Proceeding of SOILS 2017

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
SUSTAINABLE SOIL MANAGEMENT (SOILS 2017)
Quality Soil Drives Productivity
ParkCity Everly Hotel,

Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
4 - 7 April 2017
EDITORIAL TEAM
Zakry Fitri Ab. Aziz
Osumanu Haruna Ahmed
Che Fauziah Ishak
Mohamadu Boyie Jalloh
Wan Mohamed Noordin Wan Daud
Rosazlin Abdullah
Christopher Teh Boon Sung
Jeyanny Vijayanathan
Wan Zaliha Wan Sembok
TECHNICAL TEAM
Osumanu Haruna Ahmed Mohd Zafri Hassan
Zakry Fitri Ab. Aziz John Keen Chubo
Noorasmah Saupi Rosazlin Abdullah
Jointly Organized by
Malaysian Society of Soil Science (MSSS)

Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus (UPMKB)
i
Copyright © 2017 Malaysian Society of Soil Science
All right reserved. No part of this publication may be produced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the
copyright owner.
Published by:
Malaysian Society of Soil Science
Department of Land Management
Faculty of Agriculture
43400 Serdang
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
http://www.msss.com.my
ii
PREFACE
Welcome to SOILS 2017, the International Conference on Sustainable Soil
Management. This conference brings together academics, researchers, scientists,
agriculturists, policy makers, managers, graduate students, and others who are devoted
to the study of soil and its science.
In the years to come, managing soils for their livability and sustainability, which
in turn determine their total quality, will be among the major challenges for soil
scientists. Success in soil sustainability would not be achievable by a ‘one man show’;
but an involvement of ‘togetherness’. Soil scientists need to work together with
practitioners in other fields of science and engineering, policy makers, and the public
at large in an environment of mutual trust and respect. We have seen how soil science
research has transited from responsibility and perseverance in soil conservation
inculcated in earlier generations of researchers to the ‘app’ generation of soil scientists
today. We hope the spirit of “keeping in touch” and continual support from one
generation to another would be maintained like a well-aerated soil or a well-connected
soil network.
Reviewing and editing the Proceedings of SOILS 2017 has been a recursive task
for the Scientific and Technical Committee members, but the outcome has brought great
joy and satisfaction. Indeed, many individuals have been involved in the production of
these proceedings, starting with the publicizing of the conference theme, “Quality Soil
Drives Productivity”, and continuing till the final papers received from participants,
many coming from various emerging nations. After undergoing a refereeing process,
the manuscripts received by our committee were then allocated to specific sessions for
either oral presentation or posters. We are happy that the papers received cover a very
wide scope of soil science, ranging from soil genesis and classification to the more
recently fashionable topics such as biofertilizers and biochar utilization.
We are most indebted to the commitment, expertise, and professionalism of the
topic editors who spent time on this volume of Proceedings. We hope that the papers
contained herein would make worthwhile reading, and perhaps encourage new ideas
that could eventually turn to applicability in responsible management of soils. With
collaborative and meaningful effort in soil research, researchers should band together
in facing the many daunting challenges in soil management for the future of humanity.
We have greatly enjoyed working with our many intra- and inter-committee friends,
with the paper reviewers, and with the authors of the paper themselves.
Our deepest gratitude goes to the Vice Chancellor of Universiti Putra Malaysia,
President of the Malaysian Society of Soil Science and Chairman of the Organizing
Committee for their unstinting support and encouragement in ensuring the success of
SOILS 2017: International Conference on Sustainable Soil Management.
Finally, we would like to thank the authors of papers for sharing their current
research work and ideas. Without them, this conference would not be possible. We are
happy to have you here in Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia. We look forward to greater
collaborative efforts with you in the science of sustainable soil management.
Dr. Zakry Fitri Ab. Aziz

Head, SOILS 2017 Scientific & Technical Committee
3 April 2017
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
KEYNOTE PAPER
1. Soils the Media for Sustaining Life on our Planet Earth

Ahmet Ruhi Mermut 1
Harran Univeristy, Turkey
PLENARY PAPER
2. Profit Analysis of Soil Carbon Sequestration with Biochar and

Nutrient Releasing Characteristics of Biochar Pellet
Shin, J.D. 3
National Institute of Agricultural Science, Korea
3. Precision Agriculture: A Strategy that makes Farmers and Soils

Work Better, Not Harder
4
Balasundram, S.K., Jeyanny, V. and Law, M.C.
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
ORAL PRESENTATIONS
4. Effect of Peat Swamp Conversion into Oil Palm Plantation on Soil

Physical and Chemical Properties
Seca, G., Mohd. Suffian, F., Muhamad Ismawi, S. and Ahmed, O.H. 6
5. Greenhouse Gas Emission from Pineapple Cultivation on a

Tropical Peat Soil
Liza Nuriati, L.K.C. and Ahmed, O.H.
10
Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute,
Malaysia
6. Planters’ Experience on Managing Challenges and Limiting

Factors for High Oil Palm Yield on Peat
Pupathy, U.T., Andrew Cheng, M.F., Kumaran, R. and Abdul
14
Razak, I.
Sime Darby Plantation Sdn. Bhd., Malaysia
7. The Effects of Cacao Pod Husk Biochar and Watering Frequencies

on Cacao Seedling Growth
Andi, B., Safuan, L.O., Kilowasid, L.M.H., Arsana, M.W. and
18
Fahimu, M.Y.
Halu Oleo University, Indonesia
iv
8. Impact of Sole and Combined Amendment of Rice-Husk Ash on
Soil CO2 Efflux and Agronomic Parameters of Wheat Crop in Dry
Tropics
Singh, R., Afreen, T., Singh, P., Srivastava, P., Singh, H. and 23
Raghubanshi, A.S.
Banaras Hindu University, India
9. Economic Viability of Including Cliptilolite Zeolite Rice Straw

and Paddy Husk Composts in Zea mays L. Cultivation
Latifah, O., Ahmed, O.H., Ali, M. and Majid, N.M.A. 29
Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus, Malaysia
10. Soil Microbial Communities and Mineralization Responses to

Penicillin and Tetracycline Loads
Muhammad Fazal, K. and Imran H.S. 33
Zhejiang University, China
11. Antibiotic Resistance Profile and Genetic Traits of Soil Isolated

Bacteria and their Subsistence on Penicillin or Tetracycline
Zhang, Q. 38
12. Preparation and Characterization of Encapsulated Bacillus

salmalaya 139SI Using Biomaterials
Vejan, P., Abdullah, R., Khadiran, T. and Ismail, S. 42
University of Malaya, Malaysia
13. Assessment of Soil Fertility Status through Geospatial Techniques

for Sustainable Soil Management
AbdelRahman, M.A.E. 46
National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Science, Egypt
14. Conservation Agriculture Influences on Sustainable Soil Fertility

and Crop Productivity
Jahiruddin, M., Salahin, N., Islam, M.R. Haque, M.E. and Bell, R. 49
Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh
15. Quantitative Assessment of Surface Runoff at Arid Regions

Elsayed, M., Mohamed, A. and Abd-ElAziz B.
53
16. Great Flood of December 2014: Its Effects on the Properties of

Soils in the Kelantan Plains, Malaysia
Shamshuddin, J. 56
v
17. Impacts of Different Organic Matter and Nitrogen Fertilizer
Application on Soil Properties and Wheat Yield
Karami, A., Ebrahimi Pak, N.A. and Ziaeyan, A.H.
62
Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization,
Iran
18. Comparing Growing-Season N2O Flux of a Corn Field Measured

Using Micrometeorological Technique and Static Chamber
Sulaiman, M.F., Wagner-Riddle, C., Voroney, R.P., Warland, J.S.
66
and Rochette, P.
University of Guelph, Canada
19. Effects of Basalt Dust Application on Soil Properties and Growth

of Rubber under Nursery Condition on an Ultisol
Shafar, J.M., Noordin, W.D., Shamshuddin, J., Hanafi, M.M. and
69
Zulkefly, S.
20. Spatio-Temporal Variability of Heavy Metal Concentrations in

Soil-Rice System and Its Socio-Environmental Analysis
Imran, H.S. 73
21. A Revisit: Method for Determining Cation Exchange Capacity of

Natural Zeolite
Sukor, A., Azira A.Z.A. and Husni M.H.A. 77
22. Soil Carbon Balance at Various Landscape Positions in Dedelow,

Northeastern Germany
Rochelle Joie, A.S., Hoffman, M., Sanchez, P.B., Borromeo, T.,
83
Timbas, N.L., Augustin, J. and Sommer, M.
University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines
23. Genesis, Classification and Clay Mineralogy of Soils in Ghrah-

Bagh Area, Southern Iran
Zareian, Gh.R., Farpoor, M.H., Hejazi, M. and Jafari, A. 89
Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran
24. Development of Rubber Zone for Sustainable Rubber Plantation

Production in Malaysia
Noordin W.D. and Shafar J. 94
25. Photosynthetic and Stomatal Responses of Pepper Grown on

Hollow Kenaf Based Composite Post in Relation to Soil Moisture
Sulok, K.M.T., Khew, C.Y., Chen, Y.S., Wong, C.M., Zehnder,
97
J.A.M., Zainudin, S.R. and Siti Nur Aniza, M.J.
Malaysian Pepper Board, Malaysia
vi
26. Spatial Variability of NPK in Black Pepper Farm on Hilly
Topography
Izzah A.H., Wan Asrina W.Y. and Ahmed O.H. 103
27. Fine Roots Distribution of Matured Theobroma cacao and Sub-

surface Soil Hardness Relations Through Rhizotron Observation
Helmi, S., Husni, M.H.A. and Roslan, I. 107
Malaysian Cocoa Board, Malaysia
POSTER PRESENTATIONS
28. Live Staking Technique Using Chinese Boxthorn for Slope

Stabilizer in Agriculture Farm: The Concept
Masri, I.N., Bakar, N.H.A., Mohamed Hafeifi, B., Muhammad
Zamir, A.R., Wan Abdullah, W.Y., Mustafa Kamal, H. and
111
Mohamad Fakhri, M.
Malaysia
29. Diversity of Trichoderma Species in Cultivated Soils in Machang

Laila, N. and Nurul Hazreen
114
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Malaysia
30. Soil Water Properties of Kerangas Forest Soil after Invasion by

Acacia
Ibrahim, M.H., Metali, F., Tennakoon, K.U. and Sukri, R.S.H. 117
Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Brunei
31. Soil Properties of Acacia-Invaded and Non- Acacia Invaded

Coastal Heath (Kerangas) Forests in Brunei Darussalam
Dk Nur Amal Nazira, P.Z., Sukri, R.S.H. and Metali, F. 120
32. Invasive Acacia Changes Soil Physico-Chemical Properties in

Mixed-Dipterocarp Forests in Brunei Darussalam
Salwana, M.J., Faizah, M. and Rahayu Sukmaria, S. 124
33. Effect of Bio-Soil Amendment on the Growth of Six Varieties of

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus)
Rina, S., Mohammed Selamat, M., Mohammad, M.L. and Silip, J.J. 128
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
34. Effect of Biofertilizer Utilization on Soil Nutrient Status of

Matured Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Tree
Boney, M. 132
vii
35. Soil Morphological Properties under Mono and Mixed Tree
Species at Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve, Sarawak
Anarrin, N.J., Wasli, M.E., Douglas, B., Perumal, M., Sani, H.,
134
Oscar, J.N., Lat, J., Hidir, M. and Arip, S.
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
36. Soils Properties at Reforestation Sites After Different Silviculture

Treatment at Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve, Sarawak
Douglas, B., Wasli, M.E., Perumal, M., Anarrin, N.J., Sani, H.,
137
Oscar, J.N., Lat, J., Hidir, M. and Arip, S.
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
37. GIS Spatial Model Using Remote Sensing Data for Determining
Soil Problems and Environmental Hazard Evaluation
AbdelRahman, M.A.E. 142
38. Physical Appearance of Bioplastic Planting Pot under Natural

Environment
Chui, Y.C., Chiang, L.K., Kodoh, J. and Maid, M. 145
39. Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Soil Arthropods

Keeren, S.R, Ahmad Ismail, Daljit Singh, K., Syaizwan Zahmir, Z.,
Hishamuddin, O. and Dzarifah, Z. 149
40. Effects of Biochar and Zeolite on Leaf Nutrients Content of Maize

Grown on Clay Soil
Zaidun, S.W., Jalloh, M.B., Besar, N.A., Musta, B., Azwan, A.,
153
Lum, M.S., Haruna Ahmed, O. and Majid, N.A.
41. The Effects of Time on Heavy Metal Concentrations under

Landfill Conditions
Keeren, S.R., Ahmad Ismail, Daljit Singh K., Syaizwan Zahmir Z.,
157
Hishamuddin O. and Dzarifah Z.
42. Effect of Using Oil Palm Waste as Medium on the Growth and
Yield of Chili in a Fertigation System
Tamidi, M.H., Murdad, R., Awang, A. and Jalloh, M.B. 164
43. Effects of Amending Soil with Microbes on the Soil Microbial

Population in Oil Plam Plantation
Noor Khairani, M.B., Mohamadu Jalloh, B.1, Mahmud, S., Rakib,
168
M.R.M., Markus, A. and Clament, C.F.S.
viii
44. Improving the Extraction of Nutrients Lock Up in Forest Litter for
Liquid Compound Fertilizer
Maru, A., Medin, S., Haruna Ahemd, O. and Majid, N.A. 173
45. Evaluation of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria to Control

Bottom Rot, Rhizoctonia solani on Lettuce, Lactuca sativa
Sazali, I.H., Amirul, H.U.M, Fitri, A.R and Zakry, F.A.A. 177
46. Potential Use of Empty Fruit Bunch Biochar as A Stimulatory

Agent during Composting Process
Fitri, A.R, Amirul, H.U.M, Sazali, I.H. and Zakry, F.A.A 181
47. Screening of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) from

Vegetable Crops for Biofertilizer Production
Amirul Hamzah, M.U., Fitri, A.R., Sazali, I.H. and Zakry, F.A.A. 184
48. Plant Growth-Promoting Potential of Bacteria from Nodule of

Aquatic Legume, Neptunia oleracea Lourerio
Zaheda, A., Noorasmah, S., Zakry, F.A.A. and Saidin, A. 189
49. Improving Rice Plant Growth Variables and Rice Yield through
Co-Composted Forest Litter
Nathaniel, M., Maru, A., Nadzirahm N.A., Haruna Ahmed, O. and
194
Majid, N.A.
50. Selected Physico-Chemical Properties of Forest Litter Compost

Audrey A., Maru A., Osumanu H.A. and Nik Muhamad, A.M.
199
51. Improving Zea mays Plant Growth Variables and Yield Using
Compound Liquid Fertilizer Extracted from Forest Litter Compost
Nur Hazidah, N., Maru, A., Audrey, A., Ahmed, O.H. and Majid,
206
N.A.
52. Assessment of Microbial Quality of Selected Kacip Fatimah

Planting Materials: A Case Study at Ledang, Johor
Syafiqah Nabilah, S.B., Farah Fazwa, M.A., Norhayati, S., Siti
210
Suhaila, A.R. and Norulaiman, Y.
Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Malaysia
ix
53. Tropical Peat Soil as a Carbon Precursor for the Production of
Activated Carbon
Tumirah, K., Mohd, Z.H., Zulkarnain, Z. and Rozita, A. 214
54. Assessing the Principal Components of Soil Chemical Properties

among Pyritic Soils along the Kelantan Plains, Malaysia
Enio, M.S.K., Shamshuddin, J., Fauziah C.I., Husni, M.H.A. and
219
Malisa M.N.
55. Mycorrhiza, Plate's Avain Fertilizer and Calcium Application

Effects on the Yield and Quality of Pomegranate (Punica
granatum L.) Fruit
225
Ziaeyan, A.H. and Ghorbani, M.
Islamic Azad University, Iran
56. Effects of Biochar and Phosphorus Fertilization on the Spinacia

oleraces Growth in a Calcareous Soil
Ziaeyan, A.H., Choopani, R. and Khorsandi, F. 228
Islamic Azad University, Iran
57. Combined Effects of Mycorrhizal Fungi, Organic Fertilizers and

Potassium Application on the Yield and Chemical Composition of
Pomegranate Leaves
Ziaeyan, A.H., Moradi, A., Karami, A., Zareian, Gh.R. and 232
Moghimi, A.
Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center, Iran
58. Evapotranspiration Measurement for Canola in Hormozgan

Province of Iran
Moradi, A., Ziaeian, A.H., Karami, A., Zareian, Gh.R. and
236
Moghimi, A.B.
59. Relationship between Non Exchangeable Potassium Release with

Mineralogy, Parent Material and Land Use in Ghrah-Bagh Area
Southern Iran
240
Zareian, Gh.R., Farpoor, M.H., Hejazi, M. and Jafari, A.
Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Iran
60. Qualitative Land Suitability Classification of Major Field Crops

and Distribution of Clay Minerals in Mobark-Abad Plains of
Southern Iran
Zareian, Gh.R., Moghimi, A.H., Moradi, A., Karami, A. and 244
Ziaeian, A.B.
x
61. Effects of Tillage Systems, Water Stress and Nitrogen on the
Growth and Yield of Wheat
Ziaeyan, A.H., Karami, A., Moghimi, A., Moradi, A. and Zareian,
249
Gh.R.
62. Physical Land Suitability Evaluation for Wheat in Tashkuieh

Plain, Iran
Moghimi, A.H., Zareian, G., Karami, A., Ziaeian, A. and Moradi,
253
A.
63. Soil Carbon Storage in Selected Mangrove Forest of Sarawak,

Malaysia
Abu Hena, M.K., Idris, M.H., Rhemaneeta, A., Sinden, A. and
256
Bhuiyan, M.K.A.
64. Spatial Relationships between Wheat Grain Yield and Soil

Variables
Karami, A., Moradi, A., Afzalinia, S., Zareian, Gh.R., Ziaeyan,
260
A.H. and Moghimi, A.H.
65. Screening and Laboratory Assessment of Various Local

Commercial Solid Biofertilizers
Illani, Z.I., Mohd Zafrul, A.R. and Norziana, Z.Z.
265
Malaysia
66. Effect of Different Filling Materials on Physical Properties and

Viability of Encapsulated Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Bacillus
subtilis UPMB10
270
Khairul Amin, Radziah, O., Halimi, M.S. and Siti Zaharah, M.W.
67. The Role of Selected Soil Physical Properties on Soil Carbon

Stocks in a National Heritage Tropical Forest
Jeyanny, V., Wan Rasidah, K., Fakhri, M.I. and Suhaimi, W.C. 275
68. Characteristics of Peat Soils at Ayer Hitam under Different

Vegetation
Rozita, A., Mohamad Fakhri, I., Wan Rasidah, A.K., Jeyanny, V.
278
and Nur Hafizah, A.H.
xi
69. In-Situ Immobilization of Lead in Soil Using Different Source of
Phosphate Materials for The Organic Production of the Medicinal
Plant Orthosiphon stamineus
281
Khairul Naim, M., Ishak, C.F. and Rosenani, A.B.
70. Preliminary Study on The Effects of Integrated Rice – Duck

Farming (IRDF) System on Soil Physico-Chemical Characteristics
Norziana, Z.Z. and Abdullah, W.W.
285
Malaysia
71. Soil Sampling at Racehorse Spelling Station Sdn. Bhd. (Rhss),

Ringlet, Cameron Highlands
Haslizawati, N., Masri. I.N., Mohamed Hafeifi, B., Iskandar, N.L.
and Mohamad Fakhri, M. 288
Malaysia
72. Soil Properties Assessment at Ledang, Johor for the Production of

Superior Labisia pumila var. alata
Farah Fazwa, M.A., Norhayati, S., Syafiqah Nabilah, S.B. and
293
Siti Suhaila, A.R.
73. Determination of Heavy Metal Contents in Samples of Labisia

pumila from Ledang, Johor
Norhayati, S., Farah Fazwa, M.A., Syafiqah Nabilah, S.B.,
296
Norhayati, A. and Suhaila, A.R.
74. Soil Nutrient Status at Open Sea Mud Flat in Sungai Haji Dorani
Mohamad Fakhri, I., Rasidah, K.W., Rozita, A., Jeyanny, V. and
Nur Hafiza, A.H. 299
75. Preliminary Findings on Changes of Selected Soil Properties and

Growth of Rhizophora spp. at Mangrove Forest in Tanjung Piai,
Johor
Nur Hafiza, A.H., Wan Rasidah, K., Rosazlin, A., Mohamad 303
Fakhri, I. and Rozita, A.
76. Assessing the Potential of Treated Sewage Sludge as an Organic

Fertilizer
Aziera, Z.N. and Majid, N.M. 307
xii
77. Tropical Forest Restoration Experimental Project
Majid, N.M.
311
78. Proximate Analysis Used to Assess Quality of Oil Palm Trunk

Biochar
Nursu’aidah, H., Rosazlin, A. and Tumirah, K. 313
University of Malaya, Malaysia
79. Pre and Post-Harvest Performances of Belalai Gajah

(Clinacanthus nutans Lindau) Grown on Bris Soil in Relation to
Mixed and Single Species of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza
Nur Farhana, R., Ain Najwa, K.A., Rosazlin, A., Yusnita, H., 316
Zuraida A.R. and Wan Zaliha, W.S.
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia
80. Nutritional Improvisation of Soil by Fish Amino Acid

Faeiza, B., Rosazlin, A., Hidayat, H.M., Nurul Hana, L. and
Khairul, A. 322
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
81. Ameliorating Plant Available Water by Addition of Treated Palm

Oil Mill Effluent (POME) Sludge on Entisols
Mohd Nizar, K., Isharudin, M.I., Abd. Jamil, Z., Khairul
325
Najmudin, K., Hamdan, J. and Syahrizan, S.
Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia
82. Succession of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi in Forest Reclamation of

Post-Mining Sites
Patahayah, M., Mohd. Salleh, S., Abriza, M. Z., Mohd. Farid, A.,
332
Wan Muhammad Azrul, W.A. and Ahmad Syazwan, S.
83. Effects of Different Shade Levels on Dry Matter Yield and Total
Nitrogen Uptake of Boesenbergia stenophylla R.M Smith
Tracy, S., Abdullah, N.A.P., Franklin, R.K. and Aicher, J.T. 336
84. Isolation and Screening of Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria from

Healthy Cocoa Root Tree
Nurfadzilah, M. and Tan, G.H. 339
xiii
85. Effect of Spent Mushroom Waste as Media on Growth of
Honeydew (Cucumis melo)
Chuang, Y.C., Kundat, F.R., Abdullah, N.A.P. and Jiwan, M. 343
86. Enhancing Cocoa Seedlings Growth Performance by Soil

Composition Amendment in Nursery Stage
346
Nurafiza, A.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 350
xiv
Soils the Media for Sustaining Life on our Planet Earth
Ahmet Ruhi Mermut
Harran Univeristy, Şanlıurfa, Faculty of Agriculture, Department Soil Science, 63200
Turkey
E-mail: ar.mermut@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Soils are the most important natural resource for producing food and fiber for mankind
and all living substances for sustainable life on earth. In the international Geosphere-
Biosphere Program (IBP) the soil sytem especially its carbon dynamics is the central
link between the physical climate and bio-geo-chemical sytem. Soils function not only
as a water purification-nutrient-life media but also as redistributors and regulators of
most of the important fluxes of matters and energy. In the process of investigating the
soil resource, a major contribution has been the better understanding of the major
component of the ecosystem. Keeping pace with agronomy and crop sciences has
produced an effective partnership for the goal of food production and the sustainable
use of the land resources.
Pedology was born in the 18th and 19th centuries, when soil was first conceived as a
natural body worthy of its own scientific investigation. Although modern soil science
saw its re-birth after the Second World War, it is faced with new challenges at the
beginning of the new millennium, challenges that question even its relevance and need.
Part of this dilemma has resulted from the fact that soil science did not establish its role
in environmental studies, until recently. Today interest has already reached to extra-
terrestrials soils.
At the turn of the Century and despite the remarkable contributions of soil science,
investments in teaching and research has declined. Soil survey organisations are being
downsized or eliminated. Soil science departments in universities are or have been
merged with other disciplines and there is a measurable decrease in the emphasis on the
science. Research funds for basic research in the science has dwindled. Keeping the
science alive and enabling the science to contribute to the new challenges of managing
land resources becomes the challenge to address. This is a responsibility of societies
but soil scientists must play their role of demonstrating the value of the science.
The questions of food security and the ability of the tropical countries to feed
themselves will remain. Likewise, in Africa tremendous land resources that are waiting
to be utilized for the benefit of continent as well as addressing the food security in the
whole world. Most assessments of land resources of developing countries show that
they are highly degraded or degrading at rapid rates. Rehabilitating such lands,
exploiting their resilience if any, enabling some of the countries to attain sustainability
and all of these in a context of maintaining or enhancing the integrity of the environment
is the task ahead. No one discipline can provide the needed answers and hence a multi-
disciplinary approaches where soil scientists work with ecologists and social scientists
will become the norm.
1
Soil resource assessment and monitoring has entered a new era, in terms of quality of
information produced by new information technologies through the innovative use of
Geographic Information Systems and remote sensing and significantly improved
theacceptance and use of soil survey information. Technology has dramatically
increased the demand for and ability to process more data. Other innovations have
resulted in quantitative approaches in soil genetic studies and demonstrated the integral
role of soils in ecosystems. For global and regional resource assessment, concepts and
procedures were refined and these efforts are going on.
Soils play a very effective role on the global terrestrial carbon stocks and cycle. There
are, however, many problems to deal with large uncertainty that we have today. Some
of these are: 1) inadequate estimates of the biomass amounts and variations
characteristic of various biotic communities and their soils, 2) inability to precisely
measure historic and present changes in land use and deforestation, and 3) poor
information about carbon dynamics between pedosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.
We must focus our attention the cycle of carbon, to establish sustainable life on earth
and possibly find out ways and means to deal with global climate change. More biomass
production is needed to increase carbon sequestration. This can also be done by organic
inputs, crop rotation and agroforestry etc.
2
Profit Analysis of Soil Carbon Sequestration with Biochar and
Nutrient Releasing Characteristics of Biochar Pellet
Shin, J.D.
Department of Climate Change and Agricultural Ecology, National Institute of
Agricultural Science, RDA, Korea
ABSTRACT
Objectives of this experiment were to estimate the carbon sequestration and to evaluate
its profit analysis with different organic composts and cooperated with biochar
application during corn cultivation periods. Also column experiment was to investigate
nutrient releasing characteristics of biochar pellet. Soil carbon sequestration by AD, CC
and PC+1% biochar application was estimated to be 429 kg ha-1, 2,366 kg ha-1, and
3,978 kg ha-1, respectively, in sandy loam soil. CO2-e emission reductions of AD, CC
and PC+1% biochar were 0.16 MT CO2 ha-1, 0.87 MT CO2 ha-1 and 14.58 MT CO2 ha-
1
, respectively. The market prices of CO2 in corn cultivation with AD, CC and PC+1%
biochar were $1.26, $6.87 and $115.20 per hector, respectively, in Korean Climate
Exchange. For plant responses, it was determined that application of biochar in the corn
field for carbon sequestration did not significantly affect corn growth. Soil carbon
sequestration and recovery rates were 3,978 kg ha-1 and 54.3%, respectively, when 1%
biochar was applied to sandy loam soil. For plant responses, it was determined that
application of biochar in the corn field for carbon sequestration did not significantly
affect corn growth. Soil carbon sequestration and recovery rates were 3,978 kg ha-1 and
54.3%, respectively, when 1% biochar applied to sandy loam soil. For releasing
nutrients of the biochar pellet, their compost only was greater than the pig compost.
However, combination of biochar pellet contained more pig compost released higher
NH4-N and PO4-P. Yields in the treatments of 9:1, 8:2 and 4:6 biochar pellet application
plot were increased from 9.5% to 11.4%. Therefore, this biochar pellet application is
useful for soil carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas mitigation in the agricultural
farming practices. For the future study, application of biochar pellet with organic
compost in agricultural land need to be elucidated.
3
Precision Agriculture: A Strategy That Makes Farmers and Soils
Work Better, Not Harder
Balasundram, S.K.1, Jeyanny, V.2 and Law, M.C.3
1
Department of Agriculture Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Forest Research Institute of Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: siva@upm.edu.my
ABSTRACT
Precision Agriculture (PA) is changing the way people farm as it offers a myriad of
potential benefits in profitability, productivity, sustainability, crop quality,
environmental protection, on-farm quality of life, food safety, and rural economic
development. PA is revolutionary because it epitomizes a better balance between
reliance on traditional knowledge and information, and management-intensive
technologies. Operationally, PA embodies a holistic farm management strategy where
farm operators can adjust input use and cultivation methods, including seed, fertilizer,
pesticide and water application, variety selection, planting, tillage and harvesting, to
match varying crop, soil and other field attributes.
PA has three fundamental requirements, which are: (1) Ability to identify each field
location, (2) Ability to capture, interpret and analyze agronomic data at an appropriate
scale and frequency, and (3) Ability to adjust input use and farming practices to
maximize benefits from each field location. Technologies such as global positioning
system, geographical information system, remote sensing, variable rate application, on-
the-go sensors, grid sampling, and yield monitors are used to fulfill these requirements.
Various configurations of these technologies are suitable for different PA operations.
Communication tools like the internet are valuable for efficient delivery of PA services
and products. Protocols for PA implementation can be encapsulated in three general
steps: (1) Gathering information about variability, (2) Processing and analyzing
information to assess the significance of variability, and (3) Implementing change in
the management of inputs. PA subscribes to a cyclic process that is typified by a system
that gets smarter every year a farm operator uses it. Taken together, this implies that the
three general steps may each require a timeframe ranging from months to years so as to
collectively generate a stable and workable structure, but yet be subjected to further
amendments and refinements. From the farmers’ perspective, the most likely objective
for adopting PA is to increase economic return from their land and environment.
Farmers’ decisions on agronomic practice take into account the associated costs,
benefits and risks. Agronomic practices are linked to a wide range of factors such as
climate, infrastructure, soils, topography and yield distribution, nutrient requirement,
insects, diseases, and weeds. These factors typically exhibit spatial and/or temporal
variability, and hence necessitate site-specific treatment rather than conventional
uniform treatment.
The sources of variation in crop yield have been widely documented, and most of these
sources are related to soil variability. Soil properties vary substantially as a function of
soil type, landscape orientation and previous management history in both intensively
managed and undisturbed ecosystems. Prevailing technologies in the past prevented the
4
identification and management of soil spatial variability. As such, soil spatial variability
was often ignored or ascribed to random error hence justifying uniform treatment of
fields with regard to fertilizer and pesticide inputs. This practice led to over- or under-
application of fertilizers, pesticides, seeds and water, which inevitably resulted in sub-
optimal yields, increased field management cost, energy wastage and environmental
pollution.
This paper provides an overview of the technological platforms that enable precision
agriculture, particularly with regard to soil management, and examines their impact on
crop/soil productivity and the environment. Several precision agriculture strategies that
have already been tested as well as potential solutions for increased input use efficiency
will be discussed.
5
Effect of Peat Swamp Conversion into Oil Palm Plantation on Soil
Physical and Chemical Properties
Seca, G.1, Mohd. Suffian, F.2, Muhamad Ismawi, S.2 and Ahmed, O.H.2
1
Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul
Ehsan, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak
Campus, Nyabau Road, 97008 Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
E-mail: seca@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Peat swamp forest is a wetland areas characterized by the accumulation of organic

matter which is produced and deposited at a greater rate than it is decomposed. The
importance of Peat Swamp Forest are as a freshwater supply, as habitats for many flora
and fauna, as a gene bank resources of many medicinal plant, to stabilizing the
ecosystem, such as drainage control, atmospheric carbon storage and soil formation.
Malaysia is among the largest oil palm producer in the world. To fulfill the continuously
high demand of palm oil industry, many of forest has been developed into oil palm
plantation, e.g., timber harvesting, drainage, land clearing, biomass waste management,
earthworks, planting and replanting. These activities affect physical and chemical
properties of soil which cannot be avoided during conversion.
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of alteration secondary tropical
peat swamp forest (TPSF) into oil palm plantation on selected physical and chemical
property in peat soil. This study was conducted in a drained secondary TPSF (DSPSF)
at Sibu, Sarawak, Malaysia.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study area located in peat swamp forest at BatangIgan, (latitude: 2o19’ - 2o24’ N;
longitude: 111o35’ - 111o47’ E) in Sibu, Sarawak (Figure 1). The study area is covered
by before and after timber harvesting, secondary TPSF and land clearing, and young
(two and three years planted) and mature oil palm plantation. The area studied has seven
different site conditions represent different stages of oil palm plantation were found
allowing the research to be carried out in one area. The minimum and maximum
temperatures of the peat soil area are 25 to 30 oC, respectively.
Figure 1: Location of the study site in peat swamp forest at Batang Igan, Sibu, Sarawak,
Malaysia.
6
The soil samples was taken in 300 m2 of experimental plot was set up in the drained
secondary and cleared TPSF, 2 years and 3 years young oil palm plantation (YOPP)
and mature oil palm plantation (MOPP). The peat soil was sampled randomly using a
peat auger at a depth of 0 to 15 cm, 48 samples each site were taken from each corners
and the middle of a plot then they were homogenized to make a composite sample.
These composite samples were sieved then kept for laboratory analysis following the
standard procedure.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The effect of alteration secondary tropical peat swamp forest (TPSF) into oil palm
plantation on selected physical property in peat soil
Table 1: Mean comparison of selected peat soil physical properties of drained

secondary peat swamp forest (DSPSF) & the cleared site (CL), and the clear site and
young oil palm plantation using unpaired t-test
DSPSF & CL CL & YOPP
Variables
DSPSF CL CL YOPP
Fiber content (%) 34.497a 34.651a 33.276a 33.774a
Gravimetric water content (%) 397.623a 338.034b 377.54a 281.21b
Volumetric water content (%) 55.628a 53.582a 62.972a 49.7b
Loss on ignition (%) 96.7a 95.187b 95.526a 96.23a
Ash content (%) 3.3b 4.813a 4.474a 3.77a
Bulk density (g cm-3) 0.136b 0.17a 0.169a 0.182a
Specific gravity (g cm-3) 1.301a 1.317a 1.317a 1.317a
Total porosity (%) 89.671a 87.19b 87.129a 86.167a
Surface temperature (°C) 27.737b 29.807a 30.625a 27.821b
Liquid limit (%) 216.125a 190.26b 190.26a 203.85a
Bearing capacity (kPa) 31.667b 53.2a 52.833a 44.5b
Saturated hydraulic conductivity (cm s-1) 0.034a 0.023a 0.009b 0.024a
Some effect of the developing oil palm plantation which converted from DSPSF into
soil physical properties were (i) increased degree of decomposition, BD, ash content
and VWC, (ii) Reduced LOI, LL and GWC of the peat soil, (iii) BC was increased but
decreased after the elevation of water table in MOPP.
7
The effect of alteration secondary tropical peat swamp forest (TPSF) into oil palm
plantation on selected chemical property in peat soil
Table 2: Comparison of soil major macro-nutrient and other selected chemical

