❖ The importance of electricity:

√ The electricity is the importance energy which is used in many

fields
such as light, communication, …
√ Before, they notice that the amber will become charged when it is
rubbed by a material. They named the amber eleKtron.
√ Electriks are materials which act as amber.
√ Nonelektriks are materials which did not act as an amber
❖ What is electricity:
√ Electricity caused by tiny particles called protons and electrons.
❖ What is a matter:
√ Anything has a weight and occupies a space; we can see or feel or
used it.
√ It can be solid or liquid or gas.
❖ The elements:
√ The elements are the basic materials that make up all matter.
√ There are ninety-two 92 natural elements.
❖ The compound:
√ The elements can be combined to produce compound.
√ The characteristics of the compound are totally different from the
characteristics of the element.
√ Water is a compound that is made of oxygen and hydrogen.
❖ The molecule:
√ It is the smallest particle that a compound can be produced to.
√ When the compound is broken we will have a molecule and when
the molecule is broken we will have elements.
❖ The atom:
√ It is the smallest particle that an element can produced to, and still
keeps the properties of the element.
❖ The structure of atom:
√ If the atom of an element is broken any further, the subatomic
particles will appear protons, neutrons and electrons.
√ The atom of an element differs of an atom of another element
because they contain different number of subatomic particles.
√ The nucleus
√ The nucleus is the central part of the atom, it contains protons and
neutrons.
√ The number of protons called the atomic number.
√ The neutrons are not important in electricity.
❖ The Proton:
√ The size of electrons is three times the size of protons. So the
diameter proton is one-third the diameter of electron.
√ The proton is 1840 times heavier than the electron.
√ The proton has a positive electrical charge and his lines force go
straight out in all directions.
√ It is difficult to dislodge protons from the nucleus.
❖ The electron:
√ The electrons are easy to move in the flow of an electrical energy
and they are important in the electricity.
❖ The law of electrical charges
√ The negative electrostatic charge of an electron equals the positive
electrostatic charge of a proton but they are opposite.
√ The particles with like charge repel each other but the particles with
unlike charge attract each other.
√ The repulsive force that exert in the nucleus by protons has a little
effect.
√ Electrostatic field are produced by the lines of force associated with
the charges.
❖ Atomic charges:
√ Normally the atom has the same number of the protons and
electrons so the positive and the negative charge cancel each other
and the atom will be neutralize.
√ The positive ion contains more protons than electrons.
√ The negative ion contains more electrons than protons.
√ Charged atoms are called ions.
❖ Charged materials:
√ If the atoms in a material gain or lose an electron the material will
be
charged.
❖ Friction: if we rub a glass rod with a peace of silk the glass rod
gives
electrons to the silk (they are dislodge )so the glass rod will have a
positive charge and the silk will have a negative charge.
√ The same thing if we rubbed our hair with a ruler. The ruler will
dislodge electrons from our hair, so the ruler will have a negative
charge.
√ The same thing if we comb our hair with a comb.
√ The charged comb or ruler can attract for example a piece of paper
that is to say they are charged.
❖ Charging by contact:
√ We can charge materials by touching them by charged materials.
√ If we have rubbed rod which is charged with a negative charged and
we make it on contact with a suspended copper rod, the copper rod
will
be charged negatively. Because electrons adheres to the surface of the
copper rod.
❖ Charging by induction:
√ If charged material such as rubber rod which has a negative charge
is brought close to a suspense material the electrons within the
material will move to the other hand.
√ If we touch the end of material by our fingers electrons leave out the
material and the suspension material will have a positive charge.
❖ Neutralizing a charge:
√ If the silk rod and the glass rod which are charged are brought
together, electrons will come back to the glass rod.
√ We can see that in lighting when clouds discharge the electricity to
the ground (arc of discharge).
❖ Attraction and repulsion:
√ Like charge repel each other and unlike charge attract each other.
❖ Electrostatic fields:
√ The attraction and repelling forces occur because of the electrostatic
lines of force.
√ In a negatively charged object, the excess of electrons causes the
lines of force to produce an electrostatic field that has lines of force
coming into the object from all directions.
√ In a positive charged object, the lack of electrons causes the lines of
force to produce an electrostatic field that has lines of force going out
of
the object in all directions.
