work packages and generate the
following shape files:
Table 20-1: Shapefiles for hydraulic modelling
Asset Code
JUNCTIONS Elevation
Type (fitting, tee, sampling point…)
Asset Code
RESERVOIR
Water Surface Elevation (m)
Asset Code
Bottom Elevation
Maximum Water Level
Minimum Water Level
Initial Water Level
TANKS
Type of section (Circular, Non Circular, Variable Area)
Equivalent Diameter
Area
Volume
Water level-volume curve (alternatively)
20-COMPUTER MODELING PAGE 214 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Asset Code
HYDRANTS
Elevation
UNIQUE_ID
Age or Installation Date
PIPES Diameter
Material
Length
Asset Code
Pumping Station Name
Elevation
PUMPS
Variable Speed Pumps
Nominal Head, Nominal Flow (*)
Power (kW) (alternatively)
Asset Code
Type (PRV, PSV, FCV, Check Valve)
Elevation
VALVES
Status (OPEN, CLOSED or ACTIVE)
Pressure/Flow Setting
Minor Loss Coefficient
Asset Code
Elevation
ISOLATIONVALVE
Diameter
S
Status (OPEN or CLOSED)
Minor Loss Coefficient
NOTES:
 A unique label must be assigned to each node and link so that it can be identified
during processing
 (*) Pump curves may be obtained by performing actual performance tests for each
pump and pump group using ‘Thermodynamic Efficiency and Flow Monitoring’
 The GIS support is essential at this stage as the above information must be extracted
from the corporate GIS database in order to get the asset inventory foundation for the
model construction
20.1.1 Use of Models

Network computer models are used in planning, engineering, operations, and management of
water irrigation networks. Some examples include the following:
a) Network models are run to analyse what capital improvements will be needed to serve
additional customers and maintain existing services in future years. They also can help
a utility prepare for planned outages of specific system components, such as reservoirs
and pump stations
b) Network models are used to locate and size specific network components, such as
new mains, storage tanks, pumping stations, and regulator valves

c) Pump scheduling; tank turnover analysis, energy optimization, and operator training
are some ways in which network models can be used to improve system operations
d) Extensions to hydraulic models allow them to analyses a host of questions related to
level of service and water quality. They can determine how water from different
sources blend together throughout a system, how operational changes can reduce the
time that water spends in the system, and what steps can be taken to maintain
adequate disinfectant residuals without excessive levels of disinfection by-product
formation throughout the system
e) Vulnerability studies are used to test a system’s susceptibility to unforeseen
occurrences, such as loss of power, major main breaks, extended drought periods, and
intrusion of waterborne contamination
DMAT has a complete model of the irrigation network available for its use. Any new design,
change in the irrigation assets, operation or schedule must be checked by its integration in the
existing model.
20.2 Modelling Software

When a new design must be integrated in the geo-database the submission of hydraulic
models, must be followed by the submission of the appropriate GIS data of all the assets as
per AIMS requirements.
20.3 Model Build

The common steps to go through in order to build a hydraulic model are:
a) Import from a CAD file, a shape file or Geo-database file
b) Check the physical network properties
c) Check topology errors
d) Interpolate elevations at nodes
e) Allocate demands based on consumptions records and diurnal or operating patterns
f) Introduce the operational network properties (pump curves, control rules, etc.)
g) Calibrate the network model
h) Run the hydraulic model for specific scenarios and analyse the results
20.3.1 Water Demands Allocation

The demand for each hydrozone must be allocated to the nodes that represent its solenoid
valves. The demand pattern for each solenoid must be the in line with the real or designed
operating schedule of the hydrozone.
20.3.2 Elevation
Actual and designed node elevations must be used to establish the correct hydraulic grade
line. Elevations must be assigned to each node in the network model where pressure
information is required. Special attention must be paid to obtain accurate elevations
particularly at system boundary points, such as reservoirs and storage tanks, and at locations
where pressure measurements are taken for calibration purposes.
20.3.3 Operational Data

For an extended-period analysis, the model needs information on how pumps and valves are
controlled throughout the simulation period. This information must be represented through a
fixed time schedule of pump/valve openings and closings or through a set of rules that
describe what conditions (e.g. tank water levels or nodal pressures) will cause a pump or valve
to change status. In order to apply an EPS model, it is then necessary to define a set of rules
that tells the model how the water system operates. This may be divided into two groups of
rules:

a) Particular pump/valve simple daily operation

b) Complex ‘logical controls’ in which operations such as pump off/on, pump speed, or
valve status are controlled using boolean operators (including if-then-else logic) for
factors such as tank water levels, node pressures, system demand, and time of day
20.3.4 Model Calibration

All new hydraulic models must be calibrated prior its submission to DMAT and use as a tool.
Calibration is the process of making adjustments to model hydraulic characteristics so that the
model output reproduces observed measurements to a reasonable degree of accuracy.
Adjustable model inputs primarily include pipe-roughness coefficients, throttles (partially
opened valves) and nodal demands. Observable model outputs are pressures, flows, tank
water levels, etc. The models are calibrated in two stages.
a) The first stage serves as a reality check that the model is producing reasonable, but
not necessarily highly accurate results. The modeller must check for the following
problematic behaviour:
 Unreasonably low (e.g., negative) or high pressures

 Pumps operating outside of their allowable range or being shut down for this
reason
 Pumps cycling on/off in an unreasonable fashion
 Tanks that continuously keep filling or emptying
 Nodes disconnected from any source because of closed pipes, pumps, or valves
Any of these conditions indicates that there was a problem in representing some
aspect of the network in the model.
b) The second level of calibration involves adjustments to model input parameters that
match best with field observations. This requires the collection of field data, preferably
under more than one operating condition. When collecting these data, priority must be
given to measuring conditions at the system boundaries. This must include flow rates
and pressures at solenoid valves and water levels in storage tanks.
The following guidelines represent the acceptable performance criteria against which modelled
flows and pressures should agree with recorded field data.
Flows
1. Modelled trunk main flows (where the flow is more than 10% of the total demand)
±5%0 of measured flow
2. Modelled trunk main flows (where the flow is less than 10% of the total demand) ±10%
of measured flow
Pressure
1. 85% of field test measurement ±0.5m or ±5% of maximum head loss across system
whichever is greater
2. 95% of field test measurement ±0.75m or ±7.5% of maximum head loss across system
3. 100% of field test measurement ±2m or ±15% of maximum head loss across system
If after detailed calibration, any points still do not conform to the stated flow and pressure
calibration criteria, they should be reported as anomalies and investigated.

20.4 Model Analysis

Once the model has been calibrated, it can be used as a means of understanding the system
operation under different conditions. Network modelling analyses can be used to assess new
pumping or valve arrangements, to simulate several scenarios of demand variation, future
changes or contingency plans to cope with bursts.
A model analysis consists of performing an extended-period simulation over a period of time.
This type of analysis allows you to model tanks filling and draining, regulating valves opening
and closing, and pressures and flow rates changing throughout the system in response to
varying demand conditions and automatic control strategies formulated by the designer.
Extended period simulation indicates whether the system has the ability to provide acceptable
levels of service over a period of minutes, hours, or days. Extended period simulations can
also be used for energy consumption and cost studies, as well as water quality modelling.
Data requirements for extended period simulations are greater than for steady-state runs. It is
necessary to determine operating schedules, more detailed tank information, and operational
rules for pumps and valves. The rule-based controls allow for precise simulation of the
hydraulic behaviour of the model and automatically control the status of data elements based
on time of day, tank water levels, node pressures, pump flow rates or any combination of
factors. The models must integrate the entire service area network downstream the reservoir /
direct feed.

21 SUBMISSION REQUIREMENTS
21.1 General
A Design Documentation Package (DDP) must be submitted to DMAT for all irrigation
projects. The Design Documentation Package shall address water conservation techniques
and efficient irrigation systems. The contractor shall be responsible for implementation of the
Design Documentation Package.
The DDP must be prepared by an experienced irrigation designer. The DDP must be
submitted and approved before a building permit will be issued. The irrigation engineer shall
conduct periodic site visits during construction to ensure that the irrigation system are being
installed per the approved Design Document Package and shall certify to such as part of the
Certificate of Completion requirements.
21.2 Application
These submission requirements are related to irrigation assets. ADM-DMAT design
approval does not guarantee the acceptance of Municipality of Abu Dhabi City for taking
over the irrigation assets for Operation and Maintenance after construction. This also will
require a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the developer and
Municipality of Abu Dhabi City Management.
21.3 Required Standards

All irrigation designs must comply with the latest ADM Manuals, Standards, technical
Specifications and Standard Drawings.
Also Estidama requirements of Urban Planning Council must be addressed.
Attention is drawn to the following documents in particular and it is up to the
consultant to ensure that they are familiar with the requirements of these documents:
1- Irrigation Manual, ADM
2- ADM Relevant Manuals
3- Abu Dhabi Public Realm Design Manual
4- Utility Corridors Design Manual
5- Urban Street Design Manual
6- All relevant Manuals published through The Abu Dhabi Quality and Conformity
Council (QCC)
It should be noted that the above mentioned Manuals are under continuous
updating to ensure their compatibility with the latest UAE and international
standards. It is the responsibility of the Design Consultant to confirm
obtaining the latest version of the Manual prior to any design works.
21.4 Contact Details

All irrigation designs submittals must be submitted online to IDAS system.
21-SUBMISSION REQUIREMENTS PAGE 219 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

21.5 Submission Requirements

The following requirements are applicable to the preliminary and detailed design
submission:
1- Submissions can only be accepted through qualified Irrigation Consultant. No

design submittals by Contractors or non-qualified Consultant can be acceptable.
2- Master Plans and/or Concept Designs approval shall be obtained from the Abu
Dhabi Urban Planning Council (UPC). ADM may comment on Master Plans and
Concept Designs as part of the UPC review process and the response will be
coordinated by UPC.
3- Any design proposing combined use of the irrigation network with any other
service such as firefighting shall be rejected.
4- The applicant shall not incorporate in his designs a technology which has not
been approved in advance by ADM.
5- Check list as per section 8 & 9 below must be submitted.
6- It is the Consultant responsibility to ensure that each submittal is complete and

self-explanatory and must not be based on a submittal previously commented
and/or rejected by ADM. ADM does not maintain any previous non-approved
submittals.
7- Reports, Drawings, Technical calculations and Hydraulic modelling as detailed in

section 5 below.
8- ADM approval for landscape concept design (green assets) is a mandatory

prerequisite to irrigation preliminary design submittal. Preliminary irrigation
design shall not be submitted before obtaining it.
9- ADM approval for irrigation preliminary design and landscape detailed design
(green assets) is a mandatory prerequisite to irrigation detailed design submittal.
Detailed irrigation design shall not be submitted before obtaining them.
21.6 Review Stages and Requirements

21.6.1 General Notes
1- Approvals of Preliminary Designs cannot be granted on a conditional
basis pending the fulfilment of certain requirements.
2- Approvals of Detailed Design are always conditional to the implementation of

complete ADM specifications and approved materials list during execution.
3- All Drawings must be CAD based at readable scale with the Key Plan and
Legend.
4- A presentation to ADM might be required during the review process to address

particular issues.
5- Prior to apply any changes on the approved designs ADM shall be alerted and
ADM approval on the required changes shall be obtained.