properties secondary TPSF and clearing TPSF using independent t-test
Means
Variables
Secondary TPSF Deforested TPSF
a
pH Water 3.47 3.22b
a
pH KCl 2.19 2.54 b
CEC (meq 100-1) 141.14a 105.53b
a
SOM (%) 96.81 95.61b
Total C (%) 56.15a 55.46b
a
Total N (%) 0.19 0.15b
Total P (%) 0.0136a 0.0081b
a
Total K (%) 0.0186 0.0136b
a
C/N ratio 401.89 305.32b
C/P ratio 4357.30a 6794.60b
As shown on Table 2, the effect into chemical properties, such as, (i) chemical
properties changes on peat soil are inevitable, (ii) some of the chemical properties
changes become more significant, but some were have no significant changes, (iii)
some of chemical properties were increasing and some decreasing due to environment
factors, (iv) the positive impact of harvesting operation into peat swamp forest soils in
term of nutrients such as the increasing of total nitrogen, total phosphorus and available
potassium in peat swamp forest soil and (v) the effect of logging is loses of carbon
storage in the peat soil to the atmosphere and increase the earth temperature and cause
global warming.
As the recommendation is the preservation of the remaining peat swamp forest and
conservation of developed peat land that still can be conserved are the best efforts.
CONCLUSION
Effect conversion peat swamp forest in oil palm plantation on soil physical properties
are (i) increase of degree of decomposition, Bulk Density, ash content and Volumetric
Water Content, (ii) Reduced Lost of Ignition, Liquid Limit and Gravimetric Water
Content of the peat soil, (iii) Bearing Capacity was increased but decreased after the
elevation of water table in Matured OPP and (iv) effect of Saturated Hydraulic
Conductivity (SHC) due to the conversion is hardly to determine due to high SHC of
woody peat area.
Effect conversion peat swamp forest in oil palm plantation on soil chemical properties:
(i) the chemical properties change are inevitable. Some chemical properties
significantly changed, some of properties were increasing and some properties were
decreasing, and (ii) in term of nutrients, there are the increasing of total nitrogen, total
phosphorus and available potassium on soil which needed for developing OPP (Positive
Effect), (iii) the loses of carbon storage in the peat soil to the atmosphere. Consequently,
it will increase the earth temperature and cause global warming at the initial stage
(Negative Effect).
8
The well managed and conserved OPP has a potential to store the carbon, and it will
increase it’s potential to store the carbon from Young OPP (<6years = 5.8 tan/ha) to
Mature OPP (9-15 years = 54.4 tan/ha to 73 tan/ha).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to thank University Putra Malaysia for funding this research. We also want to
thank Sarawak Forestry Department, Sibu Forestry Department for their help and
permission during fieldwork.
9
Greenhouse Gas Emission from Pineapple Cultivation on a Tropical
Peat Soil
Liza Nuriati, L.K.C.1 and Ahmed, O.H.2
1
Agrobiodiersity and Environment Research Centre, Malaysian Agricultural Research
and Development Institute, Malaysia
2
Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Food Science, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Bintulu Campus, Malaysia
E-mail: lizalim@mardi.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Tropical peatlands cover approximately 2.6 million hectares in Malaysia (Ismail and
Jamaludin, 2007). Drainage that causes water level drawdown of peat soil following
land clearing for agriculture accelerates peat decomposition (Berglund and Berglund,
2011). This leads to the release of greenhouse gases namely carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) into the atmosphere (Kløve et al., 2010).
Carbon dioxide, CH4, and N2O from peat soil are emitted through aerobic and anaerobic
microbial respiration, root respiration, peat oxidation, nitrification, and denitrification
(Sirin and Laine, 2012). The emission of peat greenhouse gases is influenced by land
use type, peat type, water table depth, temperature, fertilization, and photosynthetic
activities (Mäkiranta et al., 2008; Kechavarzi et al., 2010; Jauhiainen et al., 2012). At
present, there is dearth of information on greenhouse gas emission from pineapple
cultivation on drained peat soils. Although attempts have been made to measure
greenhouse gases from cultivated tropical peats, such studies are limited to forest
ecosystem, oil palm plantation, paddy field, rice-soybean, sago, and pulpwood
(Inubushi et al., 2003; Hadi et al., 2005; Melling et al., 2005; Watanabe et. al., 2009;
Jauhiainen et al., 2012). The understanding of the contribution of pineapple cultivation
on peats to greenhouse gas emission is important, as 90% of pineapples are grown on
peat soils of Malaysia (Raziah and Alam, 2010). Accounting for greenhouse gas
emissions from pineapple cultivation is needed to evaluate future rates of increase in
atmospheric greenhouse gases. Furthermore, pineapple cultivation may give a different
trend of emission compared to other crops such as oil palm that is widely planted on
peat due to the uniqueness of pineapple as both C3 and C4 plant or also known as a
Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) plant. Based on the above rationale, the
objective of the study was to quantify CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions from a drained
tropical peat grown with pineapple. The effects of soil temperature and moisture on
these greenhouse gases were also determined.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Field lysimeters were used to monitor greenhouse gases from Moris pineapple
cultivation on sapric peat soil. Twelve cylindrical lysimeters made from high-density
polyethylene were set-up in April 2012 to mimic the natural condition of tropical peats.
Three Moris pineapple suckers were planted in the lysimeters. Throughout the study,
the water table of the peat was maintained at 50 to 60 cm from the soil surface.
Soil CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions from the lysimeters were measured using closed
chamber method (IAEA, 1992). Extracted gas samples from the chamber were analyzed
for CO2, CH4, and N2O using gas chromatography (Agilent 7890A). The gas flux was
10
calculated from the increase in the chamber concentration over time using the chamber
volume and soil area covered (Widen and Lindroth, 2003). Gas fluxes were measured
for 24 hours in the early morning, morning, mid-morning to afternoon, afternoon,
evening, and night. The flux measurements were carried during the wet (September
2012, November 2012, and January 2013) and dry (April and July 2013) seasons. Soil
temperature and moisture were measured using Eijkelkamp IP68 and ML3 sensors,
respectively.
Treatment effects were tested using analysis of variance (ANOVA) whereas means of
treatments were compared using Duncan’s New Multiple Range Test at p≤0.05. The
relationships between greenhouse gases, soil temperature, and moisture were analyzed
using Pearson correlation analysis. The statistical software used for these statistical
analyses was the Statistical Analysis System (SAS) Ver. 9.1.
Soil CO2 emissions under Moris pineapple cultivation varied in the wet and dry seasons.
Mean soil CO2 emission was significantly higher in the wet season (182 t CO2 ha/yr)
than during the dry season (176.1 t CO2 ha/yr). The higher CO2 emission during the wet
season may have been influenced by the heterogeneity of the soil organic matter and
the diversity of microbial structure in peat (Kechavarzi et al., 2010). However, the
lower CO2 emission during the dry season suggested that higher soil temperature may
have partially inhibited microbial respiration through the inactivation of biological
oxidation system (Zulkefli et al., 2010). Soil CO2 emission was affected by root
development and growth of pineapple plants. Furthermore, heterotrophic respiration
and decomposition of root exudates in the rhizosphere may have also contributed to the
CO2 emission (Kuzyakov, 2006; Mäkiranta et al., 2009). Soil CO2 emission was also
affected by time of sampling. In the wet season, the CO2 emission decreased from
morning to mid-morning to afternoon followed by an increase in the evening. In the dry
season, the CO2 emission decreased from the early morning to mid-morning to
afternoon followed by an increase in the evening and night.
Mean soil CH4 emissions were statistically similar throughout the wet (0.68 t CH4
ha/yr) and dry (0.61 t CH4 ha/yr) seasons. Regardless of season, CH4 emission was not
affected by time of sampling. Soil CH4 emission under Moris pineapple cultivation was
affected by the availability of electron acceptors particularly nitrate from the
fertilization. This observation is consistent with the fertilizer applications at 4.5 and 9
months old of the pineapple plants in September 2012 and January 2013. The fertilizers
(containing urea and ammonium sulfate) might have increased nitrate content of the
soil. Nitrate is water soluble such that leaches to the anoxic layer to inhibit CH4
production (Jassal et al., 2011; Sirin and Laine, 2012). Furthermore, the shallow roots
of the pineapple plants and depth of the water table in the lysimeter might have
restricted CH4 emission through vascular plant-mediated transport (Dinsmore et al.,
2009).
Mean soil N2O emission was significantly higher in the dry season (17.6 t N2O ha/yr)
than during the wet season (13.7 t N2O ha/yr). The difference in the N2O emission in
the wet and dry seasons could be ascribed to fertilization of the pineapple plants at 4.5
and 9 months age. The nitrogen based fertilization may have contributed to N 2O
emission through mineralization (Jauhiainen et al., 2012). The N2O emission may have
11
also been influenced by root exudates at the rhizosphere. These root exudates are low
in nitrate due to plant nitrogen uptake thereby contributing to a different rate of N 2O
emission (Saggar et al., 2013). Soil N2O emission was also affected by time of
sampling. In the wet season, the N2O emissions in the early morning, evening, and night
were significantly higher compared with the N2O emissions in the morning, mid-
morning to afternoon, and afternoon. In the dry season, the N2O emission peaked in the
afternoon and evening but the N2O emissions in the early morning, morning, mid-
morning to afternoon, and night were lower.
The overall data (wet and dry seasons) showed no correlation between CO2, CH4, and
N2O emissions and soil temperature. This finding suggests that CO2, CH4, and N2O
emissions were not affected by soil temperature due to the moderate soil temperature
fluctuation (0.2 and 1.6 °C) of the tropics during flux measurement. The controlled
water table in the lysimeters explains the insignificant correlation between CO2, CH4,
and N2O emissions and soil moisture.
CONCLUSION
Peat soils cultivated with Moris pineapple released 179.6 t CO2 ha/yr, followed by 15.7
t N2O ha/yr, and 0.65 t CH4 ha/yr. Soil CO2 emission was regulated by pineapple
photosynthetic activity, heterotrophic respiration, and decomposition of root exudates
at the rhizosphere. Soil N2O emission was affected by nitrogen based fertilization for
pineapple cultivation on peat and the availability of adequate substrate for microbial
metabolism. Methane emission seemed to be affected by nitrate-based fertilization
through nitrate electron acceptors by inhibiting CH4 production. Soil CO2, CH4, and
N2O emissions were neither affected by soil temperature nor by soil moisture
throughout the wet and dry seasons.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the Ministry of Higher Education
through Universiti Putra Malaysia. This research was funded through Research
University Grants Scheme (RUGS), Grant number 9324300. The facilities provided by
the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute at MARDI Saratok
Peat Research Station for this study is appreciated.
REFERENCES
Berglund. Ö. & Berglund, K. 2011. Influence of water table level and soil properties
on emissions of greenhouse gases from cultivated peat soil. Soil Biology and
Biochemistry, 43: 923-931.
Dinsmore, K.J., Skiba, U.M., Billett, M.F. & Rees, R.M. 2009. Effect of water table
on greenhouse gas emissions from peatland mesocosms. Plant Soil, 318: 229-242.
Hadi, A., Inubushi, K., Furukawa, Y., Purnomo, E., Rasmadi, M. & Tsuruta, H.
2005. Greenhouse gas emissions from tropical peatlands of Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystem, 71: 73-80.
International Atomic Energy Agency 1992. Sampling techniques and sample
handling. In: Manual on measurement of methane and nitrous oxide emissions from
agriculture. IAEA-TECDOC-674. Vienna: IAEA. 45-67 pp.
12
Inubushi, K., Furukawa, Y., Hadi, A., Purnomo, E. & Tsuruta, H. 2003. Seasonal
changes of CO2, CH4 and N2O fluxes in relation to land-use change in tropical
peatlands located in coastal area of South Kalimantan. Chemosphere, 52: 603-608.
Ismail, A.B. & Jamaludin, J. 2007. Land clearing techniques employed at MARDI
Peat Research Station, Sessang, Sarawak, and their immediate impacts. In: Ismail
A.B., Ong H.K., Mohamad Hanif M.J. & Umi Kalsom M.S. (Eds.), A case study at
MARDI Peat Research Station, Sessang, Sarawak, Malaysia (pp. 1-8). Malaysia:
MARDI.
Jauhiainen, J., Silvennoinen, H., Hämäläinen, R., Limin, S., Raison, R.J. &
Vasander, H. 2012. Nitrous oxide fluxes from tropical peat with different
disturbance history and management. Biogeoscience, 9: 1337-1350.
Jassal, R.S., Black, T.A., Roy, R. & Ethier, G. 2011. Effect of nitrogen fertilization
on soil CH4 and N2O fluxes, and soil and bole respiration. Geoderma, 162: 182-186.
Kechavarzi, C., Dawson, Q., Bartlett, M., & Leeds-Harrison, P.B. 2010. The role
of soil moisture, temperature and nutrient amendment on CO2 efflux from
agricultural peat soil microcosms. Geoderma 154 (3-4): 203-210.
Kløve, B., Sveistrup, T.E. & Hauge, A. 2010. Leaching of nutrients and emission of
greenhouse gases from peatland cultivation at Bodin, Northern Norway. Geoderma,
154: 219-232.
Kuzyakov, Y. 2006. Sources of CO2 efflux from soil and review of partitioning
methods. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 38: 425-448.
Mäkiranta, P., Laiho, R., Fritze, H., Hytönen, J., Laine, J., & Minkkinen, K. 2009.
Indirect regulation of heterotrophic peat soil respiration by water level via microbial
community structure and temperature sensitivity. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 41:
695-703.
Melling, L., Hatano, R., & Goh, K.J. 2005. Soil CO2 flux from three ecosystems in
tropical peatland of Sarawak, Malaysia. Tellus B, 57: 1-11.
Raziah, M.L. & Alam, A.R. 2010. Status and impact of pineapple technology on
mineral soil. Economic and Technology Management Review, 5: 11-19.
Saggar, S., Jha, N., Deslippe, J., Bolan, N.S., Luo, J., Giltrap, D.L., Kim, D.G.,
Zaman, M. & Tillman, R.W. 2013. Denitrification and N2O: N2 production in
temperate grasslands: Process, measurements, modeling and mitigating negative
impacts. Science of the Total Environment, 465: 173-195.
Sirin, A. & Laine, J. 2012. Chapter 7: Peatlands and greenhouse gases. Retrieved 21
July, 2012, http://www.wetlands.or.id/PDF/chapter_7-9.pdf
Watanabe, A., Purwanto, B.H., Ando, H., Kakuda, K. & Jong, F.S. 2009. Methane
and CO2 fluxes from an Indonesian peatland used for sago palm (Metroxylon sagu
Rottb.) cultivation: Effects of fertilizer and groundwater level management.
Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment, 134: 14-18.
Widen, B. & Lindroth, A. 2003. A calibration system for soil carbon dioxide-efflux
measurement chambers. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 67: 327-334.
Zulkefli, M., Lim Kim Choo, L.N. & Ismail, A.B. 2010. Soil CO2 flux from tropical
peatland under different land clearing techniques. Journal of Tropical Agriculture
and Food Science, 38: 131-137.
13
Planters’ Experience on Managing Challenges and Limiting Factors
for High Oil Palm Yield on Peat
Pupathy, U.T.1, Andrew Cheng, M.F.1, Kumaran, R.2 and Abdul Razak, I.2
1
Sime Darby Plantation Sdn. Bhd., Regional Office-Sarawak Zone, KM 50, Bintulu-
Miri Road, Rajawali Complex, P.O. Box 673, 97000, Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
2
Sime Darby Research Center, Technology Transfer and Advisory Services, 42900,
Carey Island, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: pupathy.uthrapathy@simedarby.com
INTRODUCTION
Understanding of peat properties in depth is a pre-requisite for overcoming most of the

problems in developing oil palm on peat. Since the 1960’s initial research and
development (R&D) works were carried out by United Plantations Berhad (UPB) and
Department of Agriculture, Sarawak. To date, several limiting factors that have adverse
effects on palm vegetative growth and yield production on peat soils were identified
and efforts were made to ensure oil palm be grown on peat with reasonable degree of
success.
Total peat land in Sime Darby Plantation (Malaysia) is about 6,723 ha. Majority of the
peat soil is located in Sarawak and followed by Peninsular Malaysia with the percentage
of 68.3% and 31.7% respectively. Out of the total peat land, 48.2% of the total area is
classified as shallow peat and 51.8% is classified as moderately deep peat to deep. Yield
realised in Sime Darby estates on deep peat in Sarawak was slightly high/comparable
(mean of 17 year-yield: 16.62 mt/ha/yr) to yields from UPB (mean of 12 year-yield:
11.78 mt/ha/yr) (Gurmit, 1999), MPOB (mean of 15 year-yield: 11.93 mt/ha/yr) (Mohd
Tayeb et al., 2002), and Department of Agriculture, Sarawak (mean of 11 year-yield:
15.16 mt/ha/yr) (Jaman and Kueh, 1996). Yield variation was probably attributed to
nature of peat that varies in genesis. In this review paper, several limiting factors that
have adverse effects on palm vegetative growth and yield production on peat were
discussed from soil, palm, climate, pest and diseases points of view.
METHODOLOGY
Available information based on research as well as practical experiences on growing

oil palm on peat were gathered, categorized and scrutinized from (i) soil, (ii) palm, (iii)
climate and (iv) pest and diseases points of view. Solutions to elevate oil palm yields
were given wherever possible that learnt through research as well as from empirical
knowledge on peat.
ADDRESSING LIMITING FACTORS
Soil limiting factors
(i) Low Soil pH: Generally, peat pH was low, ranging from pH values of 2.9 to 3.2 in
Sime Darby (Bintulu, Sarawak). Peat pH at this level is very acidic which could limit
the palm general growth. In a liming trial by MPOB, lime treatments between 2 kg and
4 kg/palm/year had suppressed cropping to the 4th year of harvesting, possibly due to
Ca/K antagonism.
14
(ii) Low Micronutrient Contents: Deficiencies of Copper (Cu) can cause ‘mid-crown
chlorosis’. Deficiencies of Zinc (Zn) can cause ‘peat yellows’. The main function of
Cu and Zn in oil palm is as enzyme activators. Omission of Cu, Zn and Boron (B) has
caused oil palm yield reduction by 9.9%, 16.5% and 6.7% respectively (Jaman and
Kueh, 1996). Cu and Zn are usually applied at the range of 100 g to 200 g per palm per
year during the first few years of field planting. The optimum leaf Cu concentration in
frond 17 is 5-8 ppm, meanwhile the optimum leaf Zn concentration in frond 17 is 15-
20 ppm. The critical leaf Cu and Zn content of frond 17 is 3 and 12 ppm respectively.
(iii) Low Bulk Density: Generally, bulk density for all peat samples were very low,
ranging from 0.11 to 0.21 g cm-3 but the degree of bulk density is increased with
compaction. An increased bulk density results in an increase of mass per unit volume
of soil that providing better contact with roots. Oil palm yield on compacted plot was
30.57% higher than those in non-compacted plot in the first year of harvesting (MPOB).
However, the effect of compaction on yield was declined with time.
Table 1: Bulk density (g cm-3) in a compaction trial on peat in Lavang Estate in

Sarawak (Pupathy and Chang, 2003)
Bulk density (g cm-3)
Treatment Depth (cm)
0-15 16-30 31-45 Mean
4 runs 0.18 0.13 0.12 0.15
6 runs 0.16 0.14 0.13 0.14
9 runs 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.19
Obs (0 runs) 0.14 0.13 0.11 0.13
Mean 0.17 0.15 0.14 0.15
Palm limiting factors
(i) Leaning Palms: Palm leaning is largely attributed to poor root anchorage as well as
due to peat shrinkage and subsidence. Yield depression up to 30% recorded when palms
suffering from leaning are trying to recover and growing upright again (Lim, 2002).
Palms planted in slanting holes at an angle of 45o from the soil surface along the
planting rows had grown in upright position in four months after field planting (Chang
et al., 2002). The recovery of palms to grow in upright position is mainly attributed to
the effects of positive phototropism. On leaning palms, generally small size bunches
were observed and upper fronds are usually compressed meanwhile some lower fronds
also tend to touch or come into contact with peat soil surface. Fronds in such position
could hinder the harvesting and loose fruit collection activities, thus causing low
harvester productivity.
(ii) Planting Density: Losses of yield due to termite infestation and palm leaning are
possible. This tends to reduce the initial palm stands on peat areas and thus overall
yield. High density of 180 palms per ha is recommended. This is to cater for anticipated
yield loss of stands to termite infestation, Ganoderma infection and palm leaning.
(iii) Palm Canopy and Etiolation: Palm canopy will be disturbed when palms are
leaning, probably at the beginning of third year of field planting. Palms that suffer from
leaning tend to have poor anchorage and end up in leaning in different directions.
15
Eventually, this situation will lead to inter-palm competition for light and nutrients.
Palm leaning is high in deep peat as compared to shallow peat.
Climatic limiting factor
(i) High Rainfall Quantum: Rainfall in Sarawak is generally high. Nutrient losses due
to leaching and surface runoff could be higher for peat soils as the total annual rainfall
in Sarawak is ranges from 3500-4000 mm. Loss of nutrient especially potassium, K is
high in peat soil which is porous in nature with poor nutrient retention capacity. Higher
dosage of K nutrient (up to 4 kg MOP/palm/year) is recommended to apply to the newly
matured palms on peat areas. During the periods of drought, water must be maintained
to prevent ‘irreversible drying’ of peat soils. During rainy season, a greater water flow
is expected and therefore excessive water should be drained. Water level between 50 to
75 cm from the peat surface should be maintained. It is also very important to keep the
optimum height of water table to avoid any fire risk.
Pest and diseases limiting factor
(i) Termite Infestation: Termite (Coptotermes curvignathus) infestation is a major

pest problem. Tradewinds Plantations has reported 8-9% of termite infestation with
about 2-3 % dead palms in three year old plantings (Lim, 2001). Visual inspection on
each infested palm should be carried out to identify degree of infestation (Table 2). In
Sime Darby, drenching with fipronil is recommended to apply at the rate of 5 litre of
spray solution per palm. Solution will be sprayed with proportion of 1 litre on spear of
infested palm and 4 litres on palm base (Figure 1). The applied solution will ensure
colony that goes in and out will carry the chemical to the nest and eventually keep away
termites.
Table 2: Description and stages of termite infestation

Stage Symptoms Description
Fresh mud tunnels can be
Upper fronds/region still
Initial seen on inflorescences,
green
spear and frond base
2/3 fronds in upper region
Mud tunnels in dark
Intermediate start to turn yellowish
colour
brown
The spear becomes rotten Fronds start to desiccate.
Advanced
and gradually collapses palm in total damage
16
Figure 1: Termite infestation on oil palm
CONCLUSION
Oil palm yield on peat could be comparable to those obtained on good mineral soils,
provided that soil pH, bulk density and availability of micronutrients are improved.
Palms planted at higher density would compensate the losses due to palm leaning and
termite infestation. Minimising leaching of nutrients, specially K fertilizers,
maintaining water level at 50 to 75 cm from peat surface and detecting and treating
termite are among the other key aspects to achieve high yield in peat planting.
REFERENCES
Chang, A.K., Mohd Hashim, T., Abdul Rahman, S, Kumaran, R. and Pupathy,
U.T. 2002. Addressing the basic issues in developing oil palms ion young, deep peat
in Sarawak. In: Plantation Management: Back to Basics, The Incorporated Society
of Planters, Kuala Lumpur. pp 91-101.
Gurmit, S. 1999. Agronomic management of peat soil for sustainable oil palm
production. Seminar on various aspect for large scale oil palm cultivation on peat
soil. 23 October 1999, ISP, Sibu, Sarawak, Malaysia
Jaman, O. and Kueh, H.S. 1996. Oil palm research and development on peat soil in
sarawak, Agricultural Department, Sarawak. In Proceedings of 1996 Seminar on
Prospects of Oil Palm Planting on Peat in Sarawak- The Golden Opportunity’ 18-19
March 1996, Sibu, Sarawak.
Lim, K.H. 2002. R&D Focus: Oil palm planting on deep peat in Sarawak. In:
Proceedings of MPOA Seminar. 2002. R&D for competitive edge in the Malaysian
oil palm industry. 19-20 March 2002, Bangi, Selangor.
Mohd Tayeb, D., Jusoh, L., Hasnol, O. and Tarmizi, M.A. 2002. High oil palm
planting density on peat. In: Proceedings of MPOB Transfer of Technology Seminar
2002. 6-7 May 2002, Bangi, Selangor.
Pupathy, U.T. and Chang, A.K. 2003. A review of practices in developing of oil palm
on peat. In: Soil Tour 2003, Bintulu-Miri area, MSSS- PARAM Soil Survey,
December 2003.
17
The Effects of Cacao Pod Husk Biochar and Watering Frequencies on
Cacao Seedling Growth
Andi, B., Safuan, L.O., Kilowasid, L.M.H., Arsana, M.W. and Fahimu, M.Y.
Agrotechnology Department, Agricultural Faculty, Halu Oleo University Jl. HEA.
Mokodompit Kampus Hijau Bumi Tridharma Anduonuhu Kendari, Sulawesi Tenggara
93232, Indonesia
E-mail: andibahrun@yahoo.co.id
INTRODUCTION
Cacao (Theobroma cacao L) seedlings require a significant amount of nutrient and

water for their proper growth and development. It has been reported that being essential
in growth and development of plants, a specific amount of water is needed for optimum
growth. Biochar has been proposed as a beneficial amendment concerning various
agricultural and environmental aspects such as increasing soil fertility, retaining water
in the soil and enhancing plant growth (Zimmerman, 2010). Biochar application
improves nutrient availability and water holding capacity for supporting plant growth
(Kamara et al., 2015; Sutono and Nurida, 2012). This indicates that biochar applied into
the growing soil medium may decrease water irrigation for cacao seedlings during dry
season and may, therefore, increase water use efficiency.
Thus, cocoa pod husk (CPH) biochar has the potential to be used as a material for
improving growth and water use efficiency of cacao seedlings. The aim of this study
was to investigate the effects of CPH biochar and watering frequencies (WF) on growth
and water use efficiency of cacao seedlings.
A polybag experiment was conducted in the Glass house of Agricultural Faculty, Halu
Oleo University, Kendari, Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia. The experiment was arranged
as a factorial randomized block design with seven levels of cacao pod husk (CPH)
biochar (i.e. without biochar (B0), 15 g/polybag (B1), 30 g/polybag (B2), 45 g/polybag
(B3), 60 g/polybag (B4), 75 g/polybag (B5) and 90 g/polybag (B6)) and three levels of
watering frequencies (i.e. every two days (V0), every four days (V1), and every six
days (V2)) in three replications.
Cacao seedlings were raised on germination media for 14 days and each seedling was
then transplanted into a polybag which had been filled with seedling media of 5 kg dry
soil mixed with a treatment-based rate of biochar from cacao pod husks (0.5 mm
particle size) at a planting space of 20 x 20 cm. The amount of water applied was 200
mL per plant for three months under glasshouse conditions with a frequency depending
on the given treatment. Seedling growth and soil moisture were monitored for three
consecutive months. The data collected included: seedling height, number of leaves,
leaf area, root dry weight, shoot dry weight, and water use efficiency. The soil moisture
was monitored with a soil moisture meter (model: PMS-714) at a depth of 12 cm below
the surface. The WUE was determined by using the formula: WUE= shoot dry weight
(g)/total water use (L) (Bahrun et al., 2012). Data were analyzed by using ANOVA
followed by Duncan’s multiple range test at an error rate of 5% (p<0.05).
18
As shown in Figure 1, biochar from cacao pod husk (CPH) and watering frequencies
(WF) significantly influenced soil moisture. Soil moisture increased with an increase
in CPH biochar rate at different WF. The rate of CPH biochar application determined
soil moisture at all WF treatments. Our results showed that CPH biochar maintained
soil moisture even at every six days of WF. This indicates that CPH biochar could retain
moisture and minimize WF, therefore, less watering was required for cacao seedling
growth. The application of biochar improves soil structure (Glaser et al., 2002) and
improves the soil’s ability to retain moisture (Karhu et al., 2011; Laird et al., 2010).
The significant increase in soil moisture for the CPH biochar treatments was in
conformity with the findings that biochar from CPH increases pore aeration and water
availability (Sutona and Nurida, 2010).
25.00
Soil moisture (%)
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
B0V0
B2V2
B5V1
B0V1
B0V2
B1V0
B1V1
B1V2
B2V0
B2V1
B3V0
B3V1
B3V2
B4V0
B4V1
B4V2
B5V0
B5V2
B6V0
B6V1
B6V2
CPH Biochar rates and watering frequencies (WF)
Figure 1: Effects of cacao pod husk (CPH) biochar rates and watering frequencies on
soil moisture
Cacao seedlings grown on soils treated with 30 g of CPH biochar and every four days
of watering frequency were higher in dry root weight but insignificantly different from
those treated with 15 g of CPH biochar and every four and six days of WF and other
rates of CPH biochar at different WF (Figure 2c). This indicates that small amount of
CPH biochar improved root growth due to the capacity of CPH biochar in increasing
water holding capacity. The CPH biochar rates exceeding 30 g/polybag significantly
decreased root dry weight due to high soil moisture (Figure 1). This means that CPH
biochar greatly influences root growth and root growth may be influenced by soil water
conditions. Root development is largely influenced by the soil moisture. This supports
the previous findings that soil water content was a crucial component that influenced
root growth (Hossne et al., 2015), with possible affects on leaf growth and cacao
seedling growth as a whole.
As shown in Figure 2, CPH biochar and WF significantly affected seedling height,

number of leaves, leaf area, root dry weight and shoot dry weight. Cacao seedlings
grown on soils treated with 45 g of CPH biochar and every four days of WF were higher
in plant height, number of leaves, leaf area and dry shoot weight, but insignificantly
different from cacao seedlings grown on soils without CPH biochar with every two
days of WF and 45 g of CPH biochar with every six days of WF. This clearly indicates
that adding CPH biochar can significantly affect cacao seedling growth and reduce WF.
It means that CPH biochar increased both cacao seedlings biomass and water use
efficiency (Figure 2 and 3). The application of 45 g of CPH biochar/polybag increased
19
seedling height, number of leaves, leaf area, and shoot dry weight by 20.99%, 26.62%,
75.63% and 78.36%, respectively, compared with without CPH biochar as a control.
Similar results were reported by Major et al. (2010) that biochar significantly increased
plant biomass. Our results also show similar trends established in different studies
involving application of biochar in increasing WUE. The greatest WUE (1.63 g L-1)
was found in the soils treated with 60 g of CPH biochar and every six days of WF and
the lowest was found in the soils without CPH biochar (0.45 L-1) application. Such a
high WUE found in the former treatment was, however, not significantly different from
cacao seedlings treated with 45 g of CPH biochar and every six days of WF. Cacao
seedlings treated with 45 g and 60g of CPH biochar and every six days of WF increased
WUE by 208.8% and 262.22%, respectively, compared to no biochar application. On
the other hand, as CPH biochar rates exceeded 60 g, the WUE tended to decrease at
different WF. This study showed that biochar was effective in increasing the WUE of
cacao seedlings, however, the rates of biochar application should be considered.
(a) (b 60.00
40.00
Seedling height (cm)
Leaf area (cm 2)

45.00
30.00
20.00 30.00
10.00 15.00
0.00 0.00
B0V0
B0V2
B1V1
B2V0
B2V2
B3V1
B4V0
B4V2
B5V1
B6V0
B6V2
B0V0
B0V2
B1V1
B2V0
B2V2
B3V1
B4V0
B4V2
B5V1
B6V0
B6V2
CPH biochar rates and WF CPH biochar rates & WF
(c) 4.00 (d) 15.00
Shoot dry weight (g)
Root dry weight (g)
12.00
3.00
9.00
2.00
6.00
1.00
3.00
0.00 0.00
B0V0
B0V2
B1V1
B2V0
B2V2
B3V1
B4V0
B4V2
B5V1
B6V0
B6V2
B0V0
B0V2
B1V1
B2V0
B2V2
B3V1
B4V0
B4V2
B5V1
B6V0
B6V2
CPH biochar rates & WF CPH biochar rates & WF
Figure 2: Effects of CPH biochar rates and watering frequencies on (a) seedling height
(b) leaf area, (c) root dry weight and (d) shoot dry weight
20
2.50
Water use efficiency (g L -1)

2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
B0V0
B1V2
B0V1
B0V2
B1V0
B1V1
B2V0
B2V1
B2V2
B3V0
B3V1
B3V2
B4V0
B4V1
B4V2
B5V0
B5V1
B5V2
B6V0
B6V1
B6V2
CPH biochar rates & WF
Figure 3: Effects of pod cacao husk (CPH) biochar rates and watering frequencies on
soil moisture
In general, the results also showed that the biochar treatment exceeding 45 g/polybag
significantly decreased seedling growth. However, such a decrease in cacao seedling
growth rate also depended on WF. Interestingly, mean cacao seedling growth of 75 g
and 90 g of CPH biochar for every six days of WF was higher than those grown on soils
treated with CPH biochar and every two days of WF. This is presumably a consequence
of the big changes in soil moisture (Figure 1). The decrease in seedling growth may be
due to great changes in soil bulk density, restricted aeration or higher soil moisture at a
rate of 90 g biochar/polybag compared to without biochar and the other treatments
(Figure 1). This indicates that roots were exposed to limited oxygen and high water
content conditions. Schumacher and Smucker (1984) reported that root development
may be damaged by the lack of oxygen content in compacted soils.
CONCLUSION
The results showed that CPH biochar and watering frequency significantly influenced
soil moisture. The amount of CPH biochar amendment influences the need for watering
and cacao seedling growth rate. CPH biochar improved cacao seedling growth and
reduced the need for watering. The application of 45 g of CPH biochar/polybag
increased seedling height, number of leaves, leaf area and shoot dry weight by 20.99%,
26.62%, 75.63% and 78.36%, respectively, and increased water use efficiency by
208.8% compared to without CPH biochar application. The results indicated that CPH
biochar has the potential to improve soil water conditions, cacao seedling growth and
to reduce water frequency.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is a part of the data research funded by the Ministry of Research, Technology
and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia in 2016. We would like to express
our gratitude and appreciation to the Ministry for providing the grant for this work.
REFERENCES
Bahrun, A., Hasid, R., Muhidin. & Erawan, D. 2012. The effect of partial root zone
irrigation on water efficiency and yield of soybean (Glycine max L.) during dry
season. J. Agron. Indonesia. 40(1): 36-41.
21
Glaser, B., J. Lehmann, & W. Zech. 2002. Ameliorating physical and chemical
properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal: A review. Biol.
Fertil. Soils. 35:219-230.
Hossne, G.A., Mendez, J., Trujillo, M. & Parra, F. 2015. Soil irrigation frequencies,
compaction, air porosity and shear stress effects on soybean root development. Acta
Universitaria, 25(1):22-30.
Kamara, A., Kamara,H.S. & Kamara, M.S. 2015. Effect of rice straw biochar on soil
quality and the early growth and biomass yield of two rice varieties. Agric. Sci.,
6:798-806. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/as.2015.68077.
Karhu K., Mattila T., Bergstrom, & Regina K. 2011. Biochar addition to agricultural
soil increased CH4 uptake and water holding capacity – Results from a short-term
pilot field study. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 140:309-313.
Laird D.A., Fleming P., Davis D.D., Horton R., Wang B. & Karlen D.L. 2010.
Impact of biochar amendments on the quality of a typical Midwestern agricultural
soil. Geoderma, 158:443–449.
Major, J., Rondon, M., Molina, D., Riha, S.J. & Lehmann, J. 2010. Maize yield and
nutrition after 4 years of doing biochar application to a Colombian savanna Oxisol.
Plant and Soil, 333:117–128.
Schumacher, T. E. & Smucker, A. J. M. 1984. Effect of soil compaction on root
growth and uptake of phosphorus. Plant and Soil, 77: 15-28.
Sutono, S. & Nurida, N.L. 2012.The water holding capacity of biochar in sandy soil
fraction. Jurnal Penelitian Ilmu-Ilmu Kealaman: Buana Sains. Tribhuana Press.Vol
12: No. 1. Hal: 45–52.
Zimmerman, A.R. 2010. Abiotic and microbial axidation on laboratory-produced
black carbon (biochar). Environ. Sci. Technol. 44: 1295–1301.
22
Impact of Sole and Combined Amendment of Rice-Husk Ash on Soil
CO2 Efflux and Agronomic Parameters of Wheat Crop in Dry Tropics
Singh, R.1, Afreen, T.2, Singh, P.3, Srivastava, P.2, Singh, H.2 and Raghubanshi, A.S.1
1
Institute of Environment & Sustainable Development (IESD), Banaras Hindu
University, Varanasi-221005, India
2
Ecosystems Analysis Laboratory, Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras
Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, India
3
Department of Environmental Studies, PGDAV College, Nehru Nagar, University of
Delhi, New Delhi- 110065, India
E-mail: rishikesh.iesd@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Surplus crop residue and husk biomass are generated worldwide which are of greater
concern for proper management. In Asian countries, rice-wheat cropping system is most
prevailing agriculture system which contributes about 30% of the total lignocellulosic
waste generation (Lal, 2008). These wastes are considered as a potential source of
bioenergy production via bio-chemical and thermo-chemical degradation processes
(Singh et al., 2015a). However, short time difference between two crops and difficulty
to carry and manage for long duration, the farmers used to burn these residues on field
which results into several environmental problems (Jain et al., 2006). Moreover, the
husk removed after the processing of the waste is also of potential importance. The
husks are generally composed of high lignin content and dominated by potential
minerals like silica and other macronutrients. The husks are generally used for various
local applications mainly as energy source. The energy from these husks is generated
either through combustion or by pyrolysing in closed containers. In addition to its
higher energy value, the husk after partial pyrolysis can be a good source of soil
nutrients, and thus, can be used as a potential soil ameliorant (Lu et al., 2014;
Abrishamkesh et al., 2015; Gamage et al., 2016; Prativi et al., 2016). These studies
suggest the potential benefits of rice husk biochar for various agronomic and soil
parameters.
However, most of the studies conducted on rice-husk biochar application to soil are
either limited to incubation or pot studies only. Moreover, the impact of biochar
application on soil respiration and other soil parameters as well as agronomic
parameters of some important cereal crops at plot-scale is limited. Limited research is
available on the application of biochar application on plot- or field-scale studies.
Moreover, its integration with some other organic and inorganic fertilisers could be of
greater importance for soil amelioration and carbon sequestration (Singh et al., 2015b).
Therefore, in the present study performed at plot scale, we observed the effect of rice-
husk ash as sole and in combination with farmyard manure (FYM) and recommended
dose of inorganic fertilizers on soil (soil respiration and biophysical properties) and
agronomic parameters of wheat crop. We hypothesized that biochar application as sole
and combined form will affect the studied soil and agronomic parameters of wheat crop.
23
Rice-husk ash (biochar) was taken from a local power plant, where it was a by-product
after energy production at 500-550 oC. It was characterized for various physico-
chemical properties and some structural components like FTIR, SEM and CHN
analyses (data not presented here). The soil considered in the study was a typical ultisol
with a silty-loam texture. Total seven treatments viz., control (RC), sole inorganic (RI),
sole organic (RO), sole biochar (RB), biochar + inorganic (RIB), biochar + organic
(ROB), and biochar + inorganic + organic (ROIB), showing a combinations of biochar,
FYM and inorganic fertilizers were taken in a plot size of 2×1 m. The biochar and FYM
were applied at the rate of 5 t ha-1 for sole, and 2.5 t ha-1 for combined amendments
during the study period, which signify a moderate dose of application under tropical
soils. Inorganic fertilisers were used as per the local application rate by farmers of the
region as 100:50:50 ratios for NPK using urea, single superphosphate and muriate of
potash, respectively. The experiment was conducted in triplicate for all the treatment
combinations distributed in completely randomized block design.
Soil CO2 efflux, soil moisture and soil temperature were measured throughout the wheat
crop cycle at different growth stages by using a portable photosynthetic system LICOR-
6400XT (based on an Infra-Red Gas Analysis sensor) and related attachments of soil
moisture and temperature by following Srivastava et al. (2016). Soil microbial biomass
(C and N) was measured by following Chloroform fumigation-extraction method
(Vance et al., 1987). Soil pH was measured by taking soil and double distilled water in
1:2:5 ratio. Agronomic parameters such as tiller number, effective tiller number, tiller
and panicle length, grain and straw yield were also measured. Harvest index was
calculated based on the grain and straw yield ratio.
All the statistical analyses were performed using SPSS (Ver. 16) and MS Excel 2010
software and graphs were made by using Sigma Plot (Ver. 11) and MS Excel 2010
software.
Various soil and agronomic parameters are presented in figures 1 to 6. Soil CO2 efflux
varies significantly across different treatment combinations and it followed the trend
as: RO > ROB > RIB > RB > RC > ROIB > RI (Figure 1). However, soil moisture and
temperature showed non-significant variations across different treatment combinations
and varied from 15-40% and 21-40oC throughout the crop cycle. The higher soil CO2
efflux under organic and biochar treatment can be attributed to the improved microbial
growth under these treatments. Whereas lower soil CO2 efflux under inorganic and
control treatments revealed the low microbial activities under these treatments which
also support the consensus that inorganic fertilization lead to degradation in soil
microbial health. Soil CO2 efflux varied with the crop growth stages and showed a trend
as: Stem elongation > Heading > Booting > One shoot stage = Ripening = Harvesting
(Figure 2). The same trend was observed for soil moisture whereas a continuous
increase was observed for the soil temperature due to the seasonal variations. Further,
the effect of treatment combinations were also observed on various growth stages and
an initial increase in soil CO2 efflux was observed whereas it decreased later with the
maturity of crop. These observations revealed that the organic treatments (FYM and
biochar) have consistent effect over soil microbial activities whereas inorganic
24
fertilizers have occasional or temporary effect over microbial communities. It can also
be observed by the trend of microbial biomass and soil pH (Figure 3). Soil microbial
biomass (C and N) showed the trend as: ROB > RO > ROIB > RI > RIB > RC > RB
for MBC; ROIB > RO > RIB = ROB > RB > RI > RC for MBN; ROB > RO = RI > RC
> ROIB > RIB = RB for MBC/MBN ratio (Figure 3). This clearly depicts that the
combined application of biochar either with organic or inorganic fertilizers could be
beneficial for microbial sequestration of carbon and nitrogen and improved soil
viability. Soil pH showed the trend as: RB > ROB > RIB > RO > ROIB > RC > RI
(Figure 3) which depicts that biochar application to soil alters soil pH which may have
potential effect over soil microbial communities and their activities. Moreover, the
overall trend showed that combined application of biochar has more beneficial effects
over different soil properties than its sole application. Further, soil moisture and
temperature are observed as the key drivers of soil CO2 efflux. In the present study, we
observed that soil moisture positively affect the soil CO2 efflux whereas a quadratic
relationship was observed for soil temperature showing initial increase while later
decrease in soil CO2 efflux with the increase in soil temperature (Figure 4). It is
consistent with the general trend proposed by most of the studies on soil CO2 efflux
(Srivastava et al., 2015, 2016; Singh et al., 2017). Various agronomic parameters were
observed which showed, in general, a non-significant effect of various treatment
combinations. However, the trend observed were: RI > ROIB > RIB = ROB > RO >
RC = RB for number of tillers; ROB > RO > RIB = RI = RC > ROIB = RB for number
of effective tillers; RI > ROIB > RIB > RO > RC = RB > ROB for panicle length; and
RI > RIB > ROIB = RO > RC > RB > ROB for tiller length (Figure 5). This shows that
inorganic applications improved the agronomic parameters whereas sole biochar has
limited impact on agronomic parameters. Therefore, combined application of biochar
with inorganic fertilizers and FYM can be a viable option to improve the agronomic
parameters. Further, grain and straw yield, and harvest index were observed under
different treatment combinations which showed the trend as: RI > ROB > ROIB = RO
> RIB > RB = RC for grain yield; RI > ROIB > RIB > ROB = RO > RC > RB for straw
yield; and ROB > RO = RB > RC > RIB = RI = ROIB for harvest index. In general, an
increase in grain and straw yield is observed under inorganic treatments followed by
FYM applied treatment whereas minimum yield is observed for biochar applied
treatments. This further supports the consensus that the sole application of biochar and
even organic fertilizer may initially lead to a yield penalty. However, harvest index is
regarded as the best indicator of agronomic benefits which revealed the viability and
sustainability of the agriculture systems. In the present study, we observed that the sole
organic and biochar treatments showed greater harvest index followed by combined
application whereas lower values were observed under inorganic treatments.
25
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
26
(f)
(e)
Figure 1: (a) Cumulative soil CO2 efflux, soil moisture and temperature across different treatment combinations; (b) Soil CO2 efflux, soil moisture
and temperature for different growth stages of wheat crop across different treatment combinations; (c) Soil microbial biomass and soil pH across
different treatment combinations; (d) Interrelationships between soil CO2 efflux with soil moisture and soil temperature; (e) Different agronomic
parameters of wheat crop across different treatment combinations; and (f) Grain yield, straw yield and harvest index of wheat crop across different
treatment combinations
CONCLUSION
The findings of the present study suggest that the sole and combined organic (biochar
and FYM) amendment increased the soil CO2 efflux which may seem as a limitation to
their recommendation. However, overall evaluation of soil bio-physical properties
revealed that the biochar as sole and in combination with organic as well as inorganic
fertilizers can be a viable option for the improvement of soil health and fertility as it
improved the soil microbial biomass and pH. Agronomic parameters were observed
higher under inorganic treatments followed by organic, combined and sole biochar
treatments. This revealed the importance of inorganic fertilization for minimizing the
yield penalty at the earlier phases of application of biochar and organic fertilizers.
Moreover, higher harvest index values under organic and biochar applied treatments
suggest that the sequential decrease in the use of inorganic fertilisers by replacing with
the biochar and FYM can be a viable option for agricultural sustainability. Moreover,
higher soil parameters and harvest index under biochar and organic manure applied
systems revealed the improved below-ground nutrient allocation under these treatments
as compared to sole inorganic treatments showing higher above-ground effects.
Overall, the application of rice-husk ash (biochar) in combination with organic and
inorganic fertilisers can be a sustainable approach for soil health and fertility
management.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors gratefully acknowledge Emeritus Prof. J.S. Singh, Department of Botany,

Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, for his valuable suggestions
and discussions for synthesizing this paper. Authors also acknowledge the University
Grants Commission (UGC) and Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),
New Delhi, India for providing financial assistance for carrying out this research.
Rishikesh Singh also acknowledges the financial assistance from the secretariat of
SOILS2017 for attending and presenting this work to the Conference. Authors are very
much thankful to anonymous reviewers and editorial team for considering and
improving the paper.
REFERENCES
Abrishamkesh, S., Gorji, M., Asadi, H., Bagheri-Marandi, G.H. & Pourbabaee,
A.A. 2015. Effects of rice husk biochar application on the properties of alkaline soil
and lentil growth. Plant Soil and Environment, 61: 475–482.
Gamage, D.N.V., Mapa, R.B., Dharmakeerthi, R.S. & Biswas, A. 2016. Effect of
rice-husk biochar on selected soil properties in tropical Alfisols. Soil Res, 54: 302-
310.
Jain, A.K., Tao, Z., Yang, X. & Conor, G. 2006. Estimates of global biomass burning
emissions for reactive greenhouse gases (CO, NMHCs, and NOx) and CO2. J.
Geophys. Res., 111: 1–12.
Lal, R. 2008. Crop residues as soil amendments and feedstock for bioethanol
production. Waste Manage., 28: 747–758.
Lu, S.G., Sun, F.F. & Zong, Y.T. 2014. Effect of rice husk biochar and coal fly ash
on some physical properties of expansive clayey soil (Vertisol). Catena, 114: 37–
44.
27
Nguyen, D.H., Scheer, C., Rowlings, D.W., Grace, P.R. 2016. Rice husk biochar and
crop residue amendment in subtropical cropping soils: effect on biomass production,
nitrogen use efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions. Biology and Fertility of Soils,
52: 261–270.
Pratiwi, E.P.A., Hillary, A.K., Fukuda, T. & Shinogi, Y. 2016. The effects of rice
husk char on ammonium, nitrate and phosphate retention and leaching in loamy soil.
Geoderma, 277: 61–68.
Singh, R., Babu, J. N., Kumar, R., Srivastava, P., Singh, P. & Raghubanshi, A.S.
2015a. Multifaceted application of crop residue biochar as a tool for sustainable
agriculture: An ecological perspective. J. Ecol. Eng., 77: 324–347.
Singh, R., Srivastava, P., Upadhyay, S., Singh, P., Raghubanshi, A.S. & Babu, J.N.
2015b. Integrating biochar as conservation agriculture tool under climate change
mitigation scenario. In Proceedings of National Conference on Climate Change:
Impacts, Adaptation, Mitigation Scenario and Future Challenges in Indian
Perspective.
Srivastava, P., Singh, R., Bhadouria, R., Tripathi, S., Singh, P., Singh, H. &
Raghubanshi, A.S. 2016. Organic amendment impact on SOC dynamics in dry
tropics: A possible role of relative availability of inorganic N-pools. Agric. Ecosyst.
Environ., 235: 38–50.
Vance, E.D., Brookes, P.S. & Jenkinson, D.S. 1987. An extraction method for
measuring soil microbial biomass C. Soil Biol. Biochem., 19: 703–707.
28
Economic Viability of Including Cliptilolite Zeolite Rice Straw and
Paddy Husk Composts in Zea mays L. Cultivation
Latifah, O.1, Ahmed, O.H.1,2,3, Ali, M.1 and Majid, N.M.A.3
1 Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Universiti
Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus, 97008 Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
2 Borneo Ecosystem Science Research Centre, Faculty of Agriculture and Food
Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus, 97008 Bintulu,
Sarawak, Malaysia
3 Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Product, Univerisit Putra Malaysia, 43400
Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: latifah.omar@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
Economic viability occurs when farm income is maximized from proper use of
fertilizers, but it is not easily achieved because future yield increases, fertilizers costs,
and crop prices are not known before the Zea mays L. growing season (Tilman et al.,
2002). Fertilizers lost to the environment are only a concern when applied at rates above
plant need. Nutrients not used by plants are at the risk of loss to the environment, but
the susceptibility of loss varies with nutrients availability, soil, and climatic conditions
(Tilman et al., 2002). Although perspectives vary, fertilizers use efficiency is the basis
for economic viability. As fertilizers use efficiency improves, so is economic viability.
The combined use of inorganic fertilizers, clinoptilolite zeolite, rice straw, and paddy
husk composts improve soil nutrients availability via temporary retention of soil
exchangeable cations on the exchange sites of clinoptilolite zeolite and humic
substances of composts (Latifah et al., 2017) thus improving soil productivity and yield
of crops. The objective of this study was to assess economic viability of using standard
fertilizers compared with combination of different levels of inorganic fertilizers, rice
straw, and paddy husk composts amended with clinoptilolite zeolite in Zea mays L.
cultivation.
A field study was carried out for two planting cycles of Zea mays L. at the Share Farm
of Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus, Malaysia. Zea mays L. of Thai
Super Sweet hybrid F1 variety was used as the test crop. The experimental plots were
arranged in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three blocks
(replications). Clinoptilolite zeolite and different rates of rice straw and paddy husk
composts were applied prior to the planting of Zea mays L. in the first planting cycle
only. The inorganic fertilizers (equal amount) were applied twice that is, 10 and 28 days
after planting in both of the first and second planting cycles on Zea mays L. Economic
assessment of this study was based on Sweet Corn Planting Cash Flow Guide by
Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry Malaysia
(Department of Agriculture, 2009). The gross revenue of Zea mays L. production was
calculated based on current price of Zea mays L. which is USD 162.30 t ha-1 multiplied
by yield of fresh Zea mays L. cobs (t ha-1). The net benefit and benefit-cost ratio (BCR)
for the treatments were calculated to estimate the net profit and economic viability of
using standard fertilization (inorganic fertilizers only) compared with combined use of
inorganic fertilizers, clinoptilolite zeolite, rice straw, and paddy husk composts in Zea
29
mays L. cultivation. The calculations adopted in this economic assessment were as
follows:
Net revenue = Total return – total cost
Benefit-cost ratio = Total return / total cost
Irrespective of planting cycle, plots with combined use of inorganic fertilizers,

clinoptilolite zeolite, rice straw, and paddy husk compost (U3Z, RU2C2Z, RU1C3Z,
PU2C2Z, and PU1C3Z) increased yield of Zea mays L. fresh cobs compared with
standard fertilization (U3) (Figure 1).
20 a a
18 a a a a' a' a'
Cobs yield (t ha-1)
16 b'
14 b'
12 b c'
10 c
8
6
4 d'
2
0
T0
U3Z
RU2C2Z
RU1C3Z
T0
U3Z
RU2C2Z
RU1C3Z
U3
U3
PU2C2Z
PU1C3Z
PU2C2Z
PU1C3Z
First cycle Treatments Second cycle
Figure 1: Effect of different fertilization practices on Zea mays L. fresh cobs yield at
seventy two days after planting for first and second cycles. Means with same letter are
not significantly different by Tukey’s test at p≤0.05. Letters without prime represents
first cycle and single prime superscript represents second planting cycle. Bar
represents the mean values ± standard error
Combined use of inorganic fertilizers, clinoptilolite zeolite, rice straw, and paddy husk
composts (U3Z, RU2C2Z, RU1C3Z, PU2C2Z, and PU1C3Z) showed higher gross
revenue compared with standard fertilization (U3) irrespective of planting cycle (Table
1). In the first planting cycle, the standard fertilization amended with 5 t ha-1
clinoptilolite zeolite (U3Z) gave the highest net revenue of USD 719.69 followed by
USD 518.03 in the reduction of 25% of standard fertilization, substituted with 10 t ha-1
paddy husk compost, and amended with 5 t ha-1 clinoptilolite zeolite (PU2C2Z) (Table
1). The yield of Zea mays L. for the PU2C2Z treatment in the second planting cycle
increased two folds (compared with the first planting cycle) with a BCR of 2.11
indicates that for every USD 1 spent, USD 1.11 was gained in return for reducing
standard fertilizers by 25%, but substituting it with 10 t ha-1 paddy husk compost, and
amended with 5 t ha-1 clinoptilolite zeolite (PU2C2Z).
The lowest net revenue (USD 54.07) was recorded in the reduction of 50% of standard
fertilization but substituted with 15 t ha-1 rice straw compost, and amended with 5 t ha-
1
clinoptilolite zeolite (RU1C3Z) in the first planting cycle of Zea mays L. indicates
that the use of 15 t ha-1 of rice straw compost in the first planting cycle did not offer an
30
economic benefit although the maize yield was significantly higher in RU1C3Z
compared with standard fertilization (U3) (Figure 1). However, in the second planting
cycle, the net revenue of RU1C3Z increased (USD 931.11) compared with U3 (USD
123.89), suggesting that the reduction of 50% of standard fertilization but substituted
with 15 t ha-1 rice straw compost, and amended with 5 t ha-1 clinoptilolite zeolite had
effect on net revenue and benefit-cost ratio (1.78 > 1.08). This indicates that for long
term, combined use of organic amendment and inorganic fertilizers is a profitable
investment. This finding also explains why incorporation of organic inputs with
inorganic fertilizers gave higher net revenues than the standard recommended fertilizer
(0.13 urea t ha-1).
The use of organic inputs or their combination with inorganic fertilizers could form a
major complement to replenish nutrient deficiencies and ensuring high crop yields.
Owing to the higher net revenue associated with the combined use of inorganic
fertilizers, clinoptilolite zeolite, rice straw, and paddy husk composts (U3Z, RU2C2Z,
RU1C3Z, PU2C2Z, and PU1C3Z) treatments compared with standard fertilization
(U3), the selection of these fertilization practices can be made based on the total
production costs, net revenue, and preservation of the environmental quality (water, air,
and soil). According to Aguilera et al. (2012), combined use of the inorganic and
organic inputs could be an efficient way to ensure yield productivity. The lower total
production costs associated with the standard fertilization (U3) treatment was because
these fertilizers were applied during the vegetative growth to meet crop requirements,
thus, the application need to be repeated for every cropping season. In contrast,
clinoptilolite zeolite, rice straw, and paddy husk composts treatments (U3Z, RU2C2Z,
RU1C3Z, PU2C2Z, and PU1C3Z) were applied before planting and this practice
sustained the productivity of Zea mays L., hence the significant increase in return on
investment compared with standard fertilization (U3).
Table 1: Summary of economic assessment on total return and total production costs
in maize cultivation (first and second planting cycles of Zea mays L. cultivation)
Trts. GR TC MC TPC NR BCR
First planting cycle

U3 1,715.51 1,427.73 71.38 1,499.11 216.40 1.14
U3Z 2,596.80 1,787.73 89.38 1,877.11 719.69 1.38
RU2C2Z 2,621.14 2,261.10 113.05 2,374.15 246.99 1.10
RU1C3Z 2,661.72 2,483.48 124.17 2,607.65 54.07 1.02
PU2C2Z 2,892.18 2,261.10 113.05 2,374.15 518.03 1.21
PU1C3Z 2,824.20 2,483.48 124.17 2,607.65 216.55 1.08
Second planting cycle
U3 1,623.00 1,427.73 71.38 1,499.11 123.89 1.08
U3Z 2,377.69 1,187.73 59.38 1,247.11 1,130.58 1.90
RU2C2Z 2,527.01 1,161.10 58.05 1,219.15 1,307.86 2.07
RU1C3Z 2,121.26 1,133.48 56.67 1,190.15 931.11 1.78
PU2C2Z 2,580.27 1,161.10 58.05 1,219.15 1,361.12 2.11
PU1C3Z 2,053.09 1,133.48 56.67 1,190.15 862.94 1.72
Note: *Trts is treatments associated with standard recommendation (U3), standard recommendation
amended with clinoptilolite zeolite (U3Z), inorganic fertilizers, clinoptilolite zeolite, and rice straw
compost (RU2C2Z and RU1C3Z), and paddy husk compost (PU2C2Z and PU1C3Z). GR is Gross
Revenue, TC is Total Cost, MC is Miscellaneous Cost, TPC is Total Production Cost, NR is Net Revenue,
BCR is Benefit Cost Ratio
31
CONCLUSION
Yield of Zea mays L. fresh cobs and total net revenue were higher with the combined
use of inorganic fertilizers, rice straw, and paddy husk composts practice compared
with the existing fertilization practice in the second planting cycle of Zea mays L.
Combining clinoptilolite zeolite, rice straw, and paddy husk composts is economically
viable in maize cultivation on an acid soil.
REFERENCES
Aguilera, J., Motavalli, P.P., Gonzales, M.A. and Valdivia, C. 2012. Initial and
Residual Effects of Organic and Inorganic Amendments on Soil Properties in a
Potato-Based Cropping System in the Bolivian Andean Highlands. America Journal
of Experimental Agriculture. 2(4): 641-666.
Department of Agriculture. 2009. http://www.agriculture.gov.ie/publications/2009/.
Data retrieved 12th July 2014.
Latifah, O., Ahmed, O.H. and Muhamad, N.M.A. 2017. Short Term Enhancement
of Nutrient Availability in Zea mays L. Cultivation on an Acid Soil Using Compost
and Clinoptilolite Zeolite. Compost Science and Utilization. 25(1): 22-35.
Tilman, D., Cassman, K. and Matson, P. 2002. Agricultural sustainability and
intensive production practices. Nature. 418:671–677.
32
Soil Microbial Communities and Mineralization Responses to
Penicillin and Tetracycline Loads
Muhammad Fazal, K. and Imran H.S.
Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm Resource, Department of Agronomy, College of
Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, P.R. China
E-mail: fazal_jeee@hotmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Antibiotics are widely used to protect the human health and to increase the growth rate
of animals in livestock husbandry. Approximately 96,600 tons of antibiotics were used
for livestock in all over China in 2009 (Su et al., 2011). However, 50-90% of these
antibiotics in both animals and humans can be excreted in an unaltered state
(Hammesfahr et al., 2008; Schlüsener and Bester, 2006; Heuer and Smalla, 2007;
Kümmerer, 2001) reported that antibiotics were found in topsoil treated with manure in
high concentrations (20 mg antibiotic kg-1 soil). Slowly degrading antibiotics can
accumulate in the soil due to repeated application of manure during the vegetation
period. Although various antibiotics occur naturally in soils, more and more antibiotic
residues released into soil differ widely from the natural background. Setback
associated with the extensive use of antibiotics is that it is often accompanied by the
rapid appearance of resistant strains, which implies ecological and public health
impacts yet to be explored and fully understood. It is vital to investigate the changes of
microorganisms’ activities and turnover processes in soils by these two kinds of broad-
spectrum antibiotics with different chemical stability. Effects of antibiotics on
ecological functions have also been discussed. Soil nitrification and denitrification
processes may be disturbed by adding sulfadiazine (SDZ). Soil ecosystem is highly
complex containing tremendous microorganisms’ communities. Most of the soil
microorganism species are still unidentified and knowledge of community structure and
its relations to the performance of the soil are poorly understood. Phospholipid fatty
acids (PLFAs) are major constituents of the membranes of all living cells. Soil
phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) profiles can help isolate specific biomarker groups of
organisms without the need to culture organisms. Several studies indicate PLFA
analysis as a powerful and responsive tool to investigate environmental effects on the
soil microbial community (Frostegård et al., 2011; Reinsch et al., 2014). Our interests
in penicillin and tetracycline and their effect on soil microorganisms were provoked by
the evidence that these antibiotics are the most widely used in both clinical and
livestock production.
Soil sampling
The experiments were performed with topsoil (0-15 cm) from a compost-treated site
(Soil C) where waste compost had beenmixed into the soil, and a pristine forest soil
(Soil F). These sites are located near the Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
Organic manure composting may have contributed some level of antibiotics to soil
though penicillin and tetracycline could not be detected in the soil. From each spot, a
total of 10-12 samples were collected using a sterile spade, mixed thoroughly and then
placed into a plastic bag to obtain a composite sample.
33
Chemical analysis of soil
Soil samples, corresponding to 100 g dry weight, were placed in 500 mL Erlenmeyer
flasks stopper with cellulose plugs to allow gas exchange while minimizing water
evaporation. Antibiotic standard solution treated soils were prepared by first dissolving
Penicillin G (Pen) or Tetracycline hydrochloride (Tet) in water and then thoroughly
mixing the different volumes of standard solution into the soil to final concentrations
of 10 and 100 mg antibiotics kg-1 dry soil. Unamended (treatments C and F) samples
served as controls.
Soil microbial biomass
Soil microbial biomass was measured using the fumigation extraction method.
Microbial biomass carbon (MBC) was determined using Shimadzu TOC-5000
analyzer. BC=EC/0.45, where EC (extractable carbon) is the difference between carbon
extracted from fumigated and non-fumigated samples (Brookes et al., 1985)
Phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis
Samples were kept frozen for 3 weeks until analysis (3 replicates). An internal standard
(methyl nonadecanoate fatty acid (19:0) was added before the methylation step. Fatty
acids are designated in terms of the total number of carbon atoms, with the number of
double bonds given after a colon. Position of the double bond is defined by the symbol
ù followed by the number of carbons from the methyl end of the fatty acid molecule.
Soil NH4-N and NO3-N determination
Ten gram of soil per replicate was extracted with 40 mL KCl (1 M) for 1 h in an orbital
shaker (175 rpm; 20 °C). After filtration, the extracts were analyzed for ammonium-N
and nitrate-N by continuous flow analysis (CFA-SAN Plus/SkalarAnalytik, Germany).
Statistical analysis
Data preparation, calculation and statistical analysis were performed using Microsoft
Office Excel and SPSS 11 for Windows. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to
determine treatment effects. Means were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test
at p<0.05.
Soil microbial biomass C and N
Contents of microbial carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) under various treatments were
significantly different at the 5% level. Contents of microbial carbon (C) and nitrogen
(N) under various treatments was significantly different at the 5% level. Relative to C
and F treatments, in the first day of incubation soil microbial C decreased 15% in P10,
25% in P100, 12% in T10, and 23% in T100. However, after 27 d incubation, soil
microbial C was at the highest in CP10 and FT10.
34
Microbial populations
Microbial populations in soil were determined by dilution plating method on various

agar media. Total microbial count of the soils without antibiotic amendment was not
different between the two soils and decreased slightly over the incubation period.
Microbes in two soils reacted very fast to the addition of antibiotics and showed a strong
reduction in the number of culturable bacteria after 1d incubation. Before 7 d
incubation, culturable bacterial population ranked as follows:
C/F>P10>T10>P100>T100. In this study, culturable fungal population was also
influenced by different antibiotic amendments, having significantly (p=0.05) higher
counts with C and F than with CP100 and CT100 treatments.
Microbial community structure: PLFA pattern
Both soils showed the same behavior after the addition of antibiotics. Thus, only one
soil was chosen for microbial community structure analysis by PLFA. Twenty six
PLFAs with chain lengths from C12 to C20 were identified from different soils. They
were also tested to assess whether the observed changes in microbial composition
parameters were accompanied by changes in the composition of microbial communities
under different antibiotic treatments. Soil from each treatment contained a variety of
PLFAs, including saturated, unsaturated, methyl branched and cyclo propane fatty
acids.
Influence of antibiotics on nitrogen turnover
Both penicillin and tetracycline decreased concentrations of ammonium in all

treatments over the incubation period. Ammonium concentration decreased with rising
antibiotic concentrations in the beginning of the incubation period (days 3 and 7). A
sudden rise of ammonium concentration was recorded in the penicillin treated samples
after day 7, especially in the sample with a penicillin concentration of 100 mg kg-1;
however, concentrations were still lower than in controls (C and F).
Some soil bacteria can degrade and grow using carbon and nutrients from antibiotic
substrates, even when not previously exposed to these antibiotics (Dantas et al., 2008).
These bacteria are phylogenetically diverse and it is not known how widely distributed
they are in this region. Reduction in bacterial community together with alterations in
microbial populations were observed at the beginning of incubation, but 27 days after
the addition, the soil microflora had recovered not only in soils with low antibiotic
concentrations but also in those with high antibiotic concentrations. This suggested
some soil microbes would adapt to the antibiotics by the development of a resistant
population as in our study. Microbial community was further assessed using PLFA,
indicating that the antibiotic effect decreased in most microbial groups, while some
specific microbial groups. Results indicated that fungal PLFAs were suitable for
antibiotic stress. Archaea are also not inhibited by the addition of antibiotics and may
substitute bacterial activity in the treatments where antibiotics have been applied
(Kotzerke et al., 2008). The PLFA results also showed that antibiotics increased the G-
/G+ ratio because the bacteria resistant to tetracycline and penicillin are more likely to
be Gram-negative (Hund-Rinke et al., 2004; Nikaido, 1996). This might be an
interesting starting point for additional ecological studies underlying the importance of
redundant microbial populations for the stability of soil ecosystems after the occurrence
35
of stressors. A smaller antibiotic effect on the nitrate concentration was visible over the
incubation period. It has been stated over the years that the first step of nitrification, the
oxidation of ammonium, can only be performed by selected proteo bacteria. However,
it has been shown recently that archaeaare also able to oxidize ammonium and are, in
many cases, more abundant in soil than ammonium oxidizing bacteria (Di et al., 2010;
Leininger et al., 2006). This finding explained that penicillin and tetracycline influence
nitrate concentration less than ammonium concentration.
CONCLUSION
In this study soil function is affected by antibiotics. It was evident that overuse of
antibiotics can breed resistant bacteria in livestock, hence threatening the future success
of these drugs in humans. However, an anti-microbial is an umbrella for microbe-killing
products that include antibiotics. Thus, we should be rational while using the
antibiotics.
REFERENCES
Brookes, P.C., Landman, A., Pruden, G. & Jenkinson, D.S. 1985. Chloroform
fumigation and the release of soil nitrogen: a rapid direct extraction method to
measure microbial biomass nitrogen in soil. Soil biology and biochemistry, 17(6):
837-842.
Dantas, G., Sommer, M.O., Oluwasegun, R.D. & Church, G.M. 2008. Bacteria
subsisting on antibiotics. Science, 320(5872): 100-103.
Di, H.J., Cameron, K.C., Shen, J.P., Winefield, C.S., O'Callaghan, M., Bowatte, S.
& He, J.Z. 2010. Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria and archaea grow under contrasting
soil nitrogen conditions. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 72(3): 386-394.
Frostegård, Å., Tunlid, A. and Bååth, E. 2011. Use and misuse of PLFA
measurements in soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 43(8): 1621-1625.
Hammesfahr, U., Heuer, H., Manzke, B., Smalla, K. & Thiele-Bruhn, S. 2008
.Impact of the antibiotic sulfadiazine and pig manure on the microbial community
structure in agricultural soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 40(7): 1583-1591.
Heuer, H. & Smalla, K. 2007. Manure and sulfadiazine synergistically increased
bacterial antibiotic resistance in soil over at least two months. Environmental
Microbiology, 9(3): 657-666.
Hund-Rinke, K., Simon, M. &Lukow, T. 2004. Effects of tetracycline on the soil
microflora: function, diversity, resistance. Journal of Soils and Sediments, 4(1): 11-
16.
Kotzerke, A., Sharma, S., Schauss, K., Heuer, H., Thiele-Bruhn, S., Smalla, K.,
Wilke, B.M. & Schloter, M. 2008. Alterations in soil microbial activity and N-
transformation processes due to sulfadiazine loads in pig-manure. Environmental
Pollution, 153(2): 315-322.
Kümmerer, K. 2001. Drugs in the environment: emission of drugs, diagnostic aids and
disinfectants into wastewater by hospitals in relation to other sources–a
review. Chemosphere, 45(6): 957-969.
Leininger, S., Urich, T., Schloter, M., Schwark, L., Qi, J., Nicol, G.W., Prosser,
J.I., Schuster, S.C. & Schleper, C. 2006.Archaea predominate among ammonia-
oxidizing prokaryotes in soils. Nature, 442(7104): 806-809.
Nikaido, H. 1996. Multidrug efflux pumps of gram-negative bacteria. Journal of
bacteriology, 178(20): 5853.
36
Reinsch, S., Michelsen, A., Sárossy, Z., Egsgaard, H., Schmidt, I.K., Jakobsen, I.
and Ambus, P. 2014. Short-term utilization of carbon by the soil microbial
community under future climatic conditions in a temperate heathland. Soil Biology
and Biochemistry, 68: 9-19.
Su, H.C., Ying, G.G., Tao, R., Zhang, R.Q., Fogarty, L.R. & Kolpin, D.W. 2011.
Occurrence of antibiotic resistance and characterization of resistance genes and
integrons in Enterobacteriaceae isolated from integrated fish farms in south
China. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 13(11): 3229-3236.
Schlüsener, M.P. & Bester, K. 2006. Persistence of antibiotics such as macrolides,
tiamulin and salinomycin in soil. Environmental Pollution, 143(3): 565-571.
37
Antibiotic Resistance Profile and Genetic Traits of Soil Isolated
Bacteria and their Subsistence on Penicillin or Tetracycline
Zhang, Q.
Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Key
Laboratory ofEnvironment Remediation and Ecological Health, Ministry of Education,
Zhejiang University, Hangzhou,310058, P.R China
E-mail: qczhang@zju.edu.cn
INTRODUCTION
The ability of antibiotics to kill a broad spectrum of bacteria has revolutionized

medicine industry and world. However, the improper use of antibiotics has also resulted
in an alarming dispersal of multiple-antibiotic resistant bacteria in the clinical as well
as agricultural setup. The concept that antibiotic resistance originates from the soil
environment is not new and has been around for decades (D’Costa et al., 2007). Burgos
et al. (2005) found gram-negative enteric bacteria associated with the topsoil of dairy
farms in New Mexico. Sengupta et al. (2011) isolated a soil sample containing diverse
anaerobic bacteria and detected resistance for 16–25 antibiotics. Several soil bacteria
possessing and showing resistant genes are not because of they have been exposed to
antibiotics, but because they live in an environment full of antibiotic producers. And
most of these genes are constitutive. Soil bacteria play a key role in the soil ecology
while considered as a potential reservoir of antimicrobial resistance genes. Liu and Pop
(2009) reported more than 20,000 potential resistance genes belonging to ac. 400
different types in the ecological environment. Chromosomes usually encode antibiotic
sensitivity and are becoming code for antimicrobial resistance due to mutations with
the change of the environment (Rodríguez-Verdugo et al., 2013; Hsu et al., 2014) soil
bacterial growth in the presence of penicillin or tetracycline in soil samples collected
from China. Penicillin and tetracycline were selected for trials keeping in view that they
belong to structural classes, and they are widely used not only in clinical settings but
also in livestock production sector in China. The genetic traits for antibiotic resistance
in the isolated bacteria were also investigated to determine how the soil environment
influences the spread of antibiotic resistance. Our study and findings would provide
deeper insights into the mechanism of transfer and translocation of resistance genes
within and among bacterial communities.
Soil samples
Samples of topsoil (0-15 cm) were collected from a tea plantation (120º06'41",
30º13'36") and a pristine forest (120º07'12",30º14'20"), without any anthropogenic
disturbance, each located in Hangzhou, China. Based on the preliminary investigation
sit was assumed that none of these two sites has previously been exposed to penicillin
or tetracycline. At each site, 10 - 12 soil samples were collected using a sterile spade.
Samples were mixed thoroughly and a composite sample was obtained by placing this
homogenize mixture into a plastic bag.
38
Isolation and identification of soil bacterial growth with penicillin or tetracycline
Soil bacteria were isolated and cultured with antibiotics using already reported
methodology (Dantas et al., 2008) Minimal medium was utilized with a single carbon
source (SCS); bacteria were serially diluted and spread-plated onto SCS agar,
supplemented with the appropriate corresponding antibiotic. Two antibiotics, penicillin
G and tetracycline hydrochloride, with the purities >99% werepurchased from Sango
BiotechDetection of resistance genes and integron genes in isolates and two soils (forest
and tea). The presence of ten different genes both in the bacterial isolates and soils were
determined by using PCR and realtimequantitative PCR (qRT-PCR). Primers and PCR,
qRT-PCR conditions used in this study. The bacterial DNA used as template was
extracted by harsh lysisusing the Power Soil DNA Isolation kit.The concentration and
quality of the extracted DNA were determined byspectrophotometer (NanoDrop-2000)
and agarose gel electrophoresis, respectively.
PCR procedure
For all reactions in this study, PCR assays were performed in triplicate for each sample.
Standard PCR mixtures without DNA template were used as negative controls, and
positive bacterial strains carrying genes or integrons verified by sequencing were used
as positive controls.
qRT-PCR procedure
Based on the calibration curves, the copy number of target genes was determined using
the Ct value of a test sample with unknown concentration, which was then normalized
against the volume (mL) of the original samples and the mass (ng) of the extracted
DNA.
Resistance profiling of isolates grown on antibiotics before and after plasmid

curing
Resistance profiling was performed for bacterial isolates before and after plasmid is
cured. Resistance profiling for isolates was carried out by using liquid media (rich
media), prepared by dissolving the relevant antibiotics at a concentration 200 mg L-1
and 1000 mg L-1 into cooled but previously autoclaved Luria Broth as previously
described (Zhang and Dick, 2014).
Statistical analyses
Data preparation, calculation, and statistical analyses were performed using Microsoft
Office Excel and SPSS 16 for Windows. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to
determine treatment effects. Comparisons of means were performed using Duncan’s
studentized range test at p<0.05. The 16S rRNA gene sequences of the 5 strains in this
study were deposited inGenBank database with accession number KF898093-
KF898097, and the nucleotide sequences greater than 200 bp for genes can be accessed
under accession numbers KM594534, KM594536-KM594538, and KM594543-
KM594546.
39
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Isolation and identification of isolates
Eight bacterial isolates were identified that were capable of using penicillin or
tetracycline at 200 mg L-1 as their sole carbon source. The morphologies were
categorized according to Pollack et al. 2002, after isolation, two isolates were not viable
during storage, and one of the viable isolates could not be produced at a high yield. The
rest of the experiments were conducted with the remaining five isolates. The five
bacterial isolates were grown on penicillin or tetracycline. Two isolates (p4 and p5)
grown on penicillin were obtained from the forest, whereas the other three isolates
grown on tetracycline were from the tea plantation (t5 and t9) and forest (t1). All of the
isolates thrived and reached a plateau within 30 to 50 h in LuriaBroth with the
appropriate corresponding antibiotic. Three isolates (t1, t5, and t9) that were grown on
tetracycline were classified into three different genera: Pseudomonas, Chitinophaga,
and Bradyrhizobium, respectively. The isolate t1 was most closely related to
Pseudomonas monteilii (99%16SrRNA gene sequence similarity). Pseudomonas
monteilii, a gram-negative, rod-shaped, and motile bacterium isolated from
clinicalspecimens, is a rare opportunistic pathogen or colonizer (Elomari et al., 1997)
It was detected and isolated from bronchial aspirate in Lyon, France,and the value of
its G+C content was 60 mol % (Elomari et al., 1997). The isolate t5 was most closely
related to Chitinophagaeiseniae, which belongs to the genus Chitinophaga in the family
Chitinophagaceae and is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterial strain that was detected
and identified from vermin compost collected at Masan, Korea (Yasir et al., 2011).
Isolate t9 was most closely related to Bradyrhizobium sp. (99%16SrRNA gene
sequence similarity). Diversity of antibiotic resistance genes and integron genes in
bacterial isolates and in soils the focus of the study was β-lactamases, which can
hydrolyze the β-lactam ring. Hundreds of β-lactamases have been found, and the most
clinically important ones are primarily the derivatives of several existingβ-lactamase
genes such as blaPSE-1 (AMP) and blaTEM. The tetracycline genetetC, which encodes
a tetracycline efflux pump, and the β-lactamase gene blaPSE-1 (AMP), which encodes
β-lactamase. The spreading of antibiotic resistance genes among bacterial strains is
becoming a frequently occurring problem in infectious diseases. The resistance to β-
lactams appeared to be mediated by chromosome associated function in the above three
isolates. Ash et al. (2002) sampled gram-negative bacteria from different rivers in the
United States and found that over 40% of bacteria, resistant to more than one antibiotic,
harbor at least one plasmid, ranging in size from 2 kb to >23 kb. Our results suggest
that the antibiotic resistance of these bacteria may be associated with plasmids or
chromosomes. However, we did not perform analyses to find the truth of this
hypothesis. The mechanism of resistance, observed in our work, could further be
clarified by the amplification of plasmid and chromosome sequences and comparing
the sequences with the known antibiotic resistance-carrying elements.
CONCLUSION
Antibiotic resistance genes were also found in these bacterial isolates. Integrons were
not detected in any of the isolates but copies were detected in the soil, and the antibiotic
resistance of these five bacterial isolates perhaps is associated with plasmids or
chromosomes. The presence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains and genes in soil
40
may provide both hurdles and future prospects for research in antimicrobial drug
discovery and microbial ecology.
REFERENCES
Ash, R.J., Mauck, B. & Morgan, M. 2002.Antibiotic resistance of gram-negative

bacteria in rivers, United States. Emerging infectious diseases, 8(7): 713-716.
Burgos, J.M., Ellington, B.A. & Varela, M.F. 2005. Presence of multidrug-resistant
enteric bacteria in dairy farm topsoil. Journal of dairy science, 88(4): 1391-1398.
Dantas, G., Sommer, M.O., Oluwasegun, R.D. & Church, G.M. 2008. Bacteria
subsisting on antibiotics. Science, 320(5872): 100-103.
D’Costa, V.M., Griffiths, E. & Wright, G.D. 2007. Expanding the soil antibiotic
resistome: exploring environmental diversity. Current opinion in
microbiology, 10(5): 481-489.
Elomari, M., Coroler, L., Verhille, S., Izard, D. & Leclerc, H. 1997. Pseudomonas
monteilii sp. nov., isolated from clinical specimens. International Journal of
Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 47(3): 846-852.
Hsu, J.T., Chen, C.Y., Young, C.W., Chao, W.L., Li, M.H., Liu, Y.H., Lin, C.M.
& Ying, C. 2014. Prevalence of sulfonamide-resistant bacteria, resistance genes and
integron-associated horizontal gene transfer in natural water bodies and soils
adjacent to a swine feedlot in northern Taiwan. Journal of hazardous materials, 277:
34-43.
Liu, B. & Pop, M. 2009.ARDB—antibiotic resistance genes database. Nucleic acids
research, 37(suppl 1): D443-D447.
Pollack, A.R. 2002. Laboratory Exercises in Microbiology, John Wiley& Sons.Inc.,
New York 2002; 32.
Rodríguez-Verdugo, A., Gaut, B.S. & Tenaillon, O. 2013. Evolution of Escherichia
coli rifampicin resistance in an antibiotic-free environment during thermal
stress. BMC evolutionary biology, 13(1): 50.
Sengupta, N., Alam, S.I., Kumar, R.B. & Singh, L. 2011. Diversity and antibiotic
susceptibility pattern of cultivable anaerobic bacteria from soil and sewage samples
of India. Infection, Genetics and Evolution, 11(1): 64-77.
Yasir, M., Chung, E.J., Song, G.C., Bibi, F., Jeon, C.O. & Chung, Y.R.
2011.Chitinophagaeiseniae sp. nov., isolated from vermicompost. International
Journal of systematic and evolutionary microbiology, 61(10): 2373-2378.
Zhang, Q. & Dick, W.A. 2014. Growth of soil bacteria, on penicillin and neomycin,
not previously exposed to these antibiotics. Science of the Total Environment, 493:
445-453.
41
Preparation and Characterization of Encapsulated Bacillus salmalaya
139SI Using Biomaterials
Vejan, P.1, Abdullah, R.1, Khadiran, T.2 and Ismail, S.1
1
Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2
Forest Product Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109, Kepong,
Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: pravin92@siswa.um.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Rising in human population have caused distress on agriculture sector to cope with the
ever-increasing demand on crop production. Hazardous environmental damages due to
excessive usage of synthetic chemical fertilizers for crop plantation demands have
paved way to discover environmentally friendly microorganism with encouraging
effects on the plant growth and parasitic fungal resistance. Varieties of microorganism
known as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) such as Bacillus salmalaya
139SI have been used as biofertilizers both directly to improve plant health and
indirectly to enhance soil fertility, besides being economically beneficial. Plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria shows an important role in sustainable agriculture industry as
it has been proven to be an environmentally sound to increase crop yields by facilitate
plant growth through direct mechanisms by regulating hormonal and nutritional
balance, inducing resistance against plant pathogens and solubilizing nutrients for easy
uptake by plants (Khalid et al., 2009). However, usage of PGPR proved to be a short
lived success as it faces problems in sense of in which 90% of the amount upon
application are lost in the air and as run-off.
In plant and soil systems, encapsulation technology have solved several issues
pertaining the performance of the fertilizers used (Nesterenko et al., 2013).
Encapsulated fertilizers may assist the controlled and target-specific release of
agrochemicals for nutrition and protection against pests and pathogens, protection and
formation of soil structure, prevention of agrochemical wastage with higher percentage
of efficiency. Natural biomaterials consisting of proteins and polysaccharides are used
as building blocks for the encapsulation of PGPR due to its wide range of advantages
such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, water solubility and emulsifying, non-toxic,
amphiphilic ability and foaming capacities. On top of that, they are readily available in
large quantities for reasonable price.
Therefore, this study was carried out to identify the potential of biomaterials in the
encapsulation of Bacillus salmalaya 139SI.
Isolation and screening of the strain
Strain Salmah Ismail (SI) 139SI was originally isolated from soil obtained from the
private farm in Selangor, Malaysia (2.99917°N 101.70778°E). The obtained soil sample
is suspended in 3 ml of sterile distilled water, and the suspension will be later streaked
42
on brain-heart infusion (BHI) agar plates. The plates then will be incubated for 16–48
h at 37 °C (Dadrasnia and Ismail, 2015).
Preparation of encapsulated bacteria
Table 1: The formulation details of the biomaterials used to encapsulate the bacteria
Formulation Description
F1 Positive B. salmalaya
F2 Negative
F3 1:1 (chitosan: brown rice protein isolates- sodium alginate)
F6 1:1 (chitosan: brown rice protein isolates- sodium alginate) + CaCl2
High speed bench-top homogenizer will be used with speed ranging from 3000 to 10000
rpm. Formation of micro-capsules in slurry form occurs when homogenization occurs
at designated speed with suitable biomaterials.
Morphology and characteristics of the capsules
The morphological properties of the capsules loaded or not loaded with Bacillus
salmalaya were observed by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM).
FESEM provides topographical and elemental information at magnifications of 10x to
300,000x, with virtually unlimited depth of field. Capture images were observed and
analysed for presence of bacteria. Particle size analysis (PSA), an analytical technique
to investigate and measure the distribution of sizes the liquid/powder particulate
material is also investigated.
Survival and viable bacterial counts from capsules
The bioactivity of the bacteria is investigated with spread plate technique. One ml from
each encapsulated bacteria slurry samples is taken and mixed with 9 mL of 10% sodium
citrate dehydrate and are incubated for 2 hours in 37 °C. The homogenized samples will
be diluted to appropriate concentrations (serial dilutions, 10-1 – 10-6) and pour plated on
BHI agar. Spread plate technique is carried out and number of colonies were counted
for each trials. The plates were incubated for 1 day at 37 °C and the encapsulated
bacteria enumerated as CFU/mL and the results are tabulated. Freeze-dried free cells
(non-encapsulated B. salmalaya) served as positive control treatment. A minimum of
three biological replicates was performed. Encapsulated bacteria (0.1 g) were
withdrawn every 7 days for the investigation of bacteria viability.
Morphology and characteristics of the capsules
Based on the FESEM images of capsules, the presence of bacteria in the capsules were
identified. By observation via FESEM images, the biopolymer capsules synthesised
without the inclusion of bacteria has relatively smooth surface. However, biomaterial
43
capsules synthesised with bacteria has a consistent rough rod-like structures on the
surface, indicating the existence of bacteria in the capsules. Based on a closer
examination of the cavities showed that bacterial cells in the form of endospores were
dislodged in the cavities and were also observed on the ridges. FESEM images obtained
shows that bacteria was successfully encapsulated into the formulations of chitosan-
brown rice protein-sodium alginate biomaterial shell. However, formulations of the
biomaterials together with CaCl2 showed more positive attributes compared to the
absence of CaCl2. The inclusion of CaCl2 here is crucial as it was reported that calcium
alginate alone was identified to maintain the survival rate of the PGPR Pseudomonas
striata and Bacillus polymyxa at higher temperatures in an prolonged period of storage
time (Viveganandan et al., 2000).
Survival and viable bacterial counts from microcapsules
Bacteria encapsulated with biomaterials survived the encapsulation process and

produces encouraging viable bacterial counts. The benchmark in comparing the
encapsulation efficiency of the bacteria using different formulations of biopolymers
would be the positive control which recorded the highest number of cfu/mL.
F2 with absence of bacteria (negative control) has the least and negligible cell count
which is due to slight contamination during the spread plate technique being carried
out. Meanwhile, formulations with CaCl2 got the best encapsulation efficiency due to
the highest viable bacterial counts after encapsulation with the highest value of cfu/mL.
On top of that, the cross-linking of sodium alginate-chitosan with CaCl2 got better
advantages in soil application as it was previously reported that the calcium alginate
hydrogel that is gelled by ionic bonds, swells and dissolves in a mixture containing
phosphates, a chelating agent present in the soil (Vassilev et al., 2001). Moreover,
despite the abundance of other biomaterials, alginate is chosen because the capsules are
formed instantaneously by single-step gelling with minimum cell loss and the
maintenance of high microbial cell density as high as 1010-1011 CFU g-1 of capsule
(Rekha et al., 2007).
CONCLUSION
Based on the results, the PGPR, Bacillus salmalaya 139SI is successfully encapsulated
with biomaterials of different formulations. The encapsulation of the bacteria using
biomaterials with CaCl2 is concluded as the best formulation with promising attributes
for further application on soil for soil health and crop production improvement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank the University of Malaya and Forest Research Institute
Malaysia (FRIM) for the financial support (UMRP023-14AFR) and facilities which had
facilitated the work.
REFERENCES
Dadrasnia, A. & Ismail, S. 2015. Biosurfactant production by Bacillus salmalaya for

