INNOVATION

Self-Driving Cars
in Major Metros

THE INDUSTRY’S MOST TRUSTED RESOURCE SINCE 1990

BUILDING
WITH
PRECISION
Surveying for
Architecture,
Engineering,
& Construction

+
PARKINSON
PUTS INS IN
ITS PLACE

FEBRUARY 2022 | Vol 33 | No 2

GPSWORLD.COM
VO L . 3 3 N O. 2 G P SWO R LD.CO M
FEBRUARY 2019
2022

CHC Navigation
COVER STORY

26 BUILDING WITH PRECISION

Surveying for Architecture,
Engineering & Construction
In recent years, the architecture, engineering, and construction
(AEC) industry has benefited greatly from growing GNSS
accuracy, smaller laser scanners, UAVs, and more efficient
mapping, data management, collaboration, and visualization
software. In this month’s issue five companies highlight these
advances and point to success stories.

27 JAVAD GNSS
A Surveyor’s Perspective
28 Nearmap North America
AEC Firms Use Aerial Mapping to Share in Infrastructure Funding
29 Leica Geosystems
The Surveyor as a Data Manager
30 CNC Navigation
The Rise of Digital-Twin Models
31 ComNav Technology
Surveying in Urban Conditions

LEADERSHIP TALKS

32 THE TRUE VALUE OF INERTIAL NAVIGATION

An Interview with Brad Parkinson
Institute of Navigation

by Dana Goward, PRESIDENT, RESILIENT NAVIGATION AND TIMING FOUNDATION

A U.S. Secretary of Defense once predicted that navigation would eventually be based
on inertial devices that were set at the factory, and then always knew where they were
forever after. Recently published research has reported on steps in that direction. However,
according to navigation expert Brad Parkinson, the outlook for inertial navigation is not as
bright as some claim, though it can be a good part of providing assured PNT.

ON THE COVER
CHC Navigation’s AlphaUni 900 multi-platform system integrates a high-precision, long-range, waveform Riegl VUX-1 laser scanner with a
high-accuracy inertial navigation system. See story, page 30.

|
FEBRUARY 2022 WWW.GPSWORLD.COM GPS WORLD 3
 FEBRUARY 2022

chuyu/Getty Images
INNOVATION

36 SELF-DRIVING CARS IN URBAN NEIGHBORHOODS

How Inertial Systems and GNSS Availability Will Help
by Kana Nagai, Matthew Spenko, Ron Henderson and Boris Pervan
Self-driving cars in urban environments can be problematic. The required multi-
sensor automated systems will include GNSS, but buildings block and reflect GNSS
signals, reducing system availability and accuracy. Researchers from the Illinois
Institute of Technology report on how inertial navigation systems coupled with
wheel-speed sensors and vehicle dynamic constraints can help.

OPINIONS AND DEPARTMENTS

6 FIRST FIX 12 GUEST COLUMN 41 AD INDEX
GNSS + Sensors Have Transformed Surveying Using Modern PCs to Carry the Load
by Matteo Luccio by Julian Thomas 42 SEEN & HEARD
Go, Fish! • North Korea Guided by GLONASS •
8 LETTER TO THE 14 SYSTEM OF SYSTEMS Automated Autoways in India • Satellites
EDITOR DIRECTIONS 2022 Register Ocean Eruption
Worry About PNT and National Security, Now 3 Years Old, QZSS Hits Its Stride

Tonga Meteorological Services

Not Just eLoran by Satoshi Kogure

10 EAB Q&A 16 GNSS SCIENCE

Is Russia’s recent threat to destroy GPS Vulcanic Eruptions Cause Ionospheric
satellites technically realistic? Specifically, Disruptions
how many satellites would it have to by Matteo Luccio
destroy to essentially incapacitate GPS-
dependent U.S. weapons systems? Would
34 PNT CORNER
First Transmission of L1C/B by QZS-1R
the 1,100-km separation between the
by Peter Steigenberger,
orbits of GPS and GLONASS satellites spare
Steffen Thoelert, Sergei
the latter from the debris field?
Yudanov and Markus
with Ellen Hall, Mitch Narins
Ramatschi
and Bernie Gruber

LAUNCHPAD MARKET WATCH

24 OEM 17 OEM 21 TRANSPORTATION
25 SURVEYING 18 SURVEYING 22 MACHINE CONTROL
19 MAPPING 23 AUTONOMOUS
20 DEFENSE SOLUTIONS

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4 GPS WORLD WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
 Paris
CITY OF LOVE

EN GARDE
FIRST FIX
GNSS + Sensors Have
Transformed Surveying
O
n this issue’s cover, a man
with a backpack lidar unit,
a GNSS receiver and a tablet
computer is surveying in a complex
and challenging urban setting. That
same lidar unit also can be mounted
on a UAV. One of the contributors
to this month’s cover story describes
the role of aerial photogrammetry
in the architecture, engineering
and construction (AEC) industry.
Satellite navigation, remote sensing,
mapping software, a great variety of
platforms, and ever more powerful
handheld computers — those are the
key ingredients in today’s ecosystem of
geospatial technologies. The current
generation of surveying equipment has
more than halved fieldwork in the past
two decades while greatly improving
the quality of the data collected.
The AEC industry relies on survey-
ors to be “a bridge between the existing
landscape and the design landscape,”
said another contributor to our cover
story. Unlike traditional boundary
surveying, he explained, surveying
for AEC requires consideration of a
detailed 3D world. It also involves many
more stakeholders and much greater
liability.
The tight integration of GNSS, in-
ertial systems, lidar sensors and 360°
spherical imagery into mobile map-
ping systems makes 3D modeling pos-
sible and traditional GNSS or optical
measurement instruments obsolete.
However, while inertial systems are
invaluable to bridge brief gaps in the
availability and reliability of GNSS sig-
nals, they are far from the panacea they
are sometimes claimed to be, as Brad
Parkinson reminds us in an interview
with Dana Goward, also in this issue.
Surveying for AEC requires at least
centimeter accuracy. The challenges
of surveying in urban settings include
6 GPS WORLD WWW.GPSWORLD.COM
urban canyons that occult signals and
create multipath, traffic and multiple
layers of underground, ground-level
and above-ground infrastructure.
Beyond the construction phase, 3D
survey data is increasingly used to cre-
ate digital twins of buildings, which
facilitate their operation and mainte-
nance throughout their life cycle and
help lower their carbon footprint. Once
they have completed an initial survey,
surveyors often set control to be used
for machine control — the theme of
our cover story in next month’s issue.
In this issue we also:
■ Inaugurate a “letters to the editor”
section to make more room for de-
bate in the GNSS/PNT community
on the critical issues it faces.
■ Report on a Jet Propulsion Labo-
ratory study of the impact on the
ionosphere of the enormous volcanic
eruption in Tonga and the begin-
nings of a GNSS-based early warning
system for natural hazards.
■ Continue our series of articles on
GNSS constellations, with an update
from Japan’s QZSS constellation.
■ Feature three studies: one on real-
time simulator testing using an
NMEA data stream, one on the first
transmission of L1C/B signals by
QZSS, and one on self-driving cars
in major metropolitan areas.
All these advances, however, are
threatened when GPS is threatened. On
page 10, three members of our editorial
advisory board comment on the recent
threat to GPS satellites by the Russian
government.
Matteo Luccio | EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
mluccio@northcoastmedia.net
|
FEBRUARY 2022
WWW.GPSWORLD.COM
EDITORIAL
Vice President of Content Marty Whitford
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Editor-in-Chief Matteo Luccio
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Art Director Charles Park
charlespark@gmail.com
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Innovation Richard Langley | lang@unb.ca
Professional OEM & UAV Tony Murfin | tamurfin@verizon.net
GeoIntelligence William Tewelow | wtewelow@gpsworld.com
Survey Tim Burch & Dave Zilkoski |
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BUSINESS
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Published monthly
 Image from Spirent’s Sim3D multipath & signal obscuration software


  
  

    

Software-defined radio (SDR) architecture

Spoofing for repeaters/meaconing
Interference ground transmitters (GTx) for
wavefront simulation
Blue Force Electronic Attack (BFEA) jamming waveforms
Multipath and signal obscuration modeling
CRPA testing with over 1,000 GNSS & interference signals generated


  
   !"#$ %#"&&  '()  ()
*
  ()+
/ LETTER TO THE EDITOR

Worry About PNT and National Security, Not Just eLoran

I
n November’s issue of GPS World, Editor-in-Chief Matteo Luccio opined that eLoran is part of the solution to GNSS
vulnerability.
In January’s issue he listed 10 questions from a PNT expert perhaps unfamiliar with eLoran.
These are important questions that must be asked of any technology, especially one under consideration to augment and
back up our essential, but very weak and vulnerable, GNSS signals.
Yet the expert’s concerns pale in comparison to the essential questions about GNSS and PNT facing the United States
and the West.
While I look forward to answers to the “10 questions” as a part of our ongoing professional dialogue, there are two
important points of context we all need to keep in mind.

A Broad Consensus
First, Mr. Luccio’s assertion about eLoran being a part of the solution is more than reasonable. It also has a lot of impressive
support from a wide variety of authoritative sources.
In 2008 and 2015, after much study each time, the U.S. government decided on and committed to building eLoran systems.
Also, the U.S. government-sponsored National Space-based Positioning, Navigation and Timing (PNT) Advisory Board
recommended eLoran in 2010 and 2018 as a part of securing the nation’s critical PNT capability.
In 2021, the U.S. Department of Transportation told Congress that wide-area terrestrial broadcast was a necessary part of
a national PNT architecture. They later commented that infrastructure required per coverage area would be a key selection
criterion for that broadcast technology. In other words, a system like eLoran.
Overseas, support for Mr. Luccio’s statement on eLoran is even stronger.
■ The United Kingdom has long endorsed eLoran and operates an eLoran transmitter as a timing reference.
■ Russia operates Chayka, a version of Loran.
■ Available information points to Iran’s terrestrial PNT system being a form of Loran or eLoran.
■ China and South Korea have long had Loran-C systems, and both are in the process of upgrading to the eLoran standard.
Each of these countries has publicly announced that it operates Loran/eLoran as a matter of national security in case
space-based systems are jammed or destroyed, and to generally avoid over-dependence on space-based PNT signals.
So, Mr. Luccio’s assertion was not at all revolutionary. Given all the studies, recommendations and existing uses, it would
be surprising if he did not consider eLoran a part of the solution.

The Important Questions

Second, modern keying, encryption, authentication and other tech advances will help make all PNT technologies much
safer and more resilient than they would have been decades ago, Loran and eLoran included.
Yet all will still have their strengths and weaknesses.
The most important questions we must ask are about how to establish the right level of national PNT security. These include:
■ What is the right combination of technologies and systems with different delivery and failure modes that complement
and reinforce GNSS and each other?
■ How can the systems be efficiently and effectively implemented?
■ How can the services they provide be easily accessed and widely adopted to ensure all parts of society are protected?
Countries such as China have answered these questions and are well down the path to implementation and wide adoption.
Their robust national PNT architectures support easier rollout of 5G, rural broadband and other systems. They also serve
as solid tech infrastructure upon which to build myriads of technologies and applications yet to be conceived.
Those nations not so advanced must accelerate their efforts. Otherwise, they must resign themselves to perpetually
coping with GNSS vulnerabilities, including the possibility of attacks, and an eventual second or third place in the world
because of their shortsightedness.

Dana A. Goward
PRESIDENT
RESILIENT NAVIGATION AND TIMING FOUNDATION

|
8 GPS WORLD WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
 EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Is Russia’s recent threat to destroy GPS satellites technically realistic? Specifically, how
many satellites would it have to destroy to essentially incapacitate GPS-dependent U.S.
weapons systems? Would the 1,100-km separation between the orbits of GPS and GLONASS
satellites spare the latter from the debris field?

