Article

Quality of wheat breads enriched with flour from

germinated amaranth seeds

Luciano M Guardianelli1, María V Salinas1 and

María C Puppo1,2

Abstract
Amaranth flour from germinated (GA) and non-germinated (A) seeds (0%-C, 5%, 15%, 25%) were mixed with
wheat flour for breadmaking. Fermentation parameters of dough (time-tf, maximum volume-Vmax) were
obtained. Specific volume (Vsp) of breads, crust color, texture and relaxation of crumb were analyzed.
A high amount of germinated amaranth flour decreased Vmax and increased tf, obtaining breads with low
Vsp and darkness crust. A firmed and chewy crumb, although with a more aerated structure (high area
occupied by alveoli) was obtained. The GA25 bread presented the softer crumb. The elastic modulus-E1 of
crumb increased and the relaxation time-T1 decreased with higher amounts of amaranth flour, suggesting the
formation of a more structured crumb; mainly in the case of non-germinated amaranth flour. Wheat flour
resisted the inclusion of 25% of germinated amaranth seeds (GA25) without substantial changes in bread
quality.

Keywords
Amaranth seed germination, amaranth-wheat breads, dough fermentation, bread volume, crumb texture
Date received: 26 October 2020; accepted: 19 April 2021

INTRODUCTION crust luminosity decreased with replacements higher

Wheat bread is a popular food produced with refined
wheat flour, a good source of energy but with low
nutritional value (G
omez Pallar
es et al., 2007; Slavin,
2003). The nutritional characteristics of wheat flour
can be improved with other functional ingredients
(Iglesias-Puig et al., 2015). Amaranth incorporated to
wheat flour provide health benefits due to is a seed with
high levels of proteins rich in lysine, dietary fiber and
lipids (Singh et al., 2019). Ayo (2001) replaced wheat
flour with amaranth flour (5%–50%) and found an
increase in water absorption and bread moisture with
a decrease in loaf volume and texture. Sanz-Penella
et al. (2013) and Miranda-Ramos et al. (2019) found
similar results: the specific volume of bread and the
Food Science and Technology International 0(0) 1–9
! The Author(s) 2021 Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/10820132211016577
journals.sagepub.com/home/fst
than 25%.
Germination, generally used to improve the nutri-
tional properties of cereals and legumes, causes the
decomposition of the main seed reserves components
like carbohydrates, proteins and lipids, leading to an
increase in simple sugars, free amino acids and unsat-
urated fatty acids (Cornejo et al., 2019; Guardianelli
et al., 2019a). Several authors used different sprouts
(barley, lentils, beans, chickpeas, lupine, soybeans) in
the preparation of baked products (Abdallah et al.,
2017; Ertaş, 2015; Jideani and Onwubali, 2009).
Nevertheless, little is known about how the effect of
1
CIDCA (CIC-CONICET - Facultad de Ciencias Exactas -
Universidad Nacional de La Plata), Argentina
2
Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina
Corresponding author:
María Cecilia Puppo, CIDCA-CONICET La Plata, CONICET La
Plata, 47 y 116, La Plata, B1904CMC, Argentina.
Email: mcpuppo@quimica.unlp.edu.ar
Food Science and Technology International 0(0)
sprouted amaranth on technological properties of
wheat breads. Therefore, the objective of this work
was to evaluate the influence of flours from germinated
and non-germinated amaranth seeds on the quality of
wheat breads.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Breads were produced using wheat flour (Molino
Campod
onico Ltda., Argentina) with 11.2% proteins,
4.78% total dietary fiber, 2.30% lipids, 0.60% ash and
12.19% moisture. Farinographic parameters were:
8 min-development time, 56.6%-water absorption, 100
BU-softening degree, 8.5 min-stability. Alveographic
parameters were: 86 mm, 106 mm and 325 (Jx10
4)
for tenacity (P), extensibility (L) and deformation
work (W), respectively.
Germination behavior and composition of flours
obtained from germinated and non-germinated ama-
ranth seeds, were determined in a previous work
(Guardianelli et al., 2019a). Flour of non-germinated
amaranth seeds had 57.3% of starch, 0.1% of fructose,
1.0% of glucose, 1.8% of sucrose, 12.8% of protein
content, 9.3% of total dietary fiber, 6.3% of lipids,
2.41% of ash, and 11.1% of moisture. Flour of ama-
ranth seeds germinated for 18 h at 30  C presented
50.4% of starch, 1.2% of fructose, 4.7% of glucose,
2.0% of sucrose, 14.6% of protein, 10.4% of total die-
tary fiber, 5.4% of lipids, 2.76% of ash, and 8.8% of
moisture.
Methods
Dough formulation. Each flour blend consisted of
wheat flour (100 g), NaCl (1.5% wheat flour basis, w.