21.6.2 Detailed Design Package Submission Flowchart
Approval of Master Approval of Submit Preliminary

Plan and Concept Landscape Concept Irrigation Design
Design (UPC) Design (DMAT) (DMAT)
Approval of Submit Detailed

Landscape Detailed Irrigation Design
Design (DMAT) (DMAT)
Figure 21-1: Detailed Design Package Submission Flowchart
21.6.3 Preliminary Design

The Preliminary Design Package submittal shall include the following:
1- Copies of:
a. Assignment Letter from the Client.
b. UPC Master Plans and Concept Design approval.
c. ADM landscape concept design (green assets) approval.
d. Confirmation letter for the availability of Irrigation Water (Volume, Flow

and Pressure) from the irrigation water provider.
2- Project Vision Statement.
3- Project site location plan.
4- Site survey and site context including existing site boundary, access roads and
primary infrastructure facilities serving the site, existing utilities / services,
access and connectivity and surrounding land use.
5- Topography survey to be submitted in digital (X, Y, Z) preferred Excel format.
6- Geotechnical investigations report/results (soil, rock, water tests and

groundwater conditions).
7- Full and detailed description of design criteria adopted.
8- Proposed site plans and grading plans.
9- Proposed network layouts.
10- Proposed layouts for pumping stations and reservoirs (if any).
11- Electromechanical design including pump curves, pump selection and proposed
control system.
12- Hydraulic design calculations and technical calculation table sheets (MS Excel
format) must contain as a minimum pipe diameters, levels, flows, coefficients,
time(s), pressure and velocities.
13- Hydraulic modelling for the proposed network showing in tables and drawings
the design input and output reflecting the actual demand distribution as per the
approved landscape design.
14- Sizing design calculations for any proposed structures.
15- Sections showing ROW with all details of all services.
16- Project Construction cost estimation.
17- Sustainability strategy.
18- Value Engineering Report
19- Other details as applicable.
20- Preliminary Design Compliance Form and checklist to be signed and stamped
by the Consultant as per the standard form as below.

DETAILS OF THE CONSUTANT MAKING THE APPLICATION
NAME OF CONSULTANT:
FULL ADRESS:
TELEPHONE NO:
DETAILS OF THE PROJECT
PROJECT TITLE:
PROJECT OWNER
We hereby certify that the statements and information in all forms, reports,
documents, and attachments submitted to ADM are true, accurate and
complete.
We also certify that all submitted designs are fully complying with ADM
manuals, specifications and standards.
NAME OF REPRESENTATIVE:
POSITION:
CONTACT NO:
SIGNATURE:
CONSULTANT STAMP:

P RELIM INARY D ESI GN C HEC K LI ST
# Description Yes No NA Clarifications
1 Soft copy of the Report and Drawings.

Soft copy of the Technical calculation sheets with
2 visible formulas. MS Excel format or compatible to
it.
Soft copy of the Hydraulic modelling Shape files with
3
a format that is compatible with “INFOWATER”.
4 Copy of Assignment Letter of the Client.
Copy of UPC approval on the Master Plans and
5
Concept Design.
Copy of ADM landscape concept design (green
6
assets) approval.
Conformation letter for the availability of Irrigation
7 Water (Volume, Flow and Pressure) from the
irrigation water provider.
8 Project Vision Statement.
9 Project site location plan.
Site survey and site context including existing site
boundary, access roads and primary infrastructure
10
facilities serving the site, existing utilities / services,
access and connectivity and surrounding land use.
Topography survey to be submitted in digital (X, Y, Z)
11
preferred Excel format.
Geotechnical investigations report/results (soil, rock,
12
water tests and groundwater conditions).
Full and detailed description of design criteria
13
adopted.
14 Proposed site plans and grading plans.
15 Proposed network layouts.
Proposed layouts for pumping stations and
16
reservoirs (if any).
Electromechanical design including pump curves,
17
pump selection and proposed control system.
18 Hydraulic design calculations.
19 Hydraulic modelling
Sizing design calculations for any proposed
20
structures.
21 Sections showing ROW with all details of all services.
22 Project Construction cost estimation.
23 Sustainability Strategy
24 Value Engineering Report
25 Preliminary Design Compliance Form.
26 Other details as applicable.

21.6.4 Detail Design

The submitted Detailed Design Package shall include the following:
1- Copies of:
a. ADM landscape detailed design (green assets) approval.
b. ADM irrigation preliminary design approval.
c. Service provider acceptance for the connection to the existing irrigation

Line (to be obtained from O&M section of ADM if it is owned by ADM).
d. Approvals of all authorities related to the project scope.
e. Town Planning Department approval of the proposed service corridor.
2- Detailed Design Report.
3- All drawings including project location plan, general and detailed network
layouts, detailed profiles, structural layouts, irrigation pumping station civil,
structural and electromechanical details, reservoir civil, structural and
electro‐mechanical details and standard drawings.
4- All applicable standard specifications.
5- All particular specifications.
6- Bill of Quantities for the works.
7- Detailed breakdown of the estimated construction cost.
8- Detailed Project implementation plan (MS Project or Primavera).
9- Detailed Sustainability strategy.
10- Detailed Value Engineering Report
11- Detailed Operation & Maintenance strategy with associated programme of

activities / tasks.
12- Operations and Maintenance budget estimate and breakdown covering 10-year
period from final handover (FAC / Final TOC).
13- Statement of status of all Authority Approvals including any pending NOI / NOC.
14- All other necessary details as applicable.
15- Detailed Design Compliance Form and checklist to be signed and stamped by
the Consultant as per the standard form as below.

DETAILS OF THE CONSUTANT MAKING THE APPLICATION
NAME OF CONSULTANT:
FULL ADRESS:
TELEPHONE NO:
DETAILS OF THE PROJECT
PROJECT TITLE:
PROJECT OWNER
We hereby certify that the statements and information in all forms, reports,
documents, and attachments submitted to ADM are true, accurate and
complete.
We note that the following listed elements and items are non‐conforming
ADM manuals, specifications and standards with justification:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(If space not suitable can attach authenticated document)
NAME OF REPRESENTATIVE:
POSITION:
CONTACT NO:
SIGNATURE:
CONSULTANT STAMP:

DETAILED DESIGN CHECK LIST
# Description Yes No NA Clarifications
1 Soft copy of the Report and Drawings.

Soft copy of the Technical calculation sheets with
2 visible formulas. MS Excel format or compatible to
it.
Soft copy of the Hydraulic modelling Shape files with
3
a format that is compatible with “INFOWATER”.
Copy of ADM landscape detailed design (green
4
assets) approval.
5 Copy of ADM irrigation preliminary design approval.
Copy of Service provider acceptance for the
connection to the existing irrigation Line (to be
6
obtained from O&M section of ADM if it is owned by
ADM).
Copy of Approvals of all authorities related to the
7
project scope.
Copy of Town Planning Department approval of the
8
proposed service corridor.
9 Detailed Design Report.
All drawings including project location plan, general
and detailed network layouts, detailed profiles,
structural layouts, irrigation pumping station civil,
10
structural and electromechanical details, reservoir
civil, structural and electro‐mechanical details and
standard drawings.
11 All applicable standard specifications.
12 All particular specifications.
13 Bill of Quantities for the works.
Detailed breakdown of the estimated construction
14
cost.
Detailed Project implementation plan (MS Project or
15
Primavera).
16 Detailed Sustainability strategy.
17 Detailed Value Engineering Report
Detailed Operation & Maintenance strategy with
18
associated programme of activities / tasks.
Operations and Maintenance budget estimate and
19 breakdown covering 10-year period from final
handover (FAC / Final TOC).
Statement of status of all Authority Approvals
20
including any pending NOI / NOC.
21 All other necessary details as applicable.
22 Detailed Design Compliance Form.

21.6.5 Design presentation

HYDRAULIC MODELING SHAPE FILE DATA REQUIREMENTS
model input/output
Parameter name
Decimal Places
data type (I/O)

Feature class
(numeric field
Field name
Field type
Remarks
Scale)
Layer
Unit
No.
1 Label Label I/O

text - string
2 Description Descr
3 Diameter Dia mm 0
4 Elevation (ground) Elev_grd double
m 2
5 Elevation (axis) Elev_inv
Type
6 (valve/connection/flow Type
meter…)
Subtype1 (e.g. text - string
7 Subtype1 R1
PRV/FCV…)
I only if
8 Subtype2 Subtype2
required
9 P1 P1
10 P2 P2 varies R2
NODES
…Pi
Points
11 Pi
12 Head loss coef. Los_coef - 2 R3
Base Demand (daily double
13 Dem_base l/s"/d" 4
average)
14 Demand category Dem_cat
text - String
15 Demand Pattern Dem_pat R4
16 Max. Head Head_Max
17 Min. Head Head_Min
18 Max. Head upstream H_MxU
Max. Head
19 H_MxD
downstream only if
m 2 double O
20 Min. Head upstream H_MnU required
Min. Head
21 H_MnD
downstream
22 Time of Max. Head Head_Tmx
23 Time of Min. Head Head_Tmn

model input/output
Parameter name
Decimal Places
data type (I/O)

Feature class
(numeric field
Field name
Field type
Remarks
Scale)
Layer
Unit
No.
24 Max. Pressure P_max

25 Min. Pressure P_min
26 Max. Demand Dem_max
l/s
27 Min. Demand Dem_min
28 Existing? Existing 0=No,
0,1 integer
29 Existing Upgrade? Upgrade - I 1=Yes
30 Phase Phase text string
1 Label Label I/O

2 Description Descr
text - string
3 Start Node (Label) Nod_u
4 Stop Node (Label) Nod_d
5 Diameter (Internal) Dia
6 Invert (Upstream) Inv_u
7 Invert (Downstream) Inv_d
m only if
Ground elev. 2 double
8 Grnd_up required
(Upstream)
Ground elev.
9 Grnd_dn I
(Downstream)
PIPES
Lines
10 Roughness coef. Rough -

11 Material Material text - string
12 Head loss coef. Los_coef - 2 double R5
0=Close
13 Initial Status Ini_st 0,1 1 integer d,
1=Open
14 Length Len m 2 double
0=No,
15 Check valve Check_v 0,1 1 integer
1=Yes
16 Max Flow Q_max
l/s
17 Min Flow Q_min 2 double O
18 Time of Max. flow T_Qmax hr.

model input/output
Parameter name
Decimal Places
data type (I/O)

Feature class
(numeric field
Field name
Field type
Remarks
Scale)
Layer
Unit
No.
19 Time of Min. flow T_Qmin

20 Max. Velocity v_max m/s
21 Max. Head loss dh_max mm/m
0,1 integer
23 Existing upgrade? Upgrade - I 1=Yes
24 Phase Phase text string

1 Label Label I/O
2 Description Descr text - string
3 Connected node Label Out_Lab
SUBCATCHEMENTS
4 Area A_ha ha
Polygons
5 Demand rate Dem_rate l/m2/d

4 double
Demand(daily
6 Dem l/s"/d" I
average)
7 Plant type Plant text string
0,1 - integer
9 Existing upgrade? Upgrade 1=Yes
10 Phase Phase - string
1 Label Label I/O

Source of water (model
text - string
2 Description Descr
reservoir)
3 Total Head Elev m 2 double

Points
4 Head Pattern Head_pat text string R6

I
5 Existing? Existing
0,1 - integer
6 Existing upgrade? Upgrade
1 Label Label I/O
text - string
2 Description Descr
TANKS
Points
3 Diameter Dia
4 Elevation (inlet Invert) Lev 3 I
m double
5 Initial Level Lev_ini
6 Maximum Level Lev_max 4
model input/output
Parameter name
Decimal Places
data type (I/O)

Feature class
(numeric field
Field name
Field type
Remarks
Scale)
Layer
Unit
No.
7 Minimum Level Lev_min text - string

8 Diameter D m 2
double
9 Constant area A m2 1
10 Volume curve Curv_Id text - string R7
11 Max. Flow Q_max
l/s
12 Min. Flow Q_min
2 double O
13 Max. Head H_max
m
14 Min. Head H_min
0,1 integer

1 Label Label I/O
2 Description Descr
3 Start Node (Label) Nod_u text - string
PUMP/ SET OF PUMPS
I
4 Stop Node (Label) Nod_d
Lines (default)
5 Pump curve ID Curv_Id R8

6 Max Flow Q_max l/s
7 Time of Max. flow T_Qmax hr. 2 double O
8 Head for Q max H_Qmax m
0,1 integer
1 Label Label I/O

2 Description Descr
3 Start Node (Label) Nod_u
VALVES
Lines
4 Stop Node (Label) Nod_d text - string
5 Valve Type(PRV/FCV) Type I
only if
6 Subtype1 Subtype1
required
7 P1 P1 varies R9

model input/output
Parameter name
Decimal Places
data type (I/O)

Feature class
(numeric field
Field name
Field type
Remarks
Scale)
Layer
Unit
No.
8 P2 P2
9 Pi Pi
10 Head loss coef. Los_coef -
11 Max Flow Q_max l/s
12 Time of Max. flow T_Qmax hr.
2 double
13 Max Head loss DH_max m O
Time of Max. Head

14 T_DHmax hr.
loss
0,1 integer

EXCEL/CSV/EPA.NET
CONTROLS
1 Time based and Rule based
R1: If valve is defined as link then apply valve layer definition.