“It appears technically possible because
they destroyed one of their own retired
Soviet satellites on Nov. 15 with anti-satellite
technology. Russia threatened to destroy up
to 32 satellites, which would incapacitate GPS-
dependent weapons and create a virtual mine field of debris
with little ability to project trajectories of debris fallout. It is
imperative that LEO and ground-based sensor alternatives be
developed that will make an enemy attack less likely to be
incapacitating.”
— Ellen Hall
“Some still appear to believe that the number
of satellites and their orbital height offer some
level of protection. They refuse to look to the
ground for resilient solutions using proven
and highly reliable technology — which,
coincidently, both Russia and China continue to operate as
their resilient PNT solutions. The United States and its allies
cannot continue to be dictated to by financial analysts who
resist these solutions for fear of exposing the poor decisions
they supported in the past and continue to support regarding
a solution with a higher power and low frequency.”
— Mitch Narins

Tony Agresta John Fischer Bradford W. Parkinson

Nearmap Orolia Stanford Center for Position,
Navigation and Time
Miguel Amor Bernard Gruber
Hexagon Positioning Intelligence Northrop Grumman Stuart Riley
Trimble
Thibault Bonnevie Ellen Hall
SBG Systems Spirent Federal Systems Jean-Marie Sleewaegen
Septentrio
Alison Brown Jules McNeff
NAVSYS Corporation Overlook Systems Technologies Michael Swiek
GPS Alliance
Ismael Colomina Terry Moore
GeoNumerics University of Nottingham Julian Thomas
Racelogic Ltd.
Clem Driscoll Mitch Narins
C.J. Driscoll & Associates Consultant Greg Turetzky
Consultant

“Yes, it is technically realistic, but this act of war against a truly worldwide utility would be politically
and economically disastrous. GPS IOC was based upon 24 MEO satellites that offered full, but not
overlapping, worldwide coverage with spares — there are now 31 satellites that can be utilized through
the control segment. The GPS constellation is ~1,100-km deeper than GLONASS. As made evident by the
now-destroyed Kosmos 1408 debris cloud simulations, and the actual debris cloud spread by the Chinese
2007 ASAT test that now encompasses most of the LEO regime, the debris field will expand, thus increasing risk to GPS
satellite placement and possibly risking physical damage to currently orbited satellites.”
— Bernie Gruber

|
10 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
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GUEST COLUMN
Using Modern PCs to Carry the Load
by Julian Thomas
MANAGING DIRECTOR, RACELOGIC
D
r iv i ng s i mu l ators are
commonly used by vehicle
manufacturers to expedite
the test and development
process of their many electronic
systems. This not only saves the
considerable time and expense of
using a real car on a test track, but
it is, of course, significantly more
environmentally friendly.
LabSat simulators are used by many
leading technology companies and car
manufacturers to develop and verify
the performance of their new products
containing GNSS receivers. These
tests are performed using either a pre-
recorded or an artificially generated
RF signal. This RF signal contains
the combination of multiple satellite
signals, which are decoded by the
GNSS engine, tracking the artificial
satellites as though they were real. Static
or moving scenarios can be generated,
and the user can select parameters to
suit their own application, such as time,
date and available constellations.
Recently, an automotive LabSat
customer had a specific requirement
to synchronize a GNSS receiver with
the real-time trajectory data generated
by one of their driving simulators. This
was for a hardware-in-the-loop test rig
where a human driver would navigate a
route around a virtual test track, while
the normal electronic systems reacted
as if the vehicle were being driven
around a real environment.
The challenge in this customer’s
application was that the time delay
between the trajectory coming from
the simulator and the generation of
the corresponding GNSS signals had
to be less than 100 ms. This low latency
was necessary to achieve realistic
12 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM
AN OFF-THE-SHELF PC provides the computing power for complex GNSS driving simulations.
synchronization between the driver’s
inputs and the resulting output from
the GNSS-based device under test.
Traditionally, low-latency real-
time simulators use bulky expensive
hardware that relies on power-hungry
field programmable gate arrays
(FPGAs) to create the necessary
satellite signals. However, due to the
inevitable tick of Moore’s Law, and
with some clever optimizations, your
entry-level desktop PC now packs
more than enough punch to simulate
multiple constellations and signals with
very low latency.
Using a standard PC to do the
heavy lifting means that the hardware
required to output the simulated signal
is much easier to obtain, can be a lot
simpler, and is considerably more cost
effective. For example, an 8-core, 3-Ghz
Intel i7 processor can generate the
signals from 20 satellites in real-time,
which normally is sufficient to simulate
all but the most complex scenarios.
Our LabSat SatGen software has been
continuously developed and optimized
during the past 15 years, so it did not
take us long to enable the reception
of an NMEA trajectory stream with a
|
FEBRUARY 2022
Racelogic
latency of less than 100 ms. We then
streamed this simulated data via USB to
our LabSat Real-Time, which generated
a corresponding RF signal that can be
connected directly to the RF input of
any modern GNSS engine.
Using a PC to generate the signals
does not mean a loss of fidelity, with the
resulting output achieving a repeatable
position of less than 10 cm, while the
trajectory data can be received at up
to 100 Hz.
The resulting solution can take
trajectory data from any kind of
simulator that has an API to obtain
real-time data, such as many popular
off-the-shelf driving and flight software
simulators, and use this to provide a
real-time signal that can be utilized by
the GNSS device under test.
Our future development roadmap
includes synthesizing external signals,
such as CAN-based sensors or
inertial measurement units, and then
synchronizing these signals with the
incoming trajectory. With the amazing
power of a modern PC, we are finding
that this kind of complex simulation
is now much more cost effective and
easier to achieve.
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 SYSTEM
OF
DIRECTIONS 2022
Mitsubishi Heavy Industry (MHI)
Now 3 Years Old, QZSS Hits Its Stride
by Satoshi Kogure
DIRECTOR, NATIONAL SPACE POLICY SECRETARIAT CABINET OFFICE, JAPAN/QZSS STRATEGY OFFICE
A
t 02:19:37 UTC on Oct. 26, 2021, a new satellite
in the QZSS constellation — QZS-1R — was
launched from the Tanegashima Space Center in
Japan. It is the fifth satellite in the constellation
and the replacement of the first satellite, launched in
September 2010.
As of December 2021, initial on-orbit testing (IOT) and
tuning of the precise orbit determination (POD) function
in the ground control segment was ongoing. QZS-1R is
the first QZSS satellite that will transmit the L1 C/B signal,
splitting the power spectrum at the L1 center frequency by
adopting BOC modulation on the existing C/A signal, to
mitigate interference into the GPS L1 C/A signal. C/B signal
transmission was verified during the IOT phase. QZS-1R will
transmit the C/A signal continuously until QZS-5, 6 and 7
are launched and the noise floor increased.
The launch of QZS-1R was a milestone toward a sustainable
national infrastructure for Japan. The Japanese government’s
Cabinet Office (CAO) is trying to establish more secure
positioning, navigation and timing (PNT) services by
|
14 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM
Policy and System
Developments
GPS GLONASS BeiDou Galileo
SYSTEMS
THE QZS-1R SATELLITE lifted off
Oct. 26, 2021, aboard
the 44th H-IIA launch vehicle.
deploying seven satellites for the QZSS constellation. It will
add three satellites to the current four around 2023.
This will give QZSS an independent PNT capability and
enhance GNSS performance as well as robustness, and
cover a broader area in the Asia Pacific region. CAO is still
investigating the future of the QZSS constellation, including
its final configuration and how to provide assured PNT
services corresponding to future user requirements. However,
it is thought that the full operational capability for Japan at
minimum may be declared after the completion of the initial
seven-satellite constellation.
Today, QZSS is providing ranging signals on L1C/A, L1C,
L2C and L5 for all users able to acquire and track those signals.
Those signals have the same RF properties and almost the
same message format as the corresponding GPS signals —
they are interoperable.
In addition, a unique characteristic of QZSS is that it
transmits error correction messages available in Japan on
separate channels — L1S, L1Sb and L6 — from those used
to broadcast its ranging signals. Messaging functions are
also provided through QZSS L1S and S-band two-way
communication links on QZS-3 in support of disaster
FEBRUARY 2022

mitigation and relief operations in
Japan.
CAO launched the QZSS operational
s er vices using a four-s atel lite
constellation on Nov. 1, 2018. Its first
three years of operation have provided
much knowledge to improve their
performance. The averaged signal-in-
space user ranging error, a 95 percentile
daily statistic, has been improved and
achieved less than 1.0 meter, while the
specification is 2.6 meters; the best daily
value in the evaluation period (Aug. 31,
2020 to Sept. 1, 2021) was less than 0.5
meter for QZS-1, 2 and 3.
This remarkable improvement
was shown on the Centimeter Level
Augmentation Ser vice (CLAS).
According to the original design of
CLAS, transmitted error corrections
were for only 11 satellites in the GPS,
QZSS and Galileo constellations. After
two years of initial operation, we updated
the ground control segment for CLAS
to increase the number of augmented
satellites from 11 to a maximum of 17.
This increase in the number of satellitess
with error corrections leads to excellent
improvement of CLAS performance in
more challenging user environments
such as urban and mountainous areas.
To improve the service performance
further and measure new observables
for satellite orbit clock estimation, inter-
satellite ranging and two-way ranging
functions between tracking station and
satellite will be developed for QZS-5 to
-7 and following satellites. The ground
control segment will also be updated.
NEWSBRIEFS
Multi-GNSS ADvanced Orbit and
Clock Augmentation (MADOCA)
precise point positioning (PPP) will be
implemented as a practical service no
later than 2024. It is aiming to provide
decimeter-level PPP service with
broadcast of globally available satellite
orbit and clock error corrections as well
as code-phase and carrier-phase biases.
PPP has a well-known disadvantage:
long convergence time. By using the
marginal L6D channel on QZS-5
to -7, the ionospheric delay correction
for wide area will be distributed.
CAO will try to evaluate how such
ionospheric correction could reduce
the initial convergence time for the
PPP calculation. In an experiment
planned in collaboration with Asian
Pacific countries, regional stations in
the nationwide CORS network will be
used for generating such corrections.
Early or Emergency Warning
Service (EWS) is also expanding its
service coverage into the region. The
common EWS format is being jointly
investigated by India, the European
Union and Japan under the UN-ICG
framework. The QZSS EWS for the Asia
Pacific region through the L1S signal on
QZS-1R, 2, 3 and 4 will be established
after completion of a ground segment
update around 2024.
Also see "First Transmission of L1C/B by
QZS-1R" on page 34.
SYSTEM
OF
SYSTEMS
SVN-47 DECOMMISSIONED
The U.S. Space Force has announced the
decommissioning of GPS satellite SVN-47
(PRN-22), which officially took place
Jan. 18. The satellite has been unusable
since Dec. 2. SVN-47 was a replacement
satellite in the second generation of GPS
satellites (GPS-IIR), launched Dec. 21,
2003.
On Jan. 20, GPS transitioned SVN-41
(PRN-22) into the broadcast almanac for
all satellites, and SVN-41 resumed trans-
mitting L-band signals. Before, during
and after transition, SVN-41 (PRN22) will
remain unusable until further notice.
ENTERPRISE ROADMAP OUT
The U.S. Space Force has released a graph
illustrating the GPS Enterprise Roadmap.
The roadmap provides timelines for all
the different elements of the GPS enter-
prise through the end of fiscal year 2028.
The one-page document can be down-
loaded at https://navcen.uscg.gov/pdf/
gps/GPS_Enterprise_Roadmap.pdf
RINEX 4.00 AVAILABLE
The RINEX Working Group of the Inter-
national GNSS Service (IGS) has made
RINEX 4.00 available on the IGS website
at https://igs.org/wg/rinex/.

Revised Galileo Open Service Doc Issued RINEX 4.00 (2021) is a major revision of

T
he European Union Agency for the Space Pro-
gramme (EUSPA), together with the European
Commission, have published the latest version
of the Galileo Open Service Service Definition Document
(OS SDD).
The OS SDD was updated to reflect upgrades in the
Galileo system since the publication of the previous ver-
sion in May 2019. The latest version, 1.2, can be found on
the European GNSS Service Centre's web portal.
EUROPEAN GNSS (GALILEO)
the format document to modernize the
navigation message files to be able to
accommodate the new navigation mes-
sages from all the GNSS constellations,
as well as system data messages such as
ionospheric corrections, Earth orientation
parameters and system time offsets.
The IGS adopted RINEX 4.00 during its
59th Governing Board Meeting, held

OPEN SERVICE
SERVICE DEFINITION This is the last update foreseen before Galileo Open
DOCUMENT

Service reaches Full Operational Capability (FOC). virtually on Dec. 7, 2021.

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FEBRUARY 2022 WWW.GPSWORLD.COM G P S W O R L D 15
 GNSS SCIENCE
Volcanic Eruptions Cause Ionospheric Disruptions
by Matteo Luccio
O
n Jan. 15, Hunga-Tonga-Hunga-Ha’apai, an
uninhabited volcanic island on the Tongan
archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, erupted
with spectacular force, churning ocean waters halfway
across the globe. GNSS engineers also detected its effects
hundreds of miles above, in the ionosphere. The GNSS
community is now moving from such after-the-fact
detection to real-time monitoring using NASA’s Global
Differential GPS (GDGPS) system, according to a team with
the Tracking Systems and Application Section at NASA’s
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Southern California.
“We monitored, in real time, four GNSS satellite
constellations from numerous stations around the world
using the GDGPS network. In particular, the three
stations closest to the volcano, in Samoa, Fiji and Tahiti,”
said postdoctoral associate Leo Martire. “We could see
extremely high and strong signals in the ionosphere, which
is very unusual. As a function of radial distance from
the eruption, the first detected ionospheric perturbation
likely originated directly from the explosion. Then we see
patterns propagating at increasing distances at different
radial propagation speeds.”
Monitoring such events adds information to the catalog
of signals from natural hazards, pointed out Siddharth
Krishnamoorthy, a research technologist who manages
JPL’s GUARDIAN near-real-time tsunami warning system,
currently under development. “That is useful because, in the
future, if you want to be able to spot natural hazards and issue
alerts, you need to know what the signal looks like. There
have been reports of a tsunami in Tonga due to this event,
so we will look at potential tsunami-induced signatures in
the ionosphere. We are trying to get to a place where we pick
up a signal like this and we are able to say, ‘This is a tsunami
propagating at this speed and in this direction.’”
Before being detected in the ionosphere, signals from
natural hazards must travel all the way from the surface.
For tsunamis, this usually takes more than 10 to 20 minutes,
but the volcanic eruption only took a couple of minutes to
reach the ionosphere because it shot straight up. “We do
not know yet, based on observations, how exactly different
events on the surface caused by natural hazards couple
with the atmosphere,” said research technologist Panagiotis
Vergados. “Every event is unique in its spectral properties.”
The event did not affect the quality of GDGPS’s GNSS
positions or orbits, because dual-frequency measurements
remove significant ionospheric effects. “Instead of looking
at the direct effects on the position of our available reference
stations, which is what our traditional real-time monitoring
does and which was basically negligible, imagine the links
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16 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
from each of those stations to a dozen or more satellites,”
said Larry Romans, GDGPS chief technologist. “Every
time one of those many links pierces the ionosphere, we
can monitor that signal for ripples as waves go by. So, this
is an incredibly powerful method for seeing disturbances,
just in terms of the density of data. It is very complementary
to position-based natural-hazards monitoring because the
data is much richer.”
In addition to volcanoes and tsunamis, several other
natural events, such as earthquakes and very large
thunderstorms, also produce these effects. “These
natural forcings cause large-scale, low-frequency pressure
perturbations that tend to travel up and be visible in
the ionosphere,” Krishnamoorthy said. “There are also
perturbations of the ionosphere due to events from outside
the Earth, such as solar flares or bolide impacts.”
Many of these perturbations start from the troposphere,
which ranges between 10 km and 15 km in altitude —
including hurricanes, which overshoot gravity waves all
the way to the ionosphere, and thermal tides that have been
observed to go all the way up to 600 km, said Vergados.
“There are also geomagnetic storms and sub-storms that,
during electron precipitation, can change the ionization of
the ionosphere. So, the coupling can happen from either
below or above or simultaneously, and then the effect can
be dramatically enhanced.”
Most of the perturbations that come from below are of
a pressure nature — that is, they start out as mechanical
waves — while most of those that come from above are
electromagnetic. “Aside from nuclear explosions, very large
chemical ones, such as the 2020 Beirut explosion, also cause
a signature on the ionosphere because they create very large
pressure waves,” Krishnamoorthy said.
 MARKET Segment Snapshot:
Applications, Trends & News

