FYP 1: PROPOSAL

OPTIMAL CHARGING SCHEDULING OF

ELECTRIC VEHICLE USING EVOLUTIONARY
PROGRAMMING

MUHAMMAD NURAZLI BIN MOHD DALI

2016690508

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY TEKNOLOGI MARA
MALAYSIA
 ABSTRACT

As the number of electric vehicle (EV) keep growing due to the awareness of people to
the environment, it start become a trend to use this type of vehicle. The consequences of this
situation is when the grid need to provide more energy to the consumer. The random charging
pattern of the user EVs may harm the security of the network. In a such a case when all EVs
available at the grid charged at the same time during peak hours causes a sudden increase in
load demand and affect the stability of the grid. Since EVs is considered to become an
additional load to the power grid, a suitable optimize charging schedule must be presented in
order to minimize total cost of energy supply and maintain the safe voltage profile of the grid.
Considering a 24-hour price data and a few constraint, evolutionary programming (EP) is
proposed for this problem. In the end, it is expected the optimized strategies should able to
achieve minimum cost of energy supply and reduce the energy loss of the system

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research background

Electric vehicle (EV) can be considered one of the technology that is keep evolving in
the recent years. Due to the awareness of peoples about conserving the environment, this is one
of the way they do in order to protect the environment and in order to counter the problem of
the depleted of natural resources from year to year. Due to zero emission of carbon from the
EVs, so they are more preferable vehicle than internal combustion engine (ICE) that people
start to use. There are so many famous brands that have already involve creating EVs such as
Tesla, Honda, and BMW. So that EVs has become an attractive vehicle than conventional ones.
EVs also have a silent engine compared to the conventional engine, they are also are more
futuristic and more user friendly as it is easy to use. The basic construction of EVs is it is driven
using electric motor that powered by specially design batteries to supply electrical energy. The
EVs can be built with so many configuration so that they are a few types of EVs that existed.
The most common one is Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) [2], Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)
[1], Plug-In Electric Vehicle (PEV) [3], and Fuel cell Electric Vehicle (FEV) [1]. Each of the
type of the EVs have their own characteristics and configurations employed in the car.

The advantage of using EVs is whenever the electrical energy stored in the battery is
depleted or almost use up, it can be recharged using a charger. They do not need any gasoline
to power up the car and the user can charge their own vehicle at home. There are many batteries
that existed to comply with the electric vehicle such as lithium-ion, lead acid, and nickel metal
hydride. But the most common batteries use in EVs are mostly lithium ion batteries because of
have higher energy density, longer life span and higher power density. The International
Energy Agency expecting that in the year 2020 battery electric vehicle (BEV) and plug-in
hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) will reach a total number of 5 million units. Based on data and
observation to the increase of use of electric vehicle there will be 1 million of EVs in the year
2020 and keep increasing to 6 million when 2030 [17]. Such a increment of new load in the
system will have an impact on the power grid. Today, this issues may still not too obvious as
they introduction of EVs is still in first stage but in certain countries such united kingdom,
German, China and japan this issues are considered a big issues to their grid.

Due to EVs will consume a great amount of electrical energy, so the charging of EVs
has an impact on the distribution grid and this demand of electrical power can lead to
overloading to the grid and unusual increase in load demand of the grid in the electrical
consumption. The behavior of each EVs user is different, so there will be a burden to the grid
when there is no charging coordination of EVs. Thus, the real problem may come when all EVs
are charging at the same time during peak hour. Therefore, uncoordinated charging of a large
number of EVs can have an adverse impact on the grid operation such as power outages, sudden
voltage fluctuations.

To handle this issues this paper will introduce a technique using evolutionary
programming to produce an optimized EVs charging schedule that will consider the 24 hour
price of EVs , time of use (TOU) and charging pattern of the user to minimize the total cost of
charging. This method also will maintain the balance of the grid in voltage limit especially
during peak hours. The scheduling result with different case then will be compared and discuss
thoroughly.