√ The electrostatic fields created by the lines of force aid or oppose
each other to attract or repel.
√ The strength of the attraction or repulsion force depends on two
factors: 1 the amount of charge of each object, 2 the distance between
the two object.
√ Coulomb’s law of electrostatic charges relates the forces of
attraction and repulsion: force is directly proportional to the product of
the two charges, and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.
❖ Electron orbits:
√ Electricity is the movement of electrons from the atoms.
√ Normally, electrons revolve at high speed around the atom’s
nucleus.
√ The centrifugal force pulls the electron out the orbit as a result of the
high speed but the attraction force of the proton keeps the electron in
his orbit.
√ However, if an outside force was applied at the electron in the same
direction of the centrifugal force, the electron could be freed.
√ The positive attractive force is greater on the electrons in the orbit
which is closer the nucleus
,
so they are difficult to free. But the positive
attractive force is weaker on the electrons in the orbit which is farther
the nucleus
,
so they are easy to free them.
❖ Shells:
√ Electrons revolve around the nucleus in one of the seven shells.
❖ Shells capacity:
√ Each shell can hold a certain number of electrons i.e. the first shell
can hold 2 electrons
,
the second shell can hold 8 electrons
,
the third
shell can hold 18 electrons
,
the fourth shell can hold 32 electrons
,
the
fifth shell can hold 32 electrons
,
the sixth shell can hold 9 electrons and
the seventh shell hold the remain of the electrons.
❖ The outer shell: (valence shell)
√ As we have seen the shell can hold a certain number of electrons
but there is another rule. But the third shell will not take on any more
electrons than 8 until the fourth shell starts; even the third shell can
hold
up to 32.
√ The outer shell of an atom will have no more than 8 electrons and its
electrons are called valence electrons.
√ The number of valence electrons is important in the electricity.
❖ Electrons energy:
√ An atom with completely filled valence shell is very stable and
chemically inactive.
√ Electrons in orbit farther away from the nucleus contains more
energy, if a sufficient energy is added to an electron, it will move to
the
next outer orbit; if there is no orbit, it will be freed.
√ Inner electrons are more firmly bound to nucleus and contain less
energy than those in outer shells.
√ The flow of the electrons constitutes electric current.
❖ Producing energy:
√ Electricity is produced when valence electrons are freed from their
atoms.
√ Since the valence electrons are farthest from the attractive force of
the nucleus and they have the highest energy level, they are electrons
that are most easily set free.
√ Energy is applied to the valence shell, and is distributed amongst the
valence electrons.
❖ Conductors:
√ Conductors are materials that have one or two valance electrons in
the outer shell
,
which are easily freed.
√ Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, zinc, brass, and iron are considered
good conductors.
❖ Insulators:
√ Insulators are materials that have five or more valence electrons in
the outer shell
,
which are difficult to free.
√ Materials such as plastic, rubber, glass, mica, and ceramic are good
insulators.
√ Insulators try to feel its outer shell tell 8 valence electrons.
√ The atom of Inert gases is completely stable, they have 8 valence
electrons.
√ The atoms that have 7 electrons in the outer shell are excellent
insulators.
❖ Semiconductors:
√ Semiconductors are materials that have more free electrons than
insulators
,
but less than conductors
√ Many semiconductor devices act like a conductor when an external
force is applied in one direction and like an insulator when the
external
force is applied in the opposite direction.
√ Semiconductor materials, such as silicon, can be used to
manufacture devices that have characteristics of both conductors and
insulators.
√ This principle is the basis for transistors, diodes, and other solid-
state electronic devices.
❖ Atomic bonds:
√ Bonding is the force that keeps elements together to form
compounds, the electrons in the compounds form stable octets.
√ Two atoms of hydrogen share their valence electrons to join together
to make a stable hydrogen molecule. And for both atoms are stable
when their pair electrons are shared.
❖ Covalent bonds:
√ Semiconductors are good example of a covalent bond as Silicon
when 5 five atoms share their four valence electrons in order to make
a
stable molecule or compound.