f.b), fresh yeast (3% w.f.b.), amaranth flour and the
optimum amount of water. This optimum quantity of
water, selected according to Guardianelli et al. (2019b)
correspond to the farinographic water absorption of
blends with flours from non-germinated seeds. Levels
of amaranth flours used were 5, 15 and 25% (w.f.b.).
Formulations were: wheat flour (C) and with amaranth
flour: A (non-germinated), GA (germinated).
The solids were mixed in a small-scale kneader
(KitchenAid Heavy Duty, USA) for one minute.
Water was added to the solid mixture with the fresh
yeast previously dispersed in. The mix was kneaded at
50 rpm (speed 1-1 min) and then was mixed at 90 rpm
(speed 2) until reaching the development time. The
optimum quantity of water (%) and the optimum
mixing time (min) (farinographic parameters) used for
dough development and determined in a previous work
(Guardianelli et al., 2019b) were respectively: C
(55.9%, 11.7 min), 5% (56.0%, 9.0 min), 15% (56.0%,
2
6.5 min) and for 25% (58.0%, 7.0 min). The dough was
rolled four times with a 90 of rotation between each
rolling step, rested (15 min-25  C) and covered with a
plastic film to prevent water loss. All dough were made
in duplicate.
Breadmaking process
Optimization of dough fermentation. Dough (50 g)
was introduced in a 500 ml graduated cylinder adapted
with a mobile plunger and placed in a fermentation
stove (Brito Hnos, Argentina) at 30  C for 240 min.
The volume occupied by the dough inside the cylinder
was measured over time during 4 h. Measurements
were made in triplicate. The increase in volume (DV),
the difference between the dough volume at a given
time and the initial one, was recorded as a function
of time. The DV vs time curves were modeled using
the Sigmaplot 10.0 software using the sigmoid function
(Chapman model) (equation 1)
 c
DV ¼ Vmax 1–exp ð
b tÞ (1)
Where DV is the volume increase, t is time and Vmax, b
and c are constants. Vmax is the maximum volume
achieved. Fermentation time (tf) is the time required
to reach 3=4 of Vmax.
Baking process. Dough (90 g) was rolled, allowed
to stand 15 min and shaped into a bread maker (MPZ,
Argentina). Pieces were fermented at 30  C until reach-
ing their optimum fermentation time, and baked in a
convection oven LANIN II (PANIER, Argentina)
(13 min-200  C). The quality of the bread was evaluated
1.5 h after cooking.
Bread quality evaluation
Specific volume of bread. Volume was determined
according to AACC Method (AACC, 2000) and spe-
cific volume was calculated (volume/weight). The test
was performed by duplicate and four breads were ana-
lyzed from each formulation.
Colour of crust. Colour (L*, a* and b* values) of
bread crust was measured with a colorimeter (Chroma
Meter CR 400, Konica Minolta, Osaka, Japan). The
L*, a* (þ, red;
, green) and b* (þ, yellow;
, blue)
colour coordinates were determined according to the
CIELab space system. Measurements (40) were per-
formed on bread crust at 20  2  C. Browning index
(BI) was calculated according to Saricoban and
Yilmaz (2010)
BI ¼ 100 ðX–0:31Þ=0:172 (2)
 Guardianelli et al.

Where: Statistical analysis

X ¼ ða  þ1:75 LÞ=ð5:645 L  þa  –3:012 bÞ (3)
Moisture content and water activity. Moisture con-
tent of the bread crumb was determined according to
the AACC Method 44-19 (AACC, 2000). Water activ-
ity was measured in AquaLab 4 series TEV Meter
(Decagon Devices Inc., Washington, USA) at 25  C.
Tests were performed in triplicate.
Alveoli of crumb. Bread crumb (eight slices per for-
mulation) alveoli were evaluated using a digital image
analysis system. Images were scanned (600 dots per
inch) with an HP 3515 scanner and processed with
ImageJ software. Images were transformed into an
8-bit image (gray) and binarized through the Isodata
algorithm (threshold 157). Black dots were alveoli and
the alveolar threshold was 0.005 cm2. The number of
alveoli per area (N) (alveoli/cm2) and total area occu-
pied by alveoli (%) were calculated.
Data were analyzed with either a two-way ANOVA
using the software InfoStat (Di Rienzo et al., 2012)
and means were compared by the Duncan
s multiple
range test at a significance level of P < 0.05.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fermentation process of dough
Dough without amaranth (C) and with 5% of non-
germinated amaranth (A5) presented during fermenta-
tion, similar sigmoid curves (Figure 1a) and showed, at
low fermentation times (<85 min), lower increment of
volume (DV) than those samples containing 15% (A15)
and 25% (A25) of non-germinated amaranth seed
flours. Further, A15 and A25 dough presented similar
curves but with exponential growth. At low fermenta-
tion times, the dough with the highest content of
(a)
160