1.2 Problem statement

 The number of EVs will keep increasing, so there will be a few problem related to the
grid such as overloading and reduce the stability of the power system
 Since it will be additional load that causes from charging EVs there will be a very
large increase to the peak load and the supply demand thus increase the cost of
energy.
  Sudden increase of load demand due to the uncoordinated charging may causes a big
problem when all the EVs available at the grid are charged at the same time especially
during peak hours that will causes burden to the power grid.

1.3 Objective

 To coordinate charging scheduling of electric vehicle in order to keep the power grid
in a balance condition.
 To optimize the cost of energy supply by considering different prices in 24 hour
period and voltage limit of the system.
 To do comparison on the result of the charging scheduling between a few cases set in
the system grid.

1.4 Scope of work

The main focus of this research to create an efficient charging schedule for electric vehicle at
grid. The optimization of charging schedule is based on artificial intelligent using a technique
call evolutionary programming (EP). This technique will be consider a few constraint such as
a different price in a 24–hour load profile, charging pattern and the number of EV in the grid.
This study is focus on to minimize the cost of energy supply while maintaining the voltage
profile and the stability of the grid. Some calculation and assumptions has been made in this
research. This research also refer to some of the articles and journals in order to improve this
study and all the referred work has been cited.

1.5 Significant of work

With the use of many electric vehicle, this may increase load demand and the security of the
grid may be affected. An optimal coordinated charging scheduling of electric vehicle is
proposed to the grid in order to optimize the cost of energy supply and reduce total operation
cost. In order to avoid a sudden increase of load demand during peak-hour, a 24-hour price data
is use in intention to control electric vehicle charging behavior. Thus it will shifting the
charging of EVs to off-peak hours and protect the security of the power grid. Then the result is
compared with coordinated charging schedule and uncoordinated charging schedule to see the
differences.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

There is so many advantage in using EV compared to ICE such as the features that is
provided in EV is more reliable and environmentally friendly. This chapter will explain about
the EV such as the type of EV, the type of batteries in EV and the state of charge (SOC) of EV
which then will be explain in detail about the approaches used to schedule EV charging. In this
chapter also will be covered about the impact of EV to the grid and explaining about the
coordination of vehicle to grid (V2G) and grid to vehicle (G2V).

2.2 Types of Electric Vehicle

EVs is technology deliberated as a combination of different subsystems and each of

these technology is work as one system in order to make EV to work, and in the subsystem
there will be various subsystem that will be employed [1]. There are quite a few configurations
and options to build an EV with. Thus, there are various type of EV that has been created in
these days.

2.2.1 Battery electric vehicle (BEV)

BEV is one the type of EVs that using only batteries to supply power to the drive train.
The energy packs that BEVs have to depend on solely should have the sufficient energy kept
in it. For that reason the battery capacity play an important role as it depend directly to
determine the range of the vehicle can. Usually they can move around 100 km–250 km on
single charge [2], although the high-tier models can drive a lot further, from 300 km to 500 km
[2]. However how far the vehicle can go is influenced by the driving situation and style, vehicle
structures, road conditions, climate, battery type and age. Once run out, it will take some time
to charging the battery pack compared to refueling a conventional ICE vehicle.

The problem of the charging time is depend on the charger configuration, its infrastructure and
operating power level. This also become a choice due to modest construction, operation and
user friendly. Even though at a lower speed, the electric thrust delivers immediate and high
torques. These criteria, combined with their restriction of range, makes them the perfect vehicle
to use in city areas.
 Figure 1 BEV configuration, the DC is convert to AC using inverter and runs the motor

2.2.2 Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)