R2: Parameters required for modeling e.g. for PRV. Attach TXT file with parameters
description and applied units.
R3: For simulation usually shall be included in pipe.
R4: Associated demanding patterns (multiplication factor vs. time) Excel/CSV file or
EPA.NET format to be provided.
R5: Should contain also minor losses coefficient for nodes.
R6: Associated head pattern (head vs. time) Excel/CSV file or EPA.NET format to
be provided.
R7: Associated volume curve (volume vs. level) Excel/CSV file or EPA.NET format
to be provided.
R8: Associated pump/pumps set curves Excel/CSV file or EPA.NET format to be
provided.
R9: Parameters required for modeling e.g. for PRV. TXT file with parameters
description and applied units to be provided.
REMARKS

The following rules for model export to be applied:
1- Use same field names and order as the table above.
2- Use for Labels only numbers, Latin letters and underscore, avoid spaces or e.g.
"\ -,” Labels duplications are not acceptable.
3- Create separate SHP files & CSV for each analyzed scenario.
4- Combination of SHP/DBF and CSV is allowed. SHP/DBF should contain Labels

and model network input data while CSV should contain model output data.
5- If input changed in different scenarios then keep in SHP/DBF Label only and rest
data in CSV.
6- Existing elements that need to be demolished or abandoned should be included

as separate layers. Only id field is needed. Apply fields “existing” for existing
elements and “upgrade” for existing elements to be upgraded.
7- Additional fields (not listed above) with information needed for modeling should
be explained in attached readme.txt file. Other data needed for model provide in
EXCEL/CSV or EPA.NET format (e.g. pump/storage curves).
8- Sub catchment geometry should be precise and refer to supply node, sub
catchment geometry simplification is not allowed. Sub catchments aggregation
is not allowed - number of sub catchments should reflect number of demanding
nodes.
9- Scenario name/number should be added to layer name. Do not apply separate

layers for different phases (areas), it should be filled in field phase.
10- Use coordinate system WGS 84 / UTM zone 40N.
11- Model calculation options (applied for simulations) to be provided.
21.6.5.1 Reports
All documentation shall include as a minimum the following:
a) Employer’s Name
b) Department’s name
c) Contractor’s name
d) Contract title
e) Contract number
f) Document title
g) Date
h) Revision schedule
All documentation is to be presented on standard A4 size. All pages are to be numbered and
sketches used as required clarifying the calculations. All assumptions, references, units and
calculations are to be clearly stated. The originals of all documentations are to be indexed and
bound for submittal.
21.6.5.2 Drawings
All drawings are to be signed by a professional engineer and two initials of the draughter,
designer and checker must be included as appropriate in the title block. All design dimensions

shall be expressed in metric units only. Drawings should generally be presented in the following
arrangement:
a) Cover sheet
b) Index of drawings
c) Location plan
d) Project drawings
e) Standard drawings
The designer has total responsibility for the accuracy and completeness of the plans,
calculations and related documents as required under the scope of work. Prior to final design
submittal, the Consultant is expected to perform an internal quality control review carried out by
engineers experienced in the appropriate disciplines to ensure a product of neat appearance,
technically and grammatically correct and checked and signed by the draughter, designer and
checker where appropriate.
21.7 As built Data Requirement

21.7.1 Drawing Format
Drawing format as specified in the CAD specifications shall be adopted for all design projects.
All drawings shall bear the following information as a minimum:
a) Employer’s Name
b) Department’s name
c) Contractor’s name
d) Contract title
e) Contract number
f) Drawing Title
g) Drawing Number
h) Date
i) Revision Schedule
j) Scale
All drawings shall also be available on a CD as DXF files suitable for AutoCAD.
 All layout and arrangement drawings shall be to scale and shall include a graphical
scale to aid the use of photographic reproductions. All dimensions shall be given in
metric units.
 All drawings shall be of standard size - A1, A2, A3 and A4. Different sizes shall be
agreed with the DMAT.
 Revision schedules shall incorporate a suffix revision letter. Whenever a change is
made to the drawing the revision letter, the date of the change, full details of the change
and the person responsible for the change shall be recorded.
 On the revision schedule, the first revision of the drawing shall be designated as
revision A. Where the changes to the drawing are extensive and detailed in scope,
reference to a drawing modification document which fully details the changes is
permitted. The drawing modification document reference shall be denoted in the
appropriate revision schedule.
 The revision schedule shall include the section number, and paragraph/clause number
of the change. The position of the change shall be indicated within the body of the

document by means of a horizontal line/triangle or arrow located in the margin against

the text which has been amended.
 The drawings covering the Electrical and ICA installation shall comply with IEC 60617
or equivalent and ISO 3511 or equivalent.
 Drawings shall show tolerances, clearances, loadings, finishes, materials, ratings,
details of adjustments, programmable settings etc.
 North point, level datum setting out details as may be applicable for the full referencing
of the Works.
 Drawing Register: Each drawing submission shall be accompanied by a Drawing
Register which shall identify each design drawing submitted and their respective
amendment state. The Register shall be in tabular form indicating: drawing reference,
title, amendment state and approval dates, including a record of previous issues
together with the respective dates of approval.
21.7.2 Data Format

The process of data submission for receiving new and updated data to DMAT is shown in the
chart below. The spatial data can be supplied in two formats.
 Supplying AutoCAD files and associated MS Office Access file (for attributes) correctly
formatted using a unique identifier as the handle within AutoCAD.
 Supplying a populated Irrigation Network Geo-database, as supplied by DMAT to
ensure identical structure and attributes are maintained.
Figure 21-2: Asset Data Update Workflow
All the assets must be submitted in any of these 2 formats format according to the technical
specification “GIS Standards”. Templates for data submission in both formats are available in
DMAT.
Additionally all the as-built assets must have its Asset Form as per requirements of AIMS’
Asset Manual.
21.8 CAD Standards

CAD Standards are a set of guidelines for the way Computer-aided design (CAD) drawings
should appear, to improve productivity and interchange of CAD documents between different
offices and CAD programs. The following standards must be followed:
 Drawing sizes shall be according to ISO 5457
 Tittle blocks shall be according to ISO 7200
 Drawings presentation, especially line types, shall be according to ISO 128
 Scales shall be according to ISO 5455
 Symbols used for physical quantities and units of measurement shall conform to ISO
80000
 Symbols used for diagrams shall conform to ISO 14617
 CAD Layers shall be according to ISO 13567
All the CAD drawings must be submitted according to the technical specification “CAD
Standards”.

22 APPENDICES
22.1 APPENDIX A – ETo Table and Drawings
List of drawings
1. Abu Dhabi ETo Table

2. ETo Yearly average and NCMS reference climatic stations
3. ETo July
APPENDICES PAGE 237 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Table 22-1: National Center Meteorology and Seismology (NCMS)
DATA DEFINITION
TM Average maximum temperature in the month, in oC

TA Average temperature in the month, in oC
Tm Average minimum temperature in the month, in oC
RH Average relative humidity in the month, in %
Td Dew point temperature for TA in the month, in oC
U2 Average wind velocity @ 2 m elevation, in m/s
Rs Daily average of monthly sun radiation, in MJ/(day m2)
P Average precipitation in the month, in mm
ETo Reference evapotranspiration, in mm/day or mm/month
Table 22-2: Evapotranspiration data
Station Name: Abu Dhabi Longitude: 54.33

Year: 2003 - 2011 Latitude: 24.48
Total Year ETo (mm): 2774.1 Elevation (m): 7.0
Days/
Month TM TA Tm RH Td U2 Rs P ETo
month
o o o o -1 -2 -1 mm/ mm/
- # C C C % C ms MJ m d mm
day month
January 31 30.3 19.8 13.0 68.0 13.7 3.7 14.5 13.6 4.5 140.2
February 28 36.2 21.1 13.2 68.0 15.0 4.0 17.8 5.0 6.4 180.3
March 31 40.2 23.7 13.4 66.0 17.0 3.9 21.0 5.4 7.7 238.2
April 30 43.0 27.5 18.2 60.0 19.0 3.8 22.9 10.8 8.7 261.4
31.3 0.
May 31 45.7 24.0 60.0 22.6 3.5 25.0 9.4 292.7
0
33.3 0.
June 30 46.7 25.9 63.0 25.3 3.7 24.9 9.7 289.7
0
34.6 0.
July 31 47.9 28.5 64.0 26.8 3.7 23.6 9.7 301.6
0
August 31 48.0 35.5 29.1 61.0 26.8 3.6 22.7 0.0 9.6 297.2
September 30 45.0 33.5 27.4 65.0 26.0 3.4 21.1 0.0 8.3 249.1
October 31 41.6 30.8 24.0 65.0 23.5 3.3 18.9 0.0 7.0 217.6
November 30 37.4 26.9 19.0 64.0 19.5 3.5 16.0 2.1 5.9 177.0
December 31 30.8 22.2 12.6 67.0 15.8 3.6 14.1 28.0 4.2 129.1
Year
- 41.1 28.4 20.7 64.3 20.9 3.6 20.2 5.4 7.6 231.2
Average

22.2 APPENDIX B – The Landscape Coefficient Formula

As the name implies, the landscape coefficient was derived specifically to estimate water loss
from landscape plantings. It has the same function as the crop coefficient, but is not
determined in the same way. Landscape coefficients are calculated from three factors
(species, density, and microclimate). These factors are used in the landscape coefficient
formula as follows:
KL = Ks x Kd x Kmc
Where:
 Ks: species factor
 Kd: density factor
 Kmc: microclimate factor
By assigning numeric values to each factor, a value for KL can be determined. The landscape
coefficient is then used in the ETL formula, just as the crop coefficient is used in the ETc
formula.
Species Factor (Ks)
The species factor (Ks) is used to account for differences in species’ water needs. In
established landscapes, certain species are known to require relatively large amounts of water
to maintain health and appearance, while others are known to need very little water. This
range in water needs is accounted for in the species factor. Species factors usually range from
0.1 to 0.9 and are divided into four categories:
Table 22-3: Species factor categories
Species factor categories