140
Bread crumb texture. The texture profile analysis
(TPA) was performed on discs of crumbs (high: 2 cm, 120

diameter: 3 cm) at 20  C. A CT3 Texture Analyser 100

equipment (Model CT3-100, Brookfield Engineering
ΔV (cm3)

80
Laboratories, USA) with a 25 kg load cell was used.
A double compression cycle up to 40% of the original 60

height with a cylindrical probe (diameter: 2.5 cm) and a 40

C
crosshead speed of 0.5 mm/s was used. Firmness, resil- A5
20 A15
ience, chewiness, cohesiveness and springiness were cal- A25
culated. Eight crumbs of each formulation were 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
analyzed.
(b) t (min)
160
Relaxation assays. Crumb stress relaxation was
performed on bread discs (height: 1 cm; diameter: 140

3 cm) on a CT3 texture analyzer (Brookfield 120

Engineering Laboratories, USA). Samples were com-
100
ΔV (cm3)

pressed (0.5 mm/s) up to 40% of the original height

and compression was maintained for 1 min (Probe: 80

TA11/1000, d: 2.5 cm). The curve of the force recorded 60

as a function of time, was adjusted (Xiong et al., 2015)
40
with equation (4) C
GA5
20 GA15
GA25
r ðtÞ ¼ e0 E0 þ e0 E1 exp ð
t=TÞ (4) 0
0 50 100 150 200 250

g ¼ E1 T (5) t (min)

Where r(t) is the stress (force/area) at any time t; e0 is
the compression strain (40%); E0 and E1 are the equi-
librium and decay elastic moduli, respectively; T the
relaxation time value; g the viscosity of bread crumb.
Assays were performed at 25  C in octuplicate.
Figure 1. Fermentation curves of dough (a) Dough with
wheat flour (C) and different levels of non-germinated
amaranth flours: 5% (A5); 15% (A15) and 25% (A25)
(b) Dough with wheat flour (C) and dough with different of
germinated amaranth flour: 5% (GA5), 15% (GA15) and
25% (GA25).

3
Food Science and Technology International 0(0)

amaranth flour ferment easier, probably due to the
presence of simple sugars available to be used by
yeasts. After 85 min, the curves were crossed and
dough C and A5 presented markedly higher values
than those of A15 and A25, with a sustained growth
in the case of the C sample. Dough A15 and A25 pre-
sented a plateau after 150 min, suggesting that the fer-
mentation process was complete. The change in the
shape of the curve for 15% and 25% could be related
to the dilution of gluten proteins; change that could
also be attributed to the globular amaranth proteins
that would be able to hold water, decreasing hardness
and elasticity of the dough, favoring its expansion but
with a low volume. Guardianelli et al. (2019b) found
that these amaranth-wheat doughs, that are easier to
expand in a short time, presented higher dynamic vis-
cosity and tan d. The result is a lower dough expansion
respect to wheat dough, due to the formation of a
gluten matrix filled with hydrated amaranth globular
proteins that prevent further expansion at longer times.
In addition, dietary fiber of amaranth would interfere
with gluten matrix. At low fermentation times, curves
for GA dough (Figure 1b) were similar to A dough
samples (Figure 1a). At longer times (>100 min),
GA5 continued increasing DV while GA15 and GA25
presented a plateau. The final values of DV towards the
end of the assay decreased as the amount of GA flour
in the mixture increased.
Parameters obtained from equation (1) are shown in
Table 1. Values of maximum volume (Vmax) significant-
ly decreased with the increment of amaranth flour (A),
without significant differences between A15 and A25.
The kinetic constant (b), related to the fermentation
rate, remained constant up to a 15% and significant
increased for A25 and resulted significantly higher for
GA15 and mainly for GA25 dough respect to wheat
(C) and to A15 and A25 dough (Table 1). The lower
DV values observed after 100 min in GA25 dough
(Figure 1b) was also reflected in Vmax (Table 1).
Parameter c significantly increased with 5% (A,
GA5), experienced a great decrease at 15% (A15,
GA15) and remained constant with 25% (A25,
GA25) of amaranth flour. The fermentation time (tf)
significantly decreased with the addition of amaranth
flours (Table 1), mainly in GA25 whose tf was signifi-
cantly lower than that of A25. Results suggest that
germination generates new components, mainly
sugars from carbohydrates that enhance yeast fermen-
tation, accelerating this process (high b, low c and low
tf). In this sense, the preferred substrates of
Saccharomices cereviceae yeast are in a first instance
free glucose and fructose, and then the invertase pre-
sent in yeast converts sucrose into glucose and fructose
that are transported and metabolized by the yeast
(Struyf et al., 2017). Unlike non-sprouted flour which
has 1% glucose, 0.1% fructose and 1.8% sucrose,
sprouted flour contains 10 times more fructose and 5
times more glucose which are consumed at the begin-
ning of fermentation.
Bread quality
Specific volume (Vsp) of A breads significantly
decreased with 15% and 25% of amaranth flour
(Figure 2a). In the case of GA breads (Figure 2a),
Vsp of GA5 significantly increased, but then for
GA15 and GA25 decreased to values slightly higher
than those of A breads; therefore, germination con-
ducted to higher bread volume. A decrease in Vsp in
A and GA breads are straightforward related to lower
values of Vmax, due to dilution of gluten proteins and
the incorporation of fiber through amaranth flour. In
spite the DV values for GA25 (100–240 min) are slightly
lower respect to A25 dough, values of Vsp of breads
were higher. In GA25 dough, due to the high content of
sugars, a high amount of carbon dioxide was produced
by yeast during the beginning of baking, leading to a
more expansion of GA25 dough. In addition, the
GA25 crumb structure, fixed during baking due to