The second type of EV is HEV. It is the combination of an ICE and an electrical power
train as a mechanism for the vehicle to move. The combination of these two can come in many
forms depends on design of the system of the car. When the car are using a low power,
automatically the HEV use the electric propulsion system. This situation is mostly apply in a
conditions which requires the car to move at short distance like urban and rural areas.
Furthermore due to the engine is off when the car is not move, it will reduces the fuel intake,
for example, traffic jams. Hence, it help to reduce the GHG emission. When the car require to
move faster to, the electric system switches to the ICE. Due to this adaptive system
corresponding to the speed of the car, it will greatly increase the performance. It also improves
performance by inserting the openings at gear shifts and giving speed boosts when required.
The batteries can charge up by the ICE and HEVs can also recover energy through the
regenerative braking process. Therefore, HEVs are principally ICE driven cars that use an
electrical drive system to enhance mileage or for increase the performance. While starting the
vehicle, the motor act as a generator to yield some power and store it in the battery.

Figure 2 energy management used in HEVs

2.2.3 Plug-in electric vehicle

The PHEV model is a ascended to extend the all-electric range of HEVs [3]. It almost
similar to HEV that it also uses both an ICE and an electrical power train, but the PHEV using
electric propulsion as the core of energy for driving force that make it difference with the HEV.
So these vehicles need a larger battery capacity than HEVs [1]. PHEVs start in using full
electric energy mode, runs on electricity and when the batteries are low, it calls on the ICE to
act a backup or boost to charge back the battery. Thus the ICE system also help to increase the
range the vehicle can go. There also major difference that PHEVs can charge their batteries
directly from the charging stations (usually provided and certain building) while HEVs cannot.
They also have the features of regenerative braking. Hence, due to its capability to run on it
own without relying on ICE for most of the time makes its carbon free than the HEVs. The
uses of fuel also decrease and help user to reduce the fuel. The vehicle market is now quite
populated with these, Chevrolet Volt and Toyota Prius sales show their popularity as well.

Figure 3 energy management of PHEVs

2.2.4 Fuel cell electric vehicle

FCEVs also go by the name Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV). They got the name because the
main components of this type of vehicles is fuel cells that involve in chemical reactions to
produce electricity [1]. They are often called ‘hydrogen fuel cell vehicles’ due to the uses of
Hydrogen as the fuel of choice for FCVs to carry out the reaction. FCVs keep the hydrogen in
customize high pressure tanks, another element for the power generation is oxygen, which it
gains from the air sucked into the system of the vehicle. Electricity generated from the fuel
cells goes to an electric motor which drives the wheels. Additional energy produced is keep in
storage systems like batteries or super capacitors [1].A major drawbacks in implementing this
method is the insufficiency of hydrogen fuel. Because of that, the fields of required wind energy
and fuel cost per kilometer is more suited for BEVs. Fuel cost still appears to be one of the
major weakness of FCEVs, as a cheap, sustainable and environment-friendly way of producing
hydrogen is still requiring, and the resupplying fuel set-up lags behind that of BEVs, but these
problems may have solution in the future [1].

2.3 Type of batteries in EV

EVs can get the energy required to run from different sources. The criteria such sources
have to satisfy are mentioned in [4], high energy density and high power density being two of
the most important ones. There are other characteristics that are sought after to make a perfect
energy source, fast charging, long service and cycle life, less cost and maintenance.

2.3.1 Lead-acid

Lead acid is one the source of energy used in EV, the basic structure of this type of
batteries consist of negative active material such as spongy lead, positive active material such
as lead oxide and electrolyte. This batteries usually available in production volume and
comparatively low in cost in order to build it. It also is common batteries used in EV as this
technology is used more than 50 years. So it is considered as a mature technology, but there is
few drawbacks when using this batteries such that it cannot discharge more than 20% of its
capacity and has a limited lifecycle on a deep rate of state of charge (SOC). This batteries also
is not convenience as it has low power energy that is not too efficient to supply energy to the
EV.