Very low (VL) < 0.1
Low (L) 0.1 – 0.3
Moderate (M) 0.4 – 0.6
High (H) 0.7 – 0.9
These species factor ranges apply regardless of vegetation type (tree, shrub, groundcover,
vine, or herbaceous) and are based on water use studies for landscape species and
applicable data from agricultural crops. An evaluation of plant water needs (based on field
observations) has been completed. These values are presented in Sections 5, 6 and 7.
Species factor values can be found by looking up the species under consideration, and
selecting an appropriate value from the category range.
Assigning Ks Values
1) For single-species plantings: When only one species occurs in the irrigation zone,
use the Ks value assigned in the list.
2) For multiple-species plantings:
a) When species have similar water needs: In well-planned hydrozones where
species of similar water requirements are used, the selection of a Ks value is
straightforward: simply select the category to which all species are assigned and
choose the appropriate value.
b) When species water needs are not similar: In cases where species with different
water needs are planted in the same irrigation zone, then the species in the highest
water-need category determine the Ks value. This assignment is required if all
plants are to be retained without water stress injury. Unfortunately, this means that

species in the moderate and low categories will receive more water than needed,
which may result in injury. This situation must be addressed and avoided as
much as possible by the landscape designer.
Density Factor (Kd)
The density factor (Kd) is used in the landscape coefficient formula to account for differences
in vegetation density among landscape plantings. Vegetation density is used here to refer to
the collective leaf area of all plants in the landscape. Differences in vegetation density, or leaf
area, lead to differences in water loss. The density factor ranges in value from 0.5 to 1.3. This
range is separated into three categories:
Table 22-4: Density factor categories
Density factor categories

Low 0.5 – 0.9
Average 1.0
High 1.1 – 1.3
Immature and sparsely planted landscapes typically have less leaf area than mature or
densely planted landscapes, and thus lose less water. These plantings are assigned a Kd
value in the low category. Plantings with mixtures of vegetation types (trees, shrubs, and
groundcovers) typically have greater collective leaf areas than plantings with a single
vegetation type, and thus will lose more water. These plantings are assigned a density factor
value in the high category. Plantings which are full but are predominantly of one vegetation
type, are assigned to the average category.
Canopy Cover
Canopy cover is defined as the percentage of ground surface within a planting which is
shaded by the plant canopy (or, simply, per cent ground shading). A planting with full canopy
cover will shade 100% of the ground surface, while a 50% canopy cover will cast a shadow on
50% of the ground area. The higher the canopy cover the greater the density of vegetation on
a surface area basis.
Vegetation Tiers
Canopy cover gives an assessment of vegetation density on an area basis. Another dimension needs to
be considered for landscapes: the vertical dimension. Landscapes are frequently composed of plants of
various heights: tall trees, low groundcovers, and shrubs somewhere in between. Due to the typical
growth form of each vegetation type, “tiers” of vegetation result. When combinations of these
vegetation types occur in a planting they add a height element which will have an effect on water loss.
Assigning Kd Values
Canopy cover and vegetation tiers are used to assess vegetation density for density factor assignments.
Since it is very difficult to account for all the variation in vegetation density which occurs in landscapes,
the following assignments are made simply as a guide to making reasonable assessments.
Average Density:
Plantings of one vegetation type: for trees, canopy cover of 70% to 100% constitutes an average
condition. For shrubs or groundcovers, a canopy cover of 90% to 100% is considered to be an average
condition.
Plantings of more than one vegetation type: for mixed vegetation types, an average density condition
occurs when one vegetation type is predominant while another type occurs occasionally in the planting,
and canopy cover for the predominant vegetation type is within the average density specifications
outlined above.
Low Density:
Low density plantings are characterized largely by canopy covers less than those specified for the
average density condition. The precise value assigned (between 0.5 and 0.9) would be based on the
canopy cover assessment: a lower Kd value for a thinner canopy cover.
For shrubs and groundcovers, canopy cover less than 90% constitutes a density less than average and a
kd value less than 1.0 would be assigned.
Plantings with mixed vegetation types generally have greater canopy covers than those of a single type.
For instance, a groundcover planting with where an occasional tree occurs in the planting, then the
principal effect is one of increasing canopy cover, and an upward adjustment in Kd would be warranted.
High Density:
When canopy cover is full for any vegetation type then increases in density result from increases in the
number of plants of other vegetation types. By adding trees to a mature groundcover planting
(groundcover canopy cover = 100%), an increase in vegetation density occurs. The addition of shrubs to
the planting further increases the density.
This mix of vegetation types creates a layering or tiering of vegetation which represents potential
increases in water loss. Upward adjustments of Kd can be made to account for vegetation tiering. The
highest density condition, where all three vegetation types occur in substantial numbers in a planting,
would be assigned a Kd of 1.3. In plantings where lesser degrees of vegetation tiering occurs then a Kd
value of 1.1 or 1.2 is appropriate.
Microclimate Factor (Kmc)
Microclimates exist in every landscape and need to be considered in estimates of plant water loss.
Features typical of urban landscapes (such as buildings and paving) influence temperature, wind speed,
light intensity and humidity. These features vary considerably among landscapes, resulting in
differences in microclimate. To account for these differences, a microclimate factor (Kmc) is used. The
microclimate factor ranges from 0.5 to 1.4, and is divided into three categories:
Table 22-5: Microclimate factor categories
Microclimate factor categories

Low 0.5 – 0.9
Average 1.0
High 1.1 – 1.4
The microclimate factor is relatively easy to set. An “average” microclimate condition is equivalent to
reference evapotranspiration conditions, i.e.., an open-field setting without extraordinary winds or heat
inputs atypical for the location. This microclimate is not substantially affected by nearby buildings,
structures, pavements, slopes, or reflective surfaces.
In a “high” microclimate condition, site features increase evaporative conditions. Plantings surrounded
by heat-absorbing surfaces, reflective surfaces, or exposed to particularly windy conditions would be
assigned high values. For example, plantings in street medians, parking lots, next to southwest-facing
walls of a building, or in “wind tunnel” areas would be assigned to the high category.
“Low” microclimate conditions are as common as high microclimate conditions. Plantings that are
shaded for a substantial part of the day or are protected from winds typical to the area would be assigned
low values. These include the north side of buildings, courtyards, under building overhangs, and on the
north side of slopes.
Assigning Kmc Values
Average Microclimate:
Site conditions equivalent to those used for reference ETo measurements represent an average

microclimate. Reference ET is measured in an open-field setting which is not exposed to extraordinary

winds or heat inputs from nearby buildings, structures, or vehicles. Plantings in similar conditions
would be considered to be in an average microclimate.
Plantings in park settings are most typically assigned to this category. Although some hardscape may
exist, vegetation dominates the landscape. Large plantings of groundcover, groves of trees, and mixtures
of shrubs, turf, and trees in relatively open areas represent examples of an average microclimate
condition. Small parks with adjacent buildings, extensive hardscapes, or exposed to extraordinary winds
would not be included in the average category.
Low Microclimate:
Sites which are shaded or protected from winds typical to the area are considered to be in the low
microclimate category. Features of the site modify the microclimate such that evaporative conditions are
less than those found in the average microclimate. Plantings located on the north side or northeast side
of buildings, shaded by overhead structures, or within courtyard settings are typically assigned a Kmc
value in the low range. Plantings protected from winds by buildings, structures, or other vegetation also
would be assigned to the low category. The specific value assigned for the microclimate factor will
depend on the specific site conditions. For example, a planting in a courtyard which is shaded most of
the day and protected from winds may be assigned a value of 0.6, while a similar planting which is
located on the northeast side of a building may be assigned a value of 0.8.
High Microclimate:
Sites which are exposed to direct winds atypical for the area, heat inputs from nearby sources, and/or
reflected light would be considered to be in the high microclimate category. These features of the site
increase evaporative conditions above those found in an average microclimate condition. Plantings
located in medians, parking lots, or adjacent to south or southwest facing walls which are exposed to
higher canopy temperatures than those found in a well-vegetated setting would be in the high category.
Plantings in wind tunnel locations and those receiving reflected light from nearby windows, cars, or
other reflective surfaces are also in high microclimate conditions. The specific value assigned will
depend on the specific conditions. For example, a shrub planting located next to a southwest facing wall
may be assigned a Kmc value of 1.2, while a similar planting next to a southwest wall which is
composed of reflective glass and is exposed to extraordinary winds may be assigned a value of 1.4.
Experimental KL values
The landscape coefficient (KL) can be determined from field research. Water loss from plants is
measured over an extended period of time. Water loss and estimated reference evapotranspiration are
used to calculate KL as follows:
Where:
 ETL: Landscape Evapotranspiration in mm/day
As seen in the equation above, the landscape coefficient is simply the fraction of water lost from the
crop relative to reference evapotranspiration. Landscape evapotranspiration can be obtained by means of
lisimeters or soil moisture content sensors. Typically, plant water loss is less than reference
evapotranspiration and, therefore, the crop coefficient is less than 1.0. In summary, an estimate of
landscape evapotranspiration can made from reference evapotranspiration, similar landscape planting,
density and microclimate. Estimates can be made for any location where reference evapotranspiration
data exists and for any landscape type.
Turf grasses (California Department of Water Resources)
Table 22-6: Turf grasses (California Department of Water Resources)

Species Type Ks
Bluegrass cool season 0.80
Ryegrass cool season 0.80

Bermuda grass warm season 0.60
Colonial bent grass cool season 0.80
Creeping bent grass cool season 0.80
Hard fescue cool season 0.80
Highland bent grass cool season 0.80
Kentucky bluegrass cool season 0.80
Kikuyu grass warm season 0.60
Meadow fescue cool season 0.80
Perennial ryegrass cool season 0.80
Red fescue cool season 0.80
Rough-stalked bluegrass cool season 0.80
Seashore paspalum warm season 0.60
St.Augustine warm season 0.60
Tall fescue cool season 0.80
Zoysia grass warm season 0.60
Xeriscape species (New Mexico State University)

Table 22-7: Xeriscape species (New Mexico State University)
Species Common Name Ks

Amelanchier utahensis Utah serviceberry 0.01
Artemisia abrotanum Southernwood 0.21
Artemisia frigida Fringed sagewort 0.05
Artemisia ludoviciana Prairie sagewort 0.32
Artemisia nova Black sage 0.16
Artemisia tridentata Big sagebrush 0.01
Artiplex canescens Fourwing saltbush 0.03
Berberis fremontii Fremont barberry 0.20
Berlandiera lyrata Chocolate flower 0.02
Brickellia californica California bricklebush 0.22
Buddleia davidii Butterfly bush 0.15
Calylophus berlandieri Berlandieri sundrops 0.29
Campsis radicans Trumpet vine 0.11


Caragana arborescens Siberian peashrub 0.01
Caryopteris clandonensis Blue mist spirea 0.54
Centranthus ruber Jupiter’s beard 0.61
Cerastium tomentosum Snow in summer 0.6
Cercocarpus ledifolius Curl-leaf mountain mahogany 0.17
Cercocarpus montanus True mountain mahogany 0.03
Chamaebatiaria millefolium Fernbush 0.01
Chilopsis linearis Desert willow 0.00
Chrysothamnus nauseosus Rubber rabbitbrush 0.13
Coreopsis lanceolata Lanceleaf coreopsis 0.72
Cowania (Purshia) mexicana Cliffrose 0.14
Datura metaloides Sacred datura 0.20
Echinacea purpurea Purple coneflower 1.66
Eriogonum jamesii James’ buckwheat 0.79
Euphorbia myrsinites Myrtle (yellow) euphorbia 0.42
Fallugia paradoxa Apache plume 0.02
Foresteria neomexicana New Mexico olive 0.02
Gaillardia aristata Blanket flower 0.78
Helianthemum nummularium Sunrose 0.60
Helianthus maximiliani Maximilian sunflower 0.20
Hesperaloe parviflora Red yucca 0.19
Juniperus scopulorum Rocky Mountain juniper 0.03
Koelreuteria paniculata Goldenrain tree 0.05
Krascheninnikovia lanata Winterfat 0.15
Liatris punctata Dotted gayfeather 0.47
Linum perenne Perennial blueflax 0.57
Mirabilis multiflora Giant four o’clock, 0.16
Nassella tennuissima Threadgrass 0.62
Oenothera organensis Organ Mtn. evening primrose 0.50
Opuntia imbricata Tree cholla 0.26
Oryzopsis hymenoides Indian ricegrass 1.12
Parthenium incanum Mariola 0.41
Penstemon abuelitas Abuelita penstemon 0.10
Penstemon ambiguus Bush penstemon 0.02
Penstemon angustifolia Narrow leaf beardtongue 0.12
Penstemon pinifolius Pineleaf penstemon 0.36
Penstemon strictus Rocky Mtn. penstemon 0.29
Peraphyllum ramosissimum Squaw apple 0.15