OEM 2 WATCH
RTK From the Sky Transforms TerraStar-C PRO

Hexagon
Correction service
achieves RTK-level
accuracy in three minutes
with 99.999% availability

I
n late 2020, Hexagon’s Autonomy &
Positioning division announced its
technological breakthrough of global
RTK From the Sky, demonstrating
a future where instantaneous precise
point positioning (PPP) and global
real-time-kinematic (RTK) accuracy
is possible.
Integrating this innovation into the
core of TerraStar-C PRO, NovAtel’s
corrections service, is the first phase
in implementing RTK From the Sky
technology into the company’s diverse
portfolio of correction services for users
worldwide.
As a result, TerraStar-C PRO has
become the fastest global correction
ser vice to provide centimeter-
level accuracy, not just in open-
sky environments but also across
challenging conditions created by
buildings and foliage, according to
Hexagon | NovAtel.
“RTK From the Sky technology is
the foundation that enables our global
correction services to be world leading
across agriculture, automotive, defense,
survey, marine and autonomous
applications,” said Michael Ritter,
Autonomy & Positioning division
president and CEO. “Our dedication
to research culminated in an industry-
changing technology; we’ll continue
that commitment by providing the
best positioning experience in speed,
accuracy, availability and reliability
anywhere in the world.”
TerraStar-C PRO now converges
in less than three minutes by utilizing
quad-band receiver and antenna
technology to leverage modernized
BeiDou 3, GPS III and Galileo E6
signals. The resulting process generates
state-of-the-art corrections for
all GNSS frequencies. The service
improvements are accessible through
the 7.08.10 firmware release for users
of OEM7700, OEM719 and OEM729
cards and their associated enclosures
for land and air applications.
Future firmware releases will include
global RTK From the Sky technology
throughout Hexagon’s correction service
portfolios for its global client base.

Hemisphere GNSS Launches Vega 60 Board

H
emisphere GNSS has announced
a n e w Ve g a h e a d i n g a n d
positioning OEM board using its
Lyra II and Aquila chipsets.
The Vega 60 GNSS board fits
industry-standard 46 x 71 mm form
factors with a 60-pin connector. It can
be used to replace more expensive and
lesser abled 60-pin boards with either
single- or dual-antenna capabilities.
Hemisphere’s Lyra II and Aquila
application-specific integrated circuit
(ASIC) designs provide the ability to
simultaneously track and process more
than 1,100 channels from all GNSS
constellations and signals including
GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou, QZSS,
NavIC, SBAS and L-band. The ASIC
technology offers Vega 60 scalable
access to every modern GNSS signal
available.
Cygnus interference mitigation
technology is also a standard feature,
providing built-in digital filtering
capabilities and spectrum analysis.
This provides enhanced anti-jamming
as well as interference mitigation.

FEBRUARY 2022 WWW.GPSWORLD.COM G P S W O R L D 17

 MARKET WATCH

SURVEYING 2

Hexagon, Airbus

Hexagon
Join on Bathymetry
H
exagon’s Geosystems division
is partnering with Airbus to
integrate two Leica Chiroptera 4X
bathymetric lidar sensors for maritime
surveillance into the C295 MSA, Airbus’
Maritime Surveillance Aircraft.
Hexagon’s new technology enables
detection of underwater objects in near feature enables real-time lidar data Detecting objects close to real-time and
real time, a significant innovation in visualization and analysis during flight. having a clear picture of underwater
the airborne bathymetry industry, the Being able to locate the precise position activities will allow us to report directly
company said. The lidar system was of an object allows operators to preview to the Mission Support Centre on the
developed to meet Airbus’ requirements and analyze information captured ground and act faster to perform our
and will first be implemented in two below water immediately — a process duties more efficiently,” said Stephen
C295 MSA craft purchased by the that previously could take several days. Connolly, captain of the Irish Air Corps.
Irish Air Corps. The aircraft are due for “The combined bathymetric and “The Chiroptera 4X will provide an
delivery to Ireland in 2023. topographic lidar sensor will provide overall better solution for the coastal
The system’s object-detection us with more details than ever before. maritime domain.”

Bad Elf Adds Android Support

B ad Elf LLC now provides an integrated laser-offset
workflow for acquiring high-accuracy field data in
GNSS-challenged environments using Esri ArcGIS Field
Maps for Android. The workflow integrates Bad Elf and
Laser Tech (LTI) hardware in collaboration with ArcGIS
technology from Esri.

Bad Elf
The Bad Elf Flex
connects to any LTI
TruPulse rangefinder
over a wired or
Pix4D

Bluetooth connection
to deliver high-accuracy
Pix4D Offers RTK Rover for iOS location data to Esri
ArcGIS Field Maps.

T
he Pix4D viDoc RTK handheld rover attaches to The Bad Elf app
iOS devices to bring RTK accuracy to terrestrial workflow runs on
scanning on iPhones and iPads. When paired with the Android and iOS. Bad
PIX4Dcatch mobile app, the viDoc rover can replace survey Elf also provides free
tools such as RTK GNSS rovers and terrestrial scanners, tools for Esri ArcGIS
the company said. The two products create a workflow that Desktop and ArcGIS
turns iPhones or iPads into an accurate terrestrial scanning Pro for configuring
device, with centimeter-accurate RTK positioning from an offset-enabled point-
existing NTRIP network. The tools can be used to 3D model feature capture with
small areas or structures. ArcGIS Field Maps.

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18 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
 MARKET WATCH

MAPPING 2

MetaGeo Launches

MetaGeo
3D Mapping Platform

M
etaGeo has launched a geographic information
system (GIS) platform to enable organizations of
all sizes to host, analyze, find and share 3D map
datasets among any internet-capable devices.
The platform processes location-based map or sensor
data from the real world, combines it into a single 3D
virtual environment, and streams it to any device or
mapping platform. development kit (SDK) allows for third-party tools to scale
The affordable and easy-to-use platform can load data and fit user needs.
from multiple sources: satellites, drones, mobile devices, Applications include academia, architecture, engineering,
public and crowdsourced repositories, internet of things construction, energy, natural resource management,
(IoT) sensor data, 3D models and topographic maps. environmental monitoring, utilities and public safety.
The data is then processed by the MetaGeo platform Uses include planning and managing construction sites,
into a 3D world and streamed to any internet-connected organizing layouts of events, creating maps for public
device, enabling live collaboration between the office safety, and visualizing inspection imagery from drones
and field via mobile or AR device. A plug-in software and mobile devices.

0.05° 0.02° 1 cm
ATTITUDE HEADING POSITION

NEW ELLIPSE-D
The Smallest Dual Frequency
& Dual Antenna INS/GNSS
» RTK Centimetric Position
» Quad Constellations
» Post-processing Software

www.sbg-systems.com

|
FEBRUARY 2022 WWW.GPSWORLD.COM G P S W O R L D 19
 MARKET WATCH
DEFENSE 2
Safran to Acquire Resilient PNT Company Orolia
S
afran has entered into
exclusive discussions to
acquire Orolia from Eurazeo
alongside the founders and
management. Orolia is a world leader
in resilient positioning, navigation and
timing (PNT) solutions that improve
the reliability, performance and safety
of critical civilian, military and space
operations, including in harsh or
altered GNSS environments.
Safran is an international high-
technology group, operating in the
aviation (propulsion, equipment and
interiors), defense and space markets.
NEWSBRIEFS
TRX SYSTEMS TO PROVIDE
DAPS PNT SYSTEM
TRX Systems, developer of NEON GPS-denied
location solutions, has been selected by
the U.S. Army to provide a next-generation
Dismounted Assured Positioning, Navigation
and Timing (PNT) System (DAPS). The TRX DAPS
solution employs a lightweight soldier-worn
device that enables dismounted warfighters to
successfully conduct operations when operating
in GPS-challenged, -degraded or -denied
environments.
spanish Army
GMV NAV SUPPORTS ARMY
GMV will supply its advanced navigation and
timing solution to the Spanish Army, providing
20 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM
Headquartered in Paris, France,
Safran has a global presence, with
76,000 employees and sales of € 16.5
billion in 2020.
Orolia has a broad portfolio of
technologies across the resilient
PNT value-chain with full system
capabilities, and is a provider of
PNT equipment, simulation and test
solutions. Orolia is also providing
emergenc y locator beacons for
commercial aviation and military
applications.
The acquisition “represents a
unique opportunity for Safran and
positioning information on armored vehicles with
or without GNSS signals.
The 8×8 Dragón wheeled combat vehicle (WCV,
or VCR in Spanish) will use GMV’s ISNAV system.
GMV signed a contract with TESS Defence in August
2020 for €2.1 billion. The contract will equip 240
Dragóns with ISNAVs. GMV plans to produce the
ISNAV units at its manufacturing facilities in Tres
Cantos, which opened in 2019. The first units will
be delivered in the fourth quarter of 2023.
The ISNAV system was developed by GMV as
part of the VCR 8×8 Technology Program. It meets
the demanding requirements of the program and
has successfully passed both the mission system
integration tests, and the functional tests installed
on several demonstration units.
PNT AGILEPOD ACHIEVES
FLIGHT TEST OBJECTIVES
The Air Force Research Laboratory’s
complementary positioning, navigation and
timing (PNT) AgilePod prototype achieved three
important objectives in flight tests conducted at
Edwards Air Force Base Nov. 1-10, 2021.
PNT AgilePod helps develop advanced
navigation technology independent of
|
FEBRUARY 2022
Orolia to extend their resilient PNT
solutions, through their remarkable
complementarities,” Safran stated in
a press release. “With this addition,
Safran will be able to build a world-
leading position in all aspects of PNT,
inertial navigation, time and GNSS
receivers and simulators, covering
aerospace, governmental and high
integrity applications.”
Safran intends to accelerate the
development of Orolia under the
leadership of CEO Jean-Yves Courtois,
and in full collaboration with its
teams.
GPS, according to Maj. Andrew Cottle, Air
Force Strategic Development Planning and
Experimentation (SDPE) office. This technology
provides reliable, resilient PNT navigation signals
through alternative means, increasing mission
effectiveness in scenarios where access to GPS is
not guaranteed.
USAF
ONE OPERATOR GUIDES
100+ DRONES FOR DARPA
Raytheon Intelligence & Space recently supported
the fifth OFFensive Swarm-Enabled Tactics
(OFFSET) DARPA program field exercise. Using
integrated swarm technology developed by
a Raytheon BBN-led team, a single operator
successfully controlled a swarm — composed of
130 physical drone platforms and 30 simulated
drone platforms — both indoors and outdoors in
an urban setting.