2.3.2 Lithium Ion

Lithium ion batteries is a batteries that has a high energy density and a good
performance at high temperature for driving a long range and vehicle acceleration. It also a
good batteries as it can be recyclable and has a low memory effect. With it high specific power
and high specific energy, this battery is good choice for the manufacturer to use in EV. This
batteries also have long battery life which is around 1000 cycles. This batteries is one of the
batteries that have high production cost due it complexity to build it. The most obvious
weakness of this batteries is due to the its recharging process still takes quite a long time, though
it better than most batteries.
2.3.3 Nickel Metal Hydride

NiMH batteries were frequently used in prior-generation electric and hybrid-electric

vehicles but as of 2019 have been superseded almost entirely with lithium batteries in all-
electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, but they remain in use in some hybrid vehicles The main
components in nickel metal hydride or NiMH is alkaline solution as an electrolyte and using
nickel hydroxide and alloy of nickel as its electrode. In terms of energy density this batteries
have a high energy density compared to lead-acid which it has a double energy. Thus this
batteries are harmless to the environment and also recyclable. The risk when using this batteries
is low due to it can operate well at high voltage. The cycle life of this batteries is longer even
though it can reduced its lifetime of around 200–300 cycles if discharged rapidly on high load.

2.4 Impact of electric vehicle to the grid

As the population of peoples using the electric vehicle (EV) is keep increasing by years,
the power demand is also keep fluctuating due to the uncertainty time when the user charging
the vehicle. This random charging schedule of each users are different which is depend on their
necessity. So this may lead to some problems to the grid as the load is keep changing, thus will
complicates the situation in power grid from the supply side. It is expected that when is EV
charging during the peak hours may increase the load demand thus causes the generation
capacity need to be large. Furthermore, this situation also may burden substation and service
transformers, thus affecting the efficiency of the transformers. EV unscheduled charging will
have power quality issues such as voltage drops, power unbalances, and harmonics.

a. Requires more power demand

Due to the different behaviour of users when charging the vehicle, at some situation that
may happened when they charged their car at the same time. This will become a problem
to the grid when they suddenly need to provide more energy than usual when this happened.
This may causes the transformer to overload as they need work more. This type of situation
may also causes the power quality of the grid due the load-shedding. If the EV charging is
scheduled and coordinated the charging based on at peak and off-peak hour, then the
problem arises with power demand will be minimized.

b. Reduce the power quality

 The charging of EV may causes disturbance to the power quality especially to the voltage
and current harmonics. This is causes as the charger is a non-linear load, so when it
connected to the load it will produces harmonics. This may become a threat to the whole
grid system from the effects of harmonics [16]. The result [16] is proven when EV chargers
are associated with the grid, the harmonic disturbances will be developed. Thus, for single
EVs connected with system yields THD about 4.82% and for three EVs about 12.35%.

c. Transformer power loss

A huge sudden EV charging can be a cause of transformer overloading and decrease its the
efficiency. The overloading setting of a distribution transformer increase the power losses.
The heating in transformer core due to the disturbance of harmonic which further then
escalations the total power loss and life span of the transformer [16]. But the power loss
due to harmonic effects can be improved by using transformer with high capacity.

d. Voltage disturbances

Voltage stability at the distribution end also decreases when multiple EV chargers are
connected. The overburdening due to large number of EVs causes this problem. The voltage
profile will be become worse after connecting the EV. This will produce voltage sag and
swelling to occur. This problems will become a critical situation when the power supply
cannot maintain within the safe limit as it will undergoes voltage collapsed.

2.5 Charge scheduling of electric vehicle in smart grid

There is three main section in an electrical power grid system that need for the system
to work which is generation, transmission, and distribution. It is started by the generation that
will produce energy based on load demand and then linked to the transmission line that act as
a medium to transfer the electricity to the distribution part through diverse substation and
transmission lines. The electricity will then delivered to the consumer through the distribution
feeders and transformers. In a grid system there will be a system operator that manages,
controls, and monitors the operation of the system in order to ensure the system balance. But
in recent years due to introduction of many distributed transformer has complicated to control
the power flow of the system [6]. A smart grid participate in a interaction between user and the
system for fast and protected data transmission, at lower layers they are using smart sensors
and actuators for data pool and mechanism and at higher layers using information gathered for
to make critical decision[6]. Three different conceptual models of smart grid are used in the
literature: Internet model, active networks, and microgrids [5].