Perovskia atriplicifolia Russian sage 0.04
Pinus nigra Black pine 0.12
Potentilla fruticosa Native potentilla 0.61
Potentilla thurberii Red cinquefoil 0.63
Prosopis pubescens Screwbean mesquite 0.08
Prunus besseyi Western sandcherry 0.10
Ratibida columnifera Prairie coneflower 0.38
Rhus trilobata Three-leaf sumac 0.01
Rhus trilobata var. pilosissima Pubescent squawbush 0.07
Ribes aureum Golden currant 0.09
Robinia neomexicana New Mexico locust 0.04
Rosmarinus officianalis Upright rosemary 0.37
Salvia greggii Cherry sage 0.39
Salvia pinguifolia Rock sage 0.25
Sedum telephium Autumn joy sedum 0.62
Spartium junceum Spanish broom 0.12
Sporobolus wrightii Giant sacaton 0.10
Stachys byzantina Lamb’s ear 0.58
Teucrium arogrium Greek germander 0.76
Verbena macdougalii Western spike verbena 0.60
Yucca baccata Banana yucca 0.06
Yucca elata Soaptree yucca 0.04
Zauschneria californica Hummingbird plant (trumpet) 0.69
Zinnia grandiflora Desert zinnia 0.62
Species Evaluations (California Department of Water Resources)

Table 22-8: Species Evaluations (California Department of Water Resources)
TYPES
T Tree
S Shrub
V Vine
Gc Groundcover
P Perennial
Bi Biennial
Species factor categories

Category Ks
Very Low (VL) < 0.1
Low (L) 0.1 – 0.3
Medium (M) 0.4 – 0.6
High (H) 0.7 – 0.9
TYPE BOTANICAL NAME COMMON NAME Category

SP Agave spp. agave L
V Allamanda cathartica golden trumpet vine M
P Alocasia spp. elephant's ear H
TS Aloe spp. aloe L
Gc V Antigonon leptopus coral vine L
Archontophoenix
T cunninghamiana king palm M
P Arundo donax giant reed M
T Azadirachta indica neem M
T Bauhinia variegata (purpurea) purple orchid tree M
S Gc Bougainvillea spp. bougainvillea M
S Caesalpinea gilliesii desert bird of paradise M
S Caesalpinea pulcherrima dwarf poinciana M
S Calliandra haematocephala pink powder puff H
TS Callistemon viminalis weeping bottle brush M
P Canna spp. canna M
S Capparis spinosa caper bush L
P Carex (garden spp.) sedge M
Gc Carissa macrocarpa (prost.cvs.) Natal plum M
S Carissa spp. Natal plum M
P Catharanthus roseus Madagascar periwinkle M
S Cestrum nocturnum night jessamine M
T X Chitalpa tashkentensis chitalpa M
T Chorisia speciosa floss silk tree M
TS Citrus spp. orange, lemon etc. M
V Clytostoma callistigioides violet trumpet vine M
S Cordyline terminalis ti plant M
SP Crassula spp. crassula L
P Crinum spp. crinum lily, spider lily M


T Cupaniopsis anacardioides carrotwood M
P Cuphea hyssophyla false heather M
S Cycas revoluta sago palm M
S Dodonaea viscosa hopseed bush M
TS Dombeya spp. dombeya M
T Dracaena draco dragon tree L
S Duranta erecta (D. repens) sky flower M
T Erythrina caffra Kaffir bloom coral tree L
S Euphorbia milii crown of thorns L
TS Ficus benjamina weeping Chinese banyan M
T Ficus carica edible fig M
T Ficus microcarpa Indian laurel fig/ laurel fig M
T Ficus microcarpa 'Green Gem" green gem ficus M
S Gardenia spp. gardenia M
Gc Gazania spp. gazania M
S Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Chinese hibiscus H
S Hibiscus syriacus rose of Sharon M
S Indigofera decora (incarnata) Chinese indigo M
S Ixora coccinia jungle geranium M
SV Jasminum angulare South African jasmine M
SV Jasminum azoricum lemon scented jasmine M
Jasminum grandiflorum see J officinale f.grandiflorum M
S Jasminum nitidum angel wing jasmine M
SV Jasminum sambac Arabian jasmine M
T Jatropha integerrima spicy jatropha L
P Juncus spp. rush M
S Lantana camara lantana M
S Leonotis leonurus lion's tail M
S Leucophyllum spp. purple sage, Texas ranger etc. L
T Livistona chinensis Chinese fan palm M
S Malvaviscus arboreus Turk's cap M
V Mandevilla laxa Chilean jasmine M
T Morus alba white mulberry M
S Murraya paniculata orange jessamine M
SP Musa spp. banana H


S Myrtus communis true myrtle M
T Neodypsis decaryi triangle palm M
T Olea europaea olive M
Mexican palo verde/ Jerusalem
T Parkinsonia aculeata thorn L
P Pennisetum setaceum fountain grass L
V Petrea volubilis queens wreath M
T Phoenix dactylifera date palm M
T Phoenix reclinata Senegal date palm M
T Phoenix roebelenii pigmy date palm M
Plumbago auriculata
S (campense) cape plumbago M
S Plumeria rubra frangipani M
T Pseudobomax ellipticum shaving brush L
ST Psidium guajava common guava M
ST Psidium littorale var. longipes strawberry guava M
T Punica granatum pomegranate M
V Pyrostegia venusta flame vine M
S Rhapis excelsa lady palm M
P Senecio cineraria dusty miller M
Senna spectabilis (Cassia
S excelsa) senna/cassia (spectabilis/excelsa) L
Setcreasea pallida 'Purple
P Heart' purple heart setcreasea H
T Spathodea campanulata African tulip tree M
T Strelitzia nicolai giant bird of paradise M
S Strelitzia reginae bird of paradise M
T Syagrus romanzoffiana queen palm M
T Tabebuia impetiginosa (ipe) pink/lavender trumpet tree M
ST Tecoma X smithii Smith's tecoma M
TS Tecoma stans yellow bells L
SV Tecomaria capensis cape honeysuckle M
V Thunbergia alata black eyed susan M
V Thunbergia battiscombei thunbergia (battiscombei) M
Gc Verbena tenuisecta moss verbena M
T Vitex agnus-castus chaste tree M
T Washingtonia filifera California fan palm M


T Washingtonia robusta Mexican fan palm M
P Gc Wedelia trilobata trailing daisy H
ST Yucca spp. yucca L
T Ziziphus jujuba Chinese jujube M

22.3 APPENDIX C – Salt Tolerance of Plants
Turf grasses (California Department of Water Resources)
Table 22-9: Turf grasses (California Department of Water Resources)
Groundcovers (Wu and Dodge, 2005)

The definitions of soil salinity tolerance are as follows:
 Highly tolerant: Permissible soil ECe greater than 6 dS/m
 Tolerant: Permissible soil ECe greater than 4 and less than 6 dS/m
 Moderate: Permissible soil ECe greater than 2 and less than 4 dS/m
 Sensitive: Permissible soil ECe less than 2 dS/m

Table 22-10: Groundcovers Soil salinity tolerance
Botanical name Common name Tolerance

Adiantum sp. L. Maidenhair fern Moderate
Ajuga repens Carpet bugle Sensitive
Aloe vera Burm. f. Aloe Tolerant
Alternanthera ficoidea R. Br. Joyweed Moderate
Aptenia cordifolia N. E. Br. Red apple iceplant Tolerant
Arctostaphylos densiflora Lynne’s
“Lynne” M. S. Back. vine hill manzanita Moderate
Athyrium filixfemina Rith. Lady fern Sensitive
Bromeliaceae sp. L. Bromeliads Moderate
Caladium sp. Vent. Caladium Sensitive
Carissa macrocarpa A. DC. Natal plum Tolerant
Carpobrotus edulis L. Bolus. Hottentot fig Tolerant
Catharanthus roseus G. Donf. Periwinkle Moderate
Chlorophytum comosum Jacq. Spider plant Moderate
Cuphea hyssopifolia Kunth. False heather Tolerant
Cyperus alternifolius L. Umbrella sedge Moderate
Delosperma “Alba” N. E. White iceplant Highly tolerant
Dietes spp. Salisb. ex Klatt. African Iris Moderate
Drosanthemum hispidum Schwantes. Rosea iceplant Highly tolerant
Ficus pumila L. Creeping fig Tolerant
Hemerocallis sp. L. Daylily Moderate
Malephora crocea Schwantes. Iceplant Highly tolerant
Juniperus chinensis L. Chinese juniper Moderate
Juniperus conferta Parl. Shore juniper Tolerant
Juniperus horizontalis Moench. Creeping juniper Tolerant
Juniperus procumbens Siebild ex Endl. Japanese garden juniper Moderate
Kalanchoe sp. Adans. Kalanchoe Moderate
Lampranthus productus N. E. Br. Purple iceplant Highly tolerant
Liriope muscari L. H. Bail. Lilyturf (Liriope) Moderate
Iris hexagona Walter Iris Moderate
Nephrolepis exaltata Schott. Sword fern Tolerant
Peperomia obtusifolia Dietr. Peperomia Sensitive
Portulaca grandiflora Hook. Purslane (rose moss) Sensitive
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosemary Moderate
Salvia farinacea Benth. Mealycup sage Sensitive


Tigridia pavonia Ker Gawler Tiger flower Moderate
Tradescantia pallida Hunt. Purple queen Tolerant
Tulbaghia violacea Harvey Society garlic Moderate
Verbena sp. L. Verbena Sensitive
Zamia integrifolia L. f. Coontie Tolerant
Allamanda cathartica L. Allamanda Tolerant
Allamanda blanchetii A. DC. Purple Allamanda Moderate
Antigonon leptopus Hookery Coral Vine Moderate
Bougainvillea glabra Choisy Bougainvillea Tolerant
Campsis radicans Seem. Trumpet creeper Sensitive
Clerodendrum thomsoniae Balf. f. Bleeding heart vine Sensitive
Clytostoma callistegioides Miers ex Bur. Violet trumpet vine Sensitive
Cyperus altenifolius L. Umbrella sedge Moderate
Epipremnum sp. Schott. Pothos Moderate
Ficus pumila L. Creeping fig Tolerant
Hedera canariensis Willd. Algerian ivy Tolerant
Hedera helix L. English ivy Moderate
Hylocereus undatus Britton & Rose Night blooming cereus Moderate
Ipomoea pescaprae R. Br. Railroad vine Tolerant
Ipomoea stolonifera Gmel. Seafoam morning glory Tolerant
Philodendron williamsii Hook. Philodendron Moderate
Passiflora incanata L. Passion flower Sensitive
Salvia farinacea Benth. Mealycup sedge Sensitive
Tecomaria capensis Spach. Cape honeysuckle Tolerant
Trachelospermum jasminoides Lem. Star jasmine Tolerant
Shrubs (Wu and Dodge, 2005)