Table 1. Kinetics parameters obtained from modelling curves of dough fermentation.

Fermentation

Formulation Vmax (cm3) b (min
1) c tf (min)

C 146  5 d 0.024  0.002 a 3.4  0.5 b 102.3  2.2 e

A5 135  6 c 0.030  0.002 ab 4.9  0.8 c 94.4  2.6 d
A15 109  2 b 0.028  0.001 a 1.5  0.2 a 62.5  1.9 c
A25 102  6 ab 0.039  0.005 bc 2.2  0.4 ab 54.3  1.9 b
GA5 132  2 c 0.032  0.001 ab 5.8  0.7 c 93.7  0.9 d
GA15 112  4 b 0.042  0.003 c 3.0  0.2 b 56.6  1.9 b
GA25 94  4 a 0.055  0.011 d 2.6  0.8 ab 41.6  3.4 a
Formulation with differents levels of amaranth flours: non-germinated: 0% (C), 5% (A5), 15% (A15) and 25% (A25); germinated samples:
5% (GA5), 15% (GA15) and 25% (GA25). Parameters: Vmax, b and c are constant and tf is the fermentation time. Different letters in the
same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). Values are expressed as mean  SD.

4
 Guardianelli et al.

GA25 bread. Values suggest that molecules of low size,

(a)
5 that are generated by proteolysis and starch hydrolysis
d during germination of amaranth seeds, participate in
4 C
C
the Maillard reaction, favoring the formation of
Specific volume (cm3/g)

b
brown pigments in the bread crust; effect that was
ab b
3 enhanced by adding a greater proportion of sprouted
a
flour. Similar results were observed by others authors
2
(Hall
en et al., 2004; Sabanis and Tzia, 2009; Yaqoob
et al., 2018) for bakery products made with flour from
1
germinated and non-germinated seeds like barley, rice,
corn, soy and cowpea.
A good volume, a brownish color, and a spongy
0
C A5 A15 A25 GA5 GA15 GA25 crumb are related to good bakery quality. Crumb
(b) Bread formulation sponginess is related to moisture and the aeration or
140 alveoli generated by the production of carbon dioxide
d during dough fermentation. The dough matrix that sur-
120
C C C C rounds gas bubbles is fixed during cooking forming the
b
100 crumb network in the bread. The moisture of the C
Browning iindex