The remarkable advantage of smart grids are because of they are reliable and optimized
power generation, automated and effective operation and maintenance. They also have
increased capacity of existing power networks, upgraded distraction resiliency, aware with it
own maintenance, self-healing response mechanism when there is imbalance in system, and
analysis on its own for the system. But the main advantage that we can see from the smart grid
is their demand response. This allow the system to communicate with the consumer directly
for real-time information about the everything in the system such as electrical energy
availability and price, which then may make them aware and plan the usage of the energy to
gain a better economic benefits. At the same time, this system may indirectly vreate a new
behaviour of the consumer thus this may help to ensure the grid from overloading at peak hours
and gives the operator a better management of the power system [7], [8].

Usually, using AC Level 1 (120 V) or AC Level 2 (240 V) charger EVs can be charged
overnight at home. Normally, AC Level 1 and AC Level 2 charger should supply about 2–5
and 10–20 mi of range per hour of charging time. The operation of other electrical home
appliances and EV charging schedule can be organized with a home area network. Majority
EVs are predicted to be charge more at home but to counter this prediction, we need to locate
more public charging stations to improve the daily convenient range of EVs. As to reduce the
time of wait in public charging stations practically, they will AC Level 2 or DC fast charging.
DC fast charging typically uses 480-V ac input and enables rapid charging. Typically, In 30
minutes around 60 to 80 mil of range added.

As a useful alternatives a wireless power transfer methods have been commercially

presented to charging conveniently. An inductive power transfer (IPT) system is the one of the
method used[9], [10], to form a system of magnetically coupled inductors they combine
transmitter coil and a receiver coil. To induce the receiver coil, an alternating current in the
transmitter coil produce a magnetic field, then it is used to charge an EV battery. It operates at
power level compatible to AC Level 2. As the term its use the system not using any cable to
charge the car as long as the car is parking in the range of the system the will be charging.

Majority of the EVs are expected to be connected to the Internet using Wi-Fi or cellular
network. The aggregators is used so that each group can be treated as a dispatch able load to
the grid as EVs to be clubbed into different groups of varying sizes by the Internet-enabled
communication supports. There is two ways in control of charging decision for charging
schedule by aggregator which is in centralized manner or decentralized manner. Whenever a
driver plugs the vehicle into a charging point automatically the aggregator will take the session
as a data. The vehicle gives some charging factors for examples location, maximum battery
capacity, current state of charge (SOC), desired SOC, maximum and minimum recharge power
drawn and decide the conclude the state of charge of the vehicle from the data that aggregator
collects. Then in order to have a balance supply and load demand of the grid the aggregator
will communicates the charge schedule to the individual EV.

Figure 4 shows a system-level diagram for the charge scheduling process for both unidirectional
(only charging) and bidirectional (both charging and discharging) cases. The aggregator is
placed in between the ISO and the EVs.

2.5.1 Technique used to optimize scheduling

a. Genetic algorithm(GA)
The cohesive vehicular systems with smart grid and planned a charge scheduler for EVs
based on heuristic-based approaches and genetic algorithms, which reduces the load at a
charging station. The parameters used is vehicle specifications, expected arrival period,
preferred service completion time, and current state of charge [11]. By the information and data
given, the power intake profile of the vehicle is regained by some analysis. Then, the charging
station confirms if it can fulfil the new demand alongside with the other desires that ave
submitted to the scheduler. The result is then response back to the vehicle. So based on the
result the driver may decide whether to approve the schedule, start a renegotiation session, or
go to alternative charging station to the vehicle.

b. Evolutionary algorithm (EA)