lubricating oil solubilization and biodegradation.Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health,
12(8): 9848-9863.
44
Khalid, A., Arshad, M., Shaharoona, B. & Mahmood, T. 2009. Plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria and sustainable agriculture. In Microbial Strategies for
Crop Improvement (pp. 133-160). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Nesterenko, A., Alric, I., Silvestre, F. & Durrieu, V. 2013. Vegetable proteins in
microencapsulation: A review of recent interventions and their effectiveness.Ind.
Crops Prod., 42: 469-479.
Rekha, P.D., Lai, W.A., Arun, A.B. & Young, C.C. 2007. Effect of free and
encapsulated Pseudomonas putida CC-FR2-4 and Bacillus subtilis CC-pg104 on
plant growth under gnotobiotic conditions. Bioresour. Technol., 98: 447-451
Vassilev, N., Vassileva, M., Fenice, M. & Federici, F. 2001. Immobilized cell
technology applied in solubilization of insoluble inorganic (rock) phosphates and P
plant acquisition. Bioresour. Technol., 79: 263-271.
Vejan, P., Abdullah, R., Khadiran, T., Ismail, S. & Nasrulhaq Boyce, A. 2016. Role
of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria in Agricultural Sustainability—A Review.
Molecules, 21(5): 573.
Viveganandan G. & Jauhri K.S. 2000. Growth and survival of phosphate solubilizing
bacteria in calcium alginate. Microbiol. Res., 155: 205-07.
45
Assessment of Soil Fertility Status through Geospatial Techniques for
Sustainable Soil Management
AbdelRahman, M.A.E.
National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Science, (NARSS), Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: maekaoud@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
The land resources of Chamarajanagar district were evaluated for land capability
classifications depending on the nature and properties of soils and based on the
capability or limitations, according the U.S. Soil conservation service 1958, 1959, 1963
and 1992 land evaluation classifications was also undertaken in according to the FAO
(1976, 1983, 1985 and 2007) system to assess the suitability of the studied area soils
for agriculture and development.
The actions of planning and managing the use of natural resources are of primary
importance nowadays to integrate and focus the generation of geo-information to
develop or improve the policies for a sustainable development. To achieve this, the
requirements of comprehensive and accurate information about the spatial distribution
and dynamics of land degradation processes is one of the priorities of special interest
in order to formulate the policies for an integrated environmental planning.
Land evaluation classification was also undertaken according to the FAO (1976. 1983,
1985 and 2007) system to assess the suitability of the study area soils for agriculture
and development. Land Capability classification was also undertaken based on the
capability or limitations in according to the U. S. Soil conservation service (1958, 1959,
1963 and 1992).
Soil properties
The texture of soils was found to vary from sandy clay loam to sandy clay. The texture
of lowland physiographic units was finer than uplands and midlands mainly due to the
runoff and lateral movement of finer fractions from uplands and midlands. Presence of
argillic horizon was noticed in upland pedons due to the translocation of clay and its
deposition in the sub-surface horizons, whereas Cambic horizon was found on lowlands
and midland soils. Soil reaction of upland soils was slightly acidic to neutral which is
attributed to the leaching of bases from the soil along with runoff and drainage water
due to moderately high rainfall occurring in the area. In lowlands, the soil reaction was
neutral to slightly alkaline due to the deposition of bases from the upland physiographic
units. The electrical conductivity of all the pedons was very negligible, which indicates
non-saline nature of the soil and good leaching environment.
The organic carbon content in all the pedons vary between low to medium due to low
vegetative cover. This is due to the widespread nature of soil erosion and prevalence of
warmer climate leading to lower accumulation of organic carbon in the study area. The
46
cation exchange capacity of the soil varied from low to medium. The upland
physiographic units were low in cation exchange capacity values than midlands and
lowlands owing to their low clay content, low organic matter, whereas lowlands
exhibited moderate CEC values due to higher clay content. In all the pedons, calcium
was the most dominant cation followed by magnesium throughout the profile. The
upland pedons have low exchangeable cations than lowland counterparts, because of
excessive drainage from uplands. The base saturation was found to be between medium
(uplands) to high (lowlands) in the study area due to variations in the texture and
physiography. The available nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were low, low to
medium and medium respectively. The low nitrogen content is attributed to the low
organic carbon due to warmer climate and low vegetative cover coupled with little
nitrogen fertilization.
Land Capability Classification
Based on the capability or limitations, the lands are grouped into eight classes; Class I
occupied 10.5%, Class II occupied 3.4%, Class III occupied 51.4%, Class IV occupied
11.77%, Class V occupied 0.43%, Class VI occupied 2.31%, Class VII occupied 8.81%
and Class VIII (Rock land) occupied 11.34% of the total area.
Land Suitability Evaluation
According to FAO (1976, 1983, 1985 and 2007) soils of the study area could be
classified from the suitability view point to highly suitable class occupying 10.53%,
moderately suitable class 3.40%, marginally suitable class 62.52%, currently not
suitable class 11.77, permanently not suitable class occupying 0.43% and rock land
11.34% of the total area in the district.
CONCLUSION
Based on the capability or limitations, the lands are grouped into eight classes; Class I
occupied 10.53%, Class II occupied 3.4%, Class III occupied 51.4%, Class IV occupied
11.77%, Class V occupied 0.43%, Class VI occupied 2.31%, Class VII occupied 8.81%
and Class VIII (Rock land) occupied 11.34% of the total area.
According to FAO (1976, 1983, 1985 and 2007) soils of the study area could be
classified from the suitability view point to highly suitable class occupying 10.53%,
moderately suitable class 3.40%, marginally suitable class 62.52%, currently not
suitable class 11.77, permanently not suitable class occupying 0.43% and rock land
11.34% of the total area in the district.
REFERENCES
FAO, 1976, A framework for land evaluation, FAO Soils Bulletin 32 (Rome: FAO).
FAO, 1983, Guidelines: Land evaluation for rainfed agriculture. FAO Soils Bulletin
No. 52. Rome.
FAO, 1985, Guidelines; Land evaluation for irrigated agriculture. Soils Bulletin 55.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
FAO, 2007, A Framework for land evaluation, FAO Soil Bulletin No. 6 Rome, Italy.
47
Soil Conservation Service, 1963, Know the Capability of Your Land. USDA-NRCS,
Washington, DC. Pp. 1-25.
Soil Conservation Service, 1992, Washington, DC: Soil Conservation Service, Pp. 60-
73.
Soil Conservation Service, WASHINGTON, DC, SOIL SURVEY STAFF, 1959,
Land Capability Subclass. Soils Memorandum SCS-30. Soil Conversation Service,
Washington, DC.
Soil Survey Staff, 1958, Land Capability Classification. Soils Memorandum SCS-22.
Soil Survey Staff, 1959, Land Capability Subclass. Soils Memorandum SCS-30. Soil
Conversation Service, Washington, DC.
USDA, 2004. Soil Survey Laboratory Methods. Manual Soil Survey Investigation
Report No. 42 Version 4.0 November 2004.
48
Conservation Agriculture Influences on Sustainable Soil Fertility and
Crop Productivity
Jahiruddin, M.1, Salahin, N.2, Islam, M.R1. Haque, M.E.3 and Bell, R.4
1
Department of Soil Science, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh,
Bangladesh
2
Division of Soil Science, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Gazipur,
Bangladesh
3
Murdoch University Liaison Office, Uttara, Dhaka, Bangladesh
4
Sustainable Land Management, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
E-mail: m_jahiruddin@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
Conservation agriculture (CA) is characterized by three principles which are linked to

each other, namely minimum tillage, residue retention and diversified crop rotations.
This beneficial farming practice is not yet adopted widely in rice-based cropping
systems in South Asia. Effects of CA on crop yield may be positive or negative
(Pittelkow et al., 2015) depending upon the crop species, growing environment, and the
duration and extent to which all three CA principles are enacted. Minimum or zero
tillage increases SOM levels (Awale et al., 2013), water retention capacity, (Aziz et al.,
2013) and decreases production costs (Johansen et al., 2012). This approach may
increase (Li et al., 2007) or decrease (Vetsch and Randall, 2002) or give similar (Jiang
and Xie, 2009) crop yield compared to conventional tillage system.
The effect of several tillage practices such as zero tillage (ZT), strip tillage (ST), bed
planting (BP) and conventional tillage (CT) at two residue levels (20% and 50%) was
studied. The field trial was done in a farmer’s field on a sandy loam soil (Cromic-
Calcaric Gleysols). Soil properties (physical and chemical) and crop yields were
monitored. Another field experiment has been conducted during 2012-2016 in a silt
loam soil (Aeric Haplaquept) at Bangladesh Agricultural University farm to examine
the effect of tillage systems, crop residue retention and varied levels of fertilizer-N over
in the rice-wheat-mungbean cropping system. The tillage systems are strip and
conventional tillage, the residue levels are the current practice (20% retention) and
increased retention (40 % retention) and the N rates were 60, 80, 100, 120 and 140 %
of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF). Soil properties, notably organic carbon &
total nitrogen, and crop yields were recorded.
Minimum tillage with crop residue retention increased SOM, total nitrogen and
available S and Zn contents of soil at the upper 0-5 cm soil depth (Table 1), not beyond
5 cm soil depth after completion of 3-crop cycles or 9 crops (rice-jute-lentil). It
influenced soil penetration resistance and soil water content, however bulk density
remained unchanged. These practices also demonstrated higher crop yield (Table 2).
The higher soil OC content in minimum tillage might be due to slower decomposition
of crop residues. Strip tillage compared to zero tillage, bed planting and conventional
tillage had better performances on crop yield.
49
Table 1: Soil organic matter stocks (t ha-1) as influenced by tillage practices and residue
levels after 1st, 2nd and 3rd crop cycles
After 1st crop cycle After 2nd crop cycle After 3rd crop cycle
Tillage
R20 R50 Mean R20 R50 Mean R20 R50 Mean
0-5 cm soil depth, initial level 8.2 t ha-1
ZT 8.6 9.0 8.8 9.0 10.4 9.7 9.9 10.5 10.2a
ST 9.1 9.3 9.2 9.0 10.1 9.5 9.2 10.6 10.1ab
BP 8.3 8.5 8.4 8.7 9.6 9.1 9.2 10.1 9.6b
CT 7.8 8.0 7.9 8.6 8.9 8.7 8.4 9.8 9.1c
Mean 8.5 8.7 - 8.7b 9.7a - 9.2b 10.2a -
LSD0.05 value
Tillage (T) 2.0ns 1.8ns 0.6**
ns **
Residue (R) 0.3 0.5 0.4**
T×R 0.7ns 1.1ns 0.9ns
-1
5-10 cm soil depth, initial level 7.6 t ha
ZT 7.6 8.1 7.8 7.9 8.8 8.3 8.4 9.0 8.7
ST 7.8 8.1 8.0 7.7 8.6 8.2 8.4 8.9 8.6
BP 7.7 8.0 7.8 7.6 8.6 8.1 8.0 8.4 8.2
CT 7.8 8.0 7.9 7.8 7.9 7.8 8.0 8.7 8.3
Mean 7.7 8.0 - 7.8 b 8.5 a - b
8.2 8.7 a -
LSD0.05 value
Tillage (T) 1.3ns 1.7ns 0.9ns
ns *
Residue (R) 0.4 0.6 0.3**
T×R 0.8ns 1.1ns 0.6ns
-1
10-15 cm soil depth, initial level 6.8 t ha
ZT 7.0 7.3 7.1 7.1 7.4 7.2 6.9 8.0 7.5
ST 7.2 7.4 7.3 7.6 7.7 7.7 7.7 8.6 8.1
BP 7.0 7.2 7.1 7.1 7.6 7.4 7.0 8.1 7.5
CT 7.1 7.5 7.3 7.2 7.9 7.5 7.4 8.6 8.0
Mean 7.1 7.4 - 7.2 7.6 - b
7.3 8.3 a -
LSD0.05 value
Tillage (T) 0.3ns 1.1ns 1.0ns
ns ns
Residue (R) 0.3 0.4 0.2**
T×R 0.6ns 0.8ns 0.3ns
R20 = 20% residue, R50 = 50% residue
ZT = zero tillage, ST = strip tillage, BP = bed planting, CT = conventional tillage
LSD = least significant difference at P>0.05, ns = not significant, * = P<0.05, ** = P<0.01.
50
Table 2: Rice equivalent yield (t ha-1) as influenced by tillage practices and residue
levels
REY-1st year REY- 2nd year REY- 3rd year Mean REY
Tilla
ge R50 Mean
R20% R50% Mean R20% R50% Mean R20% R50% Mean R20%
%
ZT 17.9 16.6 17.2ab 18.8 20.1 19.4b 16.9 18.2 17.6b 17.8 18.3 18.1b
ST 20.1 19.2 19.7a 21.1 22.0 21.6a 19.3 20.5 19.9a 20.2 20.6 20.4a
BP 15.0 15.4 15.2b 19.1 20.5 19.8b 16.5 18.4 17.5b 16.9 18.1 17.5b
CT 18.2 17.7 18.0a 16.4 15.8 16.1c 16.4 17.1 16.8b 17.0 16.9 16.9b
Mea
17.8 17.2 - 18.8b 19.6a - 17.3b 18.6a - 18.0b 18.5a -
n
LSD0.05 value
Tillage (T) 2.5** 1.7** 1.5** 1.4**
Residue
1.0ns 0.7* 0.5** 0.3**
(R)
T×R 2.0ns 1.4ns 1.0ns 0.7ns
As observed in university farm experiment, strip planting produced significantly higher

system productivity in the 4th year, not in other years which indicates a cumulative
effect of residue retention. System productivity increased as the rate of N application
increased, showing an optimum rice equivalent yield at 100-120 % recommended
fertilizer dose. There was no significant interaction between tillage practice and residue
retention on the parameters studied which indicates that the influence of one factor was
not interrupted by the other factor.
Minimum tillage can slow down the residue decomposition and reduce the release of
mineral forms of nitrogen (Hobbs et al., 2008). Hence, N in the system might be less
available under minimum tillage, at least in the initial years. Lundy et al., (2015) state
that decreased yield related to the implementation of no-tillage is more sensitive to the
rate of N fertilization in the tropical and subtropical regions. The minimum tillage
method for establishing rice based on unpuddled transplanting has recently been shown
to produce similar yield to puddled transplanting, and with significant cost savings and
increased gross margin (Haque et al., 2016).
CONCLUSION
The benefits of conservation agriculture in terms of improvement and sustenance of

soil fertility and crop productivity are slowly visible. It would take at least five years to
harness full benefits and achieve a definite conclusion.
REFERENCES
Aziz, I., Mahmood, T. & Islam, K. R. 2013. Effect of long term on no-till and
conventional tillage practices on soil quality. Soil Till. Res., 131: 28-35.
Awale, R., Chatterjee, A. & Franzen, D. 2013. Tillage and N-fertilizer influences on
selected organic carbon fractions in a North Dkota silty clay soil. Soil Till. Res., 134:
213-222.
51
Haque, M. E., Bell, R. E., Islam, M. A. & Rahman, M. A. 2016. Minimum tillage
unpuddled transplanting: an alternative crop establishment strategy for rice in
conservation agriculture cropping systems. Field Crops Res., 185: 31-39.
Hobbs, P. R., Sayre, K. & Gupta, R. 2008. The role of conservation agriculture in
sustainable agriculture. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B., 363: 543-555.
Jiang, X. J. & Xie D. T. 2009. Combining ridge with no-tillage in lowland rice-based
cropping system: long-term effect on soil and rice yield. Pedoshpere, 19: 515-522.
Johansen, C., Haque, M. E., Bel, R. W., Thierfel;der, C. & Esdaile, R. J. 2012.
Conservation agriculture for small holder rain-fed farming: opportunities and
constraints of new mechnized seeding systems. Field Crops Res., 132: 18-32.
Li, Y. X., Tullberg, J. N. & Freebairn D. M. 2007. Wheel traffic and tillage effects
on runoff and crop yield. Soil Till. Res., 97: 282-292.
Pittelkow, C. M., Liang, X., Linquist, B. A., Van Groenigen, K. J., Lee, J., Lundy,
M. E., Van Gestel, N., Six, J., Venterea, R. T. & Van Kessel, C. 2015.
Productivity limits and potentials of the principles of conservation agriculture.
Nature, 517: 365–368.
Lundy, M. E., Pittelkow, C. M, Linquist, B. A, Liang, X., van Groenigen, K. J.,
Lee, J., Six, L., Venterea, R. T. & van Kessel, C. 2015. Nitrogen fertilization
reduces yield declines following no-till adoption. Field Crops Res., 183: 204-210.
Vetsch, J. A. & Randall, G. W. 2002. Corn prduction as affected by tillage system
and starter fertilizer. Agronomy J., 94: 532-540.
52
Quantitative Assessment of Surface Runoff at Arid Regions
Elsayed, M.1, Mohamed, A.2 and Abd-ElAziz B.1
1
National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences (NARSS), Cairo, Egypt
2
Soil Science Dept., Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig Univ., Egypt
E-mail: salama55_55@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The evaluation of runoff is an important Aspect in precision water and soil

conservation management. This work is showing how soil taypes influences water
storage capacity therby runoff volume. The study were carried out in middle Nile Delta,
Egypt (30 °45 N, 30 °55 E), where collecting soil samples covered different
hydrological soil groups Based on the natural resource conservation service curve
number model (NRCS-CN), CN approach where it used to investigate the effect of
spatio-temporal variations of different soil types on soil water retention. DEM was used
to describe the effects of slope variables on water retention and surface runoff volumes.
The resultes indecated that the most representative area having higher S that ranged
from 106 to 125 mm (4.8 % of total) fell in the southern part of the study area. However
the dominant area in the catchment (57.9%) retain water (S) varies between 26 to 45
mm. Furthermore there is a strong correlation between CN values obtained and runoff
volum. However implementation of (S) value of the NRCS-CN model with GIS
technique provides useful measure of surface runoff.
The study area lies between (30°45\ N, 30°55\ E), in middle of Nile Delta at the
catchment area of Tanta that aligned by Damietta and Rosetta branches as shown in
Figure 1. The catchment area is 34650 ha and has a maximum altitude of 40 m above
sea level (asl). The studied area is characterized by Mediterranean climatic conditions
with seasonal and spatial variations of rainfall and high oscillations between minimum
and maximum daily temperatures. The flood plain is the main landscape of the
investigated area (Mohamed et al., 2015; Abu-hashim et al., 2015). Satellite image that
cover the study area was using Landsat 8 with spatial resolution 30 m acquired in
November 2015. Digital elevation model (DEM) with 30 × 30 m resolution was derived
using Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) and elevation points were recorded
during the field survey by GPS.
Surface runoff
The hydrological model was applied to determine annual surface runoff, available water
volume and water storage under the future climate conditions. GIS was used to
delineate the watershed area and network of stream in order to identify the sub-
catchments that contribute to a single stream based on DEM, representing site
morphological properties. Suitable sampling sites were identified by computing
hydrologic soil groups (HSG), soil type, and land-use for the region and combining
them to hydrologic response units (HRUs) in GIS. Soil physical analyses were
investigated according to (Klute, 1986). SCS-CN model based on the universal water
balance equation:
53
Q = P − Is − I − E − n
Where;
Q = depth of direct runoff

P = precipitation
Is = infiltration capacity
I = interception
E = evapotranspiration
n = other retentions of the precipitation
The CN method is based on the conventional representation of the maximum retention

potential during rainfall, which is influenced by the type of land cover and the
hydrological group of soil. Mathematically, the estimation of the surface runoff depth
is based on the formula (Ponce and Hawkins 1996; Dawod et al., 2013). The computed
monthly summarized direct runoff was, taking into account that the precipitation is
equal or higher than 0.2S.
By applying the described methodology, the values of the annual average surface runoff
depth were spatially modeled within the study area . The runoff for the November 2015
was calculated actual rainfall value where the rainfall amount reached around 58 mm
this values is high comparing with the same time year. The results illustrated that the
highest value of runoff distinguished around the urban area where it ranged between 40
- 50 mm where paved surfaces and rooftops allow no water to infiltrate, but instead
divert water directly to storm channels and drains. Runoff values ranging between 30-
40 in the area located at north of study area where slope tends to generate more runoff
than do lowland areas.
Figure 1: The spatial distribution of the average surface runoff
54
REFERENCES
Abu-hashim, M., Mohamed, E.S. & Belal, A.A. 2015. Identification Of Potential Soil
Water Retention Using Hydric Numerical Model At Arid Regions By Land-Use
Changes. International Soil and Water Conservation Research .
doi:10.1016/j.iswcr.2015.10.005.
Dawod, G.M., Mirza, M.N. & Al-Ghamdi, K.A. 2013. Assement of several flood
estimation methodologies in Makkah metropolitan area, Saudi Arabia. Arabian J.
Geoscience, 6: 985-993.
Klute, A. 1986. Water retention: Laboratory methods. In: Klute, A. (Ed). Methods of
soil analysis. Part 1. 2nd edition. Agronomy Monograph 9, pp 635-662. ASA and
SSSA, Madison, WI.. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 28, 1377-1387.
Mohamed, E.S., Belal, A. & Shalaby, A. 2015. Impacts of soil sealing on potential
agriculture in Egypt using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Eurasian Soil
Sci., 48: 1159-1169.
Ponce, V.M. & Hawkins, R.H. 1996. Runoff curve number: has it reached maturity.
J. Hydrol. Eng., 1: 11-19 .
55
Great Flood of December 2014: Its Effects on the Properties of Soils in
the Kelantan Plains, Malaysia
Shamshuddin, J.
Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: shamsud@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Immediately after the great flood of December 2014, the Malaysian government set up
a national committee to study the immediate cause of the unprecedented phenomenon,
estimate the economic loss to the country and suggest how to reduce its effects should
a flood of that magnitude occur in the near future. The study found that due to the flood,
Malaysia suffered an economic loss of approximately USD 0.7 billion, with 300,000
people throughout the country affected by it, with the worst hit area being the district
of Kuala Krai in Kelantan. This papers explains why and how the flood occurred and
subsequently describes the damage done to the agricultural land at the lower reaches of
the Kelantan River, the flood plains.
What caused the flood to occur?
The flood was considered among the worst to hit the country in 200 years and for the
state of Kelantan, the phenomenon was unprecedented in the history of its existence. It
was found that the occurrence of the flood could be blamed squarely on the
extraordinary rainfall occurring within a short duration and/or massive agricultural as
well as logging activities in the upper reaches of the river (Azuhan, 2015; Sathiamurthy
and Kong, 2015). It was made worse by the extensive soil erosion in the upland areas
and the subsequent siltation of sediments on the riverbed with muddy and sandy
materials (Nurul Akma et al., 2015) that contained some heavy metals (Nor Sayzwani
et al., 2015). It was believed that the flood was promoted by too much rain falling in
the areas within a short span of time. Hence, soils (top- and subsoil) were eroded and
subsequently washed away, causing serious flood in the low-lying areas of Kuala Krai
and Gua Musang districts.
Malaysia prohibits agricultural activities on land with more than 25ᴼ slope. If the hilly
and/or undulating land in the districts of Kuala Krai and/or or Gua Musang was mostly
or fully covered by natural forest during the time of the flood, the damage suffered by
human settlements and/or their properties would have been much less.
Determination of the physico-chemical properties of the affected soils
The Faculty of Agriculture, Univesiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), set up a response team to
check the aftermath of the 2014 great flood to determine the damage done to soils and
crops at the lower reaches of the Kelantan River, the Kelantan Flood Plains. A visit to
the areas was made in mid-January 2015 to survey the affected lands in the vicinity of
Kota Bharu and Tumpat and 16 soil samples were collected for analyses in the
laboratories.
56
The minerals present
Results of the X-ray diffraction analysis showed the presence of mica (10 and 5 Å) and
feldspars (3.24 Å). Other important minerals included quartz (4.25 and 3.34 Å),
kaolinite (7.2 and 3.57 Å) and gibbsite (4.84 Å), with hematite (2.5 Å) present in small
amount. Goethite was believed to be present in the samples, but its XRD reflection of
4.18 Å was not clearly shown on the diffractogram. This was because the XRD analysis
was carried out without first separating the samples into sand, silt and clay fractions by
mechanical analysis. If the clay fraction was X-rayed instead of the fine earth (silted
sediments), the weak goethite peak of 4.18 Å would have appeared on the XRD
diffractogram; hence, proving its presence.
Particle-size distribution of the sediments
Mostly, the clay contents of the sediments were in the range of 20 to 30%. Only one
sample which was collected from a rice field contained about 48% clay. On the other
hand, the silt contents were very high, consistent with the notion that these materials
were from the subsoil (or even the saprolite) of the highly weathered profiles in the
upper reaches of the Kelantan River; soils of this nature usually have high silt content
below the solum. The texture of the sediments, as expected, ranged from sandy loam
(at the river levee) to silty clay (in the rice field).
Chemical properties of the sediments
The pH of the sediments ranged from 3.16 to 5.30. Crops grown in media with pH
below 5 would be subjected to the stress H+ and/or Al3+. The EC was low, which was
good for crop production. Crops would have problem growing in the planting media
with EC > 4 dS/m. It was observed that the exchangeable Ca ranged from 0.04 to 0.29
cmolc/kg, which were considered as deficient for crop growth, especially rice. The
exchangeable Mg were also very low, with values ranging from 0.11 to 0.54 cmolc/kg.
In contrast to exchangeable Ca and Mg, the exchangeable K were sufficient with most
of the values greater than 0.1 cmolc/kg, which is the critical level for most crops in
Malaysia. Available P varied from 4.00 to 44.73 mg/kg; the critical available P level is
20 mg/kg.
The exchangeable Al in some deposits were very high, with the highest value being
8.89 cmolc/kg. At this level of exchangeable Al, the pH of the deposits would have been
lowered considerably via a process called Al hydrolysis. For agricultural production in
Malaysia, we are looking for soils with exchangeable Al of <1 cmolc/kg. The contents
of Al seen in this study was way above the level reported for the topsoil of Ultisols and
Oxisols, which covers about 70% of Malaysia. Like Al, extractable Fe was very high
in some samples, with values ranging from 37 to198 mg/kg. Fe is more acidic than that
of Al; hence, its presence results in lower pH.
DISCUSSION
Occurrence of the flood in December 2014
The occurrence of heavy rainfall in southern Kelantan in December 2014 was related
to a natural phenomenon called Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO). At that time of the
57
year, due to the high pressure in the Pacific Ocean, strong easterly wind from Indian
Ocean carrying high amount of moisture blew into Peninsular Malaysia. When it met
the strong westerly wind from Pacific Ocean coming from the opposite direction,
extraordinary high rainfall occurred that resulted in the great flood. The rainfall
recorded at Gunung Gagau, Gua Musang, Kelantan during December 15-24, 2014
period was 1986 mm. This was about two-third of the annual rainfall in the area of
Kelantan.
One of the worst affected sites visited during the field trip was Pasir Pekan Hilir,
situated just across the Kelantan River, near Kota Bharu. The flood had destroyed not
only the crops in the area, but also the land on the river bank. It was believed that the
damage could have been less if the land on the other side of the river was not disturbed
by extensive development. As it were, Kota Bharu is now fast developing into a
business center in the east coast state of Kelantan. The land along the river bank in Kota
Bharu side was earmarked for constructing houses and shopping malls. As such, high
walls were constructed that reduced/prevented the floodwater from flowing through its
natural pathways. Hence, when the floodwater from the upstream reached Kota Bharu
during the night of the fateful day, most of the water overflew the bank on the other
side of the river into Pasir Pekan Hilir, causing untold damages to the agricultural lands
and other properties alike.
A subsequent visit to a nearby area about 500 m away from the Kelantan River showed
heavy siltation of muddy materials that destroyed a corn farm just before it was
harvested. The silted sediments were as thick as 20-30 cm, having yellowish/reddish
coloration, showing the presence of materials believed to come from the subsoil of the
upper reaches of the Kelantan River. Many rice fields on both sides of the Kelantan
River bank in Pasir Mas, Kota Bharu and Tumpat districts were silted beyond
imagination, destroying rice plants which were then about 2 months old.
Physico-chemical properties of the silted materials
Most of the silted sediments were loamy in nature, while the rest contained high
contents of clay. Sediments found at the river levees contained high content of sand.
The silt contents were exceptionally high, mostly with values >40%. This was
indicative of the presence of freshly weathered materials coming from subsoil,
presumably eroded from the areas in the upper reaches of the Kelantan River
(Shamshuddin et al., 2016).
For well the drained soils under Malaysian climatic conditions of high rainfall and
temperature, weathering is extreme. As such, primary minerals in the upland soils of
Kelantan, such as mica and feldspars can only be found in the subsoil. This goes to
show that the materials in the floodwater were the infertile eroded subsoil materials,
which might have come from Gua Musang and/or Kuala Krai areas. Other minerals
found included quartz, kaolinite, gibbsite as well as some hematite, which can be
present in both the top- and subsoil. These four minerals are generally considered as
very stable, but with low fertility.
Hematite gives reddish coloration to any soil in the well-drained areas. Hence, reddish-
brownish coloration of the silted sediments at Pasir Pekan Hilir was indicative of the
presence of some hematite. Mica and feldspars take a long time to weather and
58
consequently release some plant nutrients they contain into the soils. Hence; the
sediments deposited on the agricultural land during the flood were infertile. It is not
expected to be good media for crop production.
The pH of the sediments varied considerably with most of them <4. At this level of soil
pH, the activity of Al3+ in the soil solution will certainly be above the critical level of
20 µM. For rice, the critical water pH is 6; hence, rice will not grow normally unless
the soils in the fields silted with these sediments were ameliorated with suitable
amendments. However, rice has a special mechanism to protect itself against H+ stress
as well as Al3+ toxicity, meaning that it can even grow at pH 4-5 (Shamshuddin et al.,
2014). Ca and Mg contents in the sediments were very low. The critical level of these
nutrients for rice cultivation in the tropics are 2 and 1 cmolc/kg, respectively
(Dobermann and Fairhurst, 2000).
Total carbon in the sediments ranged from 0.23 to 2.32%. That means in terms of
organic matter contents, most of the sediments contained 2-3% (organic matter = total
C x 1.724), which was considered suitable for crop growth. In the case of total nitrogen,
its value was 0.04-0.23%; a good soil contains >0.1% nitrogen. The N content of a soil
is often positively correlated with the amount of organic matter as N is one of its
important constituents.
One of the most important findings of the study was the low fertility of the sediments
as shown by their high acidity, which was related with high concentration of Al and/or
Fe. For the silted sediments under investigation, the content of both metals was very
high, with concentration way above the critical level for sustainable crop production.
Where do the Al and Fe coming from? It could have been that during the process of
mineral silicate weathering in the rocks forming the soils in the upper reaches of the
Kelantan River, Al and Fe were released into the soft weathered materials (saprolite),
which was located 1-2 m below the soil surface.
It was assumed that the yellowish/reddish coloration of the sediments in the studied
areas was indicative of the presence of some hematite. This was the color of the muddy
water flowing into the Kelantan River during the height of the great flood (Azuhan,
2015); hence, it was as dubbed as “Yellow Water Flood” by the locals. The high acidity
as well as the high concentration of Al and/or Fe would significantly affect crop growth,
especially rice and other acid non-tolerant plant species (Shamshuddin et al., 2014). Al
and Fe were toxic metals and if they were present in high amount in the soils silted with
the sediments, they would curtail rice growth and its yield would significantly be
decreased.
Relationship between pH and exchangeable aluminum
The pH of the deposits was negatively correlated with the exchangeable Al and the
relationship was given by the equation Y = -0.138x + 4.353 (R2 = 0.245). That means
as the Al content increased, the pH of the deposits decreased. The newly available Al
subsequently underwent hydrolysis in the presence of water, resulting in the release of
protons that increased soil acidity. Therefore, the more the Al in the soil solution, the
higher would be the acidity, which was indicated by the low pH. Soil pH would have
to be increased by liming using ground magnesium (GML) at the appropriate rate to
59
make the soils affected by the flood suitable for crop production again. When soil pH
increases above 5, Al starts to precipitate as inert Al-hydroxides.
Relationship between pH and extractable iron
The pH of the deposits was also negatively correlated with the extractable Fe and the
relationship was given by the equation Y = -0.007x + 4.672 (R2 = 0.283). Fe hydrolysis
produced more acidity than that of Al, indicating that Fe was more acidic. This can be
explained by the pKa value of Fe (3) is lower than that of the Al (5). The form of iron
toxic to rice is Fe2+. The phenomenon of Fe2+ toxicity usually occurs within the first
three weeks of the field after being flooded for rice cultivation. When water pH
increases to the level above its pKa due reduction process, the Fe2+ will be precipitated
as Fe-hydroxides; hence, no longer becoming a threat to rice growth.
Relationship between total N and total C
Total nitrogen in the deposits was positively correlated with total carbon and the
relationship was given by the equation Y = 0.087x + 0.028 (R2 = 0.590). This clearly
showed that we need to add organic matter into the silted deposits in order to increase
nitrogen reserve for the healthy growth of rice and/or other crops planted on them.
Nitrogen is an important component of organic matter. Based on carbon and nitrogen
content, we can assume that most of the sediments silted by the floodwater in the
Kelantan Plains were a mixture of the topsoil (high total C) and subsoil (low total C),
with contents depending on the location where the samples were taken. Overall, the
sediments under study contained insufficient amount of total carbon and/or total
nitrogen; hence, agricultural production on soils silted with these materials would
certainly be negatively affected.
Enhancing the productivity of soils in the affected areas
This study clearly showed that the sediments deposited on the agricultural lands in the
Kelantan Plains during the great flood of 2014 were unsuitable for crop production,
unless they were treated with appropriate amendments. Some of the silted sediments
were too clayey, low in organic matter and nitrogen, but high in acidity, Al and/or Fe
contents. The soil acidity and the contents of the acid metals should be reduced to the
acceptable level via appropriate means so that they no longer becoming a threat to the
crops growing on the soils silted by the sediments.
The study suggested that the land affected by the flood in Kota Bharu and Tumpat
districts, Kelantan should be adequately limed with GML to reduce the acidity to the
minimal level required for crop production. To promote the formation of soil structures,
organic matter in the form of bio-fertilizer, fortified with beneficial microbes should be
applied regularly at the rate depending on its amount already present in the silted
sediments.
CONCLUSION
When heavy rain fell in these areas on December 2014, very serious flood occurred that
resulted in severe soil erosion as well as untold damages to the agricultural lands and
people properties. The areas in the lower reaches of the river were heavily silted with
60
low fertility materials considered unsuitable for crop production. The silted sediments
contained quarts, mica, feldspars, kaolinite, gibbsite and hematite, coming from the top-
and subsoil of the upland areas. The pH of most of these sediments was very low, while
Al and/or Fe contents were very high. The content of nitrogen and carbon varied from
area to area, depending on the flow rate of the flood water. The most appropriate
measure to improve soil productivity would be to apply ground magnesium limestone
in combination with bio-fertilizer, fortified with beneficial microbes that would
increase their pH to a level above 5. Addition of organic matter would enhance the
formation of soil structures and consequently improve soil productivity even further.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wish to record his utmost appreciation to Universiti Putra Malaysia and the
Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for financial and technical support.
REFERENCES
Azuhan, M. 2015. 2014 Kelantan flood – divine vs anthropogenic causes. Proc.

National Geoscience Conference 2015. July 31-August 1, 2015, Kota Bharu,
Kelantan, Malaysia. Geological Society of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. pp: 2-5.
Dobermann, A. & Fairhurst, T. 2000. Rice. Nutrient disorders & nutrient
management. Handbook series. Potash & Phosphate Institute (PPI), Potash &
Phosphate Institute of Canada (PPIC) and International Rice Research Institute,
Philippine. p. 191.
Nor Sayzwani, S. Y. Siti Hajar, J. Musfiroh, K. K. Farah, A. Noor Syuhadah, &
Zulhazman, H. 2015. Determination of heavy metal concentration in soil at
Dabong, Kelantan. Proc. National Geoscience Conference 2015. July 31-August 1,
2015, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia. Geological Society of Malaysia, Kuala
Lumpur. pp: 235.
Nurul Akma, J., Khanan, Z. & Haq Bhat, I.U.Y.I. 2015. Effects of recent flood on
soil properties. Proc. National Geoscience Conference 2015. July 31-August 1,
2015, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia. Geological Society of Malaysia, Kuala
Lumpur. pp: 207.
Sathiamurthy, E. & Kong, Y.H. 2015. Kelantan state great flood event in December
2014 – hydrology perspective. Proc. National Geoscience Conference 2015. July 31-
August 1, 2015, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia. Geological Society of Malaysia,
Kuala Lumpur. pp: 41-42.
Shamshuddin, J., Elisa Azura, A., Shazana, M. A. R. S., Fauziah, C. I., Panhwar,
Q. A. & Naher, U. A. 2014. Properties and Management of Acid Sulfate Soils in
Southeast Asia for Sustainable Cultivation. Adv. Agron., 124(1): 91–142.
Shamshuddin, J., Panhwar, Q.A., Radziah, O., Roslan, I., Hamdan, J. & Melissa,
A.Y. 2016. Effects of December 2014 great flood on physico-chemical properties of
the soils in the Kelantan Plains, Malaysia. J. Water Resource Prot., 8: 263-276.
61
Impacts of Different Organic Matter and Nitrogen Fertilizer
Application on Soil Properties and Wheat Yield
Karami, A.1, Ebrahimi Pak, N.A.2 and Ziaeyan, A.H.1
1
Soil and Water Research Department, Fars Agricultural and Natural Resources
Research and Education Center, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension
Organization (AREEO), Shiraz, Iran
2
Soil and Water Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension
Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
E-mail: Alidad_karami@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
In our semi-arid regions soil organic carbon is crucial for sustaining crop productivity.
Some researchers indicated the positive effects of soil organic matters on soil structure,
soil porous, and soil electro conductivity, microorganisms, carbon and nitrogen rate
(Blanchet et al., 2016). Knowledge about the soil organic carbon and soil physical
processes may improve the scientific basis of management decisions. Also, Soil
physical condition and nutrient buffering capacity are both strongly influenced by soil
organic matter (Esmaeilzadeh and Gholamalizadeh Ahangar, 2014). Physical benefits
of stable soil organic matter are enhances aggregate stability, improving water
infiltration and soil aeration, reducing runoff, improving water holding capacity,
reducing the stickiness of clay soils making them easier to till and Reduces surface
crusting, facilitating seedbed preparation (Kuoe and Joñczyk, 2008; Liu et al., 2006).
The interrelationship between SOC and soil structure and other physical properties has
been extensively studied (Carter, 2002; Oades, 1984). The physical deterioration often
associated with a decline in organic matter content is manifested by a decline in wet
aggregate stability, an increase in bulk and clod densities, an increase in modulus of
rupture, and a decline in large pore space (Kuoe and Joñczyk, 2008). The effects of N
fertilizer applications on soil organics matter status and soil physical properties are
importance to agricultural sustainability and to increase crop yield (Zhong et al., 2014).
Therefore, this study was conducted to evaluate the effect of different amounts of
organic matter (OM) and nitrogen fertilizer on soil properties, increasing of potential
and enhancing of the productivity of soil and water resources and wheat yield.
A strip block experimental design was implemented with three replications on a silty
clay loam soil of Zarghan, in Fars province of Iran. In this experiment, was used the
manure at a rate of 10 (M1) and 20 (M3) tons per hectare and the compost with two
levels of 10 (M2) and 20 (M4) tons per hectare, and a nitrogen fertilizer in three levels
including: non-use (N0), 50 (N1), 75 (N2), and 100 percent of nitrogen requirement
based on soil test (N3). Soil parameters such as: soil bulk density (BD), infiltration
models parameters, final infiltration rate, infiltrated water in 150 minutes, aggregates
mean weight diameter, geometric mean diameter, the fractal models parameters for
quantification of soil structure, soil organic carbon percentage, and available zinc of
soil and growth and yield parameters of wheat plant including: plant height, number of
panicles per square meter, number of grains per panicle, kernel weight, grain yield, soil
organic carbon after harvesting, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and zinc in wheat flag
leaves were measured.
62
The studied soil properties was without salinity, with low organic carbon content,
medium to high percentage of TNV, low phosphorus and medium Potassium, and
medium content of micronutrients. The used water had alkaline reaction, with suitable
condition of salinity and alkalinity and amounts of its chloride, and sodium were low.
The results showed that: the highest bulk density was obtained from un-use organic
materials and lowest BD was obtained from the maximum amount of organic materials.
The soil infiltration, and final infiltration rate increased with the further application of
OM, and the compost was more effective. The organic materials enhanced the
aggregation and aggregate stability. The maximum amount of MWD was obtained from
high amount of manure fertilizer. Fractal dimension models of Riue and Sposito (1991),
and Tyler and Wheat-Craft (1992), as a qualifying indicator of soil structure were in
the appropriate range. For example together interaction effect of organic matter and
nitrogen treatments on fractal dimension of Rieu and Sposito equation presented in
Figure 1.
2.89a
2.89a
2.87ab
2.85ab
2.86ab
2.83abc
2.84abc
2.83abc
2.86ab
2.85ab
2.85ab
2.90
2.82abc
2.84ab
Fractal dimension of
2.81abc
2.82abc
2.81abc
2.79abc
2.80abc
Rieu and Sposito
2.85
2.77bc
2.80
2.73c
equation
2.75
2.70
2.65
M0NO
MON90
MON135
MON180
M10-DNO
M10-DN90
M10-DN135
M10-DN180
M20-DNO
M20-DN90
M20-DN135
M20-DN180
M10-CNO
M10-CN90
M10-CN135
M10-CN180
M20-CNO
M20-CN90
M20-CN135
M20-CN180
Treatments
Figure 1: Interaction effect of different treatments on fractal dimension of Rieu and
Sposito equation
The impact of the organic materials and nitrogen application on the percentage of
organic carbon in soil was insignificant in early cultivation; but the treatments with high
nitrogen caused faster increased in the soil OM. Ultimately, with the progressing of
humification process, treatments with the high OM, further increased soil organic
carbon. The highest amount of the available zinc provided by the maximum OM
application, that the manure fertilizer and compost had the same effects. The effect of
nitrogen, organic matter and their interactions increased plant height, panicle number
per unit area, and wheat grain number per cluster. Although the further amount of the
organic matter reduced the kernel weight, but the highest kernel weight was obtained
from the maximum amount of nitrogen treatment. Separate and combine application of
organic materials and nitrogen significantly increased grain yield (Figure 2), and the
highest grain yield were obtained from the maximum amount of manure fertilizer.
63
12000
9700
9700
9200
9200
9183
Grain yield (kg/ha)
8950
8833
8773
8717
8633
8600
8367
8283
8250
8017
7867
7300
7183
7067
6667
8000
4000
0
M0N0
M0N90
M0N135
M0N180
M10-DN0
M10-DN90
M10-DN135
M10-DN180
M20-DN0
M20-DN90
M20-DN135
M20-DN180
M10-CN0
M10-CN90
M10-CN135
M10-CN180
M20-CN0
M20-CN90
M20-CN135
M20-CN180
c ab ab abc bc ab abc abc abc a abc abc abc abc abc abc abc bc a ab
Treatments
Figure 2: Interaction effects of organic matter and nitrogen treatments on wheat grain
yield
Although, in the most cases the individual and combined application of nitrogen and
organic materials was improve the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium concentration
in wheat flag-leaf, however, these variations did not have a clear trend. Separate and
combined application of nitrogen and organic materials was increased the uptake of
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, zinc and wheat grain protein (Figure 3).
17.1ab
18.3a
19.1a
15.8c
17.3b
16.9c
15.9d
17b
16.1c
Protein concentration
20
of wheat grain (%)
10
Treatments
Figure 3: Effects of organic matter and nitrogen treatments on protein concentration of