❖ Electrovalent bonds: (NA, Cl)
√ The NA has one (1) valence electron and the Cl has seven (7)
valence electrons and it needs one electron to complete its valence
shell in order to become stable so sodium gives his valence electron to
chlorine.(1+7=8)
√ The sodium will have a positive charge and the chlorine will have a
negative charge.
√ This bond called also the Ionic bond.
❖ Metallic bonds:
√ Good conductors which have one valence electron such as gold,
silver
,
copper. For example sliver’s atoms join together and each atom
give his electron to a neighboring atom and it takes another atom from
another neighboring atom. This group continues to share all their
electrons.
√ The electrons are free to wander randomly from atom to atom.
❖ The effect of atomic bonds:
❖ How electricity is produced:
√ Electrons can be made to move out of their orbits by applying a
force
or energy to them.
√ Friction triboelectric effect.
√ Heat thermoelectric.
√ Light photoelectric effect.
√ Magnetism magnetoelectricity.
√ Pressure piezoelectricity.
√ Chemicals electrochemistry.
❖ Electricity from friction:
√ It called also static electricity (triboelectric effect); causes electrons
that are on the surface of a material to be released by rubbing. The
energy comes from heat friction.
√ After the silk and glass rod are rubbed together, they become
charged with electricity.
❖ Electricity from chemicals:
√ It is called also electrochemistry; it is enabled when chemicals to be
combined with certain metals to cause a chemical action that will
transfer electrons to produce charges.
√ The wet cell: the sulfuric acid’s solution, known as the electrolyte,
pulls positive ions from the zinc bar and (give) free electrons from the
cooper bar.
√ The dry flashlight battery uses an electrolytic paste instead of a fluid
solution.
√ The basic work of the wet cell is the following: the zinc (Zn)
combines with the sulfate atoms (so4-2), then; the zinc bar gives a
positive zinc ions (Zn+) and the electrons left behind in the zinc bar.
So
we have many negatives charge in the zinc bar.
√ But the solution has a positive charge since the zinc ions combine
with the sulfate.
√ The positive ions of the hydrogen attract (pulls) electrons from the
copper bar so the copper bar has a lack of electrons.
√ Therefore; when we link the two electrodes of the wet cell battery
electrons flow from the anode (the zinc bar) to the device then to the
cathode (the copper bar).
❖ Electricity from pressure:
√ Piezoelectricity: is the effect of pressure causing electrical charges,
its effects are most noticeable in crystals.
√ When we apply a pressure force to a material its atoms will drives
out the orbits. The electrons leave on one side and gathered in the
other side
,
so in this case we have a positive charge in the first side and
a negative charge in the second side.
√ We have a bending pressure and twisting pressure.
❖ Electricity from heat:
√ It is called also thermoelectricity, and it is the effect of heat applied
to
two dissimilar metals which are joined, producing positive and
negative
charge on the two metals.
√ When we apply a sufficient heat to a metal which is composed by
copper and zinc. Electrons will move from copper’s atoms to zinc’s
atoms
,
thus; zinc will have a negative charge (surplus of electrons) and
copper will have a positive charge (lack of electrons).
√ Copper and zinc are thermocouple, when a number of
thermocouples are joined, we will have a thermopile.
❖ Electricity from light:
√ It is called also photoelectric: it effect causes the atoms of certain
materials to release electrons when beam of light energy, in the form
of
photons, strikes them.
√ Light itself is a form of energy, and it is made of small particles are
called photons. These photons will lose their energy when they strike
materials but the energy’ photon will release electrons from these
materials such as potassium.
√ This photoelectric effect in this way: (1) photoemission: in one
hand;
photon energy release electrons of one surface in a vacuum tube, in
the
other hand; another surface in the tube will collect electrons. (2)
Photovoltaic: light energy on one of two plates that are joined together
causes electrons to be released to the other
,
the plates act as a battery.
(3) Photoconduction: light energy applied to some materials causes
them to become good conductors.
❖ Electricity from magnetism:
√ Is called also magnetoelectricity, it is the effect of the force of a
magnetic field, which can be used to move electrons.
√ It will happen when a conductor passed through a magnet field,
because the energy of the magnet field force will apply to the
electrons
of the conductor
,
then the free electrons will move in the same direction.