TRANSPORTATION
Seoul Robotics Fuels Autonomy with Level 5 Control Tower
S
eoul Robotics has introduced
the Level 5 Control Tower
(LV5 CTRL TWR), a mesh
network of sensors and
computers on infrastructure that
guides vehicles autonomously without
requiring that sensors be placed on
individual vehicles.
The technology is in the early
stage of commercial deployment to
automate last-mile fleet logistics at
BMW’s manufacturing facility in
Munich. The system has the potential
to transform operations for a wide
range of business applications, from
vehicle distribution centers to car
rental companies and trucking
logistics.
2
Seoul Robotics is a 3D perception
solutions company using deep
learning artificial intelligence in the
field of mobility. By placing sensors
equipped with 3D perception software
around vehicles — traffic lights,
buildings and highway overhangs
— the LV5 CTRL TWR system can
fully capture the environment and
communicate with other sensors and
the 4/5G systems that come standard
on vehicles. LV5 CTRL TWR collects
all the 3D data, and then automates
vehicles accordingly using V2X
communications.
“Level 5 mobility has been proven
to be more challenging to achieve than
expected, until now,” said HanBin
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FEBRUARY 2022 WWW.GPSWORLD.COM
MARKET WATCH
Lee, CEO of Seoul Robotics. “LV5
CTRL TWR has massive potential
to fuel autonomous mobility, and we
are thrilled to continue expanding
upon the implementation of this
technology with BMW and other
partners. Ultimately, these systems
will be deployed in additional public
and commercial settings, powering
aspects of our everyday lives, such as
autonomously navigated parking and
public transit.”
The collaboration with BMW
leverages hundreds of connected lidar
and 3D sensors on infrastructure to
automate new vehicles within factories
and vehicle distribution centers
without human involvement.
G P S W O R L D 21
 MARKET WATCH

MACHINE CONTROL 2
John Deere Reveals Fully Autonomous Tractor

John Deere
ohn Deere has revealed a fully autonomous tractor
ready for large-scale production. The machine combines
Deere’s existing 8R tractor, a TruSet-enabled chisel
plow, a GPS-based guidance system, and new advanced
technologies.
The autonomous tractor has six pairs of stereo cameras,
which enable 360-degree obstacle detection and the
calculation of distance. Images captured by the cameras
are passed through a deep neural network that classifies
each pixel in 100 milliseconds and determines whether
the machine continues to move or stops, depending on
whether an obstacle is detected. The autonomous tractor
continuously checks its position relative to a geofence,
ensuring it operates where it is supposed to, and is within While the tractor is working, the farmer can leave the field to
less than an inch of accuracy. focus on other tasks, while monitoring the machine’s status.
John Deere Operations Center Mobile provides access to The app allows a farmer to adjust speed, depth and more.
live video, images, data and metrics on a mobile device. Using In the event of any job quality anomalies or machine health
the app, farmers can swipe from left to start the machine. issues, farmers will be notified remotely and can make
adjustments to optimize the performance of the machine.
Unveiled at the 2022 Consumer Electronics Show in Las
Vegas on Jan. 4, the autonomous tractor will be available to
farmers later this year.

Komatsu Adds Smart

Construction Products

H
eavy-equipment maker Komatsu has added two
new “smart” products to its job-site solutions for
construction contractors, Smart Construction
Field and Smart Construction Drone.
Smart Construction Field. Komatsu has partnered with
Moovila to develop Smart Construction Field, a mobile app
that allows contractors to easily record job site activity and
analyze operational efficiencies in near real time. Regardless
of equipment brand, Smart Construction Field can collect
machine data from an entire fleet. Reports generated can
track daily jobsite conditions.
Smart Construction Drone. This survey technology collects
accurate topography, including quantities for production
tracking and billing, without personnel walking the job site
to conduct a manual survey. It can take still photos from
up to 400 feet above ground level or under bridge decks.
Contractors can gather and analyze data throughout each
project with topographic surveys that incorporate hundreds
of thousands of data points.

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22 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022

AUTONOMOUS SOLUTIONS
Spirent Selects Navmatix for Foresight Service
S
pirent Communications
plc has chosen Navmatix
s . r. o. , a C z e c h - b a s e d
company that provides
cloud infrastructure for real-time
data deliver y, to provide cloud
infrastructure for its GNSS Foresight
service. Spirent GNSS Foresight is a
cloud-based service delivering real-
time data on the availability and
quality of GNSS signals. The solution
accurately forecasts when and where
GNSS positioning and navigation
will be most reliable through a
combination of high-definition maps
and precise orbital modeling. This
makes it possible to obtain a clear
picture of the operating environment
2
at a moment’s notice, the company
said.
GNSS Foresight will ultimately
allow unmanned vehicles, air taxis
and drones to safely operate beyond
visual line of sight (BVLOS).
Navmatix will provide the cloud
infrastructure required to deliver GNSS
forecast data as real-time data via an
application programming interface.
Navmatix will be deploying full
operational and developmental support,
including hosting for collection and
processing the GNSS forecast data
through its content delivery network
(CDN). The CDN allows the end user
to efficiently query, comprehend and
interact with the data. Navmatix will
MARKET WATCH
handle the foundational infrastructure
of the project, a significant phase in
expansion of the company as a whole.
Because of the amount of data
generated, the architecture delivers
a robust and sophisticated solution,
according to Navmatix. Being entirely
cloud-based, it allows for continual
updates and remote access. The
cloud infrastructure will provide the
tools necessary to deliver Spirent
GNSS Foresight services to Spirent
customers worldwide.
Navmatix of fers managed
infrastructure solutions for the
operation, development and ongoing
maintenance of GNSS ser vices
worldwide.
 LAUNCHPAD | OEM
1
4
1. GNSS RECEIVER
FOR TRACKING, TELEMATICS
The LENA-R8 GNSS receiver is based on
the u-blox M10 platform. The compact
module balances cost and performance
with a single antenna and primarily targets
customer deployments in the Europe,
Middle East, Africa, Asia, and South
America regions. Designed for tracking
and telematics, the module series was
designed to minimize material costs and
data charges. The LENA-R8 supports a
broad range of frequency bands with 2G
fallback, providing maximum roaming
coverage for global tracking applications
using a single stock keeping unit (SKU).
U-blox, u-blox.com
2. HELICAL ANTENNA
FOR UAVS AND OTHER APPLICATIONS
The low-profile triple-band HC997EXF
embedded helical GNSS antenna features
eXtended Filtering (XF). It is designed for
precise positioning, covering the GPS/
QZSS-L1/L2/L5, GLONASS-G1/G2/G3,
Galileo-E1/E5a/E5b, BeiDou-B1/B2/B2a,
and NavIC-L5 frequency bands. It also
covers regional satellite-based augmentation
systems (WAAS, EGNOS, MSAS, GAGAN)
and L-band correction services. It is
packaged in a light (11 g), compact form
factor (60 x 25 mm). Its precision-tuned,
high-accuracy helical element provides an
excellent axial ratio and operates without
24 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM
2 3
a ground plane, making it suitable for
lightweight unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)
navigation and a wide variety of precision
applications.
Tallysman Wireless, tallysman.com
3. A-PNT CARD
HIGH PRECISION FOR DEFENSE
The SX-124 ruggedized 3U OpenVPX high-
performance positioning, navigation and
timing (PNT) card can provide timing and
positioning information in a GPS-denied
environment through sensor fusion. It is
designed for highly integrated systems with
a requirement for the U.S. Army’s C5ISR
Modular Open Suite of Standards (CMOSS)
and alignment with the Open Group
Sensor Open Systems Architecture (SOSA)
technical standard. The SX-124 can accept
external sources or use its onboard GNSS
receivers as reference inputs for timing and
positioning data. The positioning data can
be fused with internal and external inertial
measurement units.
Spectranetix, spectranetix.com
4. MEMS ACCELEROMETERS
RADIATION TESTED FOR SPACE
The Model 1527 series is a family of
miniature, radiation-tested, tactical-
grade micro-electromechanical (MEMS)
accelerometers. Offered in three full-scale
acceleration ranges — ±10 g, ±25 g and
±50 g — the series is designed to support a
|
FEBRUARY 2022
5
variety of critical space electronics testing
requirements, including those of spacecraft,
satellites and CubeSats. Their small bias
and scale-factor temperature coefficients,
excellent in-run bias stability and zero
cross-coupling make the Model 1527 series
particularly well-suited for spacecraft
electronics testing applications requiring
low power consumption (+5 VDC, 6.5 mA),
low noise, long-term measurement stability
in –55° C to +125° C environments, and
performance reliability under intermittent
radiation exposures.
Silicon Designs, silicondesigns.com
5. AUTOMOTIVE RECEIVER
GUIDANCE FOR ADVANCED DRIVER
ASSISTANCE SYSTEMS
The STA8135GA automotive-qualified
GNSS receiver is designed to deliver the
high-quality position data needed by
advanced driving systems. Part of the
Teseo V family, the STA8135GA integrates
a triple-band positioning measurement
engine. It also provides standard multi-
band position-velocity-time (PVT) and
dead reckoning. The multi-constellation
receiver delivers raw information for the
host system to run any precise-positioning
algorithm, such as PPP/RTK (precise point
positioning/real-time kinematic). The
receiver can track satellites in the GPS,
GLONASS, BeiDou, Galileo, QZSS and
NAVIC/IRNSS constellations.
STMicroelectronics, st.com
 SURVEYING & MAPPING | LAUNCHPAD
3 2
1. SOFTWARE UPGRADE
IMPROVEMENTS SUPPORT PHOTOS, 2.5D
DATA CAPTURE
Survey application 1Edit now has increased
support for photos and 2.5D data. 1Edit
3.1 allows users to attach feature photos,
including automated geotagging, which
enables surveyors to visualize assets and fine
tune observations. Also included are new
validation functions and improved handling
for heights (2.5D data), typically useful for
detailed asset and land-management surveys.
Enhanced styling, including bitmap fills and
dashed lines, make it easier to identify and
classify different asset types during surveys.
Additional control of editable layers and
fields provides protection for non-editable
data and protects the data quality. Significant
improvements to rendering of thematic
mapping enhances the speed and fluidity of
the intuitive user interface.
1Spatial, 1spatial.com
2. MAPPING SOFTWARE
MAP-MAKING FUNCTIONALITY
IMPROVED
The latest version of Surfer surface
mapping software has improved map-
making functionality and data exporting
capabilities. Surfer is used by more than
100,000 people worldwide, many involved
in oil and gas exploration, environmental
consulting, mining, engineering and
geospatial projects. It provides fast and
1
powerful contouring algorithms, enabling
users to model data sets, apply an array of
advanced analytics tools, and graphically
communicate the results. Frames now
have outlines and background fill colors to
make them easier to read when placed on
top of maps and attribute data can now be
exported as numeric data.
Golden Software, goldensoftware.com
3. RTK/PPP DEVICE
MULTI-SENSOR FUSION ON A SINGLE
BOARD
The Multi-Sensor (MS-) RTK/PPP device
is a turnkey system easily integrated into
surveying applications. The module includes
up to three multi-frequency, multi-GNSS
(GPS + Galileo + Glonass + BeiDou)
receivers, a MEMS IMU, a barometer, a
CAN interface for reception of vehicle data
(wheel odometry and steering angle), and
an LTE module for reception of RTK/PPP
corrections. ANavS sensor fusion performs
tight coupling of all sensor data with an
Extended Kalman Filter (EKF). Various
interfaces can connect additional sensors
(such as camera or lidar) or output position
information.
ANavS, anavs.com
4. AUTO MAPPING
INCREASES LANE-LEVEL ACCURACY
The HD-MapBox integrates high-precision
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FEBRUARY 2022
5
map data based on high-precision
positioning. Fusing data from a GNSS
receiver, IMU, ADAS camera, vehicle
dynamics and HD maps, the HD-MapBox
can achieve a lateral error of less than 8
inches (0.2 meters) and a longitudinal error
of less than 6.5 feet (2 meters) with a 95%
confidence interval, providing an accurate
reference for highway pilots and automated
valet parking. Even if both GNSS and lane
line detection are not available, the HD-
MapBox can still enable vehicles to keep
inside the lane for at least a quarter mile
(400 meters).
Asensing, asensing.com
5. POSITIONING SYSTEM
ADDS LOCATION DATA INSIDE BUILDINGS
Esri ArcGIS IPS is an indoor positioning
system that adds a blue dot to indoor
maps, enabling users to locate their current
position inside a building in the same way
GPS enables outdoor location indicators.
It uses an alternative technology to enable
real-time positioning and navigation inside
buildings. It also provides live location
sharing and tracking, location data capture
and analytical insights. ArcGIS IPS is
available for users of ArcGIS Indoors, an
indoor mapping system for smart building
management, and ArcGIS Runtime SDKs,
which enable the indoor positioning
capability in custom-built apps.
Esri, esri.com
WWW.GPSWORLD.COM G P S W O R L D 25
COVERSTORY

CHC Navigation
/

BUILDING WITH PRECISION

Surveying for Architecture, Engineering & Construction

I
n recent years, the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry has benefited greatly from
growing GNSS accuracy, smaller laser scanners, UAVs, and more efficient management, collaboration
and visualization software. We asked five companies operating in this space to address three questions:

■ What are the key challenges of surveying for the AEC industry today, compared with traditional
boundary surveying and other types of surveying?
■ Which of your products are particularly relevant for this kind of surveying?
■ What was a recent AEC surveying success story?