wheat grain
CONCLUSION
Both organic amendments improved soil properties. For the sustainable production and
conservation of soil resources, the use of organic materials did necessary for improving
soil physicochemical properties; but to their real understands impact on soil quality
indicators and yield operation needs a long-term research. Knowledge about soil
properties may improve the scientific basis of management decisions, e.g., adding some
amendments for better management of agricultural areas.
REFERENCES
Blanchet, G., Gavazov, K., Bragazza, L. & Sinaj, S. 2016. Responses of soil
properties and crop yields to different inorganic and organic amendments in a Swiss
conventional farming system. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 230: 116–
126.
64
Carter, M.R. 2002. Soil quality for sustainable land management: organic matter and
aggregation interactions that maintain soil functions. Agron. J. 94: 38-47.
Esmaeilzadeh, J. & Gholamalizadeh Ahangar, A. 2014. Influence of soil organic
matter content on soil physical, chemical and biological properties. International
Journal of Plant, Animal and Environmental Sciences. 4(4): 244-252.
Kuoe, J. & Joñczyk, K. 2008. Influence of organic and conventional crop production
system on some parameters of soil fertility. J. Res. Appl. Agric. Eng., 53: 161-165.
Liu, X., Herbert, S.J., Hashemi, A.M., Zhang, X. & Ding, G. 2006. Effects of
agricultural management on soil organic matter and carbon transformation – a
review. Plant Soil Environ., 52(12): 531–543.
Oades, J.M. 1984. Soil organic matter and water stable aggregates in soils. Plant and
Soil, 76: 319-337.
Rieu, M. & Sposito, G. 1991. Fractal fragmentation, soil porosity, and soil water
properties: Π. Aplications. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 55:1239-1244.
Tyler, S.W. & Wheatcraft, S.W. 1992. Fractal scaling of soil particle-size
distributions: analysis and limitations. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 56: 362-369.
Zhong, H., Wang, Q., Zhao, X., Du, Q., Zhao, Y., Wang, X., Jiang, C., Zhao, S.,
Cao, M., Yu, H. & Wang, D. 2014. Effects of Different Nitrogen Applications on
Soil Physical, Chemical Properties and Yield in Maize (Zea mays L.). Agricultural
Sciences, 5: 1440-1447.
65
Comparing Growing-Season N2O Flux of a Corn Field Measured
Using Micrometeorological Technique and Static Chamber
Sulaiman, M.F.1,2, Wagner-Riddle, C.1, Voroney, R.P.1, Warland, J.S.1 and Rochette,
P.3
1
School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd E, Guelph, ON
N1G 2W1, Canada
2
43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Soils and Crops Research and Development
Centre, 2560, Hochelaga Blvd., Ste-Foy, G1V 2J3, Quebec, Canada
E-mail: muhdfirdaus@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Agricultural activities emit significant amounts of trace gases to the atmosphere that
are responsible for the greenhouse effect. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is one of the main
greenhouse gases being emitted from agricultural activities (Smith et al., 2014).
Monitoring N2O in agricultural fields is important to gauge the extent of agronomic
activities in emitting N2O and to measure the effectiveness of mitigation strategies
through modification of current agronomic practices.
Micrometeorological technique and manual static chamber are the two methods mainly
used for measuring N2O over agricultural ecosystems. Between the two methods,
chamber is more widely used as its cost of operation are substantially lower compared
to micrometeorological methods, making chamber more accessible to a larger number
of researchers worldwide. Chamber however lack the temporal and spatial resolution
of micrometeorological techniques that can continuously measure fluxes automatically
and can spatially integrate fluxes from the study area, resolving for spatial variability
(Pattey et al., 2006). In the present study, fluxes of N2O measured using chamber and
micrometeorological technique were compared.
This study was conducted for 150 days during the growing season of 2014 at the Elora
Research Station, Ontario, Canada on two 200 X 200 m plots grown in corn (Zea mays
L.) where each plot was applied with dairy manure at 150 kg N ha-1 in spring and fall.
Measurement of N2O fluxes using chambers was made by using 12 non-flow through
non-steady-state (NFT-NSS) chambers (Rochette and Bertrand, 2007) on each fall and
spring-applied plots (24 in total) twice weekly for four weeks after corn was planted
and weekly afterwards. Fluxes were measured between 0900-1200 and were considered
to represent the mean daily flux (Alves et al., 2012).
The micrometeorological method used for measuring fluxes of N2O is the flux-gradient
technique (FG). Gas concentration and 3-D wind direction were sampled at 10 Hz using
a tunable laser diode spectrometer and sonic anemometer, respectively and averaged to
30-min fluxes which were later used to calculate the mean daily flux. Linear
extrapolation was carried out to estimate missing mean daily flux for both chambers
and micrometeorological methods.
66
Overall, N2O fluxes measured using chambers and micrometeorological methods both
showed similar trends where episodes of high N2O emission were observed during the
first 30 days after corn was planted and declined to rates close to 0 nmol m -2 s-1 soon
afterwards (Figure 1).
Cumulative N2O flux throughout the observation period in the spring-applied plot were
1.13 X 10-1 and 9.51 X 10-2 g N2O-N m-2 as measured using chambers and FG,
respectively. In the fall-applied plot, cumulative N2O flux were 1.29 X 10-1 and 4.74 X
10-2 g N2O-N m-2 as measured using chambers and FG, respectively. The coefficient of
variation (CV) of the chambers ranged between 35 to 217%.
Nitrous oxide flux measured using the FG technique in both the spring and fall-applied
plot showed no discernible diurnal trend. A Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA on ranks
performed on the half-hourly means within each plot showed no significant difference
(p <0.05) between each half-hourly mean.
The larger cumulative fluxes measured using chamber in both plots were due to an
overestimation from linearly interpolating the fluxes between successive chamber
measurements which demonstrated the temporal resolution pitfalls of using the
chamber method. Ideal daily sampling may not be feasible to most researchers and thus,
linear interpolation between successive samplings is relied upon to estimate missing
N2O ux. This gravely led to different conclusions between the two techniques where
cumulative flux measured using chambers would suggest that the fall-applied plot
emitted higher N2O during the growing season whereas cumulative N2O measured
using FG would suggest otherwise.
Figure 1: Mean daily soil N2O fluxes measured using chamber and the flux-gradient
method in the fall-applied plot (A) and spring-applied plot (B).
The large range of the CV between chambers showed the high spatial variation of the
study site. The half-hourly flux of both N2O and CH4 did not show any significant
differences between each other and no significant diurnal trend. Our observations
67
reiterated that recommendations by Alves et al. (2012) that sampling between 0900 to
1100 is representative of the mean daily flux.
CONCLUSION
Chambers lack the spatial integration that micrometeorological methods possess

making chambers less suitable for measurement of fluxes over large landscapes due to
the need for a large number of chambers to capture the spatial variability of the site.
Chambers also lack the temporal resolution that is needed to capture intermittent flushes
of N2O which are highly episodic. Nevertheless, chambers would still remain relevant
for measuring GHG over smaller scales and to distinguish fluxes of individual sources
in an ecosystem. No diurnal trend was observed for N2O fluxes measured using
micrometeorological methods, increasing the confidence that chamber measurements
made on a single time of the day can represent the mean daily flux.
REFERENCES
Alves, B. J. R., Smith, K. A., Flores, R. A., Cardoso, A. S., Oliveira, W. R. D.,
Jantalia, C. P., Urquiaga, S. & Boddey, R. M. 2012. Selection of the most suitable
sampling time for static chambers for the estimation of daily mean N2O flux from
soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 46: 129-135.
Pattey, E., Edwards, G., Strachan, I. B., Desjardins, R. L., Kaharabata, S. &
Wagner Riddle, C. 2006. Towards standards for measuring greenhouse gas fluxes
from agricultural fields using instrumented towers. Canadian Journal of Soil
Science, 86(3): 373-400.
Rochette, P. & Bertrand, N. (2007). Soil-Surface Gas Emissions, in `Soil Sampling
and Methods of Analysis, Second Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
Smith, P., Bustamante, M., Ahammad, H., Clark, H., Dong, H., Elsiddig, E. A.,
Haberl, H., Smith, P., Clark, H., Dong, H., Elsiddig, E.A., Haberl, H., Harper,
R., House, J., Jafari, M., Masera, O., Mbow, C. & Ravindranath, N.H. 2014.
Agriculture, forestry and other land use (AFOLU). In: Climate Change 2014:
Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, in O.
[Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A.
Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S.
Schl•omer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J. C. Minx, eds, `Climate Change 2014:
Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change', Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. 811-922
pp.
68
Effects of Basalt Dust Application on Soil Properties and Growth of
Rubber under Nursery Condition on an Ultisol
Shafar, J.M.1, Noordin, W.D.1, Shamshuddin, J.2, Hanafi, M.M.2, 3 and Zulkefly, S.1,3
1
Department of Crop Science, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia
2
Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia,
3
Institute of Plantation Studies, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia
E-mail: shafarjefri@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
Rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) is well known for its latex production and now as a
source of good quality timber for furniture making (International Rubber Research and
Development Board, 2006). Most of the plantation crops (rubber, oil palm and cocoa)
are planted on highly weathered soils in Southeast Asia (Noordin, 2013). Rengam
Series (Ultisol) soil is widely distributed in Peninsular Malaysia. Agrogeology or the
use of rocks for crops is an interdisciplinary approach that aims to study geological
processes and natural rock and mineral materials that contribute to the maintenance of
agro-ecosystems (van Straaten, 2006). Recent research on use of basalt as soil
amelioration has been reported (Shamshuddin et al., 2016; Panhwar et al., 2016). In
Peninsular Malaysia, basalt can be found in Segamat and Kuantan (Gobbett, 1972).
This study was carried out using Segamat basalt to determine the effects on soil
properties and observe the responses of young rubber plants in terms of growth to its
application under nursery condition on rengam series.
Soil used in this experiment was Rengam Series yellow and red variant (fine, clayey,
kaolinitic, isohyperthermic, Typic Kandiudult). Both types of soils were subjected to
different rates of basalt dust treatment (less than 0.01 mm), 0 g, 40 g, 80 g, 160 g and
240 g per polybag (0, 5, 10, 20 and 30 tonnes/ha). Basalt from Segamat mainly consist
of SiO2 (47.74%), MgO (10.59%), CaO (11.96%), K2O (3.78%), P2O5 (0.44%), Na2O
(1.31%) and others (Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973). The experimental design used was
Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Rubber seedlings
of RRIM 3001 clone at the age of 3 months were used. The growth parameters, such as
girth and height were measured once in three months for a year. After six months and
one year, destructive sampling was done to record the biomass production and soil
chemical properties. Soil pH was determined using standard pH meter. The cation
exchange capacity (CEC) was determined by using 1M NH4OAc (pH 7.0) method
(Thomas, 1982). Adsorbed NH4+ was displaced with potassium sulphate solution and
determined using auto-analyzer. For calculation of crop growth rate in terms of girth,
the formula was adapted from Gardner et al., (1985) was used. Girth growth rate was
calculated using following the formula:
(𝐺2 − 𝐺1)
𝐺𝐺𝑅 =
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
Where;
69
GGR = Girth growth rate
G = Girth
T = Time
In this case, the ground area was not considered and the unit was cm/month/plant.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) on data obtained was performed using Statistical

Analysis System (SAS 9.4, SAS Institute, Inc. Cary NC. USA). Least Significant
Different (LSD) at 0.05 significance level was employed for mean comparisons only if
F values were found to be significant.
Figure 1 shows the result of data on soil pH and CEC from treatments in Rengam soil
series. The result showed Treatment 5 (240 g basalt) had the highest pH among the
treatments for both soils after 6 months (4.75 and 4.76) and 12 months (4.87 and 5.04).
Soil pH and CEC increased steadily with increasing rate of basalt applied over time.
All the treatments with basalt application had higher pH and CEC value than control.
Dissolution of minerals in basalt (mainly olivine and pyroxene) will release nutrients
in the soil solution. Previous studies also showed similar results, that increasing rate of
basalt applied over time, steadily increased pH and CEC of the soil. Higher CEC
reduces the loss of cations into the groundwater under strongly leaching environment
in the tropics (Anda et al., 2015; Shamshuddin et al., 2011).
Girth recorded show that different soils and different rates of basalt dust applied
significantly influenced the growth of young rubber plants (Figure 2). It was highest at
the first three months for highest rate of basalt (240 g/plant) with 0.05 and 0.11
cm/month/plant for red and yellow variant of Rengam Series soils, respectively.
5.2 10
7.75
5 5.04 6.98
8 6.53 6.43
4.87 6.02
CEC (cmol kg-1)
4.8 4.76 5.74 6.76

6 5.16 6.27
4.73 4.75 4.94 4.55 5.24
pH
4.6 3.58 4.87

4.53 3.12 4.52 5.16
4.45 4 4.23
4.4 4.42 4.42 3.26
4.33 4.33 4.36 3.04
4.2 4.24 4.23 4.26 2
4.2 4.2 4.19
4.15
4.1
4 0
0 40 80 160 240 0 40 80 160 240
Basalt rate (g/plant) Basalt rate (g/plant)
red 6 red 12 yellow 6 yellow 12
red 6 yellow 6 red 12 yellow 12
Figure 1: Soil pH and CEC
70
Girth Growth Rate for Red Soil
GGGR (cm/month)
1.50 0.89 0.950.96 0.98 0
1.02 1.11
0.78 0.66 0.61 0.64
1.00 0.55 0.410.53 40
0.37 0.35
0.50 0.03 0.05 0.05 80
0.03 0.02
0.00 160
cgr0-3 3_6 6_9 12_9
240
Period (month)
Girth Growth Rate for Yellow Soil

(cm/month/plant)
1.12
1.50 1.08 1.09
0.87 0.97 0.94 0.71 0
GGR
1.00 0.52 0.44 0.500.470.630.64

0.44
0.50 0.04 0.050.08 0.11 0.23 40
0.02
0.00 80
cgr0-3 3_6 6_9 12_9
160
Period (month)
Figure 2: Girth growth rate (GGR) at every three months.
CONCLUSION
Growth of RRIM 3001 seedlings planted on Rengam Series, red and yellow variant
(Typic Kandiudult) significantly enhanced by basalt dust application. Application of
basalt dust improved fertility of the soil and eventually growth of young rubber plants.
The effect of basalt dust application on the growth was evident after three months and
continued to increase over time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The researchers would like to thank University Putra Malaysia for the technical and
financial assistance under the Research University Grant Scheme (RUGS) No: 01-02-
12-1677RU and (RUGS-GP-IPS) No: 9433907.
REFERENCES
Anda, M., Shamshuddin, J. & Fauziah, C.I. 2015. Improving Chemical Properties
of a Highly Weathered Soil Using Finely Ground Basalt Rocks. Catena, 124: 147-
161. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.09.012
Gardner, F.P., Pearce, R.B. & Mitchell, R.L. 1985. Physiology of Crop Plants. Iowa
State University Press: USA, 327pp.
Gobbett, D.G. 1972. Geological Map of the Malay Peninsula. Geological Society of
Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur.
International Rubber Research and Development Board. 2006. Potrait of the Global
Rubber Industry. International Rubber Research and Development Board, Kuala
Lumpur.
Noordin, W.D. 2013. Rubber Plantation: Soil and Nutritional Requirements. UPM
Press: Serdang.
Panhwar, Q.A., Naher, U.A., Shamshuddin, J., Radziah, O. & Ismail, M.R. 2016.
Applying Limestone or Basalt in Combination with Bio-Fertilizer to Sustain Rice
Production on an Acid Sulfate Soil in Malaysia. Sustainability, 8(7): 700. DOI:
10.3390/su8070700
71
Shamshuddin, J., Anda, M., Fauziah, C.I. & Syed Omar, S.R. 2011. Growth of
Cocoa Planted on Highly Weathered Soil as Affected by Application of Basalt
and/or Compost. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 42(22): 2751-
2766. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2011.622822
Shamshuddin, J., Panhwar, Q.A., Shazana, M.A.R.S., Elisa, A., Fauziah, C.I. &
Naher, U. 2016. Improving the Productivity of Acid Sulfate Soils for Rice
Cultivation using Limestone, Basalt, Organic Fertilizer and/or their Combinations.
Sains Malaysiana, 45(3): 383–392.
Thomas G.W. 1982 Exchangeable Cations. In Page A.L., Miller R.H., and Keeny
D.R.(Eds.) Methods of soil analyses. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological
Properties-Agronomy pp. 159-165. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Van Straaten, P. 2006. Farming with Rocks and Minerals: Challenges and
Opportunities. Annals of the Brazilian Academy of Sciences, 78(4): 731-747. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0001-37652006000400009
72
Spatio-Temporal Variability of Heavy Metal Concentrations in Soil-
Rice System and Its Socio-Environmental Analysis
Imran, H.S.
Key Laboratory of Crop Germplasm Resource, Department of Agronomy, College of
Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, P.R. China
E-mail: drimran@zju.edu.cn
INTRODUCTION
Increasing soil pollution is of much concern worldwide including China, because of

rapid increase in urbanization, industrialization and increasing trend of using
agrochemicals. And with vehicle exhausts it has become a pivotal environmental
problem over past decades (Tam et al., 1987; Manzoor et al., 2006; Cai et al., 2012).
The consumption of heavy metals in several foods and human diet through crops can
surely damage human health (Lee et al., 2006; Li et al., 2009; Franco-Uría et al., 2009).
Two main factors of heavy metals, found in agricultural soils are natural and
anthropogenic with earlier associated with weathering of parent rocks and pedogenesis.
It is therefore of due importance to quantify and evaluate the heavy metal
concentrations in soils for defining the sources for monitoring soil quality, to aid policy
designed to decrease heavy metal inputs and ensure food safety (Micó et al., 2006). In
this study, we focus on the temporal variations of heavy metals in soil and rice grain
between 2006 and 2011. This will help us to determine changes and trends in heavy
metal contamination and provide the necessary information for effective environment
management in the region. We also combine this data with socio-environmental
parameters, providing an interpretation of the variations in heavy metal concentrations
in rice paddy soils.
Study area and samples
Wenling County, southeast of Zhejiang Province, China has an area of 926 km 2

(121°10′‒121°44′ E, 28°13′‒28°32′ N) with population of more than 1.3 million. Rice
is the main grain crop in this area. 99 rice grain samples and their corresponding soil
samples (0‒15 cm in depth) were collected from Wenlingin October. At least 5 sub-
samples within distances of 10 m were taken from each field and then mixed to obtain
composite samples. A Differential Global Position System (GPS) was utilized in
recording of the coordinates of sampling locations. Portions of the sieved soil samples
(50 g) were ground in an agate mortar and passed through a 0.149 mm mesh. Rice
samples were oven-dried at 105 oC for 1 h, and then at 70 oC to constant weight. After
removing the hulls, rice samples were comminuted and ground to pass through a 0.149
mm mesh. All the prepared samples were stored in polyethylene bottles for analysis.
Chemical analysis
The total heavy metals concentrations in the soils were determined by acid digestion
with a mixture of HNO3-HF-HClO4. Rice samples were digested with HNO3 and H2O2.
The concentrations of Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn were measured by flame-atomic
73
absorption spectroscopy (FAAS, Jena novAA300, Germany) and graphite furnace
atomic absorption spectroscopy (GFAAS, Perkin Elmer AA800, USA).
Geo-statistical analysis
The raster calculator in the Spatial Analyst tool allows the use of arithmetic operators
for the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of two raster layers (ESRI,
2001). This method was used to calculate temporal changing percentages of each metal
between 2006 and 2011 from the formula: [(X2011-X2006)/2006] (Olmos and Brich,
2010), where X is the raster layer converted from the interpolation map of each metal.
Redundancy (RDA) analysis
(RDA) was used to quantify the relationship between the response variable values
(heavy metals), the environmental variable gradients and samples. The resulting
ordination diagram shows sites as points, and heavy metals and environmental factors
as vectors whose magnitude and angle indicate statistical significance and magnitude
of the correlations with an ordination axis or another vector (Liang et al., 2012).
Data analysis
Correlation analysis and descriptive statistics were performed with SPSS 16. Temporal
change maps of heavy metals were prepared using the ArcGIS Ver. 10.1. RDA analysis
and its resulting ordination diagram were generated using CANOCO for Windows, Ver.
4.5.
Descriptive statistics of heavy metals
Heavy metal concentration in rice was below the standardized values (Ministry of
Health of China, 2012) in 2006 and 2011. Thus, the quality of rice in thestudy area was
acceptable until 2011. Among these metals, the concentration of Cd changed greatly
between 2006 and 2011. The mean Cd concentration nearly doubled from 0.072 mg kg-
1
(2006) to 0.140 mg kg-1 (2011) during this period. The CV showed greater variability
of Cd in 2011 than in 2006. The percentage of samples exceeding the standardized
value of Cd increased from 9.38% in 2006 to 22.22% in 2011.
Temporal changes of spatial patterns
There were significant positive correlations (p<0.05) between the pairs of heavy metals
except Ni-Pb. The correlations between soil heavy metals and soil properties indicated
that Cd and Cu were positively related to organic matter (OM). Nickel was positively
correlated with all the properties except OM and sand which had negative associations
with it. Lead (Pb) showed positive correlations with OM and sand whereas it was
negatively correlated with pH, clay and free Fe oxide. Zinc was positively correlated
with EC, OM, silt and amorphous Fe oxide, and negatively with sand. Heavy metals
had distinct relationships with the anthropogenic factors. Nickel had a positive
relationship with population density and negative with rice output. Lead was negatively
correlated with population density. Likely, zinc was positively correlated with farmer
74
income, factory density and total industrial output value (scaled). In contrast, Cd and
Cu were not significantly correlated with the anthropogenic factors.
RDA analysis
The RDA analysis model examines the relationships between samples, species and
environmental gradients together on the same diagram (McKinley et al., 2005). The
two groups of environmental variables, soil properties and anthropogenic factors,
explained 36.3% and 16.6% respectively of the variations in soil heavy metal
concentrations. Based upon interaction between the factors, a total of 43.3% of the
variation in heavy metal concentrations could be explained by the model (from the
canonical sum of the Eigen values). There were soil properties such as EC, OM and
amorphous Fe oxide in this part. Sampling sites were mainly from Zeguo and Chengxi
towns. Lead and Cd were in the upper left quadrant where rice output was important
and both organic matter and sand were in high quantity. Sampling sites which affected
by these two metals were primarily located in Daxi and Wenqiao. High Ni
concentration occurred in the lower quadrant separately in close relationship with many
soil properties including silt, pH, clay and free Fe oxide. Soils from Binhai and
Songmen had higher Ni concentrations than other sites.
Quality of rice in the study area is currently below the national threshold; the increasing
trend of Cd contamination in rice is significant and needs careful monitoring. The
increased concentrations of Cd in soil were distributed in the northern regions to a
significant degree. This may be due to the intensive E-waste recycling activities. Thus,
monitoring and protection measures should be adopted to prevent further increases in
Cd pollution. The concentrations of Cu in soils increased significantly, mainly in the
east, between 2006 and 2011. Although there was no increase in Cu in rice until now,
these increases in soils may lead to higher concentrations in rice in future. The
increasing trend of CVs in soil from 2006 to 2011 indicated that heavy metal
concentrations in the paddy soils were probably affected by increasing human activities
over this period (Liu et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2009). Heavy metals in soil and rice
samples showed different increasing trends especially with Cd, Cu and Ni. Daxi and
Wenqiao soils contained high concentrations of Cd and Pb, where intensive agriculture
practices (OM and rice output) were followed. Our research gave a general indication
of heavy metal variability in soil and rice and the socio-environmental interpretation of
concentrations of heavy metals in soils of the study area. Isotopic fingerprinting, which
has a high discriminatory power, may also be useful for the identification of source of
heavy metals in future studies.
CONCLUSION
Between 2006 and 2011, high potential risks to soil environmental quality and rice
caused by Cd pollution were suggested in the study area. The increased risk of Cu
contamination in soils was also confirmed. There was a close relationship between
economic and social development and the accumulation of Zn in paddy soils. Our study
provides reliable data to assist the development of strategies for reducing heavy metal
accumulation and concentration in agricultural land and soils and to effectively target
policies for preserving soil quality and food safety in the long-term.
75
REFERENCES
Cai, L.M., Xu, Z.C., Ren, M.Z., Guo, Q.W., Hu, X.B., Hu, G.C., Wan H.F. & Peng,
P.A.2012. Source identification of eight hazardous heavy metals in agricultural soils
of Huizhou, Guangdong Province, China. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety, 78: 2‒8.
Chen, T., Liu, X.M., Li, X., Zhao, K.L., Zhang, J.B., Xu, J.M., Shi, J.C. &
Dahlgren, R.A. 2009. Heavy metal sources identification and sampling uncertainty
analysis in a field-scale vegetable soil of Hangzhou, China. Environ. Pollut.,157:
1003‒101.
ESRI. 2001.ArcGIS v9.Using ArcGIS geostatistical analyst. ESRI, Redlands, USA.
Franco-Uría, A., López-Mateo, C., Roca, E. & Fernández-Marcos, M.L.
2009.Source identification of heavy metals in pastureland by multivariate analysis
in NW Spain. J. Hazard. Mater., 165: 1008-1015.
Lee, C.S., Li, X.D., Shi, W.Z., Cheung, S.C. & Thornton, I. 2006. Metal
contamination in urban, suburban, and country park soils of Hong Kong: A study
based on GIS and multivariate statistics. Sci. Total Environ., 356: 45‒61.
Liang, C., Jesus, E.D.C., Duncan, D.S., Jackson, R.D., Tiedje J.M. & Balser, T.C.
2012. Soil microbial communities under model biofuel cropping systems in southern
Wisconsin, USA: Impact of crop species and soil properties. Appl. Soil Ecol., 54:
24‒31.
Li, J.L., He, M., Han, W. & Gu, Y.F. 2009. Analysis and assessment on heavy metal
sources in the coastal soils developed from alluvial deposits using multivariate
statistical methods. J. Hazard. Mater., 164: 976‒981.
Liu, X.M., Zhao, K.L., Xu, J.M., Zhang, M.H., Si, B. & Wang, F. 2008.Spatial
variability of soil organic matter and nutrients in paddy fields at various scales in
southeast China. Environ. Geol., 53: 1139‒1147.
Manzoor, S., Shah, M.H., Shaheen, N., Khalique, A. &Jaffar, M. 2006. Multivariate
analysis of trace metals in textile effluents in relation to soil and groundwater. J.
Hazard. Mater.,137: 31‒37.
McKinley, V.L., Peacock, A.D. & White, D.C. 2005.Microbial community PLFA and
PHB responses to ecosystem restoration in tallgrass prairie soils. Soil Biol. Biochem.,
37: 1946‒1958.
Micó, C., Recatalá, L., Peris, M. & Sánchez, J. 2006. Assessing heavy metal sources
in agricultural soils of an European Mediterranean area by multivariate analysis.
Chemosphere, 65: 863‒872.
Ministry of Health of China. 2012.Maximum Level of Contaminants in Food.
Available at:
http://www.moh.gov.cn/ewebeditor/uploadfile/2013/01/20130128114248937.pdf
(Accessed: 27 November 2014)
Olmos, M.A. & Birch, G.F. 2010. A novel method using sedimentary metals and GIS
for measuring anthropogenic change in coastal lake environments.Environ. Sci.
Pollut. Res., 17: 270‒287.
Tam, N.F.Y., Liu, W.K., Wong, M.H. & Wong, Y.S. 1987. Heavy metal pollution in
roadside urban parks and gardens in Hong Kong. Sci. Total Environ., 59: 325‒328.
76
A Revisit: Method for Determining Cation Exchange Capacity of
Natural Zeolite
Sukor, A., Azira A.Z.A. and Husni M.H.A.
Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia
E-mail: shairah@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Clinoptilolite is one of the most abundant natural zeolites and it remained as residual
mineral phases during weathering of volcanic parent materials (Ming and Dixon, 1986).
The fundamental building block of natural zeolite is a tetrahedron of four oxygen atoms
surrounding silicon (Si4+) or aluminium (Al3+) atom. The physical structure of zeolite
is porous with interconnected cavities in which exchangeable cations (Na+, K+, Mg2+,
Ca2+) and water molecules are present. The adsorption of counter cations contributed
to the net negative charge of natural zeolites derived from isomorphous substitution of
Si4+ by Al3+ (Dyer and White, 1999). Natural zeolites are classified as low cost
adsorbents and it has been widely used in management of radioactive wastes from the
nuclear reactor, gas purification, petroleum production and wastewater treatment
(Ames, 1961; Hor et al., 2016). One of the important properties of zeolite is the cation
exchange. Among the factors affecting cation exchange of natural zeolite from aqueous
solutions are washing frequency, chemical conditioning, contact time, type of
displacement solution and the presence of soluble and competing ions in aqueous
solution. Based on the study by Ames (1960), the cation selectivity series in natural
zeolite is described as Cesium, Cs+>Ammonium, NH4+>Potassium, K+>Sodium,
Na+>Calcium, Ca2+ >Magnesium, Mg2+. The cation selectivity of natural zeolite is
advantageous for the efficient storage of fission products Cs137 generated from nuclear
power plant. Based on the 11th Malaysia Plan 2016-2020, Malaysia is exploring the
usage of nuclear power as an alternative energy resource (Khattak et al., 2016). The
natural zeolite is abundant worldwide in huge deposits, readily available and
inexpensive compared to the synthetic zeolite. Natural zeolites have been widely used
as ion exchanger but often limited to countries having their own natural zeolite deposits
such as the United States of America, Russia, China, Turkey and Indonesia. The
purpose of this study was to quantify the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of natural
zeolite from different locations (Bayah and Cikembar in West Java, Indonesia) and
particle sizes (0.15 and 0.079 mm) using different displacement solutions of 0.5 M
cesium chloride (CsCl) and 0.5 M potassium chloride (KCl).
The natural zeolite samples from two locations with different particle sizes were
originated from West Java, Indonesia. X-Ray diffraction analysis was conducted to
identify the clinoptilolite mineral at the Department of Land Management, Faculty of
Agriculture, UPM. The pore structure, surface area (micropore and mesopore), total
pore volume, and pore size of natural zeolite were measured using Brunauer-Emmett-
Teller (BET) method (Brunaueret al., 1938) at INFRA Laboratory, Universiti Malaya.
77
Table 1: Key properties of natural zeolite from two different locations (Bayah and
Cikembar) with different particle sizes (0.15 and 0.079 mm) in West Java, Indonesia
Estimated
Particle size Surface area Total pore volume Pore size*
Sample Clinoptilolite
(mm) (m2/g) (cm3/g) (nm)
mineral (%)
Bayah100 78 0.15 56.9 0.083 5.2
Cikembar100 89 0.15 82.2 0.093 3.9
Cikembar200 80 0.079 -- -- --
Bayah 200 71 0.079 -- -- --
*Classification by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Width of pore size between
2 – 50 nm = Mesopores and <2 nm = Micropores (Sing et al., 1985).
The shaking method for determining the CEC of natural zeolite was conducted in four
batches under laboratory condition with a constant room temperature of 27 oC. A total
of six experimental units, which comprises of one location and one particle size with
three replications were analyzed per batch. In each batch, six samples were microwaved
and washed with 50 mL of distilled water. Samples were shaken with an end to end
shaker and then centrifuged. The supernatant was decanted for Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+
determination using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). Five g of samples
with 50 mL of 0.5 M NH4Cl were shaken with an end to end shaker and left equilibrated
for 24 hours. After 24 hours, the sample was mixed with 50 mL of 95% denatured
alcohol and agitated using an end to end shaker and then centrifuged. Samples were
decanted for exchangeable bases (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) determination using AAS. A 50
mL of fresh solution of 0.5 M NH4Cl was then replaced every 24 hours (Mackenzie,
1951) for five consecutive days to imitate a dynamic system of ion exchange (Noda et
al., 1987; Bain and Smith, 1987). Ammonium was then displaced using two
displacement solutions of 0.5 M CsCl and 0.5 M KCl. Ammonium concentration in
solution extract was analyzed using autoanalyzer. The value of NH4+ concentration
obtained in mg L-1 then converted to cmolc kg-1. The sensitivity of natural zeolite CEC
in regards to experimental factors (location, displacement solution and particle size)
were tested with analysis of variance model using the MIXED procedure with SLICE
function. All respective experimental factors were included in the model as independent
variables and CEC as response variable. F-ratio from the model output was used to
assess the relative magnitude on how sensitive that CEC was to experimental factors at
99% confidence level.
F-ratio from the ANOVA models represent the magnitude of the experimental factors
(location, displacement solution and particle size) effect on the CEC of natural zeolite.
Greater sensitivity is reflected by a larger F-ratio. In this study, location (Cikembar and
Bayah) had larger F-ratio than displacement solution and particle size (Table 2). In both
displacement solutions, Cikembar100 recorded significantly higher CEC compared to
Bayah100, 21% and 11%, respectively (Table 3). Higher CEC was observed in
Cikembar100 compared to Bayah100 was due to its higher surface area (31%) and total
pore volume (11%) compared to Bayah100 (Table 1). The CEC of natural zeolite,
particularly clinoptilolite was within range with the value reported by Ahmed et al.
(2006) and Kithome et al. (1998).
78
Table 2: The F-ratio and P-values of sources of variation from experimental factors at
99% confidence level (n=24)
Experimental Factors F-ratio P-value
Particle size 24.35 0.0001
Location 179.95 <.0001
Displacement solution 31.70 <.0001
Purity of clinoptilolite and mesopore size on CEC of natural zeolite
The composition and purity of natural zeolites depend on the amount of clinoptilolite
minerals in the natural deposits. Cikembar100 had 11% higher clinoptilolite mineral
compared to Bayah100 (Table 1). The low CEC measured for Bayah100 and Bayah200
may be due to the lower percentage purity of the clinoptilolite mineral content in those
samples (Table1). According to Ferguson and Pepper (1987), clinoptilolite zeolite is
characterized by a rigid three dimensional lattice with tunnels that are nm in size
containing internal exchange sites that have an affinity for NH4+. About 25% decrease
in pore size of Cikembar100 compared to Bayah100 (Table 1) can increase NH4+
retention in the zeolitic framework and resulted in significantly higher CEC in
Cikembar100 compared to Bayah100 (Table 3).
Table 3: Comparison of cation exchange capacity (CEC) of natural zeolite using two
displacement solutions (0.5 M CsCl and 0.5 M KCl) (n=24)
Displacement Solution
Sample 0.5 M CsCl 0.5 M KCl
Mean ± Standard error Mean ± Standard error
Cikembar100 107a ± 0.2 95a ±0.6
a
Cikembar200 101 ±1.3 89a ± 1.2
Bayah100 85b ±1.1 84b ±0.4
b
Bayah 200 80 ±0.4 77b ± 0.9
MSD (99% level) 11 10
Means with different letters within column showed significant difference at 99% confidence level.
Minimum significant difference (MSD) based on Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) at 99%
confidence level
Effects of displacement solution on the CEC of natural zeolite
The natural zeolite samples displaced with 0.5 M CsCl had 6% higher CEC compared
to 0.5 M KCl (p<.0001), which means that Cs+ had more strength compared to K+ in
displacing NH4+ from the nanocacity site of the zeolitic framework into the solution.
Yoshida et al. (2013) reported that the ionic radius of Cs+ (0.17 nm), NH4+ (0.14 nm),
K+ (0.13 nm), Na+ (0.10 nm) plays a functional role in cationic selectivity. An increase
in ionic radius, increase in selectivity. Based on the lyotropic series, the cation
selectivity series in natural zeolite is described as Cs+> NH4+> K+> Na+> Ca2+ > Mg2+
(Ames, 1960).
79
Table 4: Soluble cations from washing and isomorphous substitution of natural zeolite
samples (n=24)
---------------Soluble Cations (cmolc kg-1)---------------
Element
Cikembar100 Cikembar200 Bayah100 Bayah200
Ca NDǂ 0.02c NDǂ NDǂ
Mg 0.01c 0.01c 0.01c 0.01c
a a a
Na 0.41 0.37 0.49 0.14a
b b b
K 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.06b
-----------------Isomorphous Substitution (%)---------------
Displacement
(100 - Percent Base Saturation)
Solution
0.5 M CsCl 87 91 77 77
0.5 M KCl 86 89 76 76
ǂ
ND = Not Detected. Means with different letters within column showed significant difference at 99%
confidence level. Minimum significant difference (MSD) based on Tukey’s Honestly Significant
Difference (HSD) at 99% confidence level
Removing soluble cations via washing with distilled water
One of the factors affecting cation selectivity is the presence of other cations (Na+, K+,
Ca2+ and Mg2+) that could reduce the value of NH4+ adsorbed on the natural zeolite. In
our study, across location and particle sizes, washing with distilled water prior to ionic
saturation resulted in higher exchange of Na+ (from 0.10 to 0.49 cmolc kg-1; Table 4)
compared to other cations in the solution. Sodium ion in zeolitic framework were held
by weak electrostatic interaction and thus they can be replaced by other cations
(Sprynskyy et al., 2005). An undetectable Ca2+ and low release of Mg2+ (Table 4) may
suggest that most of Ca and Mg may be fixed in natural zeolite framework
(Kitsoupoulos, 1999).
Contact time of saturating solution and exchangeable cations
Generally, without any pre-treatment of chemical conditioning, the natural zeolites

have low CEC and therefore are frequently treated by increasing contact time by
saturating zeolite samples with an ionic solution. In our study, 93-96% of the
exchangeable cations were released in the first three days of saturation with 0.5 M
NH4Cl (data not shown), which the values were within range with the study conducted
Kitsopoulos (1999) and Hulbert et al. (1987). Ammonium adsorption into the zeolite
nanocavities can be achieved with time due to the process of slow diffusion of NH4+
ions into the channels and central nanocavities of natural zeolite (Kithome et al., 1998).
Isomorphous substitution and cation exchange in natural zeolite
In both displacement solutions (0.5 M CsCl and KCl), Cikembar100 had 10% more net
negative charge compared to Bayah100 due to its isomorphous substitution properties
in natural zeolite (Table 4). Isomorphous substitution in natural zeolite affects its
negative charge and the capacity to retain NH4+ in the zeolitic framework, thus increases
its CEC and make natural zeolite a promising material for cation removal from aqueous
waste streams.
80
CONCLUSION
We discovered that the natural zeolite exchangeable cations, Na+ adsorbed weakly at
the edge of the clinoptilolite structure during washing prior to saturating with an ionic
solution. A 0.5 M CsCl is a promising displacement solution for higher CEC
determination of natural zeolite than 0.5 M KCl. Due to its low cost and easily
accessible raw materials from the neighboring country, the natural zeolite from
Cikembar, West Java with the particle size of 0.079 mm (Cikembar100) has the
potential to be utilized for cost-effective removal of Cs (including Cs137) from aqueous
solution.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Mr. Rizal Taslim from PT Khatulistiwa Zeolite Prima for
providing the natural zeolite samples from West Java, Indonesia. Heartfelt thanks goes
to Ms Norasma Zaki, Mr. Jamil Omar, and Mr. Fuzi Shariff from the Department of
Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, UPM for providing assistance in laboratory
works.
REFERENCES
Ahmed, O.H., Aminuddin H. &Husni, M.H.A. 2006. Reducing ammonia loss from
urea andimproving soil-exchangeable ammonium retention through mixing triple
superphosphate, humic acid and zeolite. Soil Use and Management, 22: 315-319.
Ames, L.L. 1960. The cation sieve properties of clinoptilolite. The American
Mineralogist,45: 689-700.
Ames, L.L. 1961. Cation sieve properties of the open zeolites chabazite, modernite,
erionite andclinoptilolite. The American Mineralogist, 46:1120-1131.
Bain, D.C. & Smith, B.F.L. 1987. Chemical analysis. In a Handbook of Determinative
Methods in Clay Mineralogy, M. J. Wilson, ed., Blackie, Glasgow, pp. 248-274.
Brunauer, S., Emmett, P.H. & Teller, E. 1938.Adsorption of gases in multimolecular
layers. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 60: 309-319.
Dyer, A. & White, K.J. 1999.Cation diffusion in the natural zeolite
clinoptilolite.Thermo chimica Acta, 340-341: 341-348.
Ferguson, G.A. & Pepper, I.L. 1987. Ammonium retention in sand amended with
clinoptilolite. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 51: 231-234.
Hor, K.Y., Chee, J.M.C., Chong, M.N., Jin, B., Saint, C., Poh, P.E. & Aryal, R.
2016.
Evaluation of physicochemical methods in enhancing the adsorption performance of
natural zeolite as low-cost adsorbent of methylene blue dye from wastewater.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 118: 197-209.
Hulbert, M. H. 1987. Sodium, calcium, and ammonium exchange on clinoptilolite
from the Fort Laclede deposit, Sweetwater County, Wyoming. Clays and Clay
Minerals, 35: 458-462.
Khattak, M.A., Arif, A., Hannan, A., Syukri, F. & Hamid, H. 2016. Design and
planning of anuclear power plant in Malaysia: a feasibility report. Journal of
Advanced Research in Applied Sciences and Engineering Technology, 3:67-76.
Kithome, M., Paul, J.W., Lavkulichm, L.M. & Bomke, A.A. 1998. Kinetics of
ammonium
81
adsorption and desorption by the natural zeolite clinoptilolite. Soil Science Society of
America Journal, 62: 622-629.
Kitsoupoulos, K.P. 1999. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) of zeoliticvolcanistic
materials:
Applicability of the ammonium acetate saturation (AMAS) method.Clays and Clay
Minerals, 47: 688-696.
MacKenzie, R.C. 1951. A micromethod for determining the cation exchange capacity
of clays. Journal of Colloid Science, 6: 219-222.
Ming, D.W. & Dixon, J.B. 1986. Clinoptilolite in South Texas soils. Soil Science
Society of America Journal, 50: 1618-1622.
Noda, S. 1980. A simple method for determining the cation exchange capacity of
natural zeolites. Nendo Kagaku, 20: 78-82.
Sing, K.S.W., Everett, D.H., R. A. W. Haul, R.A.W., Moscou, L., Pierotti, R.A.,
Rouquerol, J. &Siemieniewska, T. 1985. Reporting physisorption data for
gas/solid systems with special reference to the determination of surface area and
porosity. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 57: 603-619.
Sprynskyy, M., Lebedynets, M., Terzyk, A.P., Kowalczyk, P., Namiesnik, J. &
BUszewski, B. 2005. Ammonium sorption from aqueous solutions by the natural
zeolite Transcarpathianclinoptilolite studied under dynamic conditions. Journal of
Colloid Interface Science, 284: 408-415.
Yoshida, K., Toyoura, K., Matsunaga, K., Nakahira, A., Kurata, H., Ikuhara, Y.H.
& Sasaki, Y. 2013. Atomic sites and stability of Cs+ captured within
zeoliticnanocavities. Scientific Reports, 3: 2457.
82
Soil Carbon Balance at Various Landscape Positions in Dedelow,
Northeastern Germany
Rochelle Joie, A.S.1, Hoffman, M.2, Sanchez, P.B.1, Borromeo, T.3, Timbas, N.L.1,
Augustin, J.4 and Sommer, M.2
1
Soils and Agroecosystems Division, Agricultural Systems Cluster, College of
Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines
2
Institute of Soil Landscape Research, Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape
Research (ZALF), Eberswalder Straβe, 15374, Muncheberg, Germany
3
Plant Genetic Resources Division, Crop Science Cluster, College of Agriculture,
University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna, Philippines
4
Institute of Landscape Biogeochemistry, Leibniz Centre for Agricultural Landscape
Research (ZALF), Eberswalder Straβe, 15374, Muncheberg, Germany
E-mail: paoaghem@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Soil erosion traditionally is thought of being a negative process as its leads to a loss of
organic matter from the soils through increased decomposition rates and export of
organic matter from the field (Jacinthe et al., 2002; Lal, 2004). This concept, however,
has been challenged since Stallard (1988) and Harden et al. (1999) showed that, at a
perspective of a more appropriate watershed scale of analysis, soil erosion can induce
a net terrestrial sink for atmospheric carbon. Their works have illustrated the
fundamental conditions by which erosion can contribute to terrestrial carbon
sequestration: i.e. some of the eroded C is effectively buried at depositional sites and
some is replaced at eroding positions.
In this study, CO2 measurements were conducted at an eroding landscape at the