❖ What is an electric current:
√ Electrostatic electricity is an electric charge at rest.
√ Free electrons moving in the same direction is called an electric
current.
√ The greater or fewer current depend on the number of electrons
moving in the same direction.
❖ Free electrons:
√ The free electrons in copper wire change the orbits in a random
manner because all the atoms share their valence electrons in order to
become bound together.
√ Each atom loses an electron and receives another from their
neighbors. And the action is continuous but the movement of the
electrons does not cause any electrical current because the electrons
move in different directions.
√ In order to produce an electrical current the free electrons in the wire
must move in the same direction. So we can put a positive charge in
the end and a negative charge in the beginning.
❖ Electron movement:
√ The electrons can move easily from the atoms in the wire and they
are repelled by the negative charge in the end of the wire. So the
electrons will be attracting by the positive charge the beginning.
√ The electrons will change orbits and drift toward the positive
charge.
❖ Current flow:
√ The free electron movement produces the current.
√ The free electron travels fast because it is only under the influence
of atomic orbital forces.
√ The free electron that drifts under the influence of the electrostatic
charges has to oppose some of the atomic orbital forces and so it
travels slowly.
❖ The current impulse:
√ Each electron leaves its orbit and entre another orbit, as a result of
an application of energy; it repels another electron out of orbit. And
the
action continuous from an atom to atom through the wire.
√ The impulse that is transferred from an atom to another is the
electric current.
❖ The speed of electric current:
√ The actual speed of an electron under the influence of the e.m.f is
slow but the impulse of energy that is transferred from electron to
another is very fast (186000 mile/s). This is the rate of current flow.
❖ A complete (closed) circuit:
√ When we put a negative charge at one side of the wire will repel
electrons to the other side where the electrons will accumulate and the
flow of the current will stopped. In order to continue the flow of the
current we have to put a positive charge in the other side then the
electrons will continue the flow.
❖ An open circuit:
√ If a wire is broken at any point, electrons will accumulate at the
point
which is connected with the negative charge, and in the other side
which is connected with the positive charge the electrons will be
attracted by the positive charge. But the movement of the electrons
will
stop and the flow of the current too.
❖ The electrical energy source:
-
Heat thermoelectric.
-
Light photoelectric effect.
-
Magnetism magnetoelectricity.
-
Pressure piezoelectricity.
-
Chemicals electrochemistry.
❖ Putting electricity to work:
√ When a current flow through the filament of a lamp, the lamp will
light.
❖ Electrical units of measurement:
√ Conditions of the current flow: (1) electrical charge (2) a complete
circuit.
√ Electron current flow from a low potential to a high potential.
√ The electrical charge that an object gets is called an electric
potential because the electrons that are displaced accumulate potential
energy that can be used to move other electrons.
❖ Electromotive force (voltage):
√ The electrical charge that an object gets is determined by the
number of electron that the object lost or gained. His unit is called the
coulomb (C).
√ When two charges have a difference of potential, the electric force
that results is called an electromotive force (emf). His unit is called
the
volt (v).
√ When a difference of potential causes 1 coulomb of current to do 1
joule of work, the emf is 1 volt.
❖ Amount of the current:
√ It is the quantity of current flowing in a wire is determined by the
number of electrons that pass a given point in one second. His unit is
called the ampere.
√ 1 coulomb re second = 6.28*1018 electrons per second.
❖ Effect of electricity:
-
Heat thermoelectric.
-
Light photoelectric effect.
-
Magnetism magnetoelectricity.
-
Pressure piezoelectricity.
-
Chemicals electrochemistry.
❖ Electricity causes chemical activity:
√ In electrochemistry we decompose the chemicals by the current and
we may have either electrolysis or electroplating.
√ Electrolysis: when we passed a current through water, the water will
decompose to hydrogen ions (H+) and oxygen ions (o-2). Then the
hydrogen ions will be attracted by the negative electrode to gain one
electron from this electrode and it will be released as a gaze (H2). But
the oxygen ions will be attracted by the positive electrode to lose two
electrons
,
and it will be released as a gaze (o2), those electrons will flow
through the wire and the process will continuous till all water will
decompose.