It is a multi-agent policy optimization where by a given strategy, each EV that act as agent
that response to vigorous conditions in its environment [13]. To optimize EVs charging pattern,
evolutionary computation has been used such that by using renewable energy generation EVs'
energy demand is satisfied and secure power grid operation. The considered constraint such as
the driving profiles of EVs which is locations, time of arrival, and stay time at each location
and the uncertainties in alternating demand. Primarily, for assessing a candidate solution
distribution grid inputs, traffic patterns, and probabilistic supply models are aggregated. Thus,
this solution resulting charging rate is configured for each EV agent at each time steps.
Considering all constraints and the charging rates calculated in the initial iteration, a fitness
value is produce that shows the extent of constraint violation. The optimization algorithm
continues calculating the fitness if the fitness value is higher than the threshold, until it reached
a stopping values.

c. Particle swarm optimization

The particle swarm optimization is used for create charge scheduling that considers the
uncertainties of power generation from RESs and constraints set by different non-EV loads and
EVs in a smart grid [14]. The goals of minimizing the carbon emissions and reducing power
generation costs is their objective function. The vehicle load demand, spinning reserve
maximum, generation capacity, SOC, battery used, charging station available, and inverter
efficiency are considered as system constraints in the problem formulation.

d. linear programming

For a solution that consist of centralized and a decentralized system this method is used
with charge scheduling of a big number of EVs that have random arrival periods. The formula
includes for consideration are the maximum battery capacity, current battery charge, charging
interval, time of arrival and departure of EVs, charging power, load network, and price of the
energy[15]. Then, the result using convex optimization technique the charging power and
decision for the EV to be charged or not in an interval is calculated. But, the assumption on
EVs information of future load and arrival times is known is unrealistic. So to overcome this
unrealistic situation we can designed to minimize the total cost of the EVs in the existing
continuing EV set in the local group. Across locations at a time instant, the price of electricity
is expected to be same. The EVs in one place or several nearby places create a group. A local
controller (LC) monitor each group. The LC build a central controller that used communication
to interact the charging stations at the local site. In real time it collected all the information and
data and LC runs a local scheduling optimization algorithm and then gives a signal to each
local EV to charge or discharge its battery with the optimal charging powers.

e. Convex optimization

The information of the current price that is proportional to the overall system load is
assumed that drivers is aware when using this technique. So as this assumption is used, the
vehicle owners find ways to adjust their demands to exploit their own advantage. Inspired by
the model of congestion pricing in Internet Protocol systems, a simple version method is
introduced following on price view, which is improving demand response. the price and the
charging rate consequently will affected the user preference as it will be modeled as
a willingness to pay parameter that affects. But after a research this algorithm can be improved
by a novel charging method, where their preferences is considered and PHEVs can adapt their
charging rates[12].
3.0 METHODOLOGY
In this section will be describe about the expected progress of this research in order to
achieve all of the objectives of the research. Direct observation and experimental analysis using
MATLAB are the research method for this research. The flow chart below shows the steps that
have been taken in doing this research. The figure below will show the steps taken in doing
this projects.

Figure 5 flow chart of the project

3.1 Explanation of the flowchart

 The project start with identify the background of the research and identify the
problem by performing the literature review
 Design the charging scheduling by considering a few constraint and objective
functions.
 Develop an algorithm to optimize the charging scheduling using evolutionary
programming techniques (EP).
 Runs the algorithm in order to obtain the expected result.
 The result is being analyze and discussed, then, it is then presented by comparing the
result before and after the optimization process.
 Make the conclusion on the gain of the research and the technique used and submit
the report

3.2 Gantt chart

To provide a graphical illustration of a schedule that helps to plan, coordinate, and track
specific tasks of the project, the figure bellows the Gantt chart of the project for FYP 1.

WEEK
ACTIONS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Meeting and consulting with
supervisor
Discuss and decide the title
of the project

Research on the background

of the project

Conduct literature review

about the title of the project
Identify problems and
objective of the project

Plan the methodology of the

project
Preparing the proposal

Submit the proposal to

supervisor
Figure 5 Gantt chart of the project.
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