a
80
60
40
20
0
C A5 A15
Bread formulation
Figure 2. Baking quality parameters (a) Specific volume of
bread and (b) Browning Index. Wheat bread without ama-
ranth (C). Amaranths flour levels: 5% (A5 and GA5), 15%
(A15 and GA15) and 25% (A25 and GA25). Breads with
non-germinated flour (A) and with germinated amaranth
flour (GA). Different letters in the same Figure indicate
significant differences (p < 0.05).
starch gelatinization and protein denaturation, was
softer (Figure 4a) e.g. with a less rigid alveolar wall,
probably due the crumb structure was stabilized by
polymers of proteins and carbohydrates of lower
molecular weight. Yaqoob et al. (2018) found that
the volume of wheat cakes decreased with the incre-
ment of barley flour (up to 25%), mainly in sprouted
barley cakes. On the other hand, Ertaş (2015) found
that the volume of breads with non-germinated lupine
flour (up to 10%) did not changed respect to wheat
bread, but increased in those with the sprouted
sample; attributing this increase to the high activity
of amylase during sprouting.
Breads with both amaranth flours presented higher
Browning Index (BI) than C bread (Figure 2b); and
without significant differences with the flour level for
A breads. For GA, BI also increased with the amount
of germinated flour; the highest value was observed for
crumb was 45.9%  0.6% and no significant differen-
ces were observed between different amaranth formu-
lations (45.0  0.2–45.9  0.1%). The water activity
value of the crumb C was 0.966  0.001 and crumbs
with amaranth resulted in similar values: 0.966–0.969;
therefore, the hydration properties of the bread crumbs
did not change with the amaranth flour.
A25 GA5 GA15 GA25
Crumbs and the alveolar parameters are shown in
Figure 3. The number of alveoli significantly increased
with the level of amaranth flour, especially in A breads.
Although for GA crumbs the number of alveoli was
slightly lower, the area occupied by them was signifi-
cantly similar to that of A crumbs, suggesting that
there are fewer alveoli but with a larger size, which
leads to crumbs with a low proportion of alveolar
wall and possibly softer. The opposite behavior was
observed by Rosales-Juárez et al. (2008) in soybean–
wheat flour breads. These authors found that the
number of alveoli per area decreased in soybean–
wheat breads; and mainly with a sprouted soybean
flour.
Rheology properties of breads crumbs
Crumb texture. Crumb texture parameters are shown
in Figure 4. The firmness of the crumb gradually
increased for A5 and A15, more pronounced in A25
crumb (Figure 4a). This large increase in hardness for
A25 could be due to the formation of a more compact
crumb that corresponds to a greater number of little
alveoli distributed in a total area, area that is equal to
that found in A5 and A15 crumbs. Despite crumbs A5
and A15 were more aerated (higher number and area of
alveoli) presented a slightly higher firmness than C
crumb, suggesting that the solid part of the crumb
has a firmer and more compact structure. In the case
of GA breads, GA5 showed a significantly lower
5
Food Science and Technology International 0(0)
C 5
Number 19 ± 6 a 30 ± 8 a
(alveoli/cm2)
Alveoli total 14 ± 6 ab 21 ± 4 c
área
(%)
Number 16 ± 5 a
(alveoli/cm2)
Alveoli total 10 ± 5 a
area
(%)
Figure 3. Appearance of the bread crumb, and values (mean  SD) of number of alveoli per area and total alveoli
occupied total area. Bread formulations: 0% (C), 5% (A5), 15% (A15), 25% (A25); germinated samples: 5% (GA5), 15%
(GA15), 25% (GA25). Different letters in the same parameter indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
firmness than that of C crumb and increased with the
addition of 15 and 25% germinated amaranth flour,
reaching the firmness value of the C bread
(Figure 4a). No significant differences in firmness
were observed between GA15 and GA25. Results sug-
gest that during germination proteases and amylases
break down proteins and starch into smaller molecules,
releasing smaller molecules that interact with wheat
proteins forming a more flexible gluten network with
cells of large size, leading to a more aerated and softer
crumb. In addition, firmness presented an inverse rela-
tionship with bread volume. Ertaş (2015) found the
same behavior, a greater firmness in breads with
lupine flour respect to those formulated with sprouted
lupine. On the other hand, other authors observed in
the case of germinated flours of pea (Sadowska et al.,
2003), caupi bean (Hall
en et al., 2004), quinoa (Park
and Morita, 2005), soybean (Rosales-Juárez et al.,
2008) and barley (Yaqoob et al., 2018) an increase in
firmness of breads.
In the case of chewiness (Figure 4c) all crumbs of
amaranth-wheat breads followed the same behavior as
that observed for firmness (Figure 4a).
Resilience is a measurement of how a food recovers
after deformation; values for crumbs were lower than
0.5 and a gradual decrease was observed with
increasing the level of both type of amaranth flours
(Figure 4b), observing the lowest values for GA25.
6
15 25
35 ± 5 a 44 ± 11 c
19 ± 4 bc 23 ± 4 c
GA
32 ± 8 b 33 ± 5 b
18 ± 6 bc 21 ± 4 c
This result indicates that this crumb is more deform-
able, due to the presence of a less amount of proteins of
large size responsible of elastic properties. No signifi-
cant differences in the springiness and cohesiveness
(data not shown) of the crumbs were observed.
Other authors found similar results with amaranth–
wheat flour blends of Amaranthus spinosus and
Amaranthus hypochondriacus (up to 50%) (Miranda-
Ramos et al., 2019); and Amaranthus cruentus (up to
40%) (Sanz-Penella et al., 2013). They found a decrease
in specific volume, a more darkness crust and a crumb
with a greater amount of alveoli per area; in addition,
crumbs presented high firmness and chewiness but with
similar springiness and cohesiveness.
Crumb relaxation. Relaxation is related to the molec-
ular reorientation during time, under constant defor-
mation; conformation of chain molecules of starch and
protein would change, modifying their distribution in
the available space, leading to a decrease of stress. In a
viscoelastic solid, stress decays to an equilibrium value
and the curve can be mathematically treated with the
generalized Maxwell model. Relaxation curves of
dough present three zones (Guardianelli et al.,
2019b): (i) a first one of a great decay where parameters
E1 and T1 governs relaxation at the beginning of defor-
mation and are attributed to the orientation of mole-
cules of low size, (ii) an intermediate zone where E2 and
 Guardianelli et al.