√ Electroplating (is one application of Electrolysis): if we have copper
sulfate which is mixed with water and we pass through the mixture a
current the ions of the copper (Cu+2) will be attract by the negative
electrode to gain electron two electrons from the electrode and copper
will adheres since it is a metal.
√ The sulfate ions (so4-2) will be attracted the positive electrode to
lose two electrons and the sulfate will adheres since it is a metal.
√ The sulfate electrons will flow through the wire to the negative
electrode.
√ The electric potential and current decompose the electrolysis into
ions
❖ Electricity causes pressure:
√ If a voltage is applied to certain crystals, a piezoelectric force will
exert a pressure that will deform the crystal.
❖ Electricity cause heat:
√ When an electric current flow through a wire, it produce some heat.
But the heat is difference from a wire to another it depends to the
material which is used since we use a good conductor the heat will be
less then we use a poor conductor.
√ We use this heat in many appliances such as the toaster, iron,
electric blankets
,
heaters…etc.
❖ Electricity causes light:
√ When electricity flows, it can be made to produce light. We use
generally in lamps a considerable heat or a little heat neon bulb,
television tube
,
nite lite.
❖ Electricity causes magnetism:
√ If a current flows through a wire, the wire will act as a magnet.
√ But if we cut the current, the wire will not act as a wire.
√ This action called electromagnetism.
❖ Magnetism:
√ Lodestone was a natural magnet discovered by the Greeks in Asia
Minor over 2000 years ago.
❖ Magnetism and the electron:
√ The interaction of electricity and magnetism to form
electromagnetic
fields is explained by the electron theory of magnetism.
√ The electrons have a negative charge, this charge produce a force
field that comes straight in to the electron from all directions. But the
spinning charge produces also the magnetic field.
√ The electromagnetic field is the combination between the
electrostatic field and magnetic field.
❖ The magnetic molecule:
√ Iron, nickel and cobalt are metals which are a naturally magnetized.
√ The atoms which their electrons tend to pair off with an opposite
spin,
so their magnetic fields are opposite so they cancel each other.
√ Atoms which have an odd number of electrons are magnetic if they
are isolated. But if these atoms are combined they will arrange each
other to get 8 valence electrons, so they cancel the magnetic field.
√ But for the iron, nickel and cobalt they combine and share their
valence electrons in such a way to keep the magnetic field.
√ To add, the magnetic molecules act just like a little magnet.
❖ Magnetic materials:
√ The naturally magnetic materials are called ferromagnetic materials.
√ If the magnetic molecules are oriented in random manner, the
magnetic fields of the molecules cancel each other, so the material
will
be considered as unmagnetized material.
√ But if the magnetic molecules are arranged in the same direction,
the force field would add
,
so the material will be considered as
magnetized material.
√ If only some molecules are aligned, the force field will be weak.
❖ How to magnetized iron:
√ We can magnetize unmagnetized materials by applying a magnetic
force which acts against the magnetic force of each molecule.
√ This can be done by two ways (1) by magnetic stroking or (2) by an
electric current.
√ The electrical current produces a magnetic field that magnetized the
iron.
√ The permanent magnet if a material keeps its magnetic field.
√ The temporary magnet if a material loses its magnetism.
❖ How to demagnetized a magnet:
√ To demagnetize a material we should disarranged the molecules of
the material
,
so their fields cancel each other.
√ By stroking hard the magnet.
√ By heating the magnet.
√ By placing rapidly the magnet in reversing magnetic field.
❖ The earth’s magnetic field:
√ North magnetic pole is near the north geographic pole and the south
magnetic pole is near the south geographic pole.
❖ Magnetic polarities:
√ If we string a magnet freely, the magnet will align itself with the
earth’s magnetic field. The end which points the earth’s north is called
the N pole and the end which points the earth’s south is called the S
pole.
❖ The magnetic compass:
√ A compass is made by a tiny (needle) light magnet that is freely
pivoted and it aligned itself with the earth’s magnetic polarities.
❖ Attraction and repulsion:
√ Like poles repels, unlike poles attract.
❖ The magnetic field:
√ The Needle of the compass shows the magnetic field surround
magnet bar.
❖ Lines of force:
√ The magnetic field of a magnet is made of lines of force which
extend out in to space from N pole to S pole.