Table 22-11: Shrups Soil salinity tolerance

Abelia grandiflora Rehd. “Edward Goucher” Abelia Sensitive
Acacia redolens Maslin. Prostrate acacia Tolerant
Acalypha wilkesiana Muell. Copper leaf Sensitive
Agave americana L. Century plant Tolerant
Arctostaphylos densiflora M.S.Bac Vine hill manzanita Tolerant
Bambusa sp. Schreb. Bamboo Moderate
Buddleja davidii Franch. Butterfly bush Sensitive
Buxus microphylla Mull. Arg. Japanese boxwood Moderate
Calliandra haematocephala Hassk. Powder puff tree Sensitive
Callistemon rigidus R. Br. Bottlebrush Moderate
Camellia japonica L. Camellia Sensitive
Cannax generalis Bailey. Canna lily Moderate
Carica papaya L. Papaya Moderate
Carissa macrocarpa A. DC. Natal plum Tolerant
Ceanothus thyrsiflorus Esch. Blue blossom Moderate
Cestrum aurantiacum Lindl. Orange cestrum Moderate
Codiaeum variegatum Blume. Croton Sensitive
Cornus mas L. Cornelian cherry Sensitive
Cotoneaster congestus Baker Pyrenees cotoneaster Sensitive
Cotoneaster microphylla Lindl. Rockspray cotoneaster Sensitive
Dracaena deremensis Engler. Dracaena Moderate
Elaeugnus pungens Thunb. Silverthorn, silverberry Tolerant
Escallonia rubra Pers. Escallonia Moderate
Eugenia unifora L. Surinam cherry Sensitive
Euphorbia milii Ch. Des Moulins Crown of thorns Highly tolerant
Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. Poinsetta Sensitive
Euryops pectinatus L. Golden shrub daisy Moderate
Forsythia intermedia Zabel Hybrid forsythia Moderate
Gamolepis chrysanthemoides DC. African bush daisy Tolerant
Gardenia augusta Merrill Cape jasmine, gardenia Moderate
Heliconia sp. Heliconia Moderate
Rose of China, garden
Hibiscus rosa L. hibiscus Moderate
Hydrangea macrophylla Ser. Hydrangea Moderate


Ilex cornuta Burford Chinese holly Moderate
Ilex vomitoria Ait. Yaupon holly Tolerant
Ilex vomitoria Nana Dwarf Yaupon holly Tolerant
Ixora coccinea L. Ixora Sensitive
Jasminum polyanthum Franch. Jasmine Moderate
Jatropha multifida L. Coral plant Moderate
Justicia brandegeana Wassh. Shrimp plant Sensitive
Lantana camara L. Lantana Tolerant
Mahonia aquifolium Nutt. Oregon grape Sensitive
Mahonia pinnata Fedde California holly grape Sensitive
Murraya paniculata L. Orange jessamine Sensitive
Myrica cerifera L. Wax myrtle Tolerant
Myrtus communis L. True myrtle Tolerant
Nandina domestica Thunb. Heavenly bamboo Sensitive
Nerium oleander L. Oleander Tolerant
Opuntia sp. Miller Opuntia cactus Tolerant
Parthenium argentatum Gray. Guayule Highly tolerant
Pentas lanceolata Deflers Pentas, Egyptian star cluster Sensitive
Photinia glabra Maxim. Japanese Photinia Sensitive
Photinia fraseri Dress Photinia Sensitive
Pittosporum tobra Aiton Mock orange Tolerant
Plumbago auriculata am. Cape plumbago Tolerant
Podocarpus macrophyllus D. Don Yew pine Sensitive
Pyracantha coccinea Roem. Red firethorn Moderate
Raphiolepis indica Lindl. Indian hawthorn Tolerant
Rosa sp. L. Rose Sensitive
Russelia
equisetiformis Schlecht & Cham. Firecracker plant Moderate
Sambucus callicarpa Greene Coast red elderberry Moderate
Schefflera arboricola L. Dwarf Shefflera Moderate
Strelitzia reginae Bankses Dryander Bird of paradise Moderate
Viburnum odoratissimum Ker. Sweet Viburnum Moderate
Viburnum suspensum Lindl. Sandankwa Viburnum Moderate
Yucca aloifolia L. Spanish bayonet Highly tolerant

Trees (Wu and Dodge, 2005)

Table 22-12: Trees Soil salinity tolerance

Acer rubrum L. Red maple Sensitive
Acer pseudoplatanus L. Sycamore maple Sensitive
Albizia julibrissin Durazz. Silk tree Sensitive
Araucaria heterophylla (Salisb.) Norfolk Island pine Tolerant
Averrhoa carambola L. Carambola, starfruit Moderate
Bauhinia purpurea L. Orchid tree Moderate
Callistemon citrinus Curtis. Lemon bottlebrush Moderate
Carya illinoinensis Koch. Pecan Moderate
Cedrus deodara D. Don Deodar cedar Moderate
Celtis sinensis Pers. Chinese hackberry Sensitive
Citrus limon L. Lemon Sensitive
Citrus paradisi Macf. Grapefruit Sensitive
Citrus reticulata Blanco. Tangerine Sensitive
Citrus sinensis Osbeck. Orange Sensitive
Coccoloba uvifera L. Sea grape Tolerant
Cornus mas L. Cornelian cherry Sensitive
Rockspray
Cotoneaster microphyllus Lindl. or littleleaf cotoneaster Moderate
Cupressus sempervirens L. Italian cypress Moderate
Diospyros digyna L. Black sapote Moderate
Diospyros virginiana L. American persimmon Sensitive
Eriobotrya japonica Lindl. Loquat Moderate
Euryops pectinatus Golden marguerite Sensitive
Ficus carica L. Edible fig Tolerant
Forsythia intermedia Zabel Forsythia Tolerant
Fraxinus
oxycarpa Bieb. Ex Willd. Raywood ash Moderate
Gingko biloba L. Gingko Sensitive
Grevillea robusta Cunn. Silk oak Tolerant
Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don. Jacaranda Sensitive


Juniperus silicicola Bail. Southern red cedar Tolerant
Juniperus virginiana L. Skyrocket juniper Tolerant
Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm. Golden rain tree Moderate
Lagerstroemia indica L. Crape myrtle Sensitive
Ligustrum japonicum Thunb. Japanese privet Moderate
Liquidambar styraciflua L. Sweetgum Sensitive
Litchi chinensis Sonn. Lychee Sensitive
Malus sylvestris Mill. Crabapple Sensitive
Mangifera indica L. Mango Sensitive
Mangnolia grandiflora L. Southern magnolia Sensitive
Manilkara zapota Sapodilla Tolerant
Musa acuminata Colla. Banana Sensitive
Olea europaea L. Olive Sensitive
Highly
Parthenium argentatum Gray. Guayule tolerant
Persea americana Mill. Avocado Moderate
Pinus cembroides Zucc. Mexican stone pine Tolerant
Pinus clausa Vasey Sand pine Tolerant
Pinus elliotti Engelm. Florida slash pine Moderate
Pinus halepensis Mill. Aleppo pine Moderate
Pinus thunbergii Parl. Japanese black pine Moderate
Pistachia chinensis Bunge. Chinese pistache Sensitive
Platycladus orientalis Franco Oriental arborvitae Moderate
Plumaria spp. L. Frangipani Tolerant
Plumbago auriculata Lam. Cape plumbago Moderate
Prunus armeniaca L. Apricot Sensitive
Prunus caroliniana Ait. Carolina laurel cherry Sensitive
Prunus dulcis D. A. Webb. Almond Sensitive
Prunus persica Batsch Peach Sensitive
Prunus spinosa L. Blackthorn Moderate
Psidium guajava L. Guava Sensitive
Punica granatum L. Pomegranate Moderate
Pyrus communis L. Pear Sensitive
Pyrus spinosa Forssk. Almondleaved pear Moderate
Quercus agrifolia Nee Coast live oak Tolerant
Quercus laurifolia Michux Laurel oak Sensitive


Quercus suber L. Cork oak Moderate
Quercus virginiana Mill. Live oak Tolerant
Sapium sebiferum Roxb. Chinese tallow tree Tolerant
Schefflera actinophylla Harms Schefflera, umbrella tree Moderate
Sequoia sempervirens Endl. Coast redwood Var. Aptos Blue Sensitive
Sequoia sempervirens Endl. Coast redwood Var. Los Altos Moderate
Syzgium jambos Alston Rose apple Sensitive
Ulmus parvifolia Drake Drake elm Moderate
Ulmus parvifolia Jacq. Chinese elm Moderate
Butia capitata Becc. Pindo palm Tolerant
Chamaerops humilis L. European fan palm Tolerant
Phoenix canariensis Chabaud. Canary Island date Moderate
Phoenix dactylifera L. Date palmetto Tolerant
Sabal palmetto Lodd. Cabbage palmetto Tolerant
Serenoa repens Small Saw palm Tolerant
Washingtonia robusta Wendl. Washingtonia palm Tolerant
Chrysalidocarpus lutescens
Areca palm Moderate
Wendl.
Caryota mitis Lour. Fishtail palm Moderate
Rhapis excelsa Henry Lady palm Moderate
Acoelorrhaphe wrightii Becc. Paurotis palm Moderate
Phoenix roebelinii O’Brien. Pygmy date palm Moderate
Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Senegal date palm Moderate
Syagrus romanzoffiana L. Queen palm Moderate
Nolina recurvata Hemsle Ponytail palm (not a true palm) Moderate
Flowers (Various Sources)
Criteria for assigning salt tolerance: not more than 50% reduction in growth, no visually observable
foliar burn, and maximum permissible EC (dS/m) as follows:
 <2, very sensitive
 2–3, sensitive
 3–4, moderately sensitive
 4–5, moderately tolerant
 5–6, tolerant
 >6, very tolerant
Table 22-13: Flowers Soil salinity tolerance
Botanical name Common name Salt tolerance Reference(s)
Agapanthus Lily of the Nile Sensitive Skimina, 1980


orientalis
Ageratum Moderately se
Ageratum Devitt and Morris, 1987
houstonianum nsitive
Alstroemeria Inca lily, Peruvian

Very sensitive Sonneveld, 1988
hybrids lily
Amaranthus
Pygmy torch Tolerant Aronson, 1989
hypochondriacus
Amaranthus tricolor Loveliesbleeding Tolerant Aronson, 1989
Anthurium
Anthurium Very sensitive Sonneveld and Voogt, 1983
andreanum
Moderately se
Antirrhinum majus Snapdragon Carter et al., 2005
nsitive
Moderately se
Artemesia stelleran Dusty Miller Glattstein, 1989
nsitive
Begonia bunchii Begonia Sensitive Pearson, 1949
Begonia Rexcultoru
Rex begonia Very sensitive Pearson, 1949
m
Begonia ricinifolia Begonia Sensitive Pearson, 1949
Moderately se
Bouvardia longiflora Bouvardia Sonneveld et al., 1999
nsitive
Ornamental cabba
Brassica oleracea Sensitive Maas and Grattan, 1999
ge
Brassica oleracea Ornamental kale Sensitive Shannon et al., 2000
Moderately
Calendula officinalis Pot marigold Chaparzadeh et al., 2003
tolerant
Callistephus chinens Moderately se

China aster Kohl et al., 1957
is nsitive
Calocephalus Moderately se
Cushion bush Costello et al., 2003
brownii nsitive
Camellia japonica Camellia Sensitive Pearson, 1949
Carathamus tinctoriu Moderately

Safflower Beke and Volkmer, 1994
s tolerant
Catharanthus roseus Vinca Sensitive Arnold et al., 2003; Huang and Cox, 1988