— Matteo Luccio, EDITOR-IN-CH IEF

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26 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022

JAVAD GNSS
A Surveyor’s Perspective
by Shawn Billings
R PL S , PRO PRIE TO R , PEN DU LU M S U RV E Y ING A N D DE A LER
T
he AEC industry relies on surveyors to be a bridge
between the existing landscape and the design
landscape. Surveyors have been providing virtual
reality for centuries, albeit in a mostly analog way,
until very recently.
Imagine that a school board needs a new school. It
describes the need to an architectural or civil engineering
company, which develops a conceptualized plan. Next, it is
time to figure out how to adapt this rough concept to the real
world. Will the school fit within the boundaries of its district’s
property? How will it access public rights-of-way? Can the
current roads accommodate the traffic it will bring? How
will the school access utilities? How will the building impact
existing stormwater drainage? How do various data collected
by others (such as geotechnical and wetlands delineation) fit
into the site plan?
The data collected by the surveyor inform the designer,
usually in the form of a map — historically on paper, but
now in digital form. Most designers want the key features
extracted rather than a dense point cloud, so it is important for
surveyors to be able to understand what those key features are.
AEC surveying differs from boundary surveying in several
ways. First, it usually requires consideration of a 3D world,
not only two dimensions. Secondly, it will usually involve
many thousands of points, not a few tens of points as is
usually the case in boundary surveying. Third, AEC surveying
will typically involve many more stakeholders. Fourth, the
liability in AEC surveying will usually (but not always) be
greater because of the significant costs involved.
AEC surveying can be challenging because the timeframes
are typically tight, with numerous professionals involved.
Surveyors will often have to wait on others one day, only to
be rushed the next day once the ball moves into their court.
However, the tools available to us today allow us to collect
data much more quickly than we ever could before.
Today, I can carry almost everything I need to survey
in a compact car—my Javad GNSS real-time kinematic
(RTK) system, my robotic total station, my handheld
electronic distance measuring device, my laptop computer,
my smartphone (which provides internet access), my digital
camera, my lidar and my photogrammetric drone, as well as
the accessories needed for each device. All these devices have
become more portable, more powerful, and less expensive.
The gains in efficiency have reduced fieldwork by more than
FEBRUARY 2022
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Rebecca Billings
SHAWN BILLINGS, RPLS reinvests some of his profits in surveying gear.
half over the past couple of decades, requiring fewer people
and generally providing much better quality data.
Today, it is rare for a surveyor to provide paper deliverables
to designers. Almost all prefer digital files, usually vector data
in DWG or DGN format along with surfaces in XML format.
Recently, I have worked on several small commercial
building projects. The requirements were the same for each.
The initial survey includes (among other things):
■ a title boundary survey
■ the location of existing utilities and structures
■ contours at one-foot intervals
■ the delineation of the floodplain, if present on the site
■ the location of streets and other public access.
Once the initial survey is complete, I often set control for
machine control, which heavy machinery uses to perform
grading without requiring stakes. Once grading is complete,
I often stake out building locations and sometimes paving.
Challenges have included working with city planners who
do not always have the same sense of urgency as the project
developers and designers.
Perhaps the greatest lesson I have learned is the importance
of being efficient without being in a hurry, which breeds
mistakes, such as missing important details or breaching a
safety protocol and causing a serious injury.
I also have learned that while technology can increase
profits, it is important to reinvest some of them into
improving my work product. This way, I enjoy a better
return on my investment, but I also enjoy a better deliverable
for my clients.
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 SURVEYING FOR AEC
Nearmap North America
AEC Firms Use Aerial
Mapping to Share in
Infrastructure Funding
by Tony Agresta
E XECUTI V E V ICE PRE SIDENT & G EN ER A L M A N AG ER
W
ith Congressional approval of $17 billion
in infrastructure funding, the largest single
allocation ever, the scramble to win contracts
is about to get red hot and AEC firms are
gearing up. In this very competitive game, top engineering
firms are relying on their experience, technology, business
acumen and ability to execute.
Advances in aerial mapping play a key role in how AEC
firms pursue these contracts. Savvy firms have been using
this technology for years. Rather than rely on lower resolution
satellite imagery or local drone imagery, they use wide-area-
coverage aerial maps to clearly display the detail needed to
plan and execute.
Over the past decade, maps made using aerial
photogrammetry have played an important role in the AEC
space. Using high-performance cameras, fleets of planes
capture hundreds of square miles per plane per day, provided
that the weather is clear. The imagery is processed and made
available to engineering companies within days of capture,
allowing them to see very clear imagery.
AEC organizations use different forms of aerial maps
to evaluate sites, improve their survey designs, and build
and maintain infrastructure (roads, highways, bridges,
tunnels, overpasses, rail, airports, housing, commercial
building development, water resources, parks, pavement
and more). Imagine you’re a state or local government
that needs to build a bridge, or a developer who wants to
contract with an engineering and construction firm to build
affordable housing. Why travel to perform time-consuming
site evaluations when you can meet with engineering teams
in your office and review hundreds of potential sites instantly
using current aerial photos that show change over time?
The engineering teams point out elevation changes, the
presence and height of vegetation, neighboring communities,
bodies of water, ponding and more. They easily navigate from
one location to another as you discuss where the entrance to
the community could be, how the road network might be
configured, and the proximity to retail, schools and healthcare.
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28 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
Nearmap
NEARMAP AERIAL IMAGERY is used as a basis for survey linework.
Within minutes you measure risk, understand the landscape,
make decisions, and begin to estimate the project costs.
Your teams collaborate, discuss the pros and cons, measure
distances and navigate across the terrain virtually.
Aerial mapping provides a competitive advantage for AEC
companies to win their fair share of the infrastructure bill. It
also gives governments and developers the confidence they
need to make the right decisions. Typically, this involves
looking at sites from all angles. The classic form of aerial
mapping used by engineers is a top-down perspective.
Increasingly, these organizations have used oblique imagery
captured at an angled perspective, which shows height.
Artificial Intelligence and Aerial Photography
Starting a few years ago, 3D imagery and digital surface
models began to allow engineers to navigate through the
imagery and query it based on elevation. More recently, aerial
mapping has leveraged artificial intelligence (AI) to classify
properties and the landscape. Do you need to see nearby
construction sites? AI applied to aerial photography can do
that automatically. This rich set of data includes attributes
such as tree overhang, roof condition, roof material, building
footprints, vegetation height, surface material, swimming
pools and even solar panels.
The blend of all these imagery types and AI into a single
solution makes everything discoverable. Users can search by
address, city, location or point of interest. They can visualize
the imagery along with lat/long coordinates and quickly
switch from top-down views to obliques to 3D. As they learn
more about the landscape, they begin to turn on AI attributes,
gaining deeper insights.
Sometimes, the analyses go even further. Engineering
organizations export the imagery to tools of their choice from
such companies as Autodesk, Esri or Bentley Systems, use
See AEC FIRMS, page 31. >>

Leica Geosystems
The Surveyor as a Data Manager
by Richard Ostridge & Shane O’Regan
P R O D U C T M A N AG E R S
W
hile some tasks for AEC surveying are
similar to other types of surveying — such
as original ground surveying, creating site
control and live monitoring — the biggest
differences and challenges arise in data management,
timeframes, communication and deliverables.
In AEC surveying, the project timeline is the primary
factor driving everything, creating a different kind of pres-
sure on the surveyor. As data experts and problem solvers,
surveyors for AEC must quickly adapt to construction
progress, as their survey knowledge can be needed on
site at any point.
Information transfer challenges also exist — such as
clearly communicating data to non-surveyors who per-
form measurement tasks — along with creating unique
deliverables across construction stages. These include 3D
terrain models with real-world coordinates for architects;
fit-for-purpose computer-aided design and Industry
Foundation Class models for machine operators and
mechanical, electrical and plumbing installers or off-site
fabricators; and progress reports for project owners.
Several AEC firms have opted to create their own
inhouse survey teams. This allows greater control over
the consistency and clarity in communication and deliv-
erables, because they focus exclusively on surveying for
AEC and are therefore familiar with its specific challenges.
The main challenge for the surveyor in AEC is sift-
ing through and processing the data, assessing quality,
understanding relevance, producing results and crafting
deliverables to meet the clients’ needs.
An integrated total solution is important for AEC
surveyors who must decide not only which technology to
use, but how to process data from different technologies
together. Our products fit within this integrated solution
concept.
Leica Geosystems' automated total stations, multi-
stations and GNSS blend innovation and traditional
technology, such as the Leica GS18 I with tilt and visual
positioning, enabling surveyors to measure more, faster.
For mass data collection, the Leica RTC360 3D laser
scanner operates at two million points per second and
contains visual inertial system (VIS) technology simplify-
ing the registration process. The Leica BLK series combines
intelligence and accessibility, including the BLK360 imag-
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SURVEYING FOR AEC
/
ing laser scanner, the handheld BLK2GO, and the latest
autonomous technology of the BLK2FLY and BLKARC.
Finally, our software connects surveyors to their sen-
sors and data in the field with Leica Captivate and Leica
Cyclone Field 360 and to the office with Leica Infinity and
Leica Cyclone, extending to existing CAD software with
the Leica CloudWorx suite of CAD plug-ins.
Bringing an Aqua Park to Life
One memorable success story was the use of our products for
AEC survey tasks during construction of Germany’s biggest
aqua park, Rulantica. The survey work was led by Saladin
Keller of Keller planen + bauen. The project involved the
creation and construction of a Nordic-themed water world
featuring 25 attractions, including water slides, a wave pool
and a lazy river.
Alongside all the typical surveying for AEC tasks —
establishing site control, staking out pipes, and planning
and staking the entire traffic infrastructure — Keller had
the challenge of measuring and positioning the complex
internal geometry. These tasks required skilled surveyors
and a variety of survey tools, such as total stations, GNSS
rovers, laser scanners and powerful processing software.
Operating within the AEC environment also meant
that communication and flexibility were key to the success
of the project. Keller needed to provide the right data to
different trades and handle urgent maintenance requests
requiring surveying skill, such as rebuilding parts and
adjusting utilities.
Leica Geosystems
CONSTRUCTING THE RULANTICA WATER WORLD required skilled
surveyors and a variety of survey tools.
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 SURVEYING FOR AEC
/
CHC Navigation
The Rise of Digital-Twin Models
by François Martin
I
V I CE G E N E R A L M A N AG E R
ncreasing urbanization is creating pressure to manage
housing, utilities and infrastructure holistically. Hence
the concept of digital twins. Digital twins enable the
integrated operation and maintenance of any geospatial
asset to meet the increased demand for efficient and
intelligent transportation systems, the green expansion
of urban areas and sustainable infrastructure.
Traditional GNSS or optical measurement instruments
no longer suffice to capture all the necessary information
in a timely manner and with the right levels of detail.
Integrating technological advances — GNSS, inertial
systems, lidar sensors and 360° spherical imagery — into
a single mobile-mapping system has greatly increased the
ability to produce complete 3D models with high accuracy
and precision. Mobile mapping also directly reduces
workload, lowers project costs, simplifies data use, and
provides reality-based design.
Mobile mapping surveys have been proven to be four
to 10 times faster and three to seven times less expensive
than traditional methods, delivering the required results
up to three times faster. Integrated, multi-platform mobile-
mapping solutions bridge the gap between the real world
and the digital world for greater interoperability and
accessibility of data in near real-time.
The high-accuracy and cross-platform design of CHC
Navigation’s AlphaUni 900 lidar system provides an
innovative solution for 3D spatio-temporal data acquisition,
which is necessary for the digital transformation of the
AEC industry.
CHC Navigation
A COMBINED 3D MODEL created with the multi-platform AlphaUni lidar.
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30 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
Smart Cities
After developing for more than a decade, digital-twin
technology is now a complex and comprehensive technical
system to support the construction of new smart cities. It
is an advanced model for the continuous innovation of
urban development and a future form of modernization
combining the virtual and real worlds. The creation
of digital-twin cities brings to the forefront high-level
topographic tools capable of providing comprehensive,
multi-dimensional, large-scale, high-resolution data sets.
To illustrate typical digital-city projects, CHC
Navigation conducted a proof-of-concept demonstration
in the Jinshan District of Shanghai, which covers an area
of about 600 square kilometers. This area has rich terrain
features and characteristics typical of large modern cities,
such as tall buildings, power lines, rivers and vegetation.
Versatile and easy-to-use platforms are essential for the
democratization of lidar systems. Capturing 3D data with
a single-platform lidar system can leave some areas blank
in the point-cloud data. The AlphaUni900 lidar solution,
with its multi-platform capability, can easily capture
complete data from a UAV, car, backpack or unmanned
surface vessel (USV) and provide a sophisticated and
comprehensive 3D model. The AlphaUni 900 integrates
seamlessly with real buildings, provides exterior and
interior mapping, and dramatically changes the way
high-precision data is collected.
The derived 3D models can be easily merged and
correlated with social or economic spatial data, for
example from building-integrated internet of things
(IoT) and cloud computing data. As a result, complex
operations can be optimized in real time, potential
problems can be anticipated, and planned maintenance
can be implemented to ensure the sustainability of
urbanization projects over their entire lifespan, all in a
fully connected model.
Affordable, user-friendly solutions for capturing
and processing airborne lidar data and imagery have
triggered a strong adoption of UAV technology in the
AEC industry. For CHC Navigation, 2021 was marked by
the huge success of the AlphaAir 450, a breakthrough in
3D UAV mapping technology. With its ease of use, high
accuracy and affordability, the AA450 expands the scope
of lidar surveying to non-professional users in geospatial
reality-capture applications and to those who have never
been able to afford such technology before.