CarboZALF area in Dedelow, Northeastern Germany using automatic chambers.
Winter wheat was grown in this area in 2015. In this site, four automatic chambers were
installed to quantify net ecosystem exchange (NEE) at different geomorphic settings
encompassing the different soils at the erosion and deposition sites and subsequently
excluding soil translocation (Hoffmann et al., 2015). Assessment of SOC budgets
through automatic chambers are an innovative alternative over periodic soil sampling
due to faster SOC evaluation. CO2 fluxes from the four automatic chambers located in
various landscape positions (hilltop, backslope, midslope and depression) were
measured daily for the whole year of 2015. Whether the whole landscape is a carbon
sink or source depends on the changes in the C-budget of the wheat-soil ecosystem. It
is then the objective of this study to determine annual carbon balance for the four sites.
Site description
The study was conducted at Agroscapelab Quillow, an area covering the Quillow
catchment in Uckermark Region, northeast Germany. The Quillow catchment is
characterized by a hummocky, ground moraine landscape with an elevation of 50-60 m
asl (53° 23N, 13°47E). The mean annual rainfall and mean annual temperature from
1992 to 2015 (ZALF Experimental Field Station) in Dedelow, were 495 mm and 9.0
83
°C, respectively. Within these years, precipitation varied greatly whereas temperature
did not exhibit significant temporal trend.
The study area exhibits a complex soil pattern shaped mainly from the influences of
relief and parent material. The sequences of soil profiles along the landscape are Haplic
or Stagnic Luvisols at knolls and slopes and Mollic Gleysols and Eutric Histosols at the
footslopes and depressions soil classification according to the World Reference Base.
Anthropogenic activities for a hundred years, particularly land use and amelioration,
have caused the soil and site conditions to change mainly due to water and tillage
erosion. Hence, at hilltops and upper to midslope positions, Calcaric Regosols and
Calcic Luvisols were developed. Soils at the footslopes and small depressions (kettle
holes), on the other hand, were identified as Colluvic Regosols. Of the total land area,
80% is affected by soil erosion and the other 20% remains unaffected. The CarboZALF-
D experimental site was chosen for being representative of the regional ground moraine
landscape. Plots included in the study are those at hilltops (Albic, Cutanic Luvisol;
slope ~2%), at backslopes (Calcaric Regosol; slope ~13%), at midslopes (Calcic
Cutanic Luvisol; slope ~6%), and at depression sites (Endogleyic Colluvic Regosol).
The crop grown in the measurement site was winter wheat cultivated from September
2014 to October 2015.
CO2 flux measurements
In June 2010, four automatic chambers (labelled as chambers I, II, III and IV) and a
WXT520 climate station (Vaisala, Vantaa, Finland) were installed in each of the four
sites (hilltop, backslope, midslope and depression sites). CO2 exchange measurements
using automatic flow-through non-steady-state (FT-NSS) closed chamber (Livingston
and Hutchinson, 1995) were conducted from September 2014 to November 2015. The
AC system is composed of 4 identical, rectangular, transparent polycarbonate chambers
(thickness of 2 mm and light transmittance ~70%). Control of the system and data
collection were carried out by CR1000 data logger (Campbell Scientific, UT, USA)
connected to a GSM-modem and housed next to the measurement site. Changes in CO2
concentration were measured within each chamber using CO2 probe (GMP343, Vaisala,
Vantaa, Finland) linked to a vacuum pump (1 L min-1; DC12/16Fk, Fürgut, Tannheim,
Germany). The chambers closed in parallel at an hourly frequency. This provides flux
measurements for every chamber in an hourly rate. Duration of CO2 measurement was
5-20 minutes, depending on the season and time of the day. CO2 concentrations within
the chamber and environmental controls like PAR (SKP215, Skye, Landridad Wells,
UK) and air temperature (107, Campbell Scientific, UT, USA) were recorded inside
and outside the chambers every minute during the entire experimentation period.
CO2 flux calculation and gap filling
Flux calculation for CO2 was based on the ideal gas equation, accounting for chamber
volume and area, air pressure, and average air temperature during the measurement.
Calculation of flux, separation into Reco, GPP and NEE and subsequent gap filling was
conducted using the R script of Hofmann et al. (2015). The initial and final 10% of the
measurements were discarded to eliminate data noise arising from the turbulence and
pressure fluctuations. For each specific measurement, the final flux rate was selected
from all potential flux rates by a moving window depending on a set of partially user
defined quality parameters using a stepwise algorithm and the Akaike information
criterion ( AIC; for details see Hoffmann et al., 2015). For Reco, gap filling between
84
measurement campaigns was performed using campaign-specific temperature-
dependent Arrhenius-type models. GPP fluxes were then calculated by subtracting
modelled Reco fluxes from measured NEE fluxes, and then modelled using campaign-
specific Reco or GPP fluxes (Wang et al., 2013). Average measured flux rates were used
if no significant fit was achieved for campaign-specific Reco or GPP models. Finally,
the NEE rates are calculated as the sum of the modelled Reco and GPP.
ΔSOC calculation
The net ecosystem carbon budget refers to the net CO2 flux or balance of all CO2
entering an ecosystem and all of the CO2 leaving the ecosystem during a time period of
interest, typically a year (Chapin et al., 2006). In croplands, the net ecosystem carbon
budget is estimated by measuring the long-term change in soil organic carbon (SOC).
Though there are several components (e.g. carbon lost to water and fire, volatile organic
compounds), these are assumed to be negligible in the given landscape.
The ΔSOC when the plot after harvest is bare will be calculated using equation 1. NPP
refers to the quantity of photosynthates not used for respiration and therefore, available
for other processes. NPPshoot in this study means the amount of C in the aboveground
biomass (grains and straw) and were harvested.
ΔSOC= NEE + NPPshoot (eqn 1)
Environmental controls
Air temperature (20 cm and 200 cm height), PAR (inside and outside the chamber), air
humidity, air pressure, wind direction and speed, and precipitation measured every
minute were continuously recorded by the climate station installed in the field. Soil
temperatures at depths of 2 cm, 5 cm, and 10 cm were recorded using thermocouples,
installed next to the climate station (Campbell Scientific, UT, USA).
Statistics
All statistical calculations were performed with SAS Ver. 9.1. Treatment means were
tested for significance using the Tukey’s Studentized Range at p<0.05.
Net CO2 Exchange
The modelled CO2 fluxes of Reco, GPP, NEE and the resulting cumulative NEE
(NEEcum) for the year 2015 for the four landscape positions is shown in Figure 1. In
between measurement sites, a seasonal pattern can be observed wherein there is a higher
uptake of CO2 with increased plant development. NEE fluxes were lower, on the other
hand, during the non-growing season. The modelled CO2 flux can be evaluated
according to the observed changes in its components in the three major timescale- the
dormant stage (Period I; January to Mar 21), the resumption of crop growth from last
stage of tiller production (Mar 22) till harvest (July 29) (Period II), and last the period
after harvest which covers the dates of July 30 to December 31 (Period III).
85
Figure 1: Modeled CO2-fluxes (g C m-2 d-1) of Reco (black), GPP (light gray), NEE
(medium gray) and NEEcum for the experiment site cultivated with winter wheat in 2015
with three major timescale are also shown as I (the dormancy period), II (the growth
resumption period) and III (the period after harvest)
When the plants are dormant, Reco occurs as diminutive fluxes. GPP is barely visible as
photosynthetic activity occurred to a lesser extent. At this period, Reco is higher than
GPP and NEE values are negative. Reco and GPP then increased after the dormancy in
wheat was broken. High Reco peaks were observed before the flag leaf becomes visible,
extension of the flag leaf sheath, and during flowering.
The cumulated NEE over the study period indicates that all sites are net CO2 sources
with values ranging from -469 in the backslopes to -577 g CO2-C m-2 in the depression
sites. The NEE started to accumulate in the depression site during the first few days of
March. This is two weeks earlier than that in the midslope position. It was only in mid-
May that NEE started to accumulate in both the backslope and the hilltop.
ΔSOC values
The four landscape positions differ from each other in terms of carbon exchange and in
the values of Reco, GPP and NEE. Soils along the hillslope show considerable
variability. At eroding positions, topsoil and subsequently C has been replaced,
removed and transported by tillage processes and other disturbances. The susbsoil
which has lower C as a result will be mixed into the surface materials. Based on the
study of Doetterl et al. (2012), the current carbon stock of the former subsoil of the
eroding profile exceeds that of the original carbon through the exposure of the deeper
soil and fixation of new photosynthate in the more biologically active upper layers of
the profile. This is parallel to the findings of Harden et al. (1999). This may explain the
low value of SOC concentration observed in the backslope. Hence, observed ΔSOC is
86
also minimal. C at eroding sites are younger and therefore less processed compared to
their non-eroding counterparts. The decomposition rate of C at eroded sites is also
higher than at other positions (Berhe et al., 2008). From the same study, replacement
rate of new photosynthates is 15 times higher indicating higher vulnerability and
accelerated turnover in eroding landscape units. This provides more attachment sites
for C at this position and its rate of availability is also faster. This suggests that strongly
eroded sites have greater potential for C storage.
At the depression sites, SOC concentration is higher due to the preferential detachment
and downward transport of lighter fractions which are enriched in C, relative to the bulk
soil. Depositional areas are also better in terms of C storage compared to the hilltops
and eroded positions (Berhe et al., 2008). In addition, it was shown that in these areas
there is a higher stability of C pools in the subsoils. In terms of storage potential for C,
this site has relatively lower capacity for accumulating more C. This is due to the
saturation of attachment sites for C.
At the hilltops, sequestration and release of C is unaffected by soil erosion processes

owing to the fair stability of this position. Its SOC concentration is the similar to that
of the midslope position. This position can also be thought of as a saturated soil in terms
of C content. Thus, this position has lower capacity to store C compared to the strongly
eroded site.
Thus, C on the average is being released from the soil in the CarboZALF area in 2015.
The mean amount of C released from the four landscape positions for 2015 was 149.75
g m-2 y-1. It is good to note, however, that the eroding sites still is the least source of C
compared to any other landscape unit. CO2 fluxes calculated from automatic chamber
data on a period of four years showed that the eroding sites acted as C sink. The amount
of C sequestered was 75 g m-2 y-1 at the eroding sites due to dynamic replacement of
the eroded, though there was a large interannual variation (Hoffmann et al., 2015).
CONCLUSION
The study highlights the influence of landscape positions in an eroding landscape on

the C sequestration and release. At the hilltops, sequestration and release of C is
unaffected by soil redistribution. At eroded sites, erosion leads to the removal of soil
and mixing of the former subsoil into the topsoil. When soils become weathered
secondary minerals were formed providing reactive surfaces to promote complexation
with organic materials, e.g., through the absorbance of C on mineral surfaces. The
eroded soil is then transported and buried the in situ top soil.
With these mechanisms on the respective landscape positions, it can be inferred then
that when considering soil erosion, dynamic replacement to a certain extent holds true.
Eroding landscapes showed a higher potential of C storage compared to the depressions
and hilltops.
87
REFERENCES
Berhe, A.A., Harden, J.W., Torn, M.S. & Harte, J. 2008. Linking soil organic matter
dynamics and erosion-induced terrestrial carbon sequestration at different landform
positions. J. Geophys. Res., 113, G04039, doi:10.1029/2008JG000751
Chapin, F.S. Lovecraft, A.L., Zavaleta, E.S., Nelson, J., Robards, M.D., Kofinas,
G.P., Trainor, S.F., Peterson, G.D., Huntington, H.P. & Naylor, R.L. 2006.
Policy strategies to address sustainability of Alaskan boreal forests in response to a
directionally changing climate. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 103(45): 16637-16643.
Doetterl, S., Six J. & Van oost, K. 2012. Carbon cycling in eroding landscapes:
geomorphic controls on soil organic C pool composition and C stabilization. Global
Change Biology, 18: 2218-2232.
Harden, J.W., Sharpe, J.M., Parton, W.J., Ojima, D.S., Fries, T.L, Huntington,
T.G. & Dabney, S.M. 1999. Dynamic replacement and loss of soil carbon on
eroding cropland. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 13(4): 885-901.
Hoffmann, M., Jurish, N., Albiac Borraz, E., Hagemann, U., Augustin, J., Drösler,
M. & Sommer, M., 2015. Automated modelling of net ecosystem exchange based
on periodic closed chamber measurements: A standardized conceptual and practical
approach. Agr. Forest. Meteorol., 200: 30-45.
Jacinthe, P.A., Lal, R. & Kimble, J.M. 2002. Carbon dioxide evolution in runoff
from simulated rainfall on long-term no-till and plowed soils in southwestern Ohio.
Soil Tillage Res., 66: 23-33.
Lal, R. 2004. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food
security. Science, 304: 1623.
Livingston, G. & Hutchinson, G. 1995. Enclosure-based measurement of trace gas
exchange: applications and sources of error. In P. Matson and R. Harris (Eds.).
Biogenic Trace Gases: Measuring Emissions from Soil and Water. Oxford, England:
Blackwell Science. 14–51 pp.
Stallard, R.F. 1998. Terrestrial sedimentation and the carbon cycle: Couple weathering
and erosion to carbon burial. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 12(2): 231-257.
Wang, K., Liu, C., Zheng X., Pihlatie, M., Li, B., Haapanala, S., Vesala, T., Liu,
H., Wang Y., Liu, G. & Hu, F. 2013. Comparison between eddy covariance and
automatic chamber techniques for measuring net ecosystem exchange of carbon
dioxide in cotton and wheat fields. Biogeosciences Discuss., 10(5): 8467–8503.
88
Genesis, Classification and Clay Mineralogy of Soils in Ghrah-Bagh
Area, Southern Iran
Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agricultural, Shahid Bahonar University of
Kerman, Kerman, Iran
E-mail: gh.zareian@areo.ir
INTRODUCTION
The clay fraction of soils plays a crucial role in determining their major physical and
chemical properties, and inevitably, questions concerning the origin and formation of
these minerals have assumed prominence in soil research (Wilson, 1999). Clay mineral
analysis has been widely used to characterize soil parent material and to relate it to the
bedrock (Khormali and Abtahi, 2003), as well as to associate mineralogical
transformations with changes in climate and weathering intensity (Oliaie et al., 2006;
Farpoor and Krouse, 2008). Palygorskite, smectite, chlorite, illite, kaolinite and
vermiculite are the main clay minerals in arid and semi-arid regions (Abtahi, 1980;
Gharaee and Mahjoori, 1984; Khormali and Abtahi, 2003; Oliaie et al., 2006; Farpoor
and Krouse, 2008). Millot, (1970) distinguished three principal processes to account for
the genesis of clay minerals: (1) inheritance from parent materials, (2) transformation
of other clay minerals, and (3) neoformation from soil solution. Illite and chlorite are
two commonly observed clay minerals occurring in steep areas and are believed to be
inherited largely from parent rocks (Wilson, 1999). Khormali and Abtahi, (2003)
concluded that the percentage of palygorskite in soils is related to the gypsum content
and the ratio of mean annual precipitation to mean annual reference crop
evapotranspiration. This mineral is the most magnesium-rich among the common clay
minerals (Singer, 2002). It can be formed in flood plains and alluvial fan soils affected
by fluctuations of water table (Abtahi, 1977; Pimentel, 2002), by alteration or
transformation of Mg-rich smectite (Yaalon and Wieder, 1976), or by neoformation
from the soil solution (Monger and Daugherty, 1991). Bouza et al. (2007) suggested
that the carbonate was mainly low-magnesium calcite and, during its precipitation, the
Mg2+ activity must have increased in the soil solution, favoring the smectite to
palygorskite transformation. Henderson and Robertson (1958) were the first to report
palygorskite in sediments and soils from Iran. Several researchers have suggested that
palygorskite is formed pedogenically in the soils of Iran (Abtahi, 1977; Abtahi, 1980;
Gharaee and Mahjoori, 1984; Khademi and Mermut, 1999).
Therefore, the main objectives of this study were to investigate: (1) the relationship
between soil order development under different topography with physicochemical
properties, and (2) the occurrence, origin and distribution of clay minerals in an arid
region of southern Iran.
The area covers about 24000 hectares, located 10 kilometers south of Shiraz, Southern
Iran. The mean annual temperature is 17 oC and the mean annual precipitation is 330
mm. Therefore, this area is classified as semiarid region with Xeric moisture and
Thermic temperature regimes. Forty pedons were studied and Eleven pedons were
selected for physicochemical and clay mineralogical studies. Routine physical and
89
chemical analysis including saturation percentage, pH and EC were determined in the
soil saturated paste (Rhodes, 1996). Particle size distribution (Gee and Bauder, 1986),
Equivalent calcium carbonate (CCE) (Loeppert and Suarez, 1996), organic matter
(Walkley and Black, 1934 modified by Nelson and sommers, 1982), Cation exchange
capacity (Chapman, 1965) and gypsum content (Richards, 1954) were also
investigated. Clay mineralogy analyses performed using Kittrick and Hope (1963) and
Jackson (2005) methods.
Properties of soils in arid and semi-arid regions are mainly influenced by topography
and parent materials. Texture is one of the most important physical soil properties,
which greatly affects many of other properties including infiltration rate, water
capacity, and fertility. Different soil orders including Entisols, Inceptisols, Aridisols,
Mollisols, Histosols and Alfisols were classified in the area. Ochric and mollic
epipedons together with calcic, salic, cambic, and argillic subsurface horizons were
among the dominant horizons identified in the area. Entisols were found in steep slopes
(alluvial-colluvial fans) as Orthents or in flood plains as recent Fluvents. Soils with
intermediate development (Inceptisols, Alfisols, and Mollisols) were formed on
piedmont plain, whereas Aridisols and Histosols were formed on low land position.
Results of the study showed that the pH of soils ranged from 7.1 to 8.3 (neutral to
slightly alkaline). The maximum and the minimum EC contents were 32.3 and 0.7 dS
m-1, respectively. Almost all soils were highly calcareous throughout with an average
CaCO3 content ranged from 20.5 to 87.5%. The minimum (7.2 cmolc kg-1) and the
maximum (57.8 cmolc kg-1) CEC contents were found in Entisols and Histisols,
respectively.
X-ray diffractograms and relative abundance of clay fractions in the studied soils
showed the trend of palygorskite < kaolinite < vermiculite < chlorite < smectite < illite
in the studied soils. Palygorskite was stable in saline soils. Illite, kaolinite, vermiculite
and chlorite are commonly observed clay minerals in arid environments and their
abundance in the soils is largely due to their presence in parent rocks. These clay
minerals are reported as the precursor for the pedogenic formation of other clay
minerals in arid and semi-arid regions (Khademi and Mermut, 1998). In the present
study simple transformation of other clay, smectite and interstratified minerals is
important, for it shows a relative decrease with slope in soils. Transformation of
smectite into illite at the soil surface could be attributed to the addition of K fertilizers
in irrigated farming and high weathering at the soil surface (Thompson and Ukrainczyk,
2002; Simonsson et al. 2009). Table 1 shows the semi quantitative analysis of dominant
clay minerals in different soils under study.
90
Table 1: Soil classification and clay mineralogy in Ghrah-bagh region
Classification
Palygorskite
Vermiculite
Depth (cm)
Kaolinite
Smectite
Chlorite
(USDA)
Soil no
Illite
Ap +++ ++ ++ + + -
P1 Typic Xerortents
C + +++ ++ + ++ -
Ap ++++ +++ ++ + + -
P2 Vertic Haploxerepts
Bwss +++ ++ ++ + + -
A1 ++ +++ ++ + + +
P3 Typic Haploxerepts
Bw1 ++ ++ ++ + + ++
P4 A1 Typic Haplosalids +++ ++ ++ + + +
Bw1 +++ ++ ++ + + +
P5 Oi1 +++ ++ ++ + + -
Hydric Haplofibrists
Oi2 +++ ++ ++ + + -
P6 A1 ++ +++ ++ + + -
Typic Xerortents
C1 ++ ++ +++ + + -
P7 Ap Typic Haplxerolls +++ +++ ++ + + -
Bwg1 +++ ++ ++ + + -
P8 Ap Typic Haploxeralfs ++ ++++ ++ + + -
Bw ++ +++ ++ + + -
P9 Ap Typic Calcixerepts ++ ++++ ++ + + -
Bw ++ +++ ++ + + -
P10 Ap Typic Xerofluvents ++ ++++ ++ + + -
C1 ++ +++ ++ + + -
Ap Typic Calcixerepts ++ ++++ ++ + + -
P11
Bw ++ +++ ++ + + -
*Note: -: 0 or trace, +: less than 15%, ++: 15-25%, +++: 25-35%, ++++: 35-45 %, +++++: more than
45%
CONCLUSION
Topography and parent materials are the most important factors affecting soil genesis
in arid and semi-arid regions. Effect of topography and parent materials on soil genesis,
classification, morphological, physico-chemical and mineralogical. Properties of soils
with highly calcareous parent materials in Ghrah-bagh plain were studied. Topography
caused some variations in texture, salinity and calcium carbonate accumulation in the
soil of the area. Finer texture, higher salinity and secondary calcium carbonate
accumulation were found in lowland compared to higher positions.
REFERENCES
Abtahi, A. 1977. Effect of a Saline and Alkaline Groundwater on Soil Genesis in

Semiarid Southern Iran. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 41: 583– 588.
Abtahi, A. 1980. Soil genesis as affected by topography and time in calcareous parent
materials. J. Soil Sci. Soc. Am., 44: 329 -336.
Bouza, P. J., Simon, M., Aguilar, J., Valle, H. & Rostage, M. 2007. Fibrous-clay
Mineral Formation and Soil Evolution in Aridisols of Northeastern Patagonia,
Argentina. Geoderma, 139: 38-50.
Chapman, H.D. 1965. Cation exchange capacity. pp. 891-901, in C. A. Black, ed.,
Methods of Soil Analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
91
Farpoor, M.H. & Krouse, H.R., 2008. Stable isotope geochemistry of sulfur bearing
minerals and clay mineralogy of some soils and sediments in Loot Desert, central
Iran. Geoderma, 146(1): 283-290.
Gee, G.W., & Bauder, J.W. 1986. Particle-size analysis, pp. 383-411, in A. L. Page,
ed., Methods of soil analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Gharaee, H.A. & Mahjoory, R.A. 1984. Characteristics and geomorphic relationships
of some representative Aridisols in southern Iran. Soil Science Society of America
Journal, 48(5): 1115-1119.
Henderson, S.G. & Robertson, R.H.S. 1958. A mineralogical reconnaissance in
western Iran. Resource Use Ltd., Glasgow, UK.
Jackson, M.L. 2005. Soil chemical analysis: advanced course. UW-Madison Libraries
Parallel Press.
Kittrick, J. A. & Hope, E.W. 1963. A procedure for the particle-size separation of
soils for x-ray diffraction analysis. Soil Science, 96(5): 319-325.
Khademi, H. & Mermut, A.R. 1998. Source of Palygorskite in gypsiferous Aridisols
and associated sediments from Central Iran. Clay Miner, 33: 561-575.
Khormali, F. & Abtahi, A. 2003. Origin and distribution of clay minerals in calcareous
arid and semi-arid soils of Fars province. Clay Miner, 38: 511 -527.
Loeppert, R.H. & Suarez, D.L. 1996. Carbonate and gypsum, pp. 437-474, in D. L.
Sparks, ed., Methods of soil analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison,
WI.
Millot, G. 1970. Geology of clays. Masson et Cie., Paris.
Monger, H.C. & Daugherty, L.A. 1991. Neoformation of Palygorskite in a Southern
New Mexico Aridisols. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 55: 1646–1650.
Nelson, D.W. & Sommers L. 1982. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter,
pp. 539-579, Methods of soil analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison,
WI.
Owliaie, H.R., Abtahi, A. & Heck, R.J. (2006). Pedogenesis and clay mineralogical
investigation of soils formed on gypsiferous and calcareous materials, on a transect,
southwestern Iran. Geoderma, 134(1): 62-81.
Pimentel, N.L.V. 2002. Pedogenic and Early Diagenetic Processes in Palaeogene
Alluvial Fan and Lacustrine Deposits from the Sado Basin (S. Portugal). Sedimentol.
Geol., 148: 123–138.
Richards, L.A. 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. United
States Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 60. United States Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Rhodes, J.D. 1996. Salinity: Electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids, pp. 417-
435, in D. L. Sparks, ed., Methods of Soil Analysis. American Society of Agronomy,
Madison, WI.
Thompson, M.L. & Ukrainczyk, L. 2002. Micas, pp. 431-466, in J. B. Dixon and D.
Schulze, eds., Soil Mineralogy with Environmental Applications. Soil Science
Society of America, Madison, WI.
Simonsson, M., Hillier, S. & Öborn, I. 2009. Changes in clay minerals and potassium
fixation capacity as a result of release and fixation of potassium in long-term field
experiments. Geoderma, 151 (3): 109-120.
Singer, A. 2002. Palygorskite and Sepiolite. In: "Soil Mineralogy with Environmental
Applications", (Eds.): Dixon, J. B. and Schulze, D. G. SSSA Book Series, Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. J., Madison, WI, 7: 555-583.
92
Walkley, A. & Black, I.A. 1934. An examination of Degtjareff method for determining
soil organic matter and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method.
Soil Science, 37 (1): 29-38.
Wilson, M.J. 1999. The origin and formation of clay minerals in soils: past, present
and future perspectives. Clay Miner, 34: 7-24.
Yaalon D. H. & Wieder, M. 1976. Pedogenic palygorskite in some arid Brown
(Calciorthid) soils of Israel. Clay Miner, 11:73-80.
93
Development of Rubber Zone for Sustainable Rubber Plantation
Production in Malaysia
Noordin W.D. and Shafar J.
Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University Putra Malaysia, 43400
Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
E-mail: wnoordin@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
The two most important plantation crops in Malaysia are oil palm and rubber. Areas
covered by oil palm and rubber are estimated to be about 5.2 million ha and 1.1 million
ha respectively. These two plantation crops are distributed throughout the length and
breadth of the country. Currently, most of the rubber and oil palm are grown on both
upland and lowland areas (Noordin, 2013). Malaysia is the largest consumer of pure
latex and fifth in the consumption of natural rubber in the world. Surgical latex gloves,
catheters and condoms produced in Malaysia are known for their high quality and
acceptable by the consumers. Currently, Malaysia is the biggest exporter of these
products (Noordin and Shafar, 2017). The export earnings from rubber sector in 2015
were worth USD 6.13 billion. This has prompted growers and planners to plant rubber
indiscriminately without considering the suitability of the soil and the environment
(Shamshuddin and Noordin, 2011). This paper will guide rubber growers to plant
rubber in the most suitable locations and appropriate areas according to the rubber
zones. With proper understanding of rubber zones, future rubber plantation will be
profitable and viable, and this is critical for the overall sustainability and success of
rubber industry in Malaysia.
A new system has been developed for classifying rubber zones based on soil attributes,
topography, climate, remote sensing and GIS. Rubber zones were delineated based on
Landsat TM453 using visual interpretation technique and verified by field checking.
Provision of satellite image map is based on topographic map sheets provided by the
Department of Survey and National Mapping (JUPEM) using Landsat Thematic
Mapper TM 30 m resolution. Cultivated areas in the states were composed of private
farms, FELDA, FELCRA RISDA and smallholders (Noordin, 2001).
Interpretation of cultivated areas from satellite images is divided into three parts, visual
interpretation, rubber planted area classification and field verification. This
classification is made on the Landsat image TM453 printed (hard copy) before the
information obtained is transferred to a computer.
Five classes of rubber were identified – young, matured, old, abandoned and rubber in
mixed horticulture. Through GIS overlaying and analysis, rubber areas were zoned into
three main categories i.e. topography, climates and traditional areas. The total areas
delineated as rubber zones for Peninsular Malaysia was 1,140,634 ha; rubber zones
based on topography was 567,935, based on climate was 176,957 and based on
traditional areas was 173,990 ha. Based on the system, the rubber zones are mostly
94
located in the northern part of Peninsular Malaysia i.e. in the state of Kedah, Perlis,
Kelantan, Perak, Terengganu and Pahang (Noordin, 2004a). The location of rubber
zones in other states were also systematically delineated and demarcated using the
system (Noordin, 2004b).
Table 1: Area under rubber by zone.

Based
Based on Based on Total Rubber in % Rubber
Land on
topographic tradition (ha) 2009 (ha) Zone
climate
Perlis 9,528 0 0 9,528 9,528 100
Kedah 78218 24786 13,362 116.366 128959 90
Kelantan 55232 64971 0 120.204 143218 84
N.Sembila
0 79749 5,155 84.904 122835 69
n
Selangor 0 0 11,954 11,954 37868 32
Penang 0 0 1,673 1,673 2,678 62
Malacca 0 0 31246 31.246 49,200 64
Pahang 0 241,351 0 241,351 275784 88
Perak 10,199 90977 31,656 132.832 151088 88
Terenggan
23780 0 18,920 42,700 58011 74
u
Johore 0 66101 60024 126.125 161465 78
Total 176,957 567,935 173,990 918,883 1,140,634 81
CONCLUSION
A new system was developed for classifying rubber zones based on soil attributes,
topography and climate, using remote sensing and GIS. Five classes of rubber were
identified – young, matured, old, abandoned and rubber in mixed horticulture. Through
GIS overlaying and analysis, rubber areas were zoned into three main categories i.e.
topography, climates and traditional areas. The study provides vital information for the
formulation of sustainable development plan for rubber, and recommended that the
system can also be adopted for other plantation crops. With proper delineation of rubber
zones coupled with good agro management practices rubber plantation will be
profitable and sustainable, contributing to the wealth of the nation.
REFERENCES
Noordin, W.D. 2001. Zon Getah Dan Pembangunannya untuk Malaysia. Paper
presented at Mesyuarat J/Kuasa Pemandu Projek Tanam Semula Melalui Penyatuan
Tanah, Lembaga Getah Malaysia.
Noordin, W.D. 2004a. Zon Tanaman Getah Semenanjung Malaysia. Policy paper
presented to Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities.
Noordin, W.D. 2004b. Zon Tanaman Getah Semenanjung Malaysia dan Cadangan Zon
Getah Sarawak. Policy paper prepared for Ministry of Plantation Industries and
Commodities.
Noordin, W.D. 2013. Rubber Plantation: Soil Management and Nutritional
Requirements. UPM Press: Serdang.
95
Noordin, W.D. & Shafar, J.M. 2017. Getah: Tanah dan Pembangunan Ladang. UPM
Press: Serdang. (In Press).
Shamshuddin J. & Noordin W.D. 2011. Classification and Management of Highly
Weathered Soils in Malaysia for Production of Plantation Crops. In Burcu
Özkaraova Güngör (eds.). Principles, Application and Assessment in Soil Science.
pp. 75-86. InTech: Croatia.
96
Photosynthetic and Stomatal Responses of Pepper Grown on Hollow
Kenaf Based Composite Post in Relation to Soil Moisture
Sulok, K.M.T.1, Khew, C.Y.1, Chen, Y.S.1, Wong, C.M.1, Zehnder, J.A.M.1, Zainudin,
S.R.2 and Siti Nur Aniza, M.J.3
1
Research and Development Division, Malaysian Pepper Board, 93916 Kuching,
Sarawak, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300
Kota Samarahan, Malaysia
3
Research and Development Division, National Kenaf and Tobacco Board, Kubang
Kerian, 16150 Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia
E-mail: kevinmuyang@mpb.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Pepper or Piper nigrum L. vines require a reliable support for proper growth,
development and yield. The current preferred practice in Sarawak uses the wooden pole
of the Belian tree (Eusideroxylon zwageri Teijsm. & Binn.), which is a high density,
heavy, construction timber resistant to termites (Paulus, 2011). Belian pepper support
poles are very durable and can remain undamaged for many years. However, apart from
being limited in supply, the Belian post acquisition is the most expensive item in the
establishment of a pepper garden.
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) being a fast growing plant and its fibers possess good
mechanical properties is abundant in the state of Kedah and Kelantan. In recent years,
the government through the National Kenaf and Tobacco Board has been promoting
research and development of hollow kenaf based composite poles. Suitable as natural
fiber bio-composite, kenaf fibers are emerging as a promising alternative post material
that will provide a much needed boost to the pepper industry. Its function will include
giving an ideal support for the growth of pepper vines and at the same time providing
constant moisture to the soil through its hollow structural built design.
Soil moisture has profound effects on growth, yield, and pepper quality (Hale and
Orcutt, 1987). Soil moisture, if available during dry periods at fortnightly intervals
during first year is noted by Wani et al. (2006) to improve growth of P. nigrum. Kumari
and Kumar (2007) stated that with appropriate soil moisture conservation techniques,
its plantations in degraded common lands in India particularly Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan showed 70-75 percent survival after one year without any
irrigation. In Malaysia, higher pepper survival rates were observed in Sarawak due to
higher rainfall all year round while low survival rates have been recorded in certain
parts of the Peninsular which received lesser rainfall (Azmil and Yau, 1993; Paulus,
2011).
Responses of P. nigrum photosynthetic and stomatal conductance to soil moisture

