Experiment No.

1
Carbohydrates

Introduction
One of the most important functions of biomolecules is the energy that can be released when it is
needed by the cells. Carbohydrates are the most abundant class of biomolecules Carbohydrates serve as
energy sources and provide structural support as in the cell wall of plants. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
are the elements found in carbohydrates. Glucose and other molecules that serve this function belong to a
class of compounds called carbohydrates. In clinical practice, sugar is the chief source of energy in the
body in dextrose or pa glucose. Glucose is chemically considered a simple sugar. It is the main sugar that
the body manufactures. The body makes glucose from all three elements of food, protein, fat, and
carbohydrates, but the largest part from carbohydrates but in the largest part of carbohydrates. Glucose
serves as the major source of energy for living cells. It is carried to each cell through the bloodstream. The
cells cannot, however, use glucose without the help of insulin. When sampled in blood, glucose is tested
in transit.

Sometimes lactated ringers solution is also administered on a case-to-case base. This medication
is an intravenous (IV) solution used to supply water and electrolytes (e.g., calcium, potassium, sodium,
chloride), either with or without calories (dextrose), to the body. It is also used as a mixing solution
(diluent) for other IV medications. However, in patients with diabetes, heart problems, kidney problems,
Liver problems, high levels of potassium (hyperkalemia), high levels of sodium (hypernatremia),
acid/base problems (e.g., acidosis, alkalosis), swelling (edema), allergies (especially drug allergies), this
IV is not administered.
Results: Carbohydrates

Name of Test Regent Used Results

3ml glucose
Molisch Test Molisch reagent
H2SO4, 1ml sucrose
1ml glucose
Fehling’s A & B
Fehling’s Test Changing of Color
Iodine
1ml sucrose
1ml glucose
Tollen’ reagent
Tollen’s Test Precipitate form and changes in
1ml sucrose color
1ml starch

Test Carbohydrates in Food Products

Food product Molisch Fehling’s A & B Benedict’s HCL Iodine Drop

Reagent Results Results Results Results
Flour Black-red Light Blue Flour has White Color Black
formed
Unripe Banana Banana aroma Banana aroma Blue-green- Banana aroma Strong odor
orange
 Glucose is a reducing sugar, while the disaccharide sucrose is not. As a result, glucose heated in
Benedict's reagent reduces Cu" ions to form a green to brick-red precipitate depending on the amount of
sugar present.
Benedict's reagent is used as a simple test for reducing sugars. Reducing sugar is a carbohydrate
possessing either a free baldheaded or free ketone functional group as part of its molecular structure.
Recall from our lectures that functional groups are the regions of a molecule that give its particular
properties. A single molecule can have more than one functional group as part of its structure. When a
molecule with multiple functional groups is involved in a reaction all, some or none of the functional
groups may be involved.
Glucose is one of the most important biological carbohydrates. It is produced by plants during
photosynthesis and as such, it is a common food source for non-autotrophs. Glucose, once produced by
the plant, or ingested by animals or fungi needs to be stored for later use. The two are main glucose
polymers used for storage: starch by plants and glycogen by animals.
Carbohydrates serve as energy sources and provide structural support as in the cell wall of plants.
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are the elements s found in carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are formed from dehydrates or ketones that contain numerous hydroxyl groups.
The name carbohydrates which indicates that the compound contains hydrates carbon atoms come from
the general formula for this class of compounds carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen atoms. In most carbohydrates for each carbon atom, there are two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom. This ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is 2:1, the same as in water. They are called
carbohydrates because each carbon is combined with the same atoms that form water hydrated. The
general formula for simple carbohydrates is CnH2nOn.
The smallest carbohydrates are monosaccharides (one sugar) or simple sugar. Glucose (blood
sugar) and fructose (fruit sugar) are important monosaccharide energy sources for many of the body's
cells. Lactose is the sugar found in milk. Lactose is a disaccharide that consists of β-D-galactose and β -
D-glucose molecules bonded through β-1-4 glycosidic linkage. Lactose makes up around 2-8% of the
solids in milk. Lactose intolerance is a problem caused by the digestive system. Many infants suffer from
lactose intolerance thus, they are fed with soya-rich milk. Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest
significant amounts of lactose, the major sugar found in milk. Lactose intolerance is caused by a shortage
of the enzyme lactase, which is produced by the cells that line the small intestine. Lactase breaks down
milk sugar into two simpler forms of sugar called glucose and galactose, which are then absorbed into the
bloodstream.
Longer carbohydrates formed by chemically binding are monosaccharides together. For this
reason, disaccharides (two sugars) are formed when two monosaccharides join. A common example is
sucrose or table sugar which is a combination of glucose and fructose. Sucrose intolerance, also called
Congenital Sucrase-Isomaltase Deficiency (CSID) or Sucrase-Isomaltase deficiency, is the condition in
which sucrase, an enzyme needed for proper metabolization of sucrose, is not produced in the small
intestine. The result of consuming sucrose is excess gas production and often diarrhea and malabsorption.
Polysaccharides (many sugars) consist of many monosaccharides bound in long chains. Glycogen
or animal starch is a mono polysaccharide of glucose. When cells containing glycogen need energy, the
glycogen is broken down into individual glucose molecules, which can be used as an energy source. Plant
starch, also a Polysaccharide of glucose, can be ingested and broken down into glucose, cellulose, another
polysaccharide of glucose, is an important structural component of plant cell walls.
 The usual cause of chronic constipation is a lack of adequate dietary fiber. Dietary fiber is
generally obtained from plant foods and consists of that portion of the plant which is not digested by man.
While the sugars, starches, and vitamins are broken down into nutrients and are absorbed by our
intestines, the cell walls are not digested and go on to form an important component of the stool, the bulk
or roughage. An example of dietary fiber is cellulose, and food that is high in fiber is wheat bran.
The experiment that we are going to do is not only for glucose but also for other sugars, like
sucrose, cellulose, starch, and glycogen