Table 2. Parameters obtained modelling stress relaxation

(a) 6 curves of bread crumbs.

5 e Formulation E1 (kPa) T1 (s) E0 (kPa)

C 56  8 bc 11.6  0.3 d 56  8 c
4
A5 48  10 b 11.3  0.4 cd 44  7 b
d
Firmness (N)

b
bcd bc cd A15 59  10 c 10.7  0.5 a 51  8 c
3
A25 129  6 d 10.5  0.2 a 92  7 d
2
GA5 22  6 a 11.3  0.5 bc 18  4 a
GA15 67  8 c 10.8  0.2 ab 49  4 bc
1
a
GA25 67  8 c 10.7  0.3 a 49  4 bc
Bread formulation with differents levels of amaranth flours: non-
0 germinated: 0% (C), 5% (A5), 15% (A15) and 25% (A25); germi-
C A5 A15 A25 GA5 GA15 GA25
nated: 5% (GA5), 15% (GA15) and 25% (GA25). Parameters: E1
Bread formulation
and E0 are elastics moduli and T1 is the relaxation time. Different
(b)
0.6
letters in the same column indicate significant differences
(p < 0.05). Values are expressed as mean  SD.
0.5 e
d
de
c
greater viscous component and a more relaxed sample.
b
0.4 b Relaxation of crumbs can be described with a simpler
a
Resilience

model than dough, due to their more rigid structures.

0.3
Xiong et al. (2015) applied the one-term Maxwell
0.2 model previously used by Xu et al. (2007) to relaxation
curves of crumbs of rice cakes fermented with
0.1 Brettanomyces custersii. Baking fixes the structure of
the bread crumb and immobilizes both kind of compo-
0.0
C A5 A15 A25 GA5 GA15 GA25 nents: the large polymers that are forming the network
Bread formulation structure (proteins and starch) and the small molecules
(c) that interact with them. This reduction of mobility
30
of the matrix allows the application of only a single
d
25 Maxwell element in the modeling of the relaxation
curve.
20
C bc Different crumb relaxation parameters are shown in
Chewiness (N)