ComNav Technology
Surveying in Urban Conditions
by Janina Zhu
L
CO MNAV TECH NOLOGY
ine of sight to GNSS satellites
is sometimes obscured by
buildings and trees, which
also cause multipath, as does
nearby water. These conditions require
an RTK receiver with multipath
mitigation. Often, surveying must
occur on property corners or on
uneven ground, where it is hard
to place surveying equipment. For
these reasons, reliability and accuracy
are essential, especially in harsh
environments. Ground control points
require 1-2mm accuracy and topo
surveys 1-2cm accuracy. Surveying
for AEC also requires software that
processes digital files.
ComNav has focused on GNSS
core technology innovation and ap-
plications for 10 years. The Quantum
III technology includes algorithms
to suppress multipath and supports
all GNSS constellations, allowing
the users to acquire and keep RTK
centimeter accuracy even in harsh
environments. The built-in tilt IMU
will help where the exact location
to be surveyed is hard to reach. For
AEC FIRMS
<< Continued from page 28.
field-collected ground control points to
ensure that it is survey grade, then use
it as a base layer for their designs. They
even create marketing presentations
and video content to help them win
the business. Current high-resolution
aerial maps have become a cornerstone
of how these organizations operate.
This approach provides unique
advantages for engineering firms. For
example, they can combine geospatial
SURVEYORS USED COMNAV EQUIPMENT to construction a hospital in Burkina Faso.
example, the T300 Plus and N Series
GNSS receivers support a maximum
pole tilt of 60° and keep the com-
pensation accuracy within 2.5cm,
making the field work more efficient,
convenient and reliable.
With the Survey Master software’s
stake-out points, users can import
DXF or DWG files directly and the
software can stake out the point, line
and surface in CAD.
In April 2021, the government of
and construction datasets in a common
operating environment to reduce
complexity, streamline communication,
ensure that all stakeholders are up to
date, and check their progress toward
meeting contractual obligations.
Planners have current, contextual
designs and models to make accurate
decisions about planning and
development activities. They can
view asset locations and conditions to
facilitate maintenance and upgrades,
leverage aerial maps inside other
platforms to improve work orders and
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ComNav
Burkina Faso used ComNav GNSS
T300Plus to provide ground control
points survey for the construction of
a hospital.
The land security and topographic
surveying were completed within only
six days, less than half the time that
had been scheduled for those tasks.
This greatly expedited the construc-
tion of the hospital and helped with
the fight against infectious diseases,
including COVID-19.
reduce field visits, and ensure regulatory
compliance.
Whether it’s improving highway
safety, constructing ferry terminals,
improving transportation systems,
developing land or building a network
of recreational trails, aerial imagery
provides engineering and construction
companies with a competitive
advantage to win new business, improve
client satisfaction and meet growth
targets. With $17 billion on the line,
sophisticated firms are finding a way
to secure their fair share of the pie.
WWW.GPSWORLD.COM G P S W O R L D 31
LEADERSHIP t a l k s

ION
At the ION GNSS+ 2021 conference in St. Louis, Missouri, the annual meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, Brad Parkinson
bestowed Lakshay Narula with the division’s Bradford W. Parkinson Award for his Ph.D. thesis “Towards Secure & Robust PNT for Automated
Systems” at the University of Texas at Austin. The award honors Parkinson, known as the “father of GPS,” for his leadership in establishing both
GPS and the Satellite Division of the ION. Narula is now an applied scientist at Amazon Lab126 in Sunnyvale, California, where he researches robust
navigation and state estimation methods for robots, from self-driving cars to aerospace applications.

The True Value of

INERTIAL NAVIGATION
An Interview with Brad Parkinson
by Dana Goward, PRESIDENT, RESILIENT NAVIGATION AND TIMING FOUNDATION

A
U.S. Secretary of Defense once predicted that navigation would eventually be based on inertial
devices that were set at the factory, and then always knew where they were forever after. Recently
published research has reported on steps in that direction. However, according to navigation
expert Brad Parkinson, the outlook is not as bright as some might think.
RNT Foundation President Dana A. Goward recently discussed the issue with him.

GOWARD: Dr. Parkinson, you are well known for your
contributions as the chief architect of the Global Positioning
System. But you have more than a passing familiarity with
inertial systems also, is that right?
PARKINSON: I do. Long before I was involved in radio
navigation, I was the chief analyst for all the U.S. Air
Force testing of inertial navigation systems. I earned
my masters degree in Doc Draper’s Inertial Lab at MIT
in 1961. I am a major advocate and defender of inertial
systems. I also have in-depth understanding of their
limitations.
GOWARD: Have you been following the recent media
coverage about advances with inertial systems?
PARKINSON: I enjoy reading about these advances in
physics devices. At the same time, I am a little impatient

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32 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022

with media articles that do not appreciate the differences
between building a device that measures specific force
(or senses rotation) and a working inertial navigation
system.
GOWARD: What are some of the inherent limitations of
these systems?
PARKINSON: I find it interesting that some of the articles
speculate they may be able to supplant GPS and other
GNSS. There is no way an inertial navigation system,
even with perfect gyros and force sensors, can provide
its accurate position (say, better than 10 meters) after
extended periods (hours to days). In fact, attaining better
than 200 meters accuracy after a few hours will be very
difficult in a moving vehicle.
Today, farmers require even greater accuracy from
GPS. They routinely use GPS for row operations, with
accuracies of a few centimeters. The economic value
is indirectly measured by the farmer’s purchase of
such equipment — the agriculture market for GPS
equipment is well over a billion dollars a year. Thus, a
general replacement for GPS must provide centimeter
accuracies.
GOWARD: So, what is it about inertial systems that stands in
the way of them becoming autonomous substitutes for GPS?
PARKINSON: There are some very simple and fundamental
reasons that inertial positioning systems cannot hope
to deliver such capability.
First, force sensors are not accelerometers, because
they cannot sense gravity. To find acceleration, one
needs to add vector gravity to their outputs. But gravity,
or g force, varies a lot at the micro-g levels, and the
inaccuracies are fed to the double integration that
produces position. Errors grow as time or time squared
and, without outside reset, are essentially unbounded.
The physics devices described in some of these articles
are definitely instruments that Doc Draper described
as “specific force sensors.”
What we loosely call g force, or just g, is actually
the inverse of the reaction to maintain stationarity on
Earth. G is defined to include the centrifugal force due
to Earth’s rotation, which varies greatly as a function
of latitude — the radius of the merry-go-round called
Earth. Mountains and chasms affect the local g. Further,
it is a vector quantity: its direction can change locally
by many arc seconds. In other words, down does not
generally point to Earth’s center. Gravity gradiometers
might be of limited help, but they are very large and not
made for dynamic environments.
FEBRUARY 2022
q+a
In a nutshell, estimating acceleration requires
calculating and adding gravity to the three-dimensional
specific force sensor.
Second, to use these devices for extended navigation,
coordinate frames would have to be defined and stable
to milli-arc seconds. All instruments would have to
have input axes and cross-axis sensitivity calibrated to
corresponding levels. Generally, this problem is ignored
in many lab projects.
Third, for inertial navigation sensors to work, they
need to accurately know their initial position. Any initial
velocity or position errors will grow as a function of time.
Fourth, the vertical position axis is inherently unstable
and diverges exponentially.
Physicists have been enamored with instruments that
can use atoms to sense specific force and rotation. While
scientifically interesting, even if perfect they cannot
overcome these challenges.
GOWARD: But there is still a role for inertial systems in
navigation, isn’t there? How good are they, and what are
some of the applications?
PARKINSON: I suspect the best inertial systems of today
(which are in nuclear submarines) can maintain an
accuracy of about 0.1 nautical miles or about 200 meters
for a few days. I am sure the real number is classified.
These systems are very large, expensive and complicated.
They rely on a very low acceleration environment and are
periodically reset with GPS. Furthermore, they probably
use gravity gradiometry to calculate the local variations
in gravity to the first order. They do not calculate the
vertical position, and use water density and knowledge
of the local geoid to keep the vertical axis stable.
An aircraft with inertial can, to some extent, keep
the vertical dimension errors bounded, provided it has
knowledge from elsewhere of local sea-level barometer
settings and by assuming adiabatic pressure variations.
I strongly support the inertial/GPS/directional
antenna marriage for users who want assured PNT.
Aviation is a good use case for this. Inexpensive inertial
components (called micro-electromechanical systems,
or MEMS) can improve the jamming resistance of the
GPS receiver by 15 dB or more. This step alone can
reduce the effective line-of-sight jammer denial area
by more than 95%.
GOWARD: So, inertials can be a good part of the solution but
are not necessarily the whole solution themselves.
PARKINSON: Exactly. Despite what some media outlets
might publish to lure in readers.
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 Inertial Ranging & eLoran Wi-Fi Bluetooth
corner
GNSS SIGNALS

FIGURE 1. L1 spectra

DLR
of QZS-1R (red)
transmitting L1C/B
Relative Spectral Flux Density

QZS-2 and L1C, as well

10 dBW/m 2 /Hz as QZS-2 (blue)
QZS-1R transmitting L1C/A
and L1C. The spectra
were measured with
DLR’s 30-meter
high-gain antenna
on Nov. 25, 2021,
and July 20, 2017,
respectively.

1550 1560 1570 1580 1590 1600

Frequency [MHz]

First Transmission of L1C/B by QZS-1R

T
by Peter Steigenberger, Steffen Thoelert, Sergei Yudanov and Markus Ramatschi
he Japanese QZS-1R satellite was launched
on Oct. 26, 2021, from the Tanegashima
Space Center in Japan. It ser ves as a
re p l e n i s h m e nt for Q Z S - 1 , t h e f i r s t
spacecraft of the Japanese Quasi-Zenith
Satellite System (QZSS) in orbit since September 2010.
QZS-1R joins the current QZSS constellation of three
satellites in inclined geosynchronous orbit (IGSO) and
one geostationary satellite. These four Block I satellites
transmit the L1C/A signal at 1575.42 MHz.
QZS-1R, as well as future QZSS satellites, are able to
transmit the new L1C/B signal. L1C/B is based on the
same family of gold codes as L1C/A, but uses a binary
offset carrier (BOC) modulation instead of the binary
phase-shift keying (BPSK) and a different PRN range
(203–206).
Compared to BPSK, the BOC modulation adds a
square wave subcarrier with a frequency of fsc = 1.023
MHz that equals the chipping rate of the ranging code.
This subcarrier shifts the peak spectral energy from the
center frequency fL1 to f L1 ± f sc to reduce interference
with the GPS L1C/A signals.
During in-orbit testing (IOT) from late November until
early December 2021, QZS-1R transmitted L1C/A and
L1C/B signals intermittently. FIGURE 1 shows a spectrum of
the L1-band transmissions of QZS-1R recorded on Nov.
25 with the 30-meter dish antenna of the German Space
Operations Center in Weilheim, Germany, as well as a
spectrum of QZS-2 recorded in July 2017.
During IOT, QZS-1R had an extremely low maximum
elevation of 0.8° in Weilheim. Due to technical
restrictions for such low elevations, QZS-1R had to
be observed with a sidelobe of the 30-meter antenna.
As a result, the respective observations are much more
noisy than the QZS-2 reference data. Nevertheless, the
different spectral characteristics of L1C/B and L1C/A
can be clearly seen in FIGURE 1: L1C/B has two maxima at
1574.4 and 1576.5 MHz due to the BOC modulation,
whereas the BPSK L1C/A signal has one maximum at
the center frequency of 1575.42 MHz.

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34 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
 JAXA
GNSS receivers of the International GNSS Service
(IGS) started to track L1C/A, L1C, L2C and L5 signals
of QZS-1R on Nov. 17. Aside from the regular PRN code
J04, test signals using the non-standard code PRN J06
were intermittently transmitted by QZS-1R during the
IOT and tracked by these receivers. Based on the public
specification of the new L1C/B signal, Javad GNSS
developed a prototype firmware that enabled tracking of
this signal during the early transmissions. This firmware
was installed on a Javad TRE-3 receiver operated by
GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences at its
IGS station WUH200CHN in Wuhan, China.
FIGURE 2 illustrates the noise and multipath characteristics
of different QZS-1R pseudorange measurements. It is
based on the so-called multipath linear combination of
L1 pseudorange and L1/L2 carrier-phase observations
covering a six-hour data arc. RMS values were computed
for 5-degree elevation bins for each pseudorange signal.
While the individual signals were tracked on different QZS-R1 IS PREPPED FOR TESTING. At left is the Earth-oriented surface
that hosts the L-band antenna.
days of the IOT and the associated results have to be
interpreted with care, the data indicate a very similar

DLR
ranging performance of the legacy C/A signal and
the new C/B signal. Best results are obtained with the
L1C signal, which uses both a higher signal power
and an advanced modulation with superior multipath
suppression.
QZS-1R will resume continuous transmission of
L1C/A as soon as declared healthy. The transition
from L1C/A to L1C/B is planned for 2023-2024, when
an operational QZSS constellation of seven satellites
is reached. The launches of the IGSO satellite QZS-5,
the geostationary QZS-6, and the quasi-geostationary
QZS-7 are all planned for 2023.

Manufacturers
GNSS data used in this article were collected with a Javad
GNSS (www.javad.com) TRE-3 receiver. The spectral FIGURE 2. Noise and multipath characteristics of QZS-1R signals on the L1
overviews were captured with a Rohde & Schwarz FSQ26 frequency tracked by the IGS station WUH200CHN in Wuhan, China.
signal analyzer.

