Chapter 3: The Biological

Bases of Behavior
 Afferent neurons (Sensory),
 relay information from the senses to the brain and
spinal cord.
▪ Eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and skin
Efferent neurons (motor),
 send information from the central nervous system to
the glands and muscles,
▪ enables the body to move.
Interneurons
 carry information between neurons
▪ in the brain
▪ in the spinal cord

Types of Neurons
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Structures of a neuron
The cell body

z Contains the cell’s Nucleus

◦ Round, centrally located

structure
◦ Contains DNA
◦ Controls protein
manufacturing
◦ Directs metabolism
◦ No role in neural signaling
Dendrites
Information
collectors
Receive inputs from
neighboring neurons
Inputs may number
in thousands
If enough inputs the
cell’s AXON may
generate an output
Dendritic Growth
Mature neurons
generally can’t
divide
But new dendrites
can grow
Provides room for
more connections
to other neurons
New connections
are basis for
learning
Axon

 The cell’s output

structure
 One axon per cell, 2
distinct parts
◦ tubelike structure
branches at end that
connect to dendrites of
other cells
Myelin sheath

White fatty casing

on axon
Acts as an electrical
insulator
Not present on all
cells
When present
increases the speed
of neural signals Myelin Sheath

down the axon.

 Hodgkin & Huxley (1952) - giant squid
 Fluids inside and outside neuron
 Electrically charged particles (ions)
 Neuron at rest – negative charge on inside
compared to outside
 -70 millivolts – resting potential

The Neuron at Rest

 Neurons communicate by means of an electrical
signal called the Action Potential
 Action Potentials are based on movements of
ions between the outside and inside of the cell
 When an Action Potential occurs a molecular
message is sent to neighboring neurons

How neurons communicate

 Stimulation causes cell membrane to open
briefly
Positively charged sodium ions flow in
Shift in electrical charge travels along
neuron
The Action Potential
All – or – none law

The Action Potential

Figure 3.2 The neural impulse
Neuron to Neuron
Axons branch out and
end near dendrites of
neighboring cells Dendrite
Axon terminals are the Axon
tips of the axon’s
branches
A gap separates the
axon terminals from
dendrites
Gap is the Synapse Cell
Body
Synapse

axon terminals Sending

Neuron
contain small
storage sacs Axon
Synapse
called synaptic Terminal
vesicles
y vesicles contain
neurotransmitter
molecules
Neurotransmitter Release

 Action Potential causes vesicle to open

z Neurotransmitter released into synapse

z Locks onto receptor molecule in postsynaptic

membrane
Figure 3.3 The synapse
Figure 3.4 Overview of synaptic transmission
Locks and Keys

 Neurotransmitter molecules
have specific shapes

z Receptor molecules have

binding sites

z When NT binds to receptor,

ions enter
positive ions (NA+ ) depolarize
the neuron
negative ions (CL-) hyperpolarize
Some Drugs work on receptors
Some drugs are shaped
like neurotransmitters
Antagonists : fit the
receptor but poorly and
block the NT
 e.g. beta blockers

z Agonists : fit receptor
well and act like the NT
y e.g. nicotine.
  Voltagechange at receptor site –
postsynaptic potential (PSP)
◦ Not all-or-none
◦ Changes the probability of the postsynaptic neuron
firing
 Positivevoltage shift – excitatory PSP
 Negative voltage shift – inhibitory PSP

When a Neurotransmitter Binds:

The Postsynaptic Potential
 Specific neurotransmitters work at specific
synapses
 Lock and key mechanism
Agonist – mimics neurotransmitter action
Antagonist – opposes action of a
neurotransmitter
More than 40 neurotransmitters known at
present
Interactions between neurotransmitter
circuits
Neurotransmitters and Behavior
  Acetylcholine
 Serotonin
 Norepinephrine
 Dopamine
 Endorphins
 GABA
 Glutamate

Types of Neurotransmitters
Table 3.1 Common Neurotransmitters and Some of their Functions
Acetylcholine

 Found in
neuromuscular
junction
 Involved in muscle
movements
Alzheimer’s Disease

 Deterioration of
memory, reasoning
and language skills
 Symptoms may be
due to loss of ACh
neurons
Serotonin