Methodology
Materials

Reagent/Chemicals Apparatuses
Glucose solution Test tube
saliva Medicine dropper
Molisch Reagent Water bath
H2SO4 Mortar
NaOH Pestle
Schiff's reagent Porcelain dish
Ammoniacal silver nitrate Wire gauze
Fehling's A reagent Small beaker
Fehling's B reagent Test tube rack
Benedicts solution Sodium carbonate Test tube holder Cheese doth
Picric acid Filter paper
Sodium acetate Evaporating dish Reagent bottles
Sucrose (solid) Sucrose solutions
Water
Alcohol
Ether
HCI
Lactose solution
Iodine solution
Potato starch
Starch paste
Procedure:
Moore's Test (Influence of Concentrated alkali)
To 1 ml of 5% glucose solution add 1 ml. of concentrated NaOH.
Note the odor produced. What did you notice?

Molisch 's Test (alpha naphthol reaction)

To 1 ml of 5% glucose solution add 1 to 2 drops of Moloch's reagent and mix thoroughly. Incline the test
tube and add 1 ml of conc. H2SO4 notes the color produced at the junction of two layers of liquids. What
did you observe?
Reduction Tests

Fehling'stest
To 1 ml each of boiled Fehling's A and B mixture, add 1 ml of 5%glucose Note the changes produced.
Explain the principle involved in the test.

Benedict’s Test
Pour I ml of 5% glucose solution and add 10 drops of Benedict’s reagent. Boil for 2 minutes and allow to
cool. What did you observe? Is there a difference between Fehling's and Benedict's tests? Which do you
think is more sensitive and why?

Barfoed"sTest
Mix 1 ml of 5% glucose solution with 10 drops of BArfoed"s reagent. Heat for around 30 seconds and
note the results. Is there a difference between the Benedicts and Barfoed's Test?

Picric Acid Test

Pour 1 ml of 5% glucose solution into a test tube and add 10 drops of picric acid solution. Warm and note
the results.
Perform the same tests with the other sugars previously prepared. Compare the results.
POLYSACCHARIDES
Starch
Iodine test on Starch Powder
Place a pinch of starch powder in a watch glass. A drop of Iodine solution on it. What do you think is the
cause of the change in color? Perform the same test with potato and sweet potato as well as Kangkong
fibers.
Iodine test on Starch Paste
Place 1 ml of starch paste on a test tube and add I drop of iodine solution. Heat and note the color. Cool
and observe the change produced.
Hydrolysis of Starch
Place 20 ml starch paste in a beaker and add 2 drops of conc. HCl. Boil gently. Then, at intervals of 3
minutes test with a drop of iodine and add Benedicts until iodine disappears and Benedicts becomes
positive. Write the different stages of starch hydrolysis.
Glycogen
Preparation of Glycogen
Obtain some fresh oysters and cut them into two. Mix with sand and grind in a mortar. Afterward; place it
in a beaker with 25 ml of water. Heat for 25 minutes, and add water from time to time to maintain the
volume. Acidify with 5% acetic acid. Boil for 1 minute, cool, and filter. Add 41 volumes of 95% alcohol.
Allow the precipitate to settle; pour off the supernatant liquid and filter. Dissolve the precipitate in hot
water to obtain a glycogen solution.
To 10 drops of glycogen solution, add 2 drops of Benedict’s reagent. Note
the results.
To 10 drops of glycogen solution, add 2 drops of Iodine solution. Note
the results.
To the remaining solution add HCI and boil for a few minutes. Cool, neutralize with 10% NaOH Compare
the results with that of starch hydrolysis.