PETER STEIGENBERGER is a senior scientist at the German Space Further Reading

Operations Center of the German Aerospace Center (DLR), where he
conducts research in the field of new satellite navigation systems.
STEFFEN THOELERT is an electrical engineer at DLR’s Institute of
Communications and Navigation. His research activities focus on
signal-quality monitoring and satellite payload characterization.
SERGEI YUDANOV is a senior firmware developer at Javad GNSS,
Moscow. His main field of activity is GNSS signal processing.
MARKUS RAMATSCHI is a senior scientist at the Helmholtz Centre
Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geoscience. He is
operating a global GNSS reference station network.
Cabinet Office, Quasi-Zenith Satellite System Interface Specification:
Satellite Positioning, Navigation and Timing Service, IS-QZSS-PNT-004,
January 25, 2021, http://qzss.go.jp/en/technical/download/pdf/ps-is-
qzss/is-qzss-pnt-004.pdf
Ramatschi M., Bradke M., Nischan T., Männel B. (2019): “GNSS data of
the global GFZ tracking network,” vol 1. GFZ Data Services. https://doi.
org/10.5880/GFZ.1.1.2020.001
Thoelert S., Hauschild A., Steigenberger P., Montenbruck O., Langley
R. (2017), “QZS-2 signal analysis, QZS-3 launched.” GPS World 28(9):
10–14, https://www.gpsworld.com/qzs-2-signal-analysis-qzs-3-
launched/

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FEBRUARY 2022 WWW.GPSWORLD.COM G P S W O R L D 35

SELF-DRIVING CARS IN URBAN ENVIRONMENTS
How Inertial Systems and GNSS Availability Will Help
by Kana Nagai, Matthew Spenko, Ron Henderson and Boris Pervan
G
NSS provides navigation
services globally, but
satellite visibility in
urban areas is limited by
high-rise buildings. This creates a
mixture of GNSS available and denied
environments (see FIGURE 1) — users do
not generally know where the system
can maintain sufficient levels of
accuracy and integrity for a particular
application. To begin to address the
issue for self-driving cars, we evaluated
GNSS-only availability in downtown
Chicago.
GNSS signal prediction in urban
environments has been conducted
in previous work. For example, the
concept of “shadow matching” was
developed to identify GNSS signal
blockages in urban canyons. Overlaying
sky plots on a hemispherical sky view
can be used to distinguish between
line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-
36 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM
WITH RICHARD B. LANGLEY
sight (NLOS) signals (see FIGURE 2A).
Reflected rays can be predicted using
Householder transformations to reveal
potential multipath conditions. Satellites
producing blocked or reflected (NLOS)
signals should be excluded to maintain
integrity.
When the number of visible satellites
is greater than three, GNSS can resolve
vehicle position. However, even in cases
where enough satellites are visible, the
satellite geometries are generally weak
because the dilution of precision (DOP)
is adversely affected by the buildings
partially blocking the sky. Horizontal
positioning error must be bounded
by a protection level computed by the
vehicle. Then, for navigation to be
deemed available, the protection level
must not exceed a required alert limit
(see FIGURE 2B). The maximum allowed
probability of exceedance (see FIGURE 2C)
and the alert limit can together be used
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FEBRUARY 2022
Photo: chuyu/Getty Images. All figures provided by the authors.
to determine the maximum allowable
position error standard deviation.
Even if the protection level is far
below the alert limit in an open-sky
environment, it will frequently exceed
the alert limit once the vehicle enters a
city. GNSS alone is generally not able to
maintain availability, so integration with
other sensors is needed. Tightly coupling
inertial navigation systems (INS) with
GNSS using the extended Kalman filter
(EKF) provides better estimation in
urban environments. The EKF algorithm
also enables integration of wheel-speed
sensors and vehicle dynamic constraints.
These integrated navigation systems
will improve availability, but it is still
unclear how long such a system can be
expected to maintain fault-free integrity
in a congested city.
Focusing on the problem of self-
driving cars in urban environments, we
evaluate protection levels of navigation
with practical integrated sensors: GNSS,
INS, a wheel-speed sensor (WSS) and
vehicle dynamic constraints (VDC).
The goal is to develop the means by
which we can determine locations where
external ranging sources (such as lidar)
are needed to maintain continuous
navigation with fault-free integrity.
GNSS-ONLY AVAILABILITY
For GNSS availability evaluation, we
assume an integrity requirement that
the probability of exceeding a 0.5-meter
alert limit must be lower than 10−7.
The 0.5-meter alert limit therefore
corresponds to approximately five times
the position standard deviation, so the
maximum allowable position error
INNOVATION INSIGHTS
BY RICHARD B. LANGLEY
ARE WE THERE YET? This was a
familiar refrain from the backseats
of parents’ cars when traveling to a
holiday destination or to grandparents
when I was growing up. We didn’t
have videos on a display attached
to the seats in front of us or (who
could imagine?) our own personal
communication device on which we
could call up games, movies or social
media channels.
But I’m not talking about that
complaint from our childhoods. I’m
asking if we have arrived at the era
of the self-driving car. The answer is
yes and no. It all depends on what you
mean by “self-driving.” We reviewed
some of the technologies needed for
self-driving or autonomous vehicles
in this column in June 2019. And we
indicated in the introduction to that
column that vehicle autonomy has
several levels. SAE International,
formerly known as the Society of
Automotive Engineers, has defined six
levels of autonomy that can be briefly
described as Level 0 - no automation;
standard deviation is then approximately
0.1 meters. Accuracy at this level clearly
requires differential GNSS carrier-phase
measurements. We assume a nominal
GNSS double difference (DD) carrier
ranging error standard deviation of
approximately 0.02 meters, and that
carrier cycle ambiguities can be readily
resolved in an open-sky environment
prior to initiation of vehicle motion.
Given the assumptions made of the
maximum allowable position error
standard deviation and the GNSS
ranging error standard deviation, the
maximum allowable horizontal dilution
of precision (HDOP) is about 5.
FIGURE 3 shows GPS and GNSS
availability — the fraction of time the
Level 1 – hands on/shared control;
Level 2 - hands off; Level 3 - eyes off;
Level 4 - mind off; and Level 5 - steering
wheel optional.
Already, Level 1 automation is widely
available in modern cars with adaptive
cruise control, parking assistance,
lane-keeping assistance and automatic
emergency braking among the features
being offered. Level 2 automation,
where the automated system takes full
control of the vehicle’s acceleration,
braking and steering, is available in
some production models, although the
“hands-off” designation is not to be
taken literally — most motor vehicle
laws require drivers to keep their hands
on the steering wheel. Between Level
2 and Level 3, we have conditional
automation — the car can drive itself,
but the driver must stay alert and be
prepared to take over immediately.
Level 3 is high automation, where a
computer fully drives the car at certain
times on certain routes such as a
highway; while the driver can perform
other tasks such as reading a book,
they must be prepared to take over
operation of the vehicle within a few
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FEBRUARY 2022 WWW.GPSWORLD.COM
HDOP requirement is met over 24
hours — along a section of State Street
in downtown Chicago. The availability
results using GPS only and excluding
only blocked LOS signals ranged from
0% to 9% along the block and 9% to
30% at the intersections (see FIGURE 3A).
Using four full GNSS constellations
(GPS, Galileo, GLONASS and BeiDou),
availability ranged from 48% to 82%
along the block and 72% to 100% at the
intersections (see FIGURE 3B).
When we also excluded satellites
producing reflected LOS signals that
reach the vehicle, the availability
dropped significantly at every point
(see FIGURE 3C). We assert that FIGURE 3C
expresses the reality of GNSS availability
seconds if alerted by the automated
system. While test campaigns are still
ongoing, some jurisdictions permit
Level 3 operation by ordinary drivers on
some roads, and customers will soon
be able to buy vehicles with this level of
automation. Widespread use of Level
4 and Level 5 automation is further off
(some would say quite a way off) and
remains in development. But famously,
last year, Toyota operated Level 4 self-
driving shuttle vehicles around the
Tokyo 2020 Olympic Village.
A lot more work needs to be done
before we will have arrived at the era
of the fully self-driving car that will be
able to travel on any road, anywhere
in the world, all year around, in all
weather conditions. In particular, self-
driving cars in urban environments (as
opposed to highway driving) can be
problematic. The required multi-sensor
automated systems will include GNSS,
but buildings block and reflect GNSS
signals, reducing system availability
and accuracy. In “Innovation” this
month, researchers from the Illinois
Institute of Technology report on how
inertial navigation systems coupled
with wheel-speed sensors and vehicle
dynamic constraints can help.
G P S W O R L D 37
because building-reflected multipath
signals degrade positioning accuracy
and would affect integrity negatively.

a l1
gn
It’s obvious from these results that

)
S

Si

l1
LO

a
gn
(
ht
GNSS alone is insufficient to meet

Si
sig
of-
e-
the autonomous driving requirements

Lin
S
LO
ked
oc Re
in an urban environment, and multi- Bl fle
ct
ed
LO
sensor integrated navigation systems are S

needed to augment poor GNSS signal Receiver Receiver

availability.
FIGURE 1 The figure depicts three types of potential GNSS signal reception: direct LOS signals and blocked LOS
MULTI-SENSOR INTEGRATION signals (left) and reflected LOS signals (right).
We begin by considering tightly coupled
INS/GNSS integration using an EKF, North
0.5 m
and then integrate a realistic sensor suite Alert limit

including WSS and vehicle dynamic

Probability
Protection level
constraints that enforce resistance to
lateral sliding and vertical movement. East
1-10-7
If it is known from another source that LOS
99.99999 %

the vehicle is not moving (for example, NLOS

Buildings
-5.3σpos 0 5.3σpos
it is in the parking gear), a static mode Sky
Deviation
constraint (SMC) can also be applied. (a) (b) (c)

INS/GNSS Integration. Tightly coupled FIGURE 2 (a) A hemispherical sky view in an urban environment. (b) Illustration of a protection level and
INS/GNSS integration with an EKF an alert limit. To ensure integrity, the protection level must not exceed an alert limit. (c) The allowable
uses the INS measurement to predict probability of exceedance is assumed to be 10−7 in this work.
vehicle motion. The continuous process
model uses a state vector having the
position in the navigation frame, the 9.3 9.9 72.5 80.0 30.6 20.3
velocity, the attitude, bias errors and 9.4 11.9 83.8 84.0 50.1 37.2
cycle ambiguities, with the input vector 10.6 16.7 80.6 93.9 17.1 38.1
having accelerometer-specific force
9.0 7.1 72.9 76.8 14.4 15.8
measurement in the body frame and
0.4 4.7 53.5 60.3 7.8 0.6
gyro-rotation-rate measurements. A
0.4 1.7 58.5 47.8 16.1 0.8
white-noise vector drives the inertial
0.7 1.7 61.0 53.5 29.3 1.9
measurement unit (IMU) states.
The GPS/GNSS measurement model North
(%)
1.9 2.2 65.7 54.6 32.5 2.9
100
includes the measurement vector 2.4 3.9 72.6 57.8 43.5 2.5
90
having carrier and code phases, and 2.8 5.8 74.7 63.9 52.1 3.3
80
the observation matrix containing LOS 70
3.5 7.6 75.8 70.0 56.4 3.5

vectors and the vector of white receiver 60

3.3 7.8 78.8 75.7 61.3 5.3
thermal noise. 50 3.9 6.0 78.9 76.7 65.4 9.6
INS/GNSS/WSS/VDC Integration. For 40 4.7 3.9 81.9 80.4 67.1 23.6
the vehicle in motion, we developed a 30 12.4 19.6 93.6 97.5 85.4 71.8
model consisting of a WSS measurement 20
24.9 22.5 97.9 98.5 90.0 93.8
in the along-track direction, a non- South 10
29.7 30.7 99.7 100 96.1 99.9
holonomic constraint resisting lateral Evaluation points
0

(a) GPS excluding (b) GNSS excluding (c) GNSS excluding

sliding, and a holonomic constraint on State Street
downtown Chicago blocked LOS blocked LOS blocked and reflected
vertical movement (see FIGURE 4).
The INS/GNSS/WSS/VD C FIGURE 3 The percentage of GPS or GNSS availability in 3D-mapped downtown Chicago. We exclude satellites
integration using the EKF consists of producing blocked LOS signals or both blocked and reflected LOS (NLOS) signals from the measurements. Each
the process model and the measurement column expresses a lane of southbound or northbound travel. The availability is the percentage of total time
models. when HDOP meets the self-driving car integrity requirements in 24 hours.