 Involved in sleep
 Involved in depression
◦ Prozac works by keeping serotonin in the synapse
longer, giving it more time to exert an effect
Norepinephrine

Arousal
“Fight or flight” response
Dopamine

 Involved in movement, attention and learning

 Dopamine imbalance also involved in
schizophrenia
 Loss of dopamine- producing neurons is cause
of Parkinson’s Disease
Endorphins

Control pain and

pleasure
Released in response to
pain
Morphine and codeine
work on endorphin
receptors Involved in
healing effects of
acupuncture
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

 Main inhibitory
neurotransmitter
 Benzodiazepines (which include tranquilizers
such as Valium) and alcohol work on GABA
receptor complexes
Glutamate

 Major excitatoryneurotransmitter
 Too much glutamate (and too little GABA)
associated with epileptic seizures
 One neuron, signals from thousands of other
neurons
Neural networks
 Patterns of neural activity
 Interconnected neurons that fire together or
sequentially
Synaptic connections
 Elimination and creation
 Synaptic pruning

Integrating Signals
  Glia– structural support and insulation
 Neurons – communication
◦ Soma – cell body
◦ Dendrites – receive
◦ Axon – transmit away
◦ Myelin sheath – speeds up transmission
◦ Terminal Button – end of axon; secretes
neurotransmitters
◦ Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers

Communication in the Nervous System

Central Nervous System

Brain
Spinal
Cord
Brain and Spinal Cord
Central
nervous
system
Peripheral
nervous
system
Figure 3.5 Organization of the human nervous system
Sympathetic
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM SYMPATHETIC
Brain
 “ Fight or flight” response Dilates pupil
 Release adrenaline and Stimulates salivation Salivary
noradrenaline Relaxes bronchi glands
Spinal
 Increases heart rate and cord Lungs
blood pressure
Accelerates heartbeat
 Increases blood flow to Heart
skeletal muscles Inhibits activity Stomach
 Inhibits digestive functions
Pancreas
Stimulates glucose Liver

Secretion of adrenaline, Adrenal

nonadrenaline gland
Kidney
Relaxes bladder

Sympathetic Stimulates ejaculation

ganglia in male
Parasympathetic
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PARASYMPATHETIC
Brain
Contracts pupil
“ Rest and digest ” Stimulates salivation
system Spinal
Constricts bronchi

 Calms body to cord

conserve and Slows heartbeat

maintain energy Stimulates activity

 Lowers heartbeat,
breathing rate, blood
Stimulates gallbladder
pressure Gallbladder

Contracts bladder

Stimulates erection
of sex organs
Summary of autonomic differences
Autonomic nervous system controls physiological arousal
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
division (arousing) division (calming)
Pupils dilate EYES Pupils contract

Decreases SALVATION Increases

Perspires SKIN Dries

Increases RESPERATION Decreases

Accelerates HEART Slows

Inhibits DIGESTION Activates

Secrete stress ADRENAL Decrease secretion

hormones GLANDS of stress hormones
 Damage studies/lesioning
Electrical stimulation (ESB)
Brain imaging –
 computerized tomography
 positron emission tomography
 magnetic resonance imaging
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Studying the Brain: Research Methods

Brain has 2 Hemispheres

 Left & Right sides are Corpus Callosum

separate Right
 Corpus Callosum : major Hemisphere
pathway between
hemispheres
 Some functions are
‘lateralized’
◦ language on left
◦ math, music on right
 Lateralization is never 100%
Left
Hemisphere
Figure 3.14 The cerebral hemispheres and the corpus callosum
  Cerebral Hemispheres – two specialized
halves connected by the corpus collosum
◦ Left hemisphere – verbal processing: language,
speech, reading, writing
◦ Right hemisphere – nonverbal processing: spatial,
musical, visual recognition

Right Brain/Left Brain:

Cerebral Specialization
 Hindbrain – vital functions – medulla, pons, and
cerebellum
Midbrain – sensory functions – dopaminergic
projections, reticular activating system
Forebrain – emotion, complex thought –
thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system,
cerebrum, cerebral cortex

Brain Regions and Functions

Figure 3.12 Structures and areas in the human brain
•Cerebrum Continued
• Cerebral Cortex
•Higher mental processes of language, memory, and
thinking.