Celosia Moderately se
Crested coxcomb Devitt and Morris, 1987
argenta cristata nsitive
Celosia
Chief celosia Tolerant Carter et al., 2005
argenta cristata
Moderately se
Cereus peruviana Apple cactus Costello et al., 2003
nsitive
Chlorophytum
St. Bernard’s lily Tolerant Zurayk et al., 1993
comosum
Chrysanthemum Moderately
Mum Kofranek et al., 1953; Pearson, 1949
morifolium tolerant
Clematis orientalis Clematis Very tolerant Krupenikov, 1946
Coleus blumei Coleus Tolerant Zurayk et al., 1993
Moderately
Codiaeum punctatus Croton Farnham et al., 1985
tolerant
Consolida ambigua Larkspur Sensitive Arnold et al., 2003
Cosmos bipinnatus Cosmos Very sensitive Devitt and Morris, 1987
Coreopsis Moderately se
Coreopsis Glattstein, 1989
grandiflora nsitive
Moderately se
Crassula ovata Jade plant Skimina, 1980
nsitive
Cyclamen persicum Cyclamen Sensitive Bik, 1980
Cymbidium spp. Orchid Very sensitive de Kreij and van den Berg, 1990
Moderately se
Dianthus barbatus Pinks Monk and Peterson, 1961
nsitive
Dianthus caryophyll Moderately

Carnation Baas et al., 1995
us tolerant
Moderately
Dianthus chinensis Carnation Devitt and Morris, 1987
tolerant
Eschscholzia califor Moderately

California poppy Glattstein, 1989
nica tolerant
Euphorbia Poinsettia “Red Sa

Sensitive Cox, 1991
pulcherrima ils”
Euphorbia Poinsettia Very sensitive Kofranek et al., 1956


pulcherrima “Barbara Ecke”
Euryops pectinatus Golden marguerite Sensitive Wu et al., 1999
Eustoma grandiforu Moderately se

Lisianthus Shillo et al., 2002
m nsitive
Felicia amelloides Felicia Sensitive Farnham et al., 1985; Skimina, 1980
Fuchsia hybrida Fuchsia Very sensitive Pearson, 1949
Gardenia augusta Gardenia Sensitive Lunt et al., 1957
Gazania Moderately
Gazania Costello et al., 2003
aurantiacum tolerant
Moderately se Sonneveld and Voogt, 1983; Baas

Gerbera jamesonii Gerbera daisy
nsitive et al., 1995; Savvas et al., 2002
Gazania spp. Treasure flower Very tolerant Perry, 1989
Gladiolus spp. Gladiola Sensitive Kofranek et al., 1957
Moderately se
Gomphrena globosa Globe amaranth Kang and van Iersel, 2002
nsitive
Gyposphila Moderately
Baby’s breath Shillo et al., 2002
paniculata tolerant
Moderately
Helianthus annuus Sunflower Ashraf and O’Leary, 1995
tolerant
Helianthus debilis Cucumber leaf Very tolerant Costello et al., 2003
Hibiscus rosasinensi
Hibiscus Sensitive Bernstein et al., 1972
s
Hippeastrum Shillo et al., 2002; Sonneveld and

Amaryllis Very sensitive
hybridum Voogt, 1983
Hymenocallis keyen Moderately

Spiderlily Costello et al., 2003
sis tolerant
Impatiens × hawkeri Impatiens Sensitive Todd and Reed, 1988
Moderately
Kalanchoe spp. Kalanchoe Costello et al., 2003
tolerant
Kochia childsii Kochia Tolerant Monk and Peterson, 1961
Moderately
Lathyrus japonica Sweet pea Costello et al., 2003
tolerant

Lilium spp. Asiatic hybrid lily Sensitive Sonneveld, 1988
Oriental hybrid lil

Lilium spp. Sensitive Sonneveld and Voogt, 1983
y
Japanese Limoniu
Limonium spp. Very tolerant Shillo et al., 2002
m
Limonium latifolium Sea lavender Very tolerant Aronson, 1989
Limonium perezii Statice Sensitive Farnham et al., 1985
Limonium sinuatum Statice Very tolerant Grieve et al., 2005; Carter et al., 2005
Moderately
Lobularia maritima Sweet Alyssum Monk and Peterson, 1961
tolerant
Matthiola incana Stock Very tolerant Lunt et al., 1964; Wigdor et al., 1958
Paperwhite
Narcissus tazetta Sensitive Arnold et al., 2003
Narcissus
Mexican evening Moderately

Oenthera speciosa Costello et al., 2003
primrose tolerant
Moderately se
Ophiopogon jaburan Giant turf lily Skimina, 1980
nsitive
Ornithogalum Arabian star flowe

Very sensitive Shillo et al., 2002
arabicum r
Pelargonium ×
Geranium Sensitive Kofranek et al., 1958
hortorum
Pelargonium
Geranium Tolerant Zurayk et al., 1993
domesticum
Pelargonium Moderately
Ivy geranium Costello et al., 2003
peltatum tolerant
Petunia hybrida Petunia Tolerant Devitt and Morris, 1987
Portulaca
Moss rose Very tolerant Devitt and Morris, 1987
grandiflora
Phalaenopsis hybrid Orchid Very sensitive Wang, 1998
Moderately to
Protea obtusifolia Protea RodriguesPerez et al., 2000
lerant
Rhododendron hybri Moderately se

Azalea Cabrera, 2003
ds nsitive

Rhododendron obtus
Azalea Sensitive Pearson, 1949; Lunt et al., 1957
um
Cabrera
Rosa × hybrida Rose Sensitive and Perdomo, 2003; Fernández Falcón
et al., 1986
Moderately
Stapelia gigantea Starfish flower Costello et al., 2003
tolerant
Strelitzia reginae Bird of paradise Very sensitive Farnham et al., 1985
Moderately
Tagetes erecta Marigold West et al., 1980
tolerant
Moderately
Tagetes patula Marigold Devitt and Morris, 1987
tolerant
Trachelium caeruleu
Blue throatwort Sensitive Shillo et al., 2002
m
Moderately se
Tropaeolum majus Nasturtium Glattstein, 1989
nsitive
Moderately
Vinca major Periwinkle Costello et al., 2003
tolerant
Vinca minor Myrtle Sensitive Farnham et al., 1985
Viola × wittrockiana Pansy Sensitive Arnold et al., 2003
Moderately se
Zinnia elegans Zinnia Devitt and Morris, 1987
nsitive

22.4 APPENDIX D – Pearl Rating System for Estidama

(Extract)

Credit Section
PW: Precious Water
Pearl Community Rating System: Design & Construction, Version 1.0, April 2010 86 of 172
B ecause of Abu Dhabi’s limited annual rainfall, hot climate, and the significant energy embodied in
potable water due to desalinization, water conservation is a priority for Estidama. As discussed in
the April 2006 UAE Initial National Communication to the United Nations on climate change, it is a
distinct possibility that the UAE will become even drier due to the effects of global warming.
Coupled with projected population increases, the importance of accelerating water conservation and
reuse efforts is clear.
“One of the most important challenges for the Emirate is to

balance water supply and demand as efficiently as possible given
that the per capita consumption of fresh water is among the
highest in the world and new water supplies are expensive.”
— Abu Dhabi Water Resources Master Plan, EAD 2009
The Precious Water section of the Pearl Community Rating System: Design & Construction includes the
Community Water Calculator that should be used throughout the entire design process. This calculator will
help the development team to assess inputs and flows of water to and from the project with a holistic
perspective, and assist in identifying how and where reductions in the use of potable water may be made.
CREDITS COVERED IN THIS SECTION
PW Precious Water
Credit Credit Title Maximum

Code Credit Points
PW-R1 Community Water Strategy R

PW-R2 Building Water Guidelines R
PW-R3 Water Monitoring & Leak Detection R
PW-1.1 Community Water Use Reduction: Landscaping 14
PW-1.2 Community Water Use Reduction: Heat Rejection 5
PW-1.3 Community Water Use Reduction: Water Features 4
PW-2 Stormwater Management 6
PW-3 Water Efficient Buildings 8
TOTAL 37
PW-R1: Community Water Strategy
Intent To develop and integrate a comprehensive water strategy during the early stages of
design with the goal of minimizing the overall water consumption and establishing a
project water balance.
Credit GENERAL
Requirements Overall Strategy
Demonstrate that a water strategy has been developed for the community which covers
each of the following public realm items:
Irrigation;
Water features;
District cooling; and
Stormwater.
Community Water Balance

Using the Community, Building and Villa Water Calculators, establish the community’s
overall water demand and determine the community-wide water balance between the
available building wastewater and public realm irrigation, heat rejection and water
feature demands.
Minimum Prescriptive Irrigation Requirements

Demonstrate that the average landscape irrigation requirement for all public realm
areas achieve the following:
All public park landscaping in aggregate does not require more than 10 l/m2/day;
All streetscape landscaping in aggregate does not require more than 7 l/m 2/day;
and
All remaining landscaping in aggregate does not exceed 4 l/m 2/day.
ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENT/CLARIFICATIONS
None
Requirement This is a requirement. There are no Credit Points awarded.

Achievement
Credit Overall Strategy

Submission: Narrative detailing the analysis for reducing water consumption and the proposed
Design Rating strategies for each of the items outlined in the requirements.
Completed Community Water Calculator detailing the output of the community
water balance; and
Completed Building and / or Villa Water Calculator for each representative building
within the community.
Completed Community Water Calculator confirming the landscape requirements
will be achieved;
Site plan illustrating landscaped areas, highlighting areas of hardscape and
softscape, as well as water feature/swimming pool areas;
Calculations detailing how the total annual average irrigation demand of external
softscape areas (liters/day) is determined; and
Plant schedules for the development’s landscape program that includes the
following key data:
Plant names (common and botanic); and
Annual water demand at third year of growth.
Credit Overall Strategy

Submission: Updated narrative detailing the analysis for reducing water consumption and the
Construction proposed strategies for each of the items outlined in the requirements.
Rating
Updated Community Water Calculator detailing the output of the community water
balance; and
Updated Building and / or Villa Water Calculator for each representative building
within a community.
Updated Community Water Calculator confirming the landscape requirements will
be achieved;
As-built site plan illustrating landscaped areas, highlighting areas of hardscape and
softscape, as well as water feature/swimming pool areas;
Updated calculations detailing how the total annual average irrigation demand of
external softscape areas (liters/day) is determined; and
following key data:
Calculations and Community Water Balance

Methodology The aim is to ensure that the non-recoverable community water demand associated
with irrigation, heat rejection and water features does not overburden the
available building wastewater.
The community water balance is calculated using the Community Water Calculator
and is determined based on the difference between the available building
wastewater and the exterior water demand for irrigation, heat rejection and water
features.
The interior water use of buildings within the community must be determined using
the Pearl Rating System Building and / or Villa Water Calculators. Each building
type within the community must be modelled and the baseline and proposed
interior water consumptions input into the Community Water Calculator to
determine the community water balance. Where PW-3 Water Efficient Buildings is
not being pursued, the proposed building interior water consumption must be set
equal to the baseline interior water consumption.
The Community Water Balance, CWB, is determined as follows:
BW = Building Water Consumption (determined using Building/Villa Water Calculator)

EM = Municipal Recycled Water Efficiency
LW = Irrigation Demand of all community landscaping
DCW = Water make-up requirements of all community district cooling schemes
WFW = Water make-up requirements of all community based water features

Landscaping refers to the entire site excluding the building plots and any water
feature areas, and is made up of all hardscape and softscape areas.
The methodology for determining the average landscape irrigation requirement is
outlined within PW-1.1 Community Water Use Reduction : Landscaping.
References Pearl Rating System Community Water Calculator

Pearl Rating System Building Water Calculator
Pearl Rating System Villa Water Calculator
PW-R2: Building Water Guidelines
Intent To focus the design and development team on promoting water conservation in
buildings within the community.
Credit GENERAL
Requirements Demonstrate that Building Guidelines have been developed, based on analysis, which
identifies the most efficient measures for reducing the water consumption of buildings
within the community. At a minimum the analysis must cover the following:
Fixtures and fittings
o Kitchen taps;
o Bathroom taps;
o Toilets;
o Urinals;
o Bidets;
o Showers; and
o Ablution facilities.
Appliances
o Dishwashers; and
o Clothes washing machines.
Landscaping
o Plant Selection;
o Irrigation; and
o Water Features.
Heat Rejection
o District cooling; and
o Onsite heat rejection.
Demonstrate that the Building Guidelines have been incorporated into development
plot controls and that a mechanism for ensuring compliance is developed.
None

Achievement
Credit Narrative detailing the analysis undertaken for each of the items outlined in the
Submission: requirements including the results of any calculations;
Design Rating Draft Building Guidelines; and
Demonstrate the mechanism for ensuring compliance with building guidelines.
Credit Updated narrative detailing the analysis undertaken for each of the items outlined
Submission: in the requirements including the results of any calculations;
Construction Completed Building Guidelines; and
Rating
Confirm mechanism for ensuring compliance with building guidelines.
Calculations and The analysis is to highlight the various design options available to buildings and
Methodology show the iterative process which was conducted to determine the most efficient
measures for reducing water consumption.
The Building Guidelines are to emphasize effective solutions to reducing water
consumption, but also demonstrate the consequences that various design decisions
may have on the building water consumption.