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38 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
 shows the error growth in the along-
Holonomic constraint B track (x), the cross-track (y) and the
vz vertical (z). The error specifications for a
Non-holonomic vy STIM300 tactical-grade IMU are used in
constraint
vx this analysis. The standard deviation of the
Wheel-speed sensor
Bc WSS measurement noise is assumed to be
0.05 meters per second, and the standard
Up
Ac
ωL deviation of the movement constraint
North violations is 0.001 meters per second. The
A vehicle is moving at 5 meters per second
N ωR
East except when we test the SMC.
FIGURE 4 The measurement model consisting of the WSS measurement in the along-track direction (vx), non- The INS can coast 15.6 seconds before
holonomic constraint resisting lateral sliding (vy), and holonomic constraint on vertical movement (vz). N is the position error standard deviation
the navigation frame, Ac is the rear-axle center point and Bc is the center point of the body-fixed frame. exceeds 0.1 meters in both the along-
0.20
track and the cross-track directions (see
v = 5 m/s v = 5 m/s v = 0 m/s FIGURE 5A). The INS/WSS/VDC can coast
Along-track Along-track
16.5 seconds in the along-track direction,
Position error (meters, 1σ)

0.15
Cross-track and significantly more than 40 seconds
(the simulation duration) in the cross-
0.10 track direction (see FIGURE 5B). In static
mode, INS/SMC estimate errors do
0.05
Vertical Vertical not grow with time in any direction, as
expected (see FIGURE 5C). In GNSS-denied
Cross-track

Along-track, Cross-track, Vertical

environments, the non-holonomic
0
0 15.6 28.0 40.0 0 16.5 31.5 40.0 0 20.0 40.0 constraint suppresses the cross-track
Time (seconds) Time (seconds) Time (seconds)
(a) INS-only measurement (b) INS/WSS/VDC measurement (c) INS/SMC measurement
position error, but the WSS measurement
hardly affects the along-track position
FIGURE 5 The vehicle position error growth vs. time in the along-track (x), cross-track (y) and vertical (z) error. The SMC works perfectly, but the
directions. Each graph represents the navigation system introduced in the multi-sensor integration section. usage is limited to when the vehicle is
The vehicle is moving at 5 meters per second (a and b) or 0 meters per second (c). known to be stationary.
0.10 7
v = 0 m/s
6
v = 0 m/s
SIMULATION SCENARIO
0.08
We imagine a future driverless-car
Attitude error (degrees, 1σ)
Position error (meters, 1σ)

5
Along-track
Yaw mission scenario in which multi-sensor
0.06 (both INS/GPS and INS/GPS/SMC)
INS/GPS 4
navigation systems are practicable.
0.04
Along-track 3 To minimize congestion in a city,
INS/GPS/SMC
2
autonomous vehicles will be held outside
0.02 the urban core when not in use. In the
1
Roll, pitch (both INS/GPS and INS/GPS/SMC)
clear open-sky environment, a vehicle
0
0 10 20 31 36 50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 in a parking lot completes GNSS
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)
(a) Initialization (b) Alignment
initialization using the INS/GNSS/SMC
system. Once requested for action, the
FIGURE 6 (a) Comparisons of initialization time between INS/GPS and INS/GPS/SMC in an open-sky vehicle departs for the city from the
environment. The INS/GPS/SMC system initializes rapidly. (b) Transitions of roll, pitch, yaw alignment during parking lot, and the motion of the vehicle
the initialization. Yaw angle alignment cannot be performed when the vehicle is stationary. improves alignment by the INS/GNSS
system. Safe navigation can be ensured
INS/GNSS/SMC Integration. The static for example, when the vehicle is in the using the system to provide continuity
mode constraint provides zero-velocity parking gear. under overpasses and bridges in the
measurements to the EKF measurement Error Propagation Analysis. We tested open-sky environment. Upon entering
update to mitigate position error the time from perfect initialization to the urban core, navigation becomes
propagation. We use SMC only when it when position error exceeds 0.1 meters more dependent on the INS/WSS/VDC
is known that the vehicle is not moving; in GNSS-denied environments. FIGURE 5 system.

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FEBRUARY 2022 WWW.GPSWORLD.COM G P S W O R L D 39
 4
A reasonable numerical target for

Yaw (deg) vx (m/s) ay (m/s2)

Yaw error (degrees, 1σ)
0.4

3 0.3
differential GNSS initialized position 0.2
3

error is 0.02 meters, and for the INS 2

0.1

alignment yaw angle error 0.1 degrees. 1 0

0 1 2 3 4 5

Local GNSS multipath errors from 0

0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30
nearby vehicles will vary with the satellite Time (seconds) Time (seconds)
(a) Alignment for turning motion
elevation angle. Prior experimental 4

Yaw (deg) vx (m/s) ax (m/s2)

Yaw error (degrees, 1σ)
0.4
results show that lower elevation-angle 3 0.3

satellite signals (below 33 degrees) are 2

0.2

much more likely to be impacted by 0.1

multipath than higher ones (see TABLE 1).

1 0
0 1 2 3 4 5

0
0 10 20 30 0 10 20 30

INITIALIZATION AND ALIGNMENT

Time (seconds) Time (seconds)
(b) Alignment for straight motion

Initialization takes place in a parking lot 4

ay
Yaw error (degrees, 1σ)

a (m/s2)
0.4

with a clear sky view. A vehicle is in the 3 0.3 ax

parking gear, enabling SMC to be applied.

Yaw (deg) vx (m/s)

0.2
2

FIGURE 6A shows a typical example: with 1

0.1

0
INS/GPS/SMC, system initialization 0
0 1 2 3 4 5

takes about 31 minutes, and with INS/ 0 10

Time (seconds)
20 30 0 10
Time (seconds)
20 30

GPS, about 36 minutes. Therefore, (c) Alignment for z motion

SMC does speed up GPS initialization, FIGURE 7 The behavior of yaw angle error when centripetal (a) or tangential (b) acceleration is applied; (c)
although the improvement is modest. shows the behavior while following a z-shaped path. The yaw angle can be aligned in a couple of seconds in
The yaw angle is not aligned during each case.
the initialization, but roll and pitch PRN 24 GPS almanac UTC = [2020 7 1 0 00 00]
are immediately aligned (see FIGURE 6B). PRN 23

PRN 11
Earth’s gravity affects roll and pitch angle Complete
PRN 10
PRN 7
initialization PRN 4
alignment but not yaw angle. Evaluation points
and
alignment
State Street
Yaw angle alignment cannot be downtown Chicago
170 m, v = 1 m/s or 5 m/s
performed when the vehicle is stationary
or moving with constant velocity. FIGURE 8 Evaluation points and PRN numbers of visible satellites at each point.
Accelerated motion, either straight 0.15 0.15

or turning, is required. FIGURE 7 shows v = 1 m/s v = 5 m/s

Position error (meters, 1σ)

Position error (meters, 1σ)

the behavior of the yaw angle error Along-track

Number of satellites
Number of satellites

0.10 0.10
standard deviation using the INS/GPS 5 5

system when centripetal (see FIGURE 7A) Number of satellites

4 4

or tangential (see FIGURE 7B) acceleration 0.05

3
0.05
3

is applied. The yaw angle can be aligned Cross-track

in a couple of seconds for either type of 0

acceleration. To represent typical initial
motions of self-driving cars, we model a
parking-lot departure via a “Z”-shaped
path. In this scenario, the yaw alignment
error reaches 0.1 degrees within a couple
of seconds (see FIGURE 7C).
EVALUATION IN URBAN
ENVIRONMENTS
After initialization and alignment in the
open-sky environment, we simulated
the vehicle traveling into the urban
core. The urban environment in our
study is 3D-mapped State Street in
0 50 60 100 150
0
0 50 100 150
Distance (meters)
(a) Position error growth at velocity of 1 m/s INS/GPS
Distance (meters)
(b) Position error growth at velocity of 5 m/s INS/GPS
FIGURE 9 A comparison of position error growth between velocities of 1 meter per second and 5 meters per
second.
Chicago, which runs north-south and their pseudorandom noise (PRN) code
transits from low-rise neighborhoods numbers, at each point. We assume for
to central downtown. We selected one convenience that the INS/GPS system
congested section surrounded by tall is initialized and aligned at the first
buildings and computed the position evaluation point. In reality, we would
error standard deviation along the expect a degraded initial condition
path. The evaluation points are at 10- because we are starting the simulation
meter intervals over a total distance of in an urban canyon.
170 meters. The yellow lines in FIGURE 8 In the first simulation, the car
denote the visible satellites, identified by equipped with the INS/GPS system

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40 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
 0.15 0.15

v = 1 m/s v = 1 m/s (IIT). The authors greatly appreciate the

Position error (meters, 1σ)

Position error (meters, 1σ)

INS/GPS
Along-track
INS/GPS/WSS/VDC advice and help of Nilay Mistry from
0.10 0.10

Number of satellites

Number of satellites
5 5
that program.
Number of satellites
4 4 This article is based on the paper
0.05
3
0.05
3 “Evaluating INS/GNSS Availability
Cross-track
for Self-Driving Cars in Urban
0
0 50 100 150
0
0 50 100 150
Environments” presented at ION ITM
Distance (meters) Distance (meters) 2021, the virtual 2021 International
(a) Position error growth INS/GPS (b) Position error growth INS/GPS/WSS/VDC
Technical Meeting of The Institute of
FIGURE 10 A comparison of position error growth between the INS/GPS and INS/GPS/WSS/VDC systems for a Navigation, Jan. 25–28, 2021.
velocity of 1 meter per second.
KANA NAGAI is a Ph.D. candidate and research
Elevation Carrier phase Code phase assistant in mechanical and aerospace
angle Standard Time constant Standard Time constant engineering at IIT.
(degrees) deviation (m) (sec) deviation (m) (sec) MATTHEW SPENKO is a professor of mechanical
and aerospace engineering at IIT. He earned his
≤ 33 0.027 150 1.38 80 M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in mechanical engineering
> 33 0.0077 150 0.62 80 from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
RON HENDERSON is a professor and director
TABLE 1 The nominal GNSS multipath error values in the simulation. of the Landscape Architecture + Urbanism
Program at IIT. He earned his Master of Landscape
moved either 1 or 5 meters per second. location. Because INS error propagation Architecture and Master of Architecture from the
The y-axis in FIGURE 9 represents the depends on how long the vehicle stays University of Pennsylvania.
position error standard deviation, and in an area of GNSS outage, protection BORIS PERVAN is a professor of mechanical and
aerospace engineering at IIT. He earned his M.S.
the x-axis represents the distance in levels for trips through the same area from the California Institute of Technology and
meters. The dotted line expresses the will be different if the vehicle is smoothly Ph.D. from Stanford University.
number of visible satellites. The error cruising or gets stuck in a traffic jam.
when the vehicle velocity is 1 meter per MORE ONLINE
second exceeded the maximum allowable CONCLUSION
Further Reading
position error standard deviation of To gain a better understanding of how For references related to this article and bonus
0.1 meter, at the distance of 60 meters. long and under what local conditions text, go to gpsworld.com and click on “More” in the
navigation bar, then on “Innovation.”
However, when the velocity was 5 meters multi-sensor integrated navigation
per second, the maximum allowable systems can maintain fault-free integrity,
position error standard deviation was we evaluated navigation positioning
never reached. It is also clear from errors in 3D-mapped downtown Chicago. ADVERTISER INDEX: COMPANIES
the figures that error propagation is The system we developed consists of FEATURED IN THIS ISSUE
significantly affected by the number of sensors with which self-driving cars Editor’s Note: This ad/edit index is for reader
convenience only. The publisher accepts no
visible satellites. would reasonably be equipped: GNSS, responsibility for errors or omissions.
In the second simulation, we INS, WSS and dynamic constraints. We
compared two different navigation showed that INS/GPS position errors ADVERTISER PAGE(S)
systems, INS/GPS and INS/GPS/WSS/ along the path depend very strongly on
CAST NAVIGATION INSIDE FRONT COVER
VDC. The vehicle moved at 1 meter per the vehicle’s speed. When the system is
second in the same urban environment. augmented with WSS/VDC, position CHC NAVIGATION 23
The INS/GPS/WSS/VDC system does errors are suppressed, but the error GPS NETWORKING 21
provide relief, but the error propagation propagation is still strongly influenced
is still clearly affected by the number of by the number of visible satellites. NOVATEL BACK COVER
visible satellites (see FIGURE 10). OROLIA 5, INSIDE BACK COVER
In GNSS-challenged environments, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS RACELOGIC 9
INS error propagation is a function of The research described in this article
time. When a vehicle moves faster, it is supported by the National Science SBG SYSTEMS 19
clears the blockage area more quickly, Foundation. Figure 1 was created SPIRENT FEDERAL 7
reducing the impact of INS drift — a by Alexis Arias of the Landscape
SUZHOU FOIF 22
function of time, not distance. In contrast, Architecture + Urbanism Program
GNSS error is completely determined by at the Illinois Institute of Technology SYNTONY GNSS 11

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FEBRUARY 2022 WWW.GPSWORLD.COM G P S W O R L D 41
SEEN & HEARD
GO, FISH!
Scientists at
Ben-Gurion
University
in Israel
discovered
goldfish are
good drivers.
An aquarium
on wheels
uses lidar, NORTH KOREA GUIDED BY GLONASS
an onboard North Korea’s recent missile tests are being
camera, and guided by GLONASS rather than BeiDou, claims
motion- a source close to the Chinese military. In January,
detection Pyongyang fired at least four short-range ballistic
software to track a fish in the tank. When it swims missiles into the sea off the coast of the Korean
toward a side of the tank, the vehicle rolls in the same peninsula. North Korea also tested hypersonic
direction. Fish learned to navigate a small area to hit missiles on Jan. 5 and 11. As reported by the South
a target for a reward at least 15 times per half-hour, China Morning Post, the source said North Korea
showing their sense of direction isn’t limited to a has been using GLONASS and has benefited from
watery environment. Soviet technology.

AUTOMATED AUTOWAYS IN INDIA

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) will
start using GNSS/3D automated machine guidance
to construct highways. First up: the new Lucknow-
Kanpur Expressway. Three machine-control systems
will be integrated, guided by a computerized 3D
model of the project. NHAI expects the technology to
almost double the speed of highway construction, as
well as provide stakeholders with mobile updates.

SATELLITES REGISTER OCEAN ERUPTION

While imagery satellites captured the explosive Jan. 15 underwater volcanic
eruption in Tonga, GNSS satellites also registered its effects. The energy
released reached the ionosphere and was picked up by GNSS signals passing
through it (see page 16). The eruption blanketed Tonga’s main island in ash
and devastated its western coastline, affecting up to 80,000 people, according
to news reports. It also caused damage to an underwater cable, resulting in
a major communication outage. The tsunami that followed reached as far as
Japan and the U.S. West Coast, and caused a massive oil spill off of Peru.

PHOTO CREDITS: Goldfish video screenshot/Ben-Gurion University • eruption/Tonga Meteorological Services, Government of Tonga • Getty Images: North Korea missiles/narvikk/iStock/Getty Images
Plus • Highway construction/Prakhar Gupta/iStock Editorial/Getty Images Plus
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42 G P S W O R L D WWW.GPSWORLD.COM FEBRUARY 2022
Try to spoof us.
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