b b
15
10
a
5 ranth flour lead to more compact structures with low
0
C A5 A15 A25 GA5
Bread formulation
Figure 4. Texture parameters of germinated and non-ger-
minated amaranth-wheat flour bread. (a) Firmness, (b)
Resilience and (c) Chewiness. Levels of amaranth flours:
non-germinated samples: 0% (C), 5% (A5), 15% (A15), 25%
(A25); germinated samples: 5% (GA5), 15% (GA15), 25%
(GA25). Different letters indicate significant differences
(p < 0.05).
T2 represent the relaxation of polymeric molecules and
(iii) the equilibrium zone with constant value of stress
with E3 representing the elastic modulus of the equilib-
rium state. The relaxation time (T ¼ g/E) is related to
the degree of relaxation: a high value of T implies a
Table 2. The elastic modulus E1 did not significantly
b
change in A crumbs compared to C up to 15%, but
considerably increased for A25 crumb. This behavior
suggests that large amounts of non-germinated ama-
relaxation (low T1). Values of E1 for crumbs were
GA15 GA25 higher in comparison with values of dough (E1:
0.5 kPa, E2: 5 kPa) (Guardianelli et al., 2019b). This
behavior confirms the low degree of relaxation of
crumb due to the fixation of the structure during
baking. Values of E0 were similar to E1 and showed
the same trend with the addition of increasing amounts
of non-germinated amaranth flour (Table 2). Xiong
et al. (2015) found for rice breads considerably lower
values of elastic moduli E0 and E1 that were 237 and
112 Pa, respectively. The crumbs of the breads prepared
with sprouted amaranth flour (GA) presented a differ-
ent behavior from that of crumbs A. For GA5 a
significantly decreased in E1 and E0 was observed
(Table 2); this greatly decrease was consistent with
the highest Vsp and lowest crumb firmness and chewi-
ness obtained for this bread. In the case of GA15 and
7
Food Science and Technology International 0(0)
GA25 crumbs, both elastic moduli (E0 and E1)
increased with no significant differences observed
between them (Table 2). This significant increase in
elastics moduli, accompanied by a lower viscosity of
the crumb (constant values of T1), suggests that the
greater proportion of polymeric protein molecules
that were not modified by germination would be able
to contribute to this increase. Amaranth globular pro-
teins contribute to generate a more elastic matrix,
probably due to a greater water retention, leading to
protein gelation, mainly after cooking process. This
increase in crumb elasticity moduli was also accompa-
nied by the increase in chewiness and firmness,
although with the presence of alveoli of higher size.
Relaxation time T1 did not change, respect to the
crumb C, for A5 crumb; a slightly decrease was
observed with high levels of A; average values were
around 10 s (Table 2). Xiong et al. (2015) and Xu
et al. (2007) reported values of 2.6 and 0.2 s for rice
cakes, lower than values obtained in the present work
(Table 2). Higher values of T1 are related to a great
degree of relaxation, therefore amaranth-wheat breads
presented higher degree of relaxation in comparison
with rice breads.
CONCLUSION
The incorporation of flours from germinated or non-
germinated amaranth seeds to wheat flour modified the
technological quality of breads respect to wheat bread.
Dough with 25% of germinated amaranth flour was
the one that fermented faster due to the presence of a
high content of substrates important for yeast fermen-
tation that were generated during germination.
Although the volume of fermented dough was lower
for GA25, the breads obtained presented higher spe-
cific volume and were darker than the A25 breads.
High volume and toast color are two of the quality
properties required by consumers. In addition, the
GA25 crumb contained high number of alveoli per
unit area and greater total alveolar area than crumb
of wheat bread. In comparison to the crumb of A25
bread, that of GA25 loaf showed fewer alveoli for the
same occupied surface area, indicating that these alve-
oli are larger, resulting in a more aerated crumb.
Firmness and chewiness increased and resilience
decreased with increasing the addition of amaranth
flour, being more pronounced in breads made with
amaranth flour from non-germinated seeds; neverthe-
less, GA25 presented a similar firmness to that of
wheat bread. Regarding the relaxation properties, the
G25 crumb presented higher values of elastic parame-
ters compared to A25, however the same relaxation
time (T1) was similar; nevertheless, exhibited viscoelas-
tic characteristics similar to that of the wheat crumb. In
8
summary, it can be concluded that the bread with 25%
of germinated amaranth flour presented the best
baking characteristics and techno-functional quality.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank PhD Marı́a Fernanda Hamet for
their technical supports for textural measurements.
DECLARATION OF CONFLICTING INTERESTS
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
FUNDING
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/ or publication of this
article: This work was financially supported by ANPCyT
(PICT2014-1531, PICT2016-3047 and PICT2018-647),
CONICET and UNLP of Argentina.
ORCID IDS
Marı́a V Salinas https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5713-7356
Marı́a C Puppo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4858-7122
REFERENCES
Abdallah MMF, Ghanem KM, El-Naga MMA, El-
Sheshtawy AA and El-Ghany TSAA. (2017). Effect of
wheat flour supplemented with some seed effect of wheat
flour supplemented with some seed sprouts flours on.
Journal of Biological Chemistry 12(3): 113.
American Association of Cereal Chemists. Approved
Methods Committee. (2000). Approved methods of the
American association of cereal chemists (Vol. 1). Amer
Assn of Cereal Chemists.
Ayo JA. (2001). The effect of amaranth grain flour on the
quality of bread. International Journal of Food Properties
4(2): 341–351.
Cornejo F, Novillo G, Villacr
es E and Rosell CM. (2019).
Evaluation of the physicochemical and nutritional changes
in two amaranth species (Amaranthus quitensis and
Amaranthus caudatus) after germination. Food Research
International 121: 933–939.
Di Rienzo JA, Casanoves F, Balzarini G, González L,
Tablada M and Robledo CW. (2012). InfoStat versi
on.
2012. Grupo InfoStat, FCA. Available at: www.infostat.
com.ar (accessed 26 October, 2020).
Ertaş N. (2015). Technological and chemical characteristics
of breads made with lupin sprouts. Quality Assurance and
Safety of Crops & Foods 7(3): 313–319.
G