Pearl Rating System Building Water Calculator
Pearl Rating System Villa Water Calculator
PW-R3: Water Monitoring & Leak Detection
Intent To reduce loss of water associated with leaks, system degradation, or failure.
Credit GENERAL
Requirements Monitoring
Demonstrate that easily accessible and clearly labelled water meters are provided and
capable of monitoring the water consumption of, at a minimum, the following major
uses (where present):
Building plots, divided into occupancy type (office, retail, residential, school etc);
Irrigation (public realm);
District cooling plants;
Water Features (public realm); and
Any other major community water requirements (e.g. water parks etc).
Leak Detection
Demonstrate that water transmission and distribution facilities are designed and
installed with water meters in order to monitor the water network and be capable of
detecting major system-wide leaks.
None

Achievement
Credit Narrative detailing the community water monitoring strategy;

Submission:
Extracts from specifications clearly indicating the type and extent of all metering;
Design Rating
Design utility plans identifying the location of all meters and monitoring
equipment; and
Design system specifications for central monitoring system and details of how the
system is configured to identify major system leaks.
Credit Updated narrative detailing the community water monitoring strategy;

Submission:
Manufacturer’s information detailing the installed water meters;
Construction
Rating As-built utility plans identifying the location of all meters and monitoring
equipment; and
Manufacturer’s information for central monitoring system and details of how the
system is configured to identify major system leaks.
Photographic evidence confirming the installation of water meters and central
monitoring system.
Calculations and All meters shall have data logging capability and be connected to a central
Methodology community-wide monitoring system so that information on the water network
performance can be recorded. The monitoring system shall have, at a minimum,
the following capability:
o Provide hourly, daily, weekly, monthly and annual water consumption by
each major use;
o Compare consumption to previous days, weeks, months and years for trend
analysis;
o Detect leaks by determining ‘out-of-range’ values and alert facility
operators to unusually high consumption; and
o Record peak water consumption for each major use.
The developer/system operator must provide a written commitment to supply
water monitoring data to Estidama (if requested). All reported information will be
treated as confidential.
The leak detection system must be capable of:
o Sounding an alarm when a leak is detected;
o Identifying varying leakage rates; and
o Being programmed to fit the project’s water consumption requirements.
References None
PW-1.1: Community Water Use Reduction: Landscaping
Intent To encourage water efficient public realm landscape design through plant selection,
irrigation technologies and management, and the use of recycled water.
Credit GENERAL
Requirements
Plant Selection
Demonstrate that the average irrigation requirement for all public realm areas achieve
the following:
All public park landscaping in aggregate does not require more than:
1 Credit Point: 8 l/m2/day;
2 Credit Points: 6 l/m2/day;
All streetscape landscaping in aggregate does not require more than:

1 Credit Point: 5 l/m2/day;
All remaining landscaping in aggregate does not require more than:

1 Credit Point: 2 l/m2/day
2 Credit Points: 0 l/m2/day
Irrigation System
2 Credit Points: Demonstrate that a Water Efficient Irrigation System has been
incorporated into all public realm landscaping.
Irrigation System Management

• 2 Credit Points: Demonstrate that an Irrigation Operation and Maintenance Plan has
been developed.
Recycled Water
Achieve at least three credit points related to Plant Selection and demonstrate
that:
2 Credit Points: A minimum of 75% of the community’s irrigation demand can be
served using the Exterior Water Allowance (as outlined in the Calculations and
Methodology section).
3 Credit Points: 100% of the community’s irrigation demand can be served using the
Exterior Water Allowance.
Where recycled water is not immediately available to meet all irrigation demands,
demonstrate that a recycled water mainline loop has been installed which allows
for the future switch from potable to recycled water for exterior irrigation
demands when it becomes available; and
All pipes containing recycled water must be color coded in order to easily
distinguish them from potable water pipes.
This credit only applies to water demand in the public realm and does not include
irrigation associated with building plots.
Awarding Credit CREDIT POINTS REQUIREMENTS
Points
14
Design Rating
(maximum)
Demonstrate that the average irrigation requirement of
7
all landscape areas is minimized.
Demonstrate that a Water Efficient Irrigation System has
2
been incorporated into all public realm landscape design.
Demonstrate that an Irrigation Operation and
2
Maintenance Plan has been developed.
Demonstrate that a proportion of the community
2-3 irrigation demand can be served using the Exterior Water
Allowance.
14
Construction Rating
(maximum)
Demonstrate that the average irrigation requirement of
7
all landscape areas is minimized.
Demonstrate that a Water Efficient Irrigation System has
2
been incorporated into all public realm landscaping.
Demonstrate that an Irrigation Operation and
2
Maintenance Plan has been updated.
Demonstrate that a proportion of the community
2-3 irrigation demand can be served using the Exterior Water
Allowance.
.
Credit Plant Selection

Submission: Low Water Use Landscaping Strategy including:
Design Rating
Completed Community Water Calculator;
Site plan illustrating landscape areas, highlighting areas of hardscape and
softscape as well as water feature/swimming pool areas;
Calculations detailing how the total annual average irrigation demand of
external softscape areas (liters/day) is determined; and
following key data:
Irrigation System
Irrigation Strategy including:
Narrative describing the community’s irrigation approach, technology to be
used, and anticipated irrigation efficiency;
System schematic indicating mainline routing, laterals, irrigation controller and
meter locations as well as proposed landscape/hydrozones; and
System specifications including cut sheets and/or manufacturer’s specifications
for master controller(s), valves and monitoring equipment including moisture
sensors, wind sensors etc.
Soil Amendment Strategy including:
Narrative describing moisture retention approach for soil amendments
including type, location, extent of application, and frequency of reapplication
(if needed) to maintain effectiveness.

Operation and Maintenance plan including:
Brief narrative describing the monitoring strategy and how it is integrated into
the overall landscaping plan;
System specifications including cut sheets and/or manufacturer’s specifications
for override sensors, backflow valves and separate meters.
Drawings showing the location of each device on a site plan.
Recycled Water
Completed Community Water Calculator confirming the percentage of the irrigation
demand that can be served using the Exterior Water Allowance.
A composite utility schematic illustrating routing of recycled water mainline and
laterals.
Credit Revised as-built documentation as per Design Rating; and

Submission:
Photographic evidence confirming the installation of irrigation systems,
Construction landscaping, water recycling systems (where installed) and routing of recycled
Rating water mainline and laterals indicating their color code.
Calculations and Plant Selection

Methodology Public realm landscaped area refers to the entire site excluding all water features,
swimming pool areas and building plots, and is made up of all hardscape and
softscape areas.
The average irrigation requirement of landscaped areas is determined as follows :
IS = Total annual average irrigation demand of softscape area (liters/day)

AL = Landscaped area referring to public parks, streetscape and / or remaining
landscape.
Irrigation System
A water efficient irrigation system must:
Eliminate all surface spray components (except in public parks or playing fields);
Irrigate only during non-daylight hours (except if sub-surface);
Include moisture sensors that control the irrigation system to irrigate only when
required;
Provide irrigation zones, with independently controlled valves, segregated by plant
water needs; and
Utilize mulch and/or soil amendment techniques to reduce evapotranspiration.

An Irrigation Operation and Maintenance Plan should include:
Regular maintenance and operation efficiency performance monitoring;
Procedures for alerting operator and shutting system down when flows exceed
design range due to mainline, lateral, valve or emitter failure or there is a leak
detected; and
Irrigation systems must demonstrate that they incorporate sensors and valves
connected to a central system by:
o Providing override sensors tied to a centralized computer controller with a
feedback loop to shut down zones that are malfunctioning; and
o Including separate meters and backflow prevention at point of mainline
connection.
Recycled Water
The Exterior Water Allowance, EWA, that is available to serve the community’s
exterior water demand is determined based on the values used within PW-R1
Community Water Strategy as follows:
BW = Building Water Consumption

EM = Municipal Recycled Water Efficiency
EWA must not be ‘double counted’ towards other uses such as heat rejection and/or
water features. The design team must decide upon the most appropriate use of the E WA
in order to balance the available wastewater volume with their exterior water demand.

WA-725-1 Design

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Department of Municipal Affairs and Transport

TOC PAGE I FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

3.3.5 Clogging Potential ............................................................................................................................ 30

TOC PAGE II FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

6.2.6.3 Continuous Flow Distribution. Porous Pipes ........................................................................... 67

TOC PAGE III FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

7.1.1 Peak Demand .................................................................................................................................. 98

TOC PAGE IV FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

10.2.7 Air Valves ................................................................................................................................... 118

TOC PAGE V FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

12.3 Automatic Self-cleaning Screen Filters .......................................................................................... 139

16.3.3 Soft Starters and VFD ................................................................................................................ 175

20.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 214

TOC PAGE VIII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

TOC PAGE IX FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

TOC PAGE X FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

TOC PAGE XI FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

TOC PAGE XII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

TOC PAGE XIII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

TOC PAGE XIV FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

TOC PAGE XV FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

TOC PAGE XVI FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

TOC PAGE XVII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

LVR: Low Volume Roads

TOC PAGE XVIII FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

1.4 Basic Data Required

01-INTRODUCTION PAGE 1 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

regulatory requirements and procedures.

1.4.1 Landscape/Plant Type

1.4.2 Application Losses

01-INTRODUCTION PAGE 2 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

01-INTRODUCTION PAGE 3 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

1.4.5 Groundwater Table Level

01-INTRODUCTION PAGE 5 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

1.4.9 Irrigation Management

01-INTRODUCTION PAGE 6 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

1.5 Service Area

01-INTRODUCTION PAGE 7 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

1.6 Irrigation Water Sources

01-INTRODUCTION PAGE 8 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

2.1 TSE Network

02-EXISTING NETWORK PAGE 9 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Figure 2-1: TSE Network Breakdown and Ownership

2.1.1 Transmission Network

02-EXISTING NETWORK PAGE 10 FIRST EDITION - DECEMBER 2016

Figure 2-2: TSE Transmission & Distribution Network

2.2 TSE Quality

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2.3 Types of Secondary Irrigation System

2.3.1 Classification of Irrigation Systems

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c) Micro-irrigation (localized irrigation) by drippers, sprayers, bubblers, micro-jets, etc.

2.3.2 Above Ground Irrigation Systems - Sprinklers, Rotors, Bubblers

Sprinkler type Operating pressure Flow rate Coverage

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Figure 2-3: Sprinkler types

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Figure 2-4: Spitters, Micro-jets and Sprayers

Figure 2-5: Bubblers

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Figure 2-6: Drippers

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b) Wastage from leaching down is minimal