• Left Cerebral Cortex

•Frontal lobe
•Motor cortex
•Broca’s Area

• Parietal lobe
•Somatosensory cortex

• Occipital lobe
•Visual cortex

• Temporal lobe
•Auditory Cortex
•Wernicke’s area
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Figure 3.16 Language processing in the brain
Each hemisphere is
divided into 4 lobes

Frontal

Parietal

Occipital

Temporal
 Four Lobes:
 Occipital – vision
 Parietal - somatosensory
 Temporal - auditory
 Frontal – movement, executive control systems

The Cerebrum:
The Seat of Complex Thought
The Limbic System

 Hypothalamus
 Amygdala
 Hippocampus
Hypothalamus
 Contains nuclei involved in a
variety of behaviors
◦ sexual behavior
◦ hunger, thirst
◦ sleep
◦ water and salt balance
◦ body temperature
regulation
◦ circadian rhythms
◦ role in hormone secretion
Hypothalamus and Hormones

 Hypothalamus releases
hormones or releasing factors
which in turn cause pituitary
gland to release its hormones
Amygdala

 Inputs come from all senses

 Amygdala ‘reads’ emotional

significance of inputs

 Output influences such

functions as heart rate,
adrenaline release
Hippocampus

 Important
in forming
new memories
Thalamus

 Relay station in brain

 Processes most information
to and from higher brain
centers
Reticular Formation

 Network of neurons in the

brainstem (and thalamus)
 Sleep and arousal
 Attention
Hindbrain Structures

 Cerebellum
 Brainstem
◦ medulla
◦ reticular formation
◦ pons
Cerebellum
 Coordinated, rapid voluntary
movements
◦ e.g., playing the piano,
kicking, throwing, etc.
 Lesions to cerebellum
◦ jerky, exaggerated
movements
◦ difficulty walking
◦ loss of balance
◦ shaking hands
Medulla

 Breathing
 Heart rate
 Digestion
 Other vital reflexes
◦ swallowing
◦ coughing
◦ vomiting
◦ sneezing
The Endocrine System:
Another Way to Communicate
Hormones – chemical messengers in the
bloodstream
Endocrine glands
 Pituitary – “master gland,” growth hormone
 Thyroid – metabolic rate
 Adrenal – salt and carbohydrate metabolism
 Pancreas – sugar metabolism
 Gonads – sex hormones
 Pituitary gland—attached to the base of the brain,
hormones affect the function of other glands
 Adrenal glands—hormones involved in human
stress response
 Gonads—hormones regulate sexual
characteristics and reproductive processes;
testes in males, ovaries in females

Endocrine System
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Genes and Behavioral Genetics
 Genes: – segments of DNA on chromosomes transmit heredity traits
 Chromosomes – rod shaped and contain all genes that carry genetic
information to make a human being.
 Dominant-recessive pattern – a set of inheritance rules for genes
◦ One dominant gene or two recessive genes required for a trait to be
expressed.
 Multifactorial inheritance – an inheritance pattern in which a trait is
influenced by both genes and environmental factors.
 Polygenic inheritance – many genes influence a particular characteristic like
skin color.
 Sex linked inheritance – involves genes on the X and Y chromosomes
◦ E.g. male or female body type and red-green color blindness
 Behavioral Genetics – a field of research that uses twin and adoption studies
to investigate the relative effects of heredity and environment on behavior.

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 Chromosomes – strands of DNA carrying
genetic information
 Human cells contain 46 chromosomes in pairs
(sex-cells – 23 single)
 Each chromosome – thousands of genes, also in
pairs
Polygenic traits

Basic Principles of Genetics

 Family studies – does it run in the family?
Twin studies – compare resemblance of
identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic)
twins on a trait
Adoption studies – examine resemblance
between adopted children and their biological
and adoptive parents

Research Methods in Behavioral Genetics

Figure 3.19 Genetic relatedness
Figure 3.20 Twin studies of intelligence and personality
 Based on Darwin’s ideas of natural selection
 Reproductive success key
Adaptations – behavioral as well as physical
 Fight-or-flight response
 Taste preferences
 Parental investment and mating

The Evolutionary Bases of Behavior