provided by a hollow Kenaf based composite post are still not widely documented in
Malaysia and elsewhere. Therefore, the field study was conducted with the following
objectives: (i) to investigate the photosynthetic and stomatal rates of pepper under
hollow Kenaf based composite post and (ii) to examine the relationship between leaf
stomatal conductance rates of pepper to soil moisture.
97
The soil series at the study site was Bemang Series of the Alluvial group with fine
loamy to clay loamy texture derived from accreting riverine alluvium. The soil profile
generally has a friable consistence throughout and is well to moderately well drained
(Paramanathan, 2000). The experiment was carried out in the field and conducted in an
8 m x 8 m plot located in Bau, Sarawak. The crop involved in this study was Piper
nigrum L. var. Semongok Aman. Pepper cuttings were first rooted in a sand bed. After
4 weeks, the rooted cuttings were selected and transplanted to the planting site. The
study was conducted from the month of May 2016 – January 2017.
Experimental design and treatments
The experiment was a completely randomized design (CRD) with two treatments
replicated five times. Treatments were: (i) control (K0) – Belian wooden pole as
standard support post and (ii) Kenaf based composite post (K1) – Support pole made
of Kenaf fiber with an inner hollow tubed design that is manufactured using the
pultrusion method. Figure 1 shows that the inner hollow tubed was designed in such a
way so that the Kenaf based composite post can retain, accumulate and slowly released
rainwater to the soil.
Figure 1: Inner hollow tubed design
Selected soil properties determination
At the end of study period, soil was analyzed for its soil volumetric water content
(VWC), soil temperature and bulk density (BD). To further understand the soil water
related status of the soil, samples were collected at a depth of 0 - 15 cm and analyzed
for its pH according to the method by Tan (1995).
Piper nigrum photosynthetic and stomatal rate measurement
Photosynthetic and leaf stomatal conductance rate measurement were determined at the
end of study period according to the method by DiCristina and Germino (2006).
Measurements of net photosynthesis (A) (µmol CO2 m-2 s-1) on an area basis and leaf
stomatal conductance (gs) (mol H2O m-2 s-1) of five different leaves per treatment were
monitored using a LICOR LI-6400 XT (Lincoln, Nebraska, USA) infrared gas analyzer
(IRGA).
98
Data was analyzed statistically by independent and paired t-test to detect treatment
effect with the SPSS software (Ver. 15, SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). The relationship
between leaf stomatal conductances rates were correlated with soil volumetric water
content using regression of best fit.
Soil properties
The selected soil properties under the control and Kenaf based composite post system
are presented in Table 1. Soil volumetric water content (VWC) under the Kenaf based
composite system was 27% higher than that of the control. Result for soil VWC
indicated that rainwater which was kept in the hollow Kenaf based composite system
was slowly released to provide moisture to the soil. This observation was consistent
with Fares and Alva (2000) who reported that after a certain rainfall event, rainwater
that was kept in reservoir and then slowly irrigated to the soil can consequently increase
moisture content in the top soil and below root zone.
The result in Table 1 shows that regardless of treatment, there was no significant
difference in the soil bulk density (BD). The result suggested that Kenaf based
composite post system did not affect hardness of the soil within the time frame of this
study. Bulk densities were ranged from 1.36 to 1.43 g/cm3 and were typical of this soil
series. In a report by Cai et al. (2002) mentioned that bulk density of mineral soil that
ranges from 1.1 to 1.5 g/cm3 in surface horizons are generally ideal for pepper
cultivation.
The temperature of the soil under K1 was significantly higher than that of K0 (Table
1). This was probably due to the absorption of solar energy as the soil moisture
increases, which resulted in a higher heat storage capacity. In a similar study by Al-
Kayssi et al. (1990) reported that heat capacity and apparent thermal conductivity
increased with increasing soil moisture content. Al-Kayssi et al. (1990) added that as
the energy absorbed at the soil surface is converted to kinetic energy which raises the
temperature at the soil particles, these particles in turn transfer heat downward via
moisture into the cooler soil mass.
Table 1: Selected soil properties under Kenaf based composite post system
Soil VWC Soil BD Soil Temperature
Treatment
(%) (g/cm3) (oC)
K0 17.82 + 1.12a 1.43 + 0.79a 31.68 + 0.57a
K1 24.38 + 0.85b 1.36 + 1.26a 32.48 + 1.14b
Note: Same alphabet within column indicates insignificant difference between treatment means using
independent t-test at p<0.05. Treatments are K0 – control and K1 – Kenaf based composite post
The net photosynthetic rate of P. nigrum supported on Belian post and Kenaf based
composite post system recorded no significant difference regardless of treatment (Table
2). The favourable outcome from the result of net photosynthetic rate was that Kenaf
based composite posts were able to support the growth of pepper vines fairly well and
99
in a similar manner as the Belian hardwood. This finding concurs with a study by Sulok
et al. (2016) which stated that the result for net photosynthetic rate of pepper grown on
Kenaf based composite post was on par with the Belian and this might well be
associated to higher soil moisture availability.
Pepper leaf stomatal conductance rate in Kenaf based composite post system depicted
a higher value when compared to that of the Belian (Table 2). The result might be due
to adequate soil water availability in K1, which did not induce stomatal closure as a
way to avoid water loss. Stomata tends to remain open under conditions of sufficient
soil water at field capacity, and reduce when a plant or leaf exhausts the water available
for transpiration (Fares and Alva, 2000).
Table 2: Net photosynthetic rate and leaf stomatal conductance of Piper nigrum L.
under Kenaf based composite post system
Net photosynthetic rate (A) Leaf stomatal conductance rate
Treatment
(µmol CO2 m-2 s-1) (gs)(mol m-2 s-1)
K0 9.82 + 2.50a 0.21 + 0.07a
K1 10.89 + 1.63b 0.30+ 0.12b
Note: Same alphabet within column indicates insignificant difference between treatment means using
independent t-test at p<0.05. Treatments are K0 – control and K1 – Kenaf based composite post
Figure 2 shows the relationship between leaf stomatal conductance (gs) and soil
volumetric water content (VWC). The relationship between gs and soil VWC regardless
of treatments shows a polynomial cubic regression line of zero intercept with R2 = 0.65
indicating that soil VWC was correlated to pepper gs. It was observed that as the soil
VWC increases, leaf stomatal conductance tends to increase as well heading towards
an almost “plateau effect” (Figure 2). Stomata imposed a critical control over water and
exchange of gases between the atmosphere and leaf cells (Lecoeur et al., 1995) and
allows transpiration of plants exposed to sufficient water availability (Kessler, 2008).
0.35
Leaf Stomatal Conductance
0.3
0.25
(mol m-2 s-1)
0.2
0.15 R² = 0.5541
0.1
0.05
0
0 10 20 30 40
Soil volumetric water content (%)
Figure 2: Relationship between leaf stomatal conductance and soil volumetric water
content in P. nigrum subjected to different support posts. Values are means + s.e. of
five leaves per treatment. The regression line (continuous) is shown. The values of the
determination coefficient are included
100
CONCLUSION
This study has shown that the hollow Kenaf based composite posts can performed as
well as the Belian hardwood of Sarawak. Due to the hollow design of the Kenaf based
composite post which allows rainwater to be kept and then released slowly to the soil
during period of low water availability, it was revealed that soil volumetric water
content (VWC) had improved considerably. Although soil bulk density showed no
significant difference between treatment, soil temperature was found to be increased
under the Kenaf based composite post system. The favourable result for net
photosynthetic rates (A) of pepper supported by Kenaf based composite post system
was on par with that of the Belian hardwood posts. The positive result for Kenaf based
composite posts was demonstrated in the leaf stomatal conductance of P. nigrum when
compared to that of the Belian control. The leaf stomatal conductance of P. nigrum was
also found to be fairly correlated to soil VWC. This study has provided an early
indication of the promising potential of Kenaf based composite post system as a feasible
replacement for the fast extinct belian hardwood.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research work was supported by the Malaysian Pepper Board and the National
Kenaf and Tobacco Board of Malaysia.
REFERENCES
Al-Kayssi, A.W., Al-Karaghouli, A.A., Hasson, A.M. & Beker, S.A. 1990. Influence
of soil moisture content on soil temperature and heat storage under greenhouse
conditions, J. Agr. Eng., 45: 241 – 252.
Azmil, I.A.R. & Yau, P.Y. 1993. Improvements in agronomic practices for pepper
cultivation in Johore. In: Ibrahim, M.Y., Bong, C.F.J. and Ipor, B. (eds.). The Pepper
Industry: Problems and Prospects. Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, Cawangan
Sarawak, pp. 15 – 23.
Cai, G.X., Chen, D.L., Ding, H., Pacholski, A., Fan, X.H. & Zhu. Z.L. 2002.
Nitrogen losses from fertilizers applied to maize, wheat and rice in the North China
Plan. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys., 63: 187-195.
DiCristina, K. & Germino, M. 2006. Correlation of neighbourhood relationships,
carbon assimilation, and water status of sagebrush seedlings establishing after fire.
West. N. Am. Nat., 66(4): 441-449.
Fares, A. & Alva, A.K. 2000. Soil water components based on capacitance probes in
sandy soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 64: 311-318.
Hale, M.G. & Orcutt, D.M. 1987. The physiology of plants under stress. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Chapter 10, pp 150.
Kessler, A. 2008. Photosynthetic changes in water stress plants, dissertation for
Diploma in Agriculture.
Kumari, A. & Kumar, A. 2007. Influence of growth regulators on flowering and
fruiting in Jatropha curcas. Expert seminar on Jatropha curcas L. Agronomy and
genetics. 26-28 March 2007, Wageningen, the Netherlands, Published by FACT
Foundation.
Lecoeur, J., Wery, J., Turc, O. & Tardieu, F. 1995. Expansion of pea leaves
subjected to short water deficit: Cell number and cell size are sensitive to stress at
different periods of leaf development. J Exp Bot, 46: 1093 – 1101.
101
Paramanathan, S. 2000. Soils of Malaysia: Their characteristics and identification.
Volume 1, Akademi Sains Malaysia, pp. 121, 124 and 384.
Paulus, A.D. 2011. Pepper production technology in Malaysia, (eds.) Lai Kui Fong and
Sim Soon Liang, Publisher: Malaysian Pepper Board. Pp. 106 – 109.
Sulok, K.M.T., Khew, C.Y., Chen, Y.S., Wong, C.M., Zehnder, J.A.M., Siti Nur
Aniza, M.J., Abdul Hadi, H. & Zuhdi, M. 2016. Leaf temperature and leaf-to-air
vapour pressure deficit of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) grown on Kenaf (Hibiscus
cannabinus L.) based composite post, Transaction of the Malaysian Society of Plant
Physiology Volume 23: 27 – 23.
Tan, K.H. 1995. Soil sampling, preparation, and analysis. New York: Marcel Dekker,
Inc, pp. 50-54.
Wani, S. P., Osman, M., Silva, D.E. & Sreedevi, T.K. 2006. Improved livelihoods
and environmental protection through biodiesel plantations in Asia, Asian
Biotechnology and Development Review, 8 (2): 11-29.
102
Spatial Variability of NPK in Black Pepper Farm on Hilly Topography
Izzah A.H., Wan Asrina W.Y. and Ahmed O.H.
Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Universiti
Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus, 97008 Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
E-mail: asrina@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Black pepper in East Malaysia commonly grown on hilly topography. These has arisen
concerns of the effect on black pepper growth as major nutrients such as NPK was
unavailable. The availability of NPK has a close relationship with topography.
Whereas, in hilly topography the availability of NPK were depend on the current land
itself including construction of terrace, intercropping with deep rooted crops and
establishing cover crops (Chase and Singh, 2014). Hence, this study was initiated to
assess the effects of hilly topography on NPK availability using geostatistical approach.
This study was conducted at black pepper farms located in Bintulu, Sarawak.
Topography of the area is hilly with elevation ranging from 50 to 65 m above sea levels.
Surface soil sampling was carried out on October, 2015. A total of 10 soil samples were
obtained for total N, available P and K analysis. Total N was using wet digestion
extraction method as described by Hach et al. (1985) and analysed using Auto Analyser
3 (SEAL Analytical, Model HR). The available P and K were extracted using double
acid method by Nelson et al. (1953) and P was determined using blue method as
describe by Murphy and Riley (1962) using UV-Vis Spectrometer (Lambda 25) at 882
nm wavelength. While K was determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer
(Perkin Elmer, Model AA800).
All the data were calculated using descriptive statistics by JMP Statistical Discovery
from SAS (Ver. 10.0) and emphiral estimate was computed using Geostatistics for the
Environmental Sciences (GS+ Ver. 10.0). The geostatistics map was used to describe
spatial distribution of NPK by using Kriging method in Golden Software (Surfer Ver.
11).
The descriptive statistics of total N, available P and K are presented in Table 1. Total
N at the farms basically ranged from 232.26 to 1705.36 mg kg-1, with a mean value of
752.93 mg kg-1. While available P and K basically ranged from 2.14 to 11.12 and 20.64
to 82.94 mg kg-1, with a mean value of 6.06 and 54.46 mg kg-1, respectively. The
skewness and kurtosis of total N were 1.26 and 2.04, respectively, which indicated that
the distribution was abnormal in compared to available P and K.
103
Table 1: Descriptive statistics of NPK at the black pepper farms
Variables Standard
n Mean CV Range Skewness Kurtosis
(mg kg-1) deviation
232.26-
Total N 10 752.93 424.78 56.42 1.26 2.04
1705.36
Available P 10 6.06 2.94 48.50 2.14-11.12 0.27 -0.74
20.64-
Available K 10 54.46 20.44 37.54 -0.09 -0.94
82.94
Results of semivariogram analysis are shown in Table 2. According to Cambardella et

al. (1994), spatial dependence was classified based on percentage of nugget to sill ratio
where <25% is strong spatial dependence, 25% to 75% is moderate spatial dependence
and >75% is weak spatial dependence. Total N and available P showed a strong spatial
dependence at the area due to natural variation such as soil formation factor like parent
materials. Total N and K best fitted a gaussian and exponential model. Meanwhile,
available K showed a moderate spatial dependence as affected by intrinsic and extrinsic
variations. Available K best fitted with a gaussian model.
Table 2: Model and variables of semivariogram for NPK

Variables Spatial
Model Nugget Sill R2
(mg kg-1) dependence
Total N Gaussian 36600.00 453840.65 0.35 Strong
Available P Exponential 0.59 19.29 0.50 Strong
Available K Gaussian 364.60 1178.63 0.66 Moderate
Spatial distribution of NPK was shown in Figure 1 (a) - (c). It was observed greater
concentration of N distributed at the left side on upper area. The N distribution was
going downward due to the farm topography (Li et al., 2016). Moreover, N was affected
by other factors on farm management such as bare soil and improper terracing has
caused its availability (Yamashita et al., 2010).
While P was distributed in greater concentration on the middle right of the farm and
lessened on upper and lower side. The distribution was affected by present of coarse-
textured soils which have more inert character (Fageria, 2016; Olson et al., 2010).
Additionally, lesser P has commonly seen in Malaysia soil (Iqbal, 2012).
The distribution of K was greater on the top left, middle and lower right. It is because
of mobility of K affected by farm topography which may transport the ion (Sharma and
Sharma, 2013).
104
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 1: Spatial distribution of NPK in the farms (a) Total N, (b) Available P and (c)
Available K
CONCLUSION
Availability of NPK was affected by hilly topography as intrinsic and extrinsic effects
were identified to cause the availability of NPK in the study area. The finding would
provide a basis information for managing NPK in the future.
REFERENCES
Cambardella, C., Moorman, T., Parkin, T., Karlen, D., Novak, J., Turco, R. &
Konopka, A. 1994. Field-scale variability of soil properties in central Iowa soils.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 58: 1501-1511.
105
Chase, P. & Singh, O. 2014. Soil nutrients and fertility in three traditional land use
systems of Khonoma, Nagaland, India. Res. Environ., 4: 181-189.
Fageria, N.K. 2016. The use of nutrients in crop plants. CRC press.
Hach, C.C., Brayton, S.V. & Kopelove, A.B. 1985. A powerful Kjeldahl nitrogen
method using peroxymonosulfuric acid. J. Agric. Food Chem., 33: 1117-1123.
Iqbal, M. 2012. Acid tolerance mechanisms in soil grown plants. Malays. J. Soil Sci.,
16: 1-21.
Li, Q., Luo, Y., Wang, C., Li, B., Zhang, X., Yuan, D., Gao, X. & Zhang, H. 2016.
Spatiotemporal variations and factors affecting soil nitrogen in the purple hilly area
of Southwest China during the 1980s and the 2010s. Sci. Total Environ., 547: 173-
181.
Murphy, J. & Riley, J.P. 1962. A modified single solution method for the
determination of phosphate in natural waters. Anal. Chim. Acta, 27: 31-36.
Nelson, W., Mehlich, A. & Winters, E. 1953. The development, evaluation, and use
of soil tests for phosphorus availability. Agron.,, 4: 153-188.
Olson, B.M., Bremer, E., McKenzie, R.H. & Bennett, D.R. 2010. Phosphorus
accumulation and leaching in two irrigated soils with incremental rates of cattle
manure. Can. J. Soil Sci., 90: 355-362.
Sharma, V. & Sharma, K.N. 2013. Influence of accompanying anions on potassium
retention and leaching in potato growing alluvial soils. Pedosphere, 23: 464-471.
Yamashita, N., Ohta, S., Sase, H., Luangjame, J., Visaratana, T., Kievuttinon, B.,
Garivait, H. & Kanzaki, M. 2010. Seasonal and spatial variation of nitrogen
dynamics in the litter and surface soil layers on a tropical dry evergreen forest slope.
For. Ecol. Manage., 259: 1502-1512.
106
Fine Roots Distribution of Matured Theobroma cacao and Sub-surface
Soil Hardness Relations Trough Rhizotron Observation
Helmi, S.1, Husni, M.H.A.2 and Roslan, I.2
1
Malaysian Cocoa Board, Cocoa Research and Development Center Hilir Perak, Peti
Surat 30, Jalan Sg. Dulang, 36307 Sg. Sumun, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
2
Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
Fine roots play important role for nutrient uptake contributing to plant growth and
development (Schenk, 2008). It is also true for mature cacao roots where a dense mat
of superficial roots intercepts released nutrients most effectively (McCreary et al.,
1943). There is a significant inverse relationship between fine roots (≤2 mm diameter)
responsible for acquiring nutrient and water from the soil to support plant growth and
ensure survival (Pregitzer et al., 2002). However distribution of dense fine roots may
be affected by soil hardness is usually expressed in terms of penetrometer resistance –
the pressure required to push into the soil. Root growth slows markedly once this
resistance exceeds about 1 MPa and falls away, roughly linearly, to almost nothing at a
resistance of about 5 MPa (Bengough & Mullins 1990). As a result subsurface hardness
prevents deep rooting and cause poor aeration both at depths and at the surface
(Moebius et al., 2007)
The objective of the study were to assess the distributions of fine roots in mature cocoa
which take into accounts for radius of fine roots from the tree, depth from the soil
surface and subsurface soil hardness.
Soil trench with L-shaped will be dig with three different radiuses (1, 1.5 and 2 m) from
the cocoa tree. Then, rhizotrons will be placed into the soil trenches (underground root
observation laboratories that contain a transparent surface placed against soil) to
observe root distribution. Rhizotrons were placed into soil trench with three different
distances from the cocoa tree;
1. Treatments 1: 0.5 m radius from the tree,

2. Treatments 2: 1.0 m radius from the tree and,
3. Treatments 3: 1.5 m radius from the tree.
Each trench has two observation panels, north-south and east-west.
All treatment has 3 replicates. Single tree represent 1 experimental plot due to area
constrain. The design is single factor RCBD where the replicates are considered block.
Blocking was done due to heterogeneity of the area and variety. For each side of the
rhizotron, transparent panels with grid of 5 cm by 5 cm were placed. For each grid two
parameters were recorded:
107
1. Number of roots emergent
2. Diameter of each root emerge
3. Subsurface soil hardness
The panels were labeled A-L horizontally and 1 – 12 vertically
Figure 1: Transparent grid panel for root assessment.
Roots with diameter of 2 mm and less are considered fine roots. Fine roots are known
to have better nutrient absorption than roots than are 3-5 in diameter. Figure 2 is
showing the number of cocoa fine roots distributed according to the radius from the
tree. The data shows that higher numbers of fine roots were detected further from the
tree. Figure 3 indicates that fine roots are more abundant closer to the soil surface.
Figure 2: Distributions of cocoa fine roots according to radius from tree
108
Figure 3: Distributions of cocoa fine roots according to depth
Soil hardness recorded indicates that soil hardness increases with depth; analysis also
indicates that fine roots emergent has a negative correlation with soil hardness (r = -
0.81).
Figure 4: Distributions of cocoa fine roots according to depth
CONCLUSION
From the experiment, it shows that cocoa tree has more fine roots distributed at 150 cm
radius from the tree and at depth of 5 cm from the soil surface. Increasing depth also
contributes to increase in soil hardness and contributed to fine root distributions.
REFERENCES
Bengough, A.G. 1997. Modelling rooting depth and soil strength in a drying soil
profile. Journal of theoretical biology, 186(3): 327-338.
109
Moebius, B.N. 2006. Evaluation of laboratory-measured soil physical properties as
indicators of soil health (Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University).
Pregitzer, K.S., DeForest, J.L., Burton, A.J., Allen, M.F., Ruess, R.W. &
Hendrick, R.L. 2002. Fine root architecture of nine North American
trees. Ecological Monographs, 72(2): 293-309.
Schenk, H.J. 2008. The shallowest possible water extraction profile: a null model for
global root distributions. Vadose Zone Journal, 7(3): 1119-1124.
McCreary, C.W.R., McDonald, J.A., Mulloon, V.I. & Hardy, F. 1943. The root
system of cocoa, results of some preliminary investigations in Trinidad, Trop.
Agric., Trin. 20, pg 207-220.
110
Live Staking Technique Using Chinese Boxthorn for Slope Stabilizer
in Agriculture Farm: The Concept
Masri, I.N.1, Bakar, N.H.A.1, Mohamed Hafeifi, B.1, Muhammad Zamir, A.R.2, Wan
Abdullah, W.Y.2, Mustafa Kamal, H. 1 and Mohamad Fakhri, M.1
1
MARDI Cameron Highlands, Peti Surat 19, Pejabat Pos Tanah Rata, 39007 Cameron
Highlands, Pahang, Malaysia
2
MARDI, Peti Surat 12301, Pejabat Pos Besar, 50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
E-meail: intannadhirah@mardi.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Soil bioengineering is an alternative for slope management. Usually this technique is

adapted by those who do roadside management. However, agricultural activities,
especially in the Cameron Highlands, Malaysia are conducted on a 25o slope. Most
sloping land in Cameron Highlands was declared unfit for any agriculture activities by
local authorities due to the slopes being over than 25o (DOA, 2000). According to the
guidelines proposed by DOA in 2014, no agricultural activities should be conducted on
a slope land of more than 25o. But due to high demands in vegetable produce, farmers
opted for farming on a slope land instead levelling the land as it includes higher cost.
But these actions caused detrimental effect on the environment as it promotes soil
erosion and over time, will cause sedimentation of local rivers and water bodies.
Live staking is a soil bioengineering technique that use stems or branch parts of living
plants as initial and primary soil reinforcing and stabilizing material. When these
vegetative cuttings are placed in the ground, roots develop and foliage sprouts. The
resulting vegetation becomes a major structural component of the soil bioengineering
system. Cuttings, which are collected from healthy, moderately rapidly growing parent
plants, will perform better than those collected from decadent, senescent stems although
the tips of stems should be avoided. Common plant used for live staking technique is
from the herbaceous and woody species. Herbaceous species are almost always used in
conjunction with soil bioengineering projects to add protection against surface erosion.
Herbaceous vegetation, especially grasses and forbs, offers long-term protection
against surface (water and wind) erosion on slopes. It provides only minor protection
against shallow mass movement. For woody species, deeply rooted woody vegetation
provides greater protection against shallow mass movement by mechanically
reinforcing the soil with roots, depleting soil-water through transpiration and
interception and buttressing and soil arching action from embedded stems. Vegetation
helps to prevent surface erosion by binding and restraining soil particles in place;
reducing sediment transport; intercepting raindrops; retarding velocity of runoff;
enhancing and maintaining infiltration capacity and in cold climate area, minimizing
freeze-thaw cycles of soils susceptible to frost.
Lycium, or boxthorn, contains approximately 70 species of spiny shrubs and small trees
growing mostly in arid and sub arid regions in South America (ca. 30 spp.), North
America (ca. 20 spp.), southern Africa (ca. 20 spp.), Eurasia (ca. 10 spp.) and Australia
and some Pacific islands (3 spp.) (Fukuda et al., 2001). Lycium chinense and L.
barbarum are cultivated mostly in China, Japan and Korea. In the last few decades,
their economic importance and, in parallel, the surface on which they are cultivated has
increased rapidly (Ryu et al., 2013, 2014; Mocan et al., 2014)
111
Chinese boxthorn or locally known as kaukei is considered as a suitable plant candidate
for this live staking technique in Cameron Highlands agriculture area due to its root
characteristics. The root system (Figure 1) can establish quickly in the soil and thus
quickly help to stabilize the slope. Over time, the deeply rooted and woody stem will
be able to reinforce the soil with extensive roots system.
Figure 1: The deep-rooted and woody stem of Chinese Boxthorn will be able to
reinforce the soil with extensive roots system.
Live staking involves the insertion and tamping of live, root-able vegetative cuttings
into the ground. If correctly prepared and placed, the live stake will root and grow. A
system of stakes creates a living root mat that stabilizes the soil by reinforcing and
binding soil particles together and by extracting excess soil moisture.
Preparation of Chinese boxthorn’s stakes:

1. Cut about 100 cm of stem from the Chinese Boxthorn tree. And then divided
into smaller cuttings or stakes of 25-30 cm in length.
2. Remove the remaining leaves. The basal ends should be cut at an angle for easy
insertion into the soil. The top should be cut square (flat). This is to differentiate
which end is to be dipped into the rooting hormone before installed or inserted
into the soil.
3. Prepared stakes should be kept wet to make sure it does not lose its water
content.
(It is suggested that the stakes should be installed the same day that they are prepared).
A healthy, rooted cutting or stake will be installed on site, 1 or 1.5 feet apart.
Installation:
1. Dip prepared cuttings/ stakes (basal ends) into the rooting hormone, about 2 cm
deep.
112
2. Insert the cuttings into the soil about half the length and keep it 1 or 1.5 feet
apart for every insertion point. Firmly packed the soil around it after installation.
For better planting density, planting point should be in zig-zag pattern if
possible.
3. If the soil is too hard, make a hole by driving an iron bar vertically and remove
it. Then fill the hole with the cuttings.
(It is advisable to place 2, 3 stakes per planting point to make sure the chance of survival
is higher).
Suggested care and maintenance:

1. Apply foliar fertilizer within 3-5 days after cuttings insertion into the ground.
2. Apply green NPK after 2 weeks for plant establishment.
3. Apply green NPK monthly for commercial purpose.
4. To increase survivability, once a week watering the area until stakes shown new
growth and adaptability to its new environment.
Bioengineering can be an effective tool for the treatment of landslides and unstable
slopes. they are relatively inexpensive and can provide significant benefits in terms of
reduced maintenance, reduced erosion and enhanced stability. As living systems,
bioengineering systems need little or no maintenance and continue to strengthen over
the years. Bioengineering can provide a useful bridge between traditional engineering
treatments and normal seeding work. Bioengineering can be a useful addition in the
reclamation of forest sites.
REFERENCES
DOA. 2000. Panduan Pembangunan Pertanian di Tanah Bercerun. Putrajaya: Jabatan

Pertanian Malaysia.
Fukuda, T., Yokoyama, J. & Ohashi, H. 2001. Phylogeny and biogeography of the
genus Lycium (Solanaceae): inferences from chloroplast DNA sequences. Mol.
Phylogenet. Evol., 19:246-258.
Mocan, A., Vlase, L., Vodnar, D.C., Bischin, C., Hanganu, D., Gheldiu, A.M.,
Oprean, R., Silaghi-Dumitrescu, R. & Crișan, G. 2014. Polyphenolic content,
antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Lycium barbarum L. and Lycium
chinense Mill. leaves. Molecules, 19:10056-10073.
Ryu, T.H., Kang, C.Y., Jung, Y.B., Ko, N.Y., Kwon, H.R., Seo, M.J., Yu, Y.M.,
Youn, Y.N. & Kim, Y.G. 2014. Occurrence patterns of insect pests in the field of
Lycium chinense under environment-friendly management. Korean Journal of
Agricultural Science, 41:341-350.
113
Diversity of Trichoderma Species in Cultivated Soils in Machang
Laila, N. and Nurul Hazreen
Faculty of Agro-based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Jeli, 17600, Kelantan
E-mail: lailanaher@umk.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Biological diversity (biodiversity) encompasses the variety of life forms occurring in

nature, from the ecosystem to the genetic level, as a result of evolutionary history
(Wilson, 1992). Fungus play many vital roles in the soil such as decomposers, water
enrichment, nutrient enrichment, and enhancing nutrient uptake. The genus of
Trichoderma is a soil borne fungus which serve as decomposers in the soil. Besides,
the ubiquitous and rapid growth of Trichoderma compared to other microbial
organisms Trichoderma has attracted research attention. Hence, the aim of this study
was to isolate Trichoderma species from cultivated soil at Machang, Kelantan. Next,
the isolated Trichoderma species were used as biocontrol agent against Pyricularia
oryzae, a causal pathogen that caused rice blast in paddy plant (Suryadi et al., 2013).
Collection and suspension of soil sample
In order to isolate and obtain the Trichoderma spp., a 200 g soil was collected from two
different locations of paddy land at Machang, Kelantan. The soil samples were kept in
plastic zipper bag, and stored in refrigerator at 4 oC. Then, 10 g of each soil sample was
weighed and added into 250 mL of sterile distilled water in a conical flask. The mixture
was agitated in electrical shaker at 100 rpm for 10 minutes.
Preparation of media
In this study, the isolation of fungi used two different media namely Dichloran Rose
Bengal Chloramphenicol (DifcoTM DRBC Agar) and Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA). For
PDA, 19 g of PDA powder (HIMIDEA® Potato Dextrose Agar) mixed in 500 mL of
distilled water in a conical flask and the homogenate was autoclave at 121 oC for 15
minutes. For DRBC, 31.6 g of DRBC Agar powder was weighed and mixed with 1 L
of distilled water. The mixture was then heated with constant agitation to ensure
completely dissolved medium. Next, the media was autoclave at 121 oC for 15 minutes.
Soil serial dilution plate technique
A soil serial dilution technique was used for isolation of fungi. In this technique,
immediately after the preparation of soil suspension, serial dilution was conducted up
from 10-1, 10-2, 10-3, 10-4 and 10-5, while, 1 mL of diluted soil was added in 100 mL of
distilled water in a conical flask. Finally, 1 mL of the final serial diluted soil was
pipetted into petri dish. Then, PDA or DRBC media was added separately into the petri
plates.
114
Identification of Trichoderma spp.
Slide culture technique was used for the observation and fungal identification. A thin
section of agar from PDA media containing the fungus was fixed and prepared on
microscopic slide. The fungal was identified based on the morphological examination
such as pigmentation, and their characteristics such as the conidia, conidiaphores and
spore structure that similar with Trichoderma species identification key (Ellis, 1976).
In addition, the observed morphological characteristics of the isolated Trichoderma was
compared and identified with the help of an online interactive key.
Preparation of Pyricularia oryzae pure culture
The pure culture of P. oryzae was done on PDA media from the stock culture of P.
oryzae which previously isolated from another study.
Antagonistic activity of Trichoderma spp. towards Pyricularia oryzae
The antagonistic potentiality of isolated Trichoderma spp. or strain were evaluated

against P. oryzae. An agar disc with the diameter of 6 mm was taken from actively
growing pure culture of P. oryzae and was placed 1cm on the edge of the PDA media
containing petri dish. The plates was left for 3 days for growth of P. oryzae.
After 3 days, Trichoderma spp. was also be added into the same plate but at the opposite
site of P. oryzae. Plate that will be inoculated with P. oryzae alone serves as control.
The plates was left for 5 to 6 days to allow the growth of the colony. The linear growth
was measured and the percentage of growth inhibition of P. oryzae was determined by
using Percentage Inhibition of Radial Growth (PIRG). Formula as follow:
𝑅1 − 𝑅2
PIRG = × 100
𝑅1
Where;
PIRG = Percentage Inhibition of Radial Growth

R1 = The radial growth of the P. oryzae in control plate with the absence of
Trichoderma spp.
R2 = The radial growth of the P. oryzae in the presence of Trichoderma spp.
The colony of Trichoderma spp. was identified through the observation of the colony
appearance on the soil dilution plate. Two types of media were used for the soil dilution
plate technique. However, all of the Trichoderma colonies were recovered from DRBC
plate. A total of 50 colonies were isolated from first screening. These identified colonies
were then subcultured on PDA for the fungal pure culture preparation. The
morphological identification was based on the colony appearance and pigmentation, the
growth rate, shape of phialides and branching patterns of conidiophores under the light
microscope by slide culture. Based on the observation two species were identified as T.
harzianum and T. koningii. For the antagonistic activity the percentage inhibition of
radial growth (PIRG) of mycelial growth for P. oryzae by Trichoderma spp. and the
115
mean proximate of percentage inhibition of radial growth (PIRG) of Trichoderma
isolates against P. oryzae were tabulated in Table 1. In conclusion, the Trichoderma
species diversities was found only two species while both have good biocontrol ability
to control P. oryzae.
Table 1: Percentage of radial growth inhibition of Pyricularia oryzae

Trichoderma species Average Percentage Inhibition of Radial Growth
against Pyricularia oryzae (%)
T. harzianum 1 68.04
T. harzianum 2 71.09
T. koningii 3 69.57
T. koningii 4 69.57
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank Permohonan Skim Geran Penyelidikan Jangka Pendek
(SGJP) (JPPPU) Bil.1/2015 grant for financial support.
REFERENCES
Ellis, M.B. 1976. More Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. Commonwealth Mycological

Institute: Kew, Surrey, UK.
Suryadi, Y., Susilowati, D. N., Riana, E. & Mubarik, N. R. 2013. Management of
Rice Blast Disease (Pyricularia oryzae) Using Formulated Bacterial Consortium.
Emir. J. Food Agric., 25: 349–357.
Wilson, E.O. 1992. The Diversity of Life. New York: Belknap Press. 424.
116
Soil Water Properties of Kerangas Forest Soil after Invasion by Acacia
Ibrahim, M.H.1, Metali, F.1, Tennakoon, K.U.2 and Sukri, R.S.H.1
1
Environmental & Life Sciences Program, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei
Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong, BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam
2
Institute for Biodiversity and Environmental Research (IBER), Universiti Brunei
Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong, BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam
E-mail: rahayu.sukri@ubd.edu.bn
INTRODUCTION
Soil water is important for forest ecosystems as infiltration and percolation process use
soil water for plant growth. The presence of invasive Acacia species may limit the
availability of soil water because these species absorb more water than native species
(Dye and Jermain, 2004). Acacia species are also identified efficient in nitrogen fixing
which allow them to effectively compete with native species (Adams and Attiwill,
1986; Le Maitre et al., 2011). Until now, there is insufficient study in invasion effects
to soil water especially in Kerangas forest. Hence, this research was set up to
accomplish that objective to investigate the effect of Acacia invasion on the soil water
properties of Kerangas forests.
Study sites and soil water sampling
The study sites were in invaded and non-invaded Acacia heath (Kerangas) forests near
the Jerudong International School, Muara District, Brunei Darussalam. A total of 6 plots
of size 10 m x 10 m were constructed, with 3 plots in each of the invaded and non-
invaded Acacia heath forests, where the distance between each plot was more than 10
m.
In each invaded and non-invaded Acacia plots, holes of 4 cm width and 70 cm depth
were dug up using a soil auger (Curley et al., 2011). Subsequently, a lysimeter (SPS
200. SDEC, France) was installed into the holes and used to extract soil water by direct
contact to the soil.
Sample collections were conducted in dry season (low rainfall; <3000 mm) to prevent
leaching process starting from May to July 2016 (Brunei Metrological Department,
2016). A 0.70 Pascal of suction air were adopted to the vacuum pump and left for 30
minutes. After 1 hour air suction, the connecter pipe tubes were clamp to sustain
vacuum condition then were leave for two weeks (Fontanari and Kern, 2003; Stevens,
1981). After 2 weeks the water samples were collected and bring to laboratory for
nutrient analyses.
Soil water and data analysis
Water volume were determine using measuring cylinder. The soil water was analyzed
for pH using a pH meter, electric conductivity, salinity, and total dissolved solids were
analyzed using EC meter, exchangeable PO4, NO3 and NH4 using Hach
spectrophotometer (DR 2010, Hach©, USA). For each soil water parameter of two
117
habitat Kerangas forest, differences in mean between invaded and non-invaded Acacia
sites were determined using unpaired t-test analysis. All statistical analysis were
conducted using Statistical Analysis System Ver. 9.2 (SAS Corp, 2009).
Invaded Acacia (IN) sites recorded significantly lower means value (diff=-8.34 ml
week-1) for soil water volume, but significantly higher values (diff=0.23) for soil water
pH as compared to non-invaded Acacia (NIN) sites (Table 1). For soil water
hydrochemical properties, the results shows invaded Acacia (IN) sites recorded
significantly higher mean values for nitrate (diff=4.9 mg L-1) and phosphate (diff=5.06
mg L-1) concentrations, while ammonium concentrations were higher (diff=-0.06 mg
L-1) at non-invaded Acacia (NIN) sites (Table 1).
Table 1: Variation in soil water parameter collected from different habitat in Kerangas
forest: Non Invaded Acacia (NIN) and Invaded Acacia (IN), n=12. Significant changes
(p<0.05) highlighted with bold print (p<0.05) highlighted with bold print
Non-invaded Invaded Acacia
Soil water parameter n t-value dF p
Acacia (NIN) (IN)
Volume (mL h-1) 93.75±4.58 85.41±6.54 12 3.23 11 0.008

pH 8.27±0.16 8.50±0.09 12 -2.48 11 0.03
EC (µS cm-1) 187.69±25.98 193.86±44.98 12 -0.49 11 0.63
Salinity (psu) 0.095±0.012 0.10±0.023 12 -0.94 11 0.37
Total dissolve solid (mg L-1) 110.92±35.29 123.17±29.47 12 -1.14 11 0.28
Nitrate-NO3- (mg L-1) 8.79±1.14 13.69±1.68 12 -2.96 11 0.01
Ammonium-NH4+ (mg L-1) 0.10±0.06 0.043±0.03 12 2.44 11 0.03
Phosphate-PO43- (mg L-1) 8.63±0.98 13.69±1.68 12 -3.06 11 0.01
Our results showed Acacia invasion has influenced soil water properties of Kerangas
soils. These results confirm Acacia species absorb more water and fix more nitrogen
(nitrate). The results might be contributed from slowed mineralization process in
invaded Acacia sites compared to non-invaded Acacia. The higher pH and lower
exchangeable ammonium mean values explained these process where the absorption of
large amount of water solute in invaded Acacia sites reduce the H+ ions resulted the pH
of soil water become higher (less acidic). The lower H+ ion then directly caused low
concentration of NH4+ in the soil water (Gupta et al., 2015). Finally dissipation of H+
ions in every NH4+ produces higher NO3- which called nitrification process (Di et al.,
2014).
CONCLUSION
The invasion of Acacia has affected the Kerangas forest by higher absorption of water
and higher fixation of nitrate.
REFERENCES
Adams, M. A, & Attiwill, P. M. 1986. Nutrient cycling and nitrogen mineralization in

eucalypt forests of south-eastern Australia H. Indices of nitrogen mineralization.
Plant and Soil, 92(3): 341–362.
118
Curley, E. M., O’Flynn, M. G. & McDonnell, K. P. 2011. The use of porous ceramic
cups for sampling soil pore water from the unsaturated zone. International Journal
of Soil Science.
Di, H., Cameron, K., Podolyan, A. & Robinson, A. 2014. Effect of soil moisture
status and a nitrification inhibitor, dicyandiamide, on ammonia oxidizer and
denitrifier growth and nitrous oxide emissions in a grassland soil. Soil Biol.
Biochem., 73: 59–68.
Dye, P. & Jermain, C. 2004. Water use by black wattle (Acacia mearnsii): implications
for the link between removal of invading trees and catchment streamflow. S. Afr. J.
Sci., 40–44.
Fontanari, M. & Kern, A. 2003. The “Comparative Analysis of Spas” - An Instrument
f o r the Re-Positioning o f Spas in the Context of Competition in Spa- and Health
Tourism, 58(3): 20–28.
Gupta, V., Sadegh, H. & Yari, M. 2015. Removal of ammonium ions from
wastewater: A short review in development of efficient methods. Global J. Environ.
Sci. Manage., 1(2): 149–158.
Le Maitre, D. C., Gaertner, M., Marchante, E., Ens, E. J., Holmes, P. M.,
Pauchard, A., … Richardson, D. M. 2011. Impacts of invasive Australian acacias:
Implications for management and restoration. Diversity and Distributions, 17(5):
1015–1029.
Stevens, P. A. 1981. Modification and Operation of Ceramic Cup Soil Solution
Sampler for use in a Geochemical Cycling Study, (8).
119
Soil Properties of Acacia-Invaded and Non- Acacia Invaded Coastal
Heath (Kerangas) Forests in Brunei Darussalam
Dk Nur Amal Nazira, P.Z., Sukri, R.S.H. and Metali, F.
Environmental and Life Sciences Programme, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei
Darussalam, Jln. Tungku Link, BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam
E-mail: zeepgz@live.com
INTRODUCTION
The spread of invasive alien Acacia species is undoubtedly becoming a concern for
Brunei Darussalam particularly due to their ability to thrive on nutrient-poor soils.
Acacias grow successfully in plantation partly due to the presence of N-fixing bacteria
in their root nodules (Sein and Mitlohner, 2011). Four species of Acacia can be found
in Brunei Darussalam: Acacia mangium, A. auriculiformis, A. cincinnata and A.
holosericea. A. mangium is the most common species of Acacia in Southeast Asia
(Galiana et al., 2003).
Heath forests in Borneo are commonly known as Kerangas, and they are type of tropical
forest found mainly on acidic, nutrient-poor and sandy soil of coastal and montane areas
(Garbutt, 2006). As 1% of the forests in Brunei are covered by heath forest (Wong and
Kamariah, 1999), Acacias have been observed to successfully spread and invade the
disturbed heath forests. Thus, this study aims to quantify and compare the soil
properties between Acacia-invaded and non-Acacia invaded coastal heath forest in
order to understand the influence of invasive Acacias to heath forests in Brunei
Darussalam.
This study was conducted at two different sites in the coastal heath forest of Brunei
Darussalam: the uninvaded site (4°57'23.28"N, 114°52'11.64"E) is in an intact
Kerangas forest with undulating topography and no signs of Acacia invasion, and the
invaded site (4°57'41.88"N, 114°52'18.42"E) has similar undulating topography but
with Acacia-invasion. The distance between these sites was c. 1 km from each other.
At each site, a line transect of length 100 m was set up at a downhill direction and
divided into three divisions of approximately 33 m length each.
For every division at each site, three soil samples were collected at 0–20 cm depth, with
2 replicates for every sample which was then bulked into a composite sample. A total
of 18 soil samples collected from both sites were then used to determine soil properties.
Fresh soil samples were measured for pH and gravimetric water content (GWC)
following Allen et al. (1989). The remaining soil samples were left to air-dry for at least
2 weeks. Air-dried soil samples were ground into fine powder using a ball mill machine
(Mixer Mill MM400, Retsch, Germany) and used to analyses total N, P, K, Ca and Mg
concentrations.
Soils were significantly more acidic with low GWC in invaded than uninvaded site
(Figure 1). Similar result of significantly low soil pH was found in Spanish Quercus
120
robur forests invaded by Acacia dealbata (Muñoz et al., 2012) and this is probably due
to the ability of invasive plants to uptake NH4+ ions and release H+ ions that acidify the
soil (Wang et al., 2015). Another study suggested that Acacia plantation has low pH
due to the translocation of base cations from soils to plant biomass (Yamashita et al.,
2008).
On the other hand, the main cause for low GWC in invaded site may be due to the
significantly higher light intensity in invaded site compared to uninvaded site where the
process of evaporation for soil water could be the limiting factor. A study on soil water
that was conducted in Taihang mountainous region of China found that soil water in
Acacia and grass sites evaporated more rapidly than in Arborvitae site (Song et al.,
2011).
30
Mean pH Value
Mean GWC (%)