√ The closer lines of the force are the stronger magnetic field.
√ We can show the lines force of the magnet by using sprinkling iron
filing on flat surface, and we put a magnet under this surface. The iron
filings will arrange themselves along the magnet lines to show the
magnet field.
√ The lines of force are called also flux lines.
❖ Interaction of magnetic fields:
√ When two magnets brought together, the fields interact. Magnetic
lines of force will not across one another.
√ If the lines of force are going in the same direction, they will attract
each other and join together.
√ If the lines of force are going in the opposite direction, they cannot
combine and they cannot across, so they apply a force against each
other.
❖ Magnetic shielding:
√ Reluctance is to resist the passage of flux lines.
❖ What is electromagnetism:
√ Electrons produce an electrostatic field and a magnetic field when
they move in the same direction through a wire as a result of the
current
flow.
√ A compass will aligned perpendicular to the current carrying a wire.
❖ Electromagnetism in a wire:
√ The magnetic field depends to the current flows.
√ A compass moved around the wire will aligned itself with flux lines.
√ A left-hand rule: if we wrap our fingers around the wire with our
thumb pointing the direction of electron flow (- to +), our fingers point
the direction of the magnetic field.
❖ Field intensity:
√ If a strong current flow a wire, a strong magnetic field will be.
√ The force field is stronger near the wire and it is weaker further the
wire.
❖ Field interaction:
√ If two wires that are carrying in opposite directions are brought
close
together they will repel each other because their magnet fields are
opposite.
√ If two wires that are carrying in the same directions are brought
close together they will attract each other because their magnet fields
are in the same direction and they will form a loop around the wire.
√ If we twist a wire to form a loop, the magnetic field will be arranged
the flow into the loop from one side and come out from the other side
and are compressed In the center (have a big dense a strong field).
√ The side where the flux lines come out is the North Pole and the
other side is the South Pole where flux lines go in.
❖ Electromagnetism in a coil:
√ If a number of loops are wound in the same direction to form a coil
or
solenoid more field will add to make flux lines.
√ The flux lines in the solenoid leave the N side and go around the S
pole.
√ A left-hand rule: if we wrap our fingers around the coils in the
direction of electron current flow
,
our thumb will point to the North Pole.
❖ The magnetic core:
√ Soft iron cores are used to concentrate and strengthen the flus lines.
❖ Magnetomotive force (mmf):
√ The magnetized force which is caused by current flows a wire is
called the Magnetomotive force.
√ The mmf depend to the current flows the wire and the number of
turns in the coil.
√ The mmf is determined by a term called (ampere-turns).
√ Ampere-turns = the electric current* number of turns of the coil.
√ The magnitude of the mmf determines the number of the flux lines,
how strong the field will be.
√ Saturation point is the point where the mmf increase and the number
of the flux lines will not be produce more.
√ The voltage (V) (volts): the amount of potential energy the electrons
have in an object or circuit between two points.
√ The current is the flowing of electricity i.e. how many electrons are
moving through the circuit in unit of time.
√ The resistance refers to how much the material that is conducting
electricity opposes the flow of electrons.
√ Voltage of circuit is equal to the current flow the circuit times its
resistance.
√ Short circuit can cause burns, because electrical energy is
converted to heat.
Computer science:
√ Computer is a machine which process electronically information
(instructions and data).
√ Computer handles and manipulates information by doing many
calculations (processing).
√ Computer stored data and moved them with enormous speed as
functions through circuits.
√ The information which is presented to the computer is called input.
√ The manipulations are called processing which are done by the
central processing unit (CPU).
√ The results are called the output.
√ Today, the computer is more reliable, compact and cheaper.
√ The central processing unit carries out and controls the instructions
of computer particles. The CPU link all activities of the components
of the computer, and it can also take information from the memory
unit.
√ CPU has two functions: (1) control unit is responsible for
interpretation of program instructions and control the flow between
the main storage and the arithmetic-logical unit and (2) arithmetic-
logical unit (ALU) is responsible for choosing and comparing the
appropriate information within the program.
√ Programs and data on which the control unit and arithmetic-logical
unit operate must be in internal memory.
√ Main storage and CPU are connected to a consol.