omez Pallar
es M, Le
on AE and Rosell CM. (2007). De tales
harinas, tales panes. Granos, Harinas y Productos de
Panificaci

on en Iberoam
erica. C

ordoba, Argentina.
Guardianelli LM, Salinas MV and Puppo MC. (2019a).
Chemical and thermal properties of flours from germinat-
ed amaranth seeds. Journal of Food Measurement and
Characterization 13(2): 1078–1088.

Guardianelli LM, Salinas MV and Puppo MC. (2019b).
Hydration and rheological properties of amaranth-wheat
flour dough: Influence of germination of amaranth seeds.
Food Hydrocolloids 97(June): 105242.
_
Hall
en E, Ibano glu Ş and Ainsworth P. (2004). Effect of
fermented/germinated cowpea flour addition on the rheo-
logical and baking properties of wheat flour. Journal of
Food Engineering 63(2): 177–184.
Iglesias-Puig E, Monedero V and Haros M. (2015). Bread
with whole quinoa flour and bifidobacterial phytases
increases dietary mineral intake and bioavailability.
LWT - Food Science and Technology 60(1): 71–77.
Jideani V and Onwubali F. (2009). Optimisation of wheat-
sprouted soybean flour bread using response surface
methodology. African Journal of Biotechnology 8(22):
6364–6373.
Miranda-Ramos KC, Sanz-Ponce N and Haros CM. (2019).
Evaluation of technological and nutritional quality of
bread enriched with amaranth flour. LWT - Food
Science and Technology 114: 108418.
Park SH and Morita N. (2005). Dough and breadmaking
properties of wheat flour substituted by 10% with germi-
nated quinoa flour. Food Science and Technology
International 11(6): 471–476.
Rosales-Juárez M, González-Mendoza B, L
opez-Guel EC,
Lozano-Bautista F, Chanona-P
erez J, Guti
errez-L
opez
G, et al. (2008). Changes on dough rheological character-
istics and bread quality as a result of the addition of ger-
minatedand non-germinated soybean flour. Food and
Bioprocess Technology 1(2): 152–160.
Sabanis D and Tzia C. (2009). Effect of rice, corn and soy
flour addition on characteristics of bread produced from
different wheat cultivars. Food and Bioprocess Technology
2(1): 68–79.
Guardianelli et al.
Sadowska J, Błaszczak W, Fornal J, Vidal-Valverde C and
Frias J. (2003). Changes of wheat dough and bread quality
and structure as a result of germinated pea flour addition.
European Food Research and Technology 216(1): 46–50.
Sanz-Penella JM, Wronkowska M, Soral-Smietana M and
Haros M. (2013). Effect of whole amaranth flour on
bread properties and nutritive value. LWT - Food
Science and Technology 50(2): 679–685.
Saricoban C and Tahsin Yilmaz M. (2010). Modelling the
effects of processing factors on the changes in colour
parameters of cooked meatballs using response surface
methodology. World Applied Sciences Journal 9(1): 14–22.
Singh N, Singh P, Shevkani K and Virdi AS. (2019).
Amaranth: Potential source for flour enrichment. In
Flour and Breads and Their Fortification in Health and
Disease Prevention. 2nd ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier Inc,
pp.123–135.
Slavin J. (2003). Impact of the proposed definition of dietary
fiber on nutrient databases. Journal of Food Composition
and Analysis 16(3): 287–291.
Struyf N, Van der Maelen E, Hemdane S, Verspreet J,
Verstrepen KJ and Courtin CM. (2017). Bread dough
and baker’s yeast: An uplifting synergy. Comprehensive
Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 16(5): 850–867.
Xiong Q, Hu T, Zhao S and Huang Q. (2015). Texture and
flavor characteristics of rice cake fermented by
Brettanomyces custersii ZSM-001. Journal of Food
Science and Technology 52(11): 7113–7122.
Xu YL, Xiong SB and Zhao SM. (2007). Effect of cooking
technology and chemical components on stress-relaxation
property of cooked rice. Trans CSAE 23: 235–240.
Yaqoob S, Baba WN, Masoodi FA, Shafi M and Bazaz R.
(2018). Effect of sprouting on cake quality from wheat–
barley flour blends. Journal of Food Measurement and
Characterization 12(2): 1253–1265.