4.5
20
3
1.5 10
0 0
Uninvaded Invaded Uninvaded Invaded
Figure 1: Mean soil pH and mean percentage of soil gravimetric water content (GWC)
for uninvaded and invaded sites in heath forest. Significant differences in mean values
were indicated with different letters (p<0.05 for mean pH value and p<0.001 for mean
GWC)
Total N, K and Mg concentrations were significantly higher in soils from invaded than
uninvaded sites with an increase of 21.0%, 61.3% and 32.5% relative to the uninvaded
sites, respectively (Figure 2). The higher total N concentration in invaded site was likely
caused by the presence of Acacias themselves as they contain N-fixing bacteria. Similar
findings of increased total N concentrations were found in studies of soil N with Acacia
tree species in Brazil and Ethiopia (Kindu et al., 2006; Silva et al., 2015). Total K and
total Mg concentrations were higher in soils from invaded than in uninvaded site. These
results could be due to higher total K and Mg concentrations in the phyllodes of Acacias
as several studies on Acacias found that they tend to have high total phyllode K
concentrations (Shirazi et al., 2006; Abdirahman et al., 2015; Embaby and Rayan,
2016). A study on the invasion of Acacia sieberiana in South Africa stated that soil Mg
concentration increased under tall A. sieberiana trees (Grellier et al., 2013).
121
12
***
concentrations of
nutrients (mg/g)
10
Mean total 8
6 Uninvaded
4
Invaded
2 * ns ns ***
0
Total N Total P Total K Total Ca Total Mg
Nutrients
Figure 2: Differences in mean total concentrations of nutrients (mg/g) in soils for
uninvaded and invaded sites. The degree of significance is indicated as follows: *,
p<0.05; **, p<0.01; ***, p<0.001; ns, not significant
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this study suggests that Acacia invasion in coastal heath (Kerangas)
forests of Brunei Darussalam significantly increases total soil N, K and Mg
concentrations but significantly decreases soil pH and GWC.
REFERENCES
Abdirahman, Y.A. Juma, K.K., Mukundi, M.J., Gitahi, S.M., Agyirifo, D.S.,
Ngugi, P.M., Gathumbi, P.K., Ngeranwa, J.J. N. & Njagi, E. N.M. 2015. The
hypoglycemic activity and safety of aqueous stem bark extracts of Acacia nilotica.
J. Drug Metab. Toxicol., 6:189.
Allen, S., E., Grimshaw, H., M., Parkinson, J., A. & Quarmby, C. 1989. Chemical
Analysis of Ecological Materials. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
Embaby, H. E. & Rayan, A. M. 2016. Chemical composition and nutritional
evaluation of the seeds of Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne ssp. raddiana. Food
Chem., 200: 62 – 68.
Galiana, A., Goh, D.K.S., Chevallier, M.H. & Gidim. 2003. Micropropagation of
Acacia mangium x A. auriculiformis hybrids in Sabah. Bois et forêts des tropiques,
275(1): 77-82.
Garbutt, N. 2006. Wild Borneo: The Wildlife and Scenery of Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei
and Kalimantan. London, UK: New Holland Publishers.
Grellier, S., Ward, D., Janeau, J.L., Podwojewski, P., Lorentz, S., Abbadie, L.,
Valentin, C. & Barot, S. 2013. Positive versus negative environmental impacts of
tree encroachment in South Africa. Acta Oecologica, 53: 1-10.
Kindu, M., Glatzel, G. & Yosef, A. 2006. Tree species screened on Nitosols of Central
Ethiopia: Biomass production, nutrient contents and effect on soil nitrogen. J. Trop.
For Sci., 18(3): 173-180
Munoz, N.G., Tenorio, M.C. & Espigares, T. 2012. Invasion of alien Acacia dealbata
on Spanish Quercus robur forests: Impact on soils and vegetation. Forest Ecol.
Manag., 269: 214-221.
Sein, C.C. & Mitlöhner, R. 2011. Acacia mangium Willd: Ecology and Silviculture in
Vietnam. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR).
Shirazi, M.U., Khan, M.A., Ali, M., Mujtaba, S.M., Mumtaz, S., Ali, M.,
Khanzada, B., Halo, M.A., Rafique, M., Shah, J.A., Jafri, K.A. & Depar., N.
122
2006. Growth performance and nutrient contents of some salt tolerant multipurpose tree
species growing under saline environment. Pak. J. Psychol., 38(5): 1381-1388.
Silva, C.F., Loss, A., Carmo, E.R., Pereira, M.G., Silva, E.M.R. & Martins, M.A.
2015. Soil fertility and humic substances in an area of clay extraction revegetated
with eucalypt and legumes in the north of Rio de Janeiro State. Ciencia Florestal,
25(3): 547-561.
Song, X., Wang, P., Yu, J., Liu, X. & Yuan, R. 2011. Relationships between
precipitation, soil water and groundwater at Chongling catchment with the typical
vegetation cover in the Taihang mountainous region, China. Environmental Earth
Sciences, 62(4): 787-796.
Wang C., Xiao, H., Liu, J., Wang, L. & Du, D. 2015. Insights into ecological effects
of invasive plants on soil nitrogen cycles. Environmental Journal of Plant Sciences,
6, 34–46.
Wong, K.M. & Kamariah, A.S. 1999. Forests and Trees of Brunei Darussalam.
Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam: Forestry Department & Brunei Shell
Petroleum.
Yamashita, N., Ohta, S. & Hardjono, A. 2008. Soil changes induced by Acacia
mangium plantation establishment: comparison with secondary forest and Imperata
cylindrical grassland soils in South Sumatra, Indonesia. Forest Ecol. Manag., 254:
362-370.
123
Invasive Acacia Changes Soil Physico-Chemical Properties in Mixed-
Dipterocarp Forests in Brunei Darussalam
Salwana, M.J., Faizah, M. and Rahayu Sukmaria, S.
Environmental and Life Sciences Programme, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei
Darussalam, Jln Tungku Link, BE 1410, Brunei Darussalam
E-mail: salwana.jaafar21@hotmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Plants from the genus Acacia adversely impact biodiversity and ecosystems services,
as well as cause landscape degradation and economic losses worldwide. Acacias were
introduced into Brunei Darussalam as roadside vegetation and to supplement timber
production in the 1990s, but soon spread into both natural and man-made agricultural
systems. They have now become prominent in Brunei’s coastal landscapes, gradually
spreading inland into forested areas. Previous studies in Brunei’s heath (Kerangas
forests) revealed Acacia invasion cause increase in soil nitrogen and potassium
concentrations as well as pH (Jaafar et al., 2017), but no such study has been conducted
in Brunei’s most dominant forest type, the lowland mixed-dipterocarp forest.
Mixed-dipterocarp forests (MDFs) dominate the lowland tropical rain forests of Borneo
and cover c. 192,575 hectares of Borneo’s forested areas. Lowland MDFs are also the
main primary forest type in Brunei, north-west Borneo (Ashton et al., 2003), occurring
wherever the mineral soil is yellow-red, and contain some of the most highly diverse
vegetation in the tropics.
Here, we assess the effects of Acacia invasion on selected soil properties of lowland
MDFs in Brunei Darussalam. We examined the effects of these invasive species on soil
properties of two distinct habitat types; Acacia-invaded mixed-dipterocarp forests,
which are mainly invaded by Acacia trees and intact mixed-dipterocarp forests. We
address the following research question:
 Do selected soil physico-chemical parameters (pH, total N and K

concentrations, organic matter and bulk density contents) differ significantly
between Acacia-invaded mixed-dipterocarp forests and intact mixed
dipterocarp forests?
Site description
Soils were collected from two different habitat types in Brunei Darussalam: intact
mixed-dipterocarp forest and Acacia-invaded mixed-dipterocarp forest separated by
approximately 2 km. Both the habitat types were located within compartment 7 of the
Andulau Forest Reserve (4°39'20.63"N 114°31'10.49"E). The Andulau Forest Reserve
consists of lowland MDFs, with mean rainfall and mean temperature from January to
September 2016 of 123.2 mm and 27.6 °C respectively. At each habitat type, six 20 m
x 20 m plots were set up and further sub-divided into four 10 m x 10 m subplots. Plots
within each habitat type were located at distances of more than 50 m from each other.
124
Soil sampling and analysis
A total of 48 soil samples were collected (n = 48 subplots x 1 depth) from 12 plots at

the two different habitat types. Within each subplot, one soil core was sampled using
soil auger at the topsoil (0 – 15 cm) depth. Fresh soils were analysed for bulk density
content and pH. The remaining fresh soil samples were then air-dried, ground and
passed through a 2.0 mm sieve. Organic matter (OM) content and soil nutrient
concentrations were determined using the air-dried soil. The chemical nutrients
investigated in this study were the total nitrogen and potassium concentrations.
All statistical analyses were conducted in R 3.1.1 (R Core Team 2014). Between-site
differences in soil properties were determined using one-way ANOVA and significant
results further analysed using parametric Tukey’s HSD test.
Acacia-invaded mixed-dipterocarp forest soils were significantly higher in total

nitrogen and potassium concentrations, organic matter and bulk density content (Table
1). The intact mixed-dipterocarp forest soils exhibited significantly higher pH with
generally lower total nitrogen and potassium concentrations as well as lower organic
matter and bulk density contents compared to the Acacia-invaded mixed-dipterocarp
forest soils.
Table 1: Selected physical and chemical properties of soils collected in Andulau Forest
Reserve, Brunei Darussalam.
Acacia-invaded mixed- Intact mixed-
dipterocarp forest dipterocarp forest
pH 3.65 (0.07) a 3.86 (0.05) b
Total nitrogen (mg g-1) 0.834 (0.08) a 0.565 (0.04) b
-1 a
Total potassium (mg g ) 6.64 (0.65) 1.73 (0.19) b
Organic matter content
3.23 (0.31) a 2.50 (0.19) b
(%)
Bulk density content (g
2.05 (0.14) a 0.722 (0.08) b
cm3)
Values are means (S.E.), n = 48 for Acacia-invaded dipterocarp forest and intact mixed-dipterocarp
forest. Values in the row with different letter (a or b) are significantly different (Tukey’s HSD test,
p<0.05)
The presence of Acacia is known to have a significant impact on soil physical and
chemical parameters in the area they have successfully invaded. Previous work in heath
(Kerangas) forest also showed the same results as the present study, in that Acacia-
invaded heath forest soils increased in total nitrogen (Matali and Metali 2015; Jaafar et
al., 2017) and potassium concentrations (Jaafar et al., 2017). Our results in the present
study show that nitrogen and potassium concentrations were also higher in Acacia-
invaded mixed-dipterocarp forest soils than in the intact mixed-dipterocarp forest soils.
The higher total N concentration is likely due to Acacias being a highly productive N2-
fixing species. The higher total N and K concentrations in Acacia-invaded soils can
125
also be explained by increase in litter inputs with higher nitrogen content and faster
decomposition, resulting in more nitrogen returning from the aboveground biomass to
the soil (Witkowski 1991; Yelenik et al., 2004; Hughes and Denslow 2005; Yelenik et
al., 2007), hence the high accumulation of organic matter (Yelenik et al., 2007) in the
Acacia-invaded mixed-dipterocarp forest soils. The high concentrations of potassium
suggest that Acacias are also concentrating nutrients other than nitrogen in the top
layers of invaded soils (Witkowski 1991). The higher bulk density in Acacia-invaded
mixed-dipterocarp forest soils potentially indicate restricted growth of roots (Arshad et
al., 1996).
CONCLUSION
Our results support other studies that show changes in soil physico-chemical properties
following invasion by N2-fixing woody plants especially Acacia species. Further
studies need to be conducted in order to clarify whether high nutrient levels in the
Acacia-invaded soil may be problematic for native species which are adapted to the
clayey-nutrient poor mixed-dipterocarp forest substrates. A thorough study is also
required to see if the effect of Acacia invasion is significant between different forests
that occur on different soil types in the tropical lowland rain forests in Brunei
Darussalam. We are also aiming to understand whether the changes at soil physico-
chemical levels are permanent or if they can be reversed through the substantial
management of Acacia spread in Brunei Darussalam.
REFERENCES
Arshad, M.A., Lowery, B. & Grossman, B. 1996. Physical Tests for Monitoring Soil
Quality. In: Doran J.W., Jones A.J., editors. Methods for assessing soil quality.
Madison, WI. p 123-41.
Ashton, P.S., Kamariah, A.S. & Idris, M.S. 2003. A field guide to the forest and trees
of Brunei Darussalam and the northeast Borneo hotspot, Vol. 1. Universiti Brunei
Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam.
Hughes, R.F. & Denslow, J.S. 2005. Invasion by a N2-fixing tree alters function and
structure in wet lowland forests of Hawaii. Ecological Applications 15:1615-1628.
Jaafar, S.M., Metali, F., Din, H.H.M., Ting, D.T.W., Ideris, N.K.H., Matali, S.H.A.
& Sukri, R.S. 2017. Invasive Acacia mangium modifies soil physico-chemical
properties in bornean tropical heath forests. Plant Diversity and Ecology
(Unpublished data).
Matali, S. & Metali, F. 2015. Selected soil physiochemical properties in the Acacia
mangium plantation and the adjacent heath forest at Andulau Forest Reserve.
Malaysian Journal of Soil Science, 19: 45-58.
R, Development Core Team. 2014. R: A language and environment for statistical
computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-
900051-07-0, http://www.R-project.org/
Witkowski, E.T.F. 1991. Effects of alien Acacias on nutrient cycling in coastal
lowlands of the Cape Fynbos. J. Appl. Ecol., 28: 1-15.
Yelenik, S.G., Stock, W.D. & Richardson, D.M. 2004. Ecosystem level impacts of
invasive Acacia saligna in the South African fynbos. Restoration Ecology 12:44–
51.
126
Yelenik, S.G., Stock, W.D. & Richardson, D.M. 2007. Functional group identity does
not predict invader impacts: differential effects of nitrogen fixing exotic plants on
ecosystem function. Biological Invasions 9: 117-125.
127
Effect of Bio-Soil Amendment on the Growth of Six Varieties of Okra
(Abelmoschus esculentus)
Rina, S., Mohammed Selamat, M., Mohammad, M.L. and Silip, J.J.
Faculty of Sustainable Agriculture, Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS), Sandakan
Campus, Locked Bag No.3, 90509 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
E-mail: rinsingkina@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
The application of inorganic fertilizers has been used so many years as a major way to
increase crop production as well as improve and sustaining soil productivity. Plant
cultivation requires fertilization for its potential production. However, excessive use
may lead to some problems such as soil degradation, nutrient imbalance and soil
infertility. Due to these, the biological activity and the economic productivity of the
land will decline. For okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) crop production, soil fertility is
the main thing that needs to be emphasized to sustain plant growth. Low production of
okra will affect its utilization (Nwangwu, 2016). Okra is of economic importance
because of its nutritional value that has improved food security (FAO, 2006). The
nutritive value varies in different cultivars and depending upon the agro-climate. It is a
warm-season and popular vegetable in tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world
grown for its pod (Dalorima et al., 2014). In Malaysia, high demand of okra resulted in
approximately 34,370 metric tons production and widely grown all over the country
(DOA, 2013). Boiled okra is a popular salad and has become a health vegetable for
human diet among Malaysians. To maintain these healthy eating habits, there is need
to find ways to increase the productivity of okra and at the same time minimizing soil
degradation. One of the alternatives is the use of soil amendment such as the application
of bio-soil amendment i.e. plant probiotic which is based on 100% natural microbial
soil supplement. The beneficial effects of using bio-soil amendments are - microbes
will fix enough nitrogen from the air to allow the farmer to eliminate much or all
fertilizer N, improves soil organic matter and “releases” soil nutrient to the crop and
produces better yield, especially during times of drought (Preston, 2001). Therefore, to
achieve agriculture sustainability, the use of bio-soil amendment is gaining attention
among researchers and growers. Therefore, this study was done to evaluate the effect
of bio-soil amendment on the growth on six varieties of okra.
Six okra varieties were used in this experiment: (V1) H297 Okra 505 Green Dwarf,
(V2) H269 F1 Okra Mega Long, (V3) 551 F1 Hybrid Okra Green Torpedo, (V4) 555
F1 Hybrid Five Star Lady's Finger, (V5) MKBe 1 and (V6) Evergreen. Top soil (10 kg)
was weighed into plastic pots and water equilibrated. The experiment consisted 36
experimental units and laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) in
three replications and have two different levels of treatment: T1: 200 ppm of bio-soil
amendment and T2: No added bio-soil amendment as a control. Two seeds of each
variety were sown in the plastic pots and later thinned into one seedling per pot at 10
days after sowing (DAS). There were six sampling times at 10 days interval starting
from 30 DAS. The bio-soil amendment was sprayed onto plants and the soil surface
once in a season at 20 DAS during the vegetative growth stage. Data collected for
growth parameters were plant height, number of leaves, stem diameter, fresh and dry
128
weight and leaf area of okra for each pot per variety. Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
and Least Significant Difference (LSD) test was used for statistical analysis of the data
collected on plant growth parameters using XLSTAT 2016 statistical software package.
Table 1 shows significant differences for all plant growth parameters for the treatments
at 80 DAS. The tallest plant resulted from T1 and for V3. Statistically no significant
differences were recorded for number of leaves plant-1of okra between treatments.
However, different varieties resulted in significantly different number of leaves plant-
1of okra at 80 DAS. The highest number of leaves plant-1was recorded from V6
whereas, significantly different effect was recorded due to combination of bio-soil
amendment level and varieties in terms of number of leaves plant-1 for T1V5.
The highest plant stem diameter was recorded for T1 due to the application of bio-soil
amendment. While, among different varieties, the highest plant stem diameter was
recorded from V3 whereas, the lowest plant stem diameter was recorded for V1.
Significant differences were recorded due to the combined effect of bio-soil amendment
level and varieties. The maximum plant stem diameter was recorded from T1V3
whereas the lowest were from T2V1.
The largest leaf area was recorded for T1. However, for the varieties, the largest leaf
area was recorded from V3 whereas, for the combination effect of bio-soil amendment
level and variety, the maximum leaf area was recorded from T1V3.
Results from Table 1, also show that there is significant difference in fresh and dry
weight (g) plant-1 between the bio-soil amendment levels throughout the samplings.
For different varieties, the highest fresh weight was for V3. For the combination effect,
there was significant interaction between bio-soil amendment levels and varieties, with
T1V3 showing the highest fresh weight.
129
Table 1: Effect of bio-soil amendment, variety and their combination on growth
parameters of okra at 80 DAS
Growth Parameters
Fresh Dry
Treatment Height No. of Stem diameter Leaf area
weight weight
(cm) leaves (cm) (cm2)
(g) (g)
Bio-soil amendment level
T1 66.22a 45.06a 12.42a 688.44a 165.99a 81.60a
T2 64.06b 44.06 a
11.42 b
334.94 b
126.70 b
52.26b
LSD(0.05) 0.8 NS 0.43 54.18 5.84 6.43
Variety
V1 65.17ab 37.50b 10.08d 428.24c 139.72b 61.51b
ab ab c c b
V2 65.17 38.67 11.25 445.75 143.66 65.57b
V3 66.33a 39.83a 13.50a 602.74a 158.90a 76.92a
V4 65.25ab 38.17ab 12.50b 602.74bc 144.94b 62.17b
V5 64.25b 40.17a 12.08b 602.74ab 141.84b 63.11b
b ab b ab ab
V6 64.67 39.17 12.08 602.74 149.03 72.30ab
LSD(0.05) 1.39 2.33 0.75 93.83 10.11 11.13
Bio-soil amendment level x variety
T1V1 65.50 37.67 10.83 671.24 149.30 70.68
T1V2 65.83 38.67 11.17 569.07 155.15 70.20
T1V3 68.50 40.00 14.50 747.20 197.58 107.79
T1V4 66.83 39.33 13.17 669.42 165.51 75.85
T1V5 65.00 41.00 12.33 699.17 154.64 73.14
T1V6 65.67 40.00 12.50 774.56 173.75 91.96
T2V1 64.83 37.33 9.33 185.25 130.14 52.34
T2V2 64.50 38.67 11.33 322.44 132.16 60.94
T2V3 64.17 39.67 12.50 458.28 120.21 46.05
T2V4 63.67 37.00 11.83 302.54 124.37 48.48
T2V5 63.50 39.33 11.83 392.56 129.03 53.09
T2V6 63.67 38.33 11.67 348.55 124.30 52.64
LSD(0.05) 1.97 3.29 1.06 132.70 14.30 15.74
CV (%) 2.64 5.12 11.3 40.16 16.61 29.53
Notes: In a column means having similar letter(s) are statistically similar and those having dissimilar
letter(s) differ significantly by LSD at 0.05 levels of probability. T1-200 ppm of bio-soil amendment +
NPK and T2- no bio-soil amendment added + NPK (control). V1-H297 Okra 505 Green Dwarf, V2-
H269 F1 Okra Mega Long, V3-551 F1 Hybrid Okra Green Torpedo, V4-555 F1 Hybrid Five Star Lady's
Finger, V5- MKBe 1 and V6-Evergreen
The crop growth for the two levels of bio-soil amendment and six different okra
varieties could be attributed to the soil amendment as supplementary nutrients for good
growth. The significant increase in plant height is an indication that okra plants were
able to utilize the nutrients from the application of bio-soil amendment and this is
supported by Odeleye et al. (2005). However, the use of soil amendment could also
improve soil physical properties such as water retention, permeability, water
infiltration, drainage, aeration and structure to provide better root growth as well as to
increase plant growth. The improvement in growth for bio-soil amendment over the
non-treatment could be attributed to the increase in N and K concentration from the
application of fertilizer. Katung et al. (1996) reported that the application of N
significantly increase growth and fruit yield of okra. N and K are the most important
minerals which promote the vegetative growth and development of the plants. The
significant variations due to combination effect of bio-soil amendment level and
varieties of the number of leaves plant-1 show that the increasing number of leaves was
promoted by the amendment and mixture of NPK fertilizer which were essential for
plant growth. This is supported by the findings of Smith et al. (2001) who reported that
130
the use of NPK under good environmental conditions significantly influenced the
growth and fruit yield of okra. This is in agreement with findings of Akande et al.
(2010) who reported that nutrient seemed more available to okra plants with the mixture
than the organic materials alone.
CONCLUSION
These results indicate that some form of soil treatment should be used. Poor plant
growth resulted for the T2 (control) with zero treatment compared to the T1 which was
the bio-soil amendment plus NPK fertilizer. More studies are required on the effect of
different levels of bio-soil amendment. However, these results show that the T1V3
combination resulted in better growth.
REFERENCES
Akande, M.O., Oluwatoyinbo, F.I., Makinde, E.A., Adepoju, A.S. & Adepoju, I.S.
2010. Response of Okra to Organic and Inorganic Fertilization. Nature and Science,
8(11): 261–266.
Dalorima, L.T., Bunu A., Kyari Z. & Mohammed T. 2014. Effects of Different
Mulching Materials on the Growth Performance of Okra in Maiduguri, Vol 4, No.
8, 145–149.
Department of Agriculture (DOA). (2013). Vegetables and Cash Crops Statistic
Malaysia, 1–17.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO). 2006. World
Reference Base for Soil Resources. World Soil Resources Report Vol 84, 88.
Katung, M.D., Olanrewaju J.D., Gupta U.S. & Kureh I. 1996. Fruit and Seed Yields
of Okra as Influenced by Farm Yard Manure and Nitrogen Fertilizer. In Proceeding.
14th, HORTSON Conference, Ago-Iwoye, 1 -4 April, 1996.
Nwangwu, B.C. 2016. Roles of Biochar Produced from Animal and Plant Wastes on
Okra (Abelmoschus Esculenta) Growth in Umudike Area of Abia State, Nigeria.
Journal of Agriculture and Sustainability, 4(2): 158–174.
Odeleye, F.O., Odeleye, O.M., Dada, O.A. & Olaleye, A.O. 2005. The Response of
Okra to Varying Levels of Poultry Manure and Population Density Under Sole
Cropping. J. Food Agric. Environ., Vol 3, No. 3 and 4, 68 – 74.
Preston, S. 2001. Alternative Soil Amendment. Horticulture Technical Note, 1–12.
Smith, M.A., Tolorun, T.P. & Aneji O.S. 2001. Effect of Combine Mulch and
Fertilizer on Weed Growth and Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench) Yield in
The Humid Tropical Environment. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of
the Agricultural Society of Nigeria, University of Agriculture Abeokuta, 16-20
September, 2001, 43-50.
131
Effect of Biofertilizer Utilization on Soil Nutrient Status of Matured
Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Tree
Boney, M.
Malaysian Cocoa Board, 5th, 6th & 7th Floor, Wisma SEDCO, Lorong Plaza Wawasan
Off Coastal Highway, Locked Bag 211, 88999 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
E-mail: boneymuda@koko.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
A fertilizer is any substance, which under favorable conditions when added to a soil
will produce better growth of crops, whether through direct or indirect action on the
crop or on the soil properties. Inorganic or mineral fertilizers are fertilizers mined from
mineral deposits with little processing, whilst for organic, such fertilizers are derived
from animal matter, human excreta or vegetable matter. In spite of that, biofertilizer is
a substance which contains living microorganisms which, when applied to seed, plant
surfaces, or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes
growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant.
Since a biofertilizer is technically living, it can symbiotically associate with plant roots.
Involved microorganisms could readily and safely convert complex organic material in
simple compounds, so that plants are easily taken up. Furthermore, it improves water
retention and tilt in soils and provides the essential nutrients and soil-bacteria to unlock
the full growth potential of plants.
A study was carried out to determine the effect of biofertilizer utilization on the soil
nutrient status of matured cocoa tree. The treatments were as listed: T1 – Compound
fertilizer (NPK Blue) with standard field practice, T2 – Biofertilizer using the
recommended rates, T3 – Compound fertilizer (NPK Blue) plus Biofertilizer with
recommended rates and T4 – No fertilizer was added throughout the trial. Four random
samplings of the soil per plot using a stainless steel auger were taken with 0–20 cm
depths before and after treatments applied. The parameters studied were pH and major
nutrients of the soil such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. All data collected were
analysed using one-way ANOVA of Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS
Ver. 21) and were expressed as mean and any differences were considered to be
statistically significant at p<0.05.
Overall, the soil analysis result (Figure 1) shows no significant difference (p>0.05)
between all the treatments on before and after treatments applied in (a) soil pH and (b)
total N. Result of soil pH graph showed that no improvements happen in all the
treatments. However, slightly improvement were seen in total N as indicated in graph,
even though nutrient for all treatments after application were still less than
recommended adequate range, except in T3 on total N. As for (c) available P and (d)
exchangeable K, it shows some significant difference (p<0.05) on before and after the
treatments applied between the treatments. Although the available P (Figure 1c)
especially in T4 shows nutrient is significantly (p<0.05) higher than others, but
ironically available P released very slowly from insoluble phosphates as its rapidly
132
fixed once again (Allen, 2010), thus limiting plant uptake. Due to this reason, all effects
of treatments after application were still far less than recommended adequate range.
Thus, it is suggested that lime at the rate of 700–800 g/tree per year should be added
onto the soil in order to increase the mean value of soil pH for 5.5 to 6.5, which
eventually helps the availability of phosphorus in soils. For exchangeable K, it is
observed that the nutrient after treatments were applied was significantly increased
(p<0.05) than the recommended adequate range especially in T2 and T3. Nevertheless,
when soil-potassium levels are high, generally plants will take up more potassium than
needed for healthy growth (luxury consumption).
(a) 6 (b) 0.2 a

a a a a a a a a
a a a
4 a
Total N (%)
a a a
pH
0.1
2
0 0
T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4
Treatment Treatment
Before After Before After Adequate
0.6
(c) 16 (d) b b
0.4 a
a
Available P (ppm)
Exch. K (cmol(+)
b
a 0.2 a a a a
a a a a a a
kg-1
0
-4 T1 T2 T3 T4 T1 T2 T3 T4
Treatment Treatment
Before After Adequate Before After Adequate
Note: Means with same letter are not statistically different using Tukey’s at p>0.05 probability level.
Treatments are T1 –NPK Blue Fertilizer, T2 – Biofertilizer, T3 – Biofertilizer + NPK Blue Fertilizer and
T4 –No fertilizer applied
Figure 1: Soil nutrient status on (a) pH, (b) Total N, (c) Available P and (d)
Exchangeable K for different treatments
From the study, the graph results indicated that the effect of T4 for available P is
prominent due to its high availability P, yet it release very slowly as it rapidly fixed
once again. The effects of T2 and T3 also noticeable for exchangeable K, thus indicated
that biofertilizer and its combination had gave some positive affect contribution on such
soil nutrient status after treatments were applied. Overall, this study suggested that
biofertilizer utilization should provide its best effect in certain soil nutrient particularly
in exchangeable K, hence improving the yield production for cocoa matured tree.
REFERENCES
Allen, V. B. 2010. Science and Technology of Organic Farming. CRC Press, Taylor
and Francis Group.
133
Soil Morphological Properties under Mono and Mixed Tree Species at
Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve, Sarawak
Anarrin, N.J.1, Wasli, M.E.1, Douglas, B.1, Perumal, M.1, Sani, H.1, Oscar, J.N.2, Lat,
J.2, Hidir, M.1 and Arip, S.1
1
Department of Plant Science and Environmental Ecology, Faculty of Resource
Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan,
Sarawak, Malaysia
2
Forest Department Sarawak, Wisma Sumber Alam, Petra Jaya 93000 Kuching,
Sarawak, Malaysia
E-mail: anarrin1993@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
Reforestation and effective soil conservation management is required to restore and

manage degraded forest land in tropics. Information regarding the soil characteristics
in forest land is essential as a guide in future reforestation programme. The differences
in soil characteristics are usually attributed to differences in environmental factors such
as topography, runoff and tree species planted which affect the soil genesis (Tamai,
2010). Hence, assessment of soil characteristics such as soil morphological properties
is important to determine the condition of the soils in forest areas. Soil morphological
on a given land can be determined by observing the soil profile of the different soil
horizon. During in-situ observation, the interpretation of soil can show various soil
attributes. In this study, assessment on the soil morphological properties of reforested
areas planted with different tree species of mono and mixed species planting was
conducted. Hence, obtaining the status of the soil condition in the study area is essential
in order to determine the suitability of the selected tree species and the planting
technique in order to achieve the most productive level in terms of its growth and
performance.
This study was conducted at the reforestation sites of Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve,
located merely about 100 km away from Kuching city at Serian, Sarawak with the
latitude and longitude reading; (N00°55’24.7”, E110°38’32.2”). The climate varies in
terms of annual precipitation. The cover area reached about precipitation up to 100 mm
monthly. This is due to constant rainfall received in the study area (Department of
Irrigation and Drainage, 2015). The mean annual temperatures ranged varies between
23 °C (73 °F) in the early morning and increases to about 33 °C (91 °F) during the
afternoon. The soils in this study area were mostly non-calcareous sedimentary rocks
which consisted of whitish sandstone according to the Sarawak Soil Classification
system (Wasli et al., 2014). The evaluation of soil morphological properties at the forest
reserve of the study area was conducted in reforestation sites with various planting
techniques. Three (3) study plots with the size of 50 x 50 m were established at the
reforestation sites based on the different planting technique: mono (MD2011) species
site (planted with only Dryobalanops beccarii), mono (MS2011) species site (planted
with Shorea macrophylla.) and mixed (MX2011) species site (planted with both D.
beccarii, S. macrophylla and other indigenous trees). Soil pits of approximately 60 cm
depth were dug at the center of each study sites for soil profile description following
the standard procedures by International Union Soil Science Society (IUSSS).
134
Soil morphological properties of planted mono and mixed species at forest reserve
of Gunung Apeng
In this study, views of the observed soil profile in the field area was shown in Figure 1.
Based on the soil profile description on all study sites, soil profiles showed the presence
of sandy, clayey, loamy and silty texture in the horizons. Hence, according to the
Sarawak Soil Classification Systems, the soils in this area were classified into Nyalau
family of the Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil group. According to the USDA Soil
Taxonomy, podzolic soils are defined as mineral soils which contain no calcareous
material anywhere within the soil, have less than 10% weatherable minerals in the
extreme top layer of soil, and have less than 35% base saturation throughout the soil.
Soils under this classification are generally acidic with poor natural fertility in terms of
low exchangeable bases (Teng, 2004). This soil corresponds to great group of
Paleudults based on the USDA classification system. Such soil possesses udic moisture
regime that is characterized by brown to red colors with weak podzolic features. Soils
of these features consist of friable to firm consistency, and weakly to moderately
developed structure (Wasli et al., 2014).
Soil parent material present in MD2011 consisted of few subangular fine gravel.
Meanwhile, no rock fragments were observed in MS2011 and MX2011, respectively.
The presence of subangular fine gravel fragments of the soils observed in MD2011 may
lead to the increase in soil hardness in the study area. The soil hardness in MD2011 was
noted slightly higher compared to MS2011 and MX2011 study plots. The results of the
study showed that the soils in plot MD2011 were loamy sand in texture. Meanwhile,
the presence of clay materials was only observed in study plots of MS2011 and
MX2011. Although soils under this classification are rated as marginally suitable for
any plantation activities, the capability of the soils in accommodating wide range of
tropical crops such as rubber and fruit trees can be improved if implemented under
careful land management practices. Based on our field observation, podzolic soils are
suitable for the development of trees such as D. beccarrii and S. macrophylla in
reforestation area as the growth performance of planted trees in all study site shown
grow relatively well and healthy.
Figure 1: Image of soil pit for soil profile description in the study sites: MD2011 plot,
MS2011 plot and MX2011 plot
135
CONCLUSION
The information regarding soils on mono and mixed species planting sites are crucial
in order to know the suitability of the site for reforestation activities. The findings of
this study indicated that based on the soil morphological properties, the soils in this
study area were classified under sandy clay loam, clay loam and loamy sand texture in
the horizon of the soil profiles. Hence, under Sarawak Soil Classification Systems, the
soils in this area were classified into Nyalau family of the Red-Yellow Podzolic Soil
group. Although this soil type was generally poor in natural fertility due to high acidity,
the planted species of D. beccarii and S. macrophylla can grow well in such soil type
with respect to other environmental conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to express our gratitude to the Director and staff of the Forest Department,
Sarawak for their supportive assistance and companionship during the duration of this
study. This research was financially supported by the research grant from Fundamental
Research Grant Scheme (FRGS(E14099/F07/69/989/2013(30)) from Ministry of
Higher Education, Malaysia, Grant-in-Aid for scientific research purpose by the Japan-
Malaysia Association (JMA) and NPO Rainforest Sarawak during the research at
Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve. This research was financially supported by Grant-in-
Aid for Scientific Purposes by Japan-Malaysia Association (JMA).
REFERENCES
Department of Irrigation and Drainage Sarawak. 2015. Water resources

assessment. Retrieved from
http://www.did.sarawak.gov.my/modules/web/pages.php?mod=webpage&sub=pag
e.
Tamai, K. 2010. Effects of environmental factors on soil properties on topographic
variations of soil respiration. Biogeosciences, 6: 10935–10961.
Teng, S. C. 2004. Keys to Soil Classification of Sarawak. Agriculture Department of
Sarawak, 68 pp.
Wasli, M. E., Hamsawi, S., Ying, H. S., Perumal, M., Zatil, A. Z., Jonathan, L., &
Sean, L. P. 2014. Preliminary Assessment on the Growth Performance of
Dryobalanops beccarii Dyer Planted under Enrichment Planting Technique at
Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve, Sarawak, Malaysia. Kuroshio Science, 8: 45–52.
136
Soils Properties at Reforestation Sites After Different Silviculture
Treatment at Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve, Sarawak
Douglas, B.1, Wasli, M.E.1, Perumal, M.1, Anarrin, N.J.1, Sani, H.1, Oscar, J.N.2, Lat,
J.2, Hidir, M.1 and Arip, S.1
1
Department of Plant Science and Environmental Ecology, Faculty of Resource
Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, 94300 Kota Samarahan,
Sarawak, Malaysia
2
Forest Department Sarawak, Wisma Sumber Alam, Petra Jaya 93000 Kuching,
Sarawak, Malaysia
E-mail: douglas_bungan@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
Tropical forests are considered as the most productive among of all terrestrial
ecosystems as they possess the functional roles for biodiversity conservation, world
climate enhancement as well as soil conservation (Whitemore, 1998). Forest cover in
Borneo was 75.7% in 1973; by 2010, the forest area had been reduced by 16.8 million
ha in which, indicated that 30.2% forest loss (Gaveau et al., 2014). Thus, conservation
and preservation activities are necessary in order to protect it from massive perilous
activity such as deforestation. Reforestation via enrichment planting accompany by
suitable planting technique is important as it can restore degraded soils resulting from
deforestation. Silviculture treatment is the general way to be applied in forest plantation
as it can enhance the forest growth. Blaser (2011) reported that the silvicultural
structure is used to manage the dry inland forest in Malaysia in which, mostly
dominated by the Dipterocarpaceae family. Most of the previous studies on enrichment
planting have focused on growth performance of planted species along with the planting
technique, species selection for planting purposes in relation to the growth productivity
at degraded forest with less attention on the ecosystem involving soil physical status
under reforestation area (Arifin et al., 2008; Wasli et al., 2014; Perumal et al., 2015).
Moreover, Ariffin et al., (2008) stated that empirical data on the soil properties of
rehabilitated degraded forest land planted with dipterocarp species and non-dipterocarp
species in Malaysia is still limited. In addition, the data on the soil properties in
degraded vegetation is rather limited, even though several studies on the soil physical
properties of tropical rainforests in Sarawak, Malaysia, have been conducted.
Therefore, the purpose of the assessment is to determine the effects of selected soil
physical characteristics on the growth and survivability of planted Dryobalanops
beccarii at Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve, Serian, Sarawak.
Information on Gunung Apeng forest reserve reforestation sites, Serian, Sarawak
This study was conducted at reforestation sites in Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve
(GAFR), Serian, Sarawak. Since the year 2005, reforestation project has been
established in the area to rehabilitate degraded land areas after series of logging
activities. The average annual rainfall recorded was 3,500 mm, with annual
temperatures ranging between 23 °C to 33 °C. Three (3) study plots were established at
reforestation sites planted with Dryobalanops beccarii (Kapur Bukit) and four subplots
were constructed in each plot. The study plots established were with the size of 30 × 50
137
m and were established in the year 2005. Each study plots consisted of different
silviculture treatments namely; T1 (control) with no silvicultural treatment applied, T2
(bush slashing) and T3 (selective girdling) were applied, on existing pioneer tree
species. All silviculture treatments were applied since its establishment except for T3
plots whereby silviculture treatment was only applied in year 2012. All trees were
planted under line planting technique with lines cut 5 m apart and trees planted at 5 m
interval along the lines.
Methods for growth performance assessment and soil sampling and analyses
For the assessment on the growth performance of planted Dryobalanops beccarii in the
study plots, measurement such as stem diameter and total height of the trees were
assessed. The stem diameter of the trees was measured at the constant height of 30 cm
above the ground of the trees and the height of the tree was taken using clinometer by
measuring the angles from the horizontal to the tip of the tree.
Next, for soil sampling, it was conducted within the same studied plot for the
assessment of growth performance. In each plots (T1, T2 and T3), twelve (12) subplots
with the size of 5 x 5 m were established. The composite soil samples were collected
from the depth of 0 – 10 cm. The soil samples were collected randomly on each subplot
on the planting lines by using soil auger. For soil physical analyses, soil bulk density
was determined on the undisturbed samples, collected at surface soil layer using a 100
cc core sampler with the ratio of a dry mass of soil to the bulk volume of a soil core.
Soil texture was determined using the pipette method. Soil water and moisture contents
were determined using gravimetric method. All soil physical analyses were conducted
at Laboratory of Environmental Soil Science, Faculty of Resource Science and
Technology, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS).
Statistical analyses
The data on the growth performance and soil physical properties were statistically
analysed using the One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). All the statistical tests
were performed using SPSS Ver. 21 for windows.
Soil physical properties at reforestation sites under different silviculture

treatments
Table 1 showed the general soil physical properties of the studied plots. The results
showed that the soils in all study plots were acidic in nature with pH (H2O) values of
less than 5.5. Meanwhile, the soil textures were relatively sandy in texture with bulk
density ranging between 0.8 g/cm3 to 1.4 g/cm3. Moreover, the sand content of the
studied soils were much larger than both clay and silt content which ranged between
43% to 59%. There is significant value in some of soil properties. It is suspected that
these significant factors might have some influence on the growth performance of the
D. beccarii.
138
Table 1: Soil physical properties at silviculture treatment site at depth of 0 - 10 cm
Silviculture plot
T1 T2 T3
pH (H2O) 5.155± 0.23b 4.4375 ± 0.32a 4.5675± 0.46ab
SOM % 7.57 ± 1.66b 4.70 ± 1.01a 4.29 ± 0.10a
b a
Total C g/kg 43.92 ± 9.64 27.27 ± 5.86 24.87 ± 0.57a
b a
Moisture content % 6.96 ± 1.57 1.8675 ±0.34 2.3325 ± 0.78a
b ab
Clay % 29.0 ± 6.8 23 ± 9.4 15.3 ± 1.4a
Silt % 28.0 ± 4.1ns 26 ± 2.1ns 23.3 ± 2.3ns
Sand % 43± 10.3ns 58.75± 3.5ns 53.75± 10.74ns
Textural Class CL SL SL
Different letter indicate significant differences among each treatment at 5% Tukey test; CL, Clay loam;
SL, Sandy Loam; SOM, Soil Organic Matter
Our field observation suggested that in T1, certain parts of the study plot were exposed
to stagnant water as it was located at low-lying flat area. Previous study on soil-plant
relationship in reforestation area in Sarawak suggested that the soil properties under
enrichment planting are greatly influenced by the site’s topographical condition
(Hattori et al., 2009).
Influence of soil physical properties on the growth performance of planted

Dryobalanops beccarii after silviculture treatment
Figure 1 showed the tree height and stem diameter at breast height of D. beccarii in the
studied plots. For both T2 and T3 plots, the average tree height was much higher as
compared to T1. In addition, similar trend were observed for the average stem diameter
at breast height as D. beccarii were much larger in T2 and T3 as compare to trees in
T1.
Figure 1: The average height and diameter of D. beccarii; Different letter indicate
significant differences among each treatment at 5% Tukey test
Relationship between tree height and stem diameter at breast height of planted trees
with the soil’s clay percentage were shown in the Figure 2. The results showed that
higher clay percentage promotes the gradual increment in tree stem diameter and height.
Based on the field observation, certain parts of the subplots in T1 were exposed to
water-logged condition where evidence of high tendency to flood was observed. As
reported by Wasli et al., 2014, D. beccarii is the predominant tree species of the upper
canopy of Hill Dipterocarp Forests where its distribution mainly at hilly area. Hence,
as the result from exposure to water logged condition, this may explained the low
growth performance of D. beccarii at T1.
139
T1 (control): T2 (bush slashing): T3 (selective girdling):
Figure 2: Relationship between the clay percentage and the D. beccarii growth
performance
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, the soil physical properties in all 3 treatment plot is almost the same
despite a slightly differences in the soil properties. However, due to low topography
properties, the planted area prone to water logged and flood that resulted in low growth
performance of the D. beccarii. Besides that, the practice of silviculture as observed
have significantly increase the growth performance of the planted D. beccarii Hence,
proper site selection for reforestation should be taken onto consideration when
conducting reforestation as well as the long term relation of soil and plant should be
monitored as the successfulness of the reforestation project does not depend on the
planting technique alone.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We wish to express our gratitude to the Director and staff of the Forest Department,
Sarawak for their supportive assistance and companionship during the duration of this
study. This research was financially supported by the research grant from Fundamental
Research Grant Scheme (FRGS (E14099/F07/69/989/2013(30)) and Dana
Pembudayaan Penyelidikan (RAGS (RAGS/g(2)/914/2012(15)) from Ministry of
Higher Education, Malaysia, Grant-in-Aid for scientific research purpose by the Japan-
Malaysia Association (JMA) and NPO Rainforest Sarawak.
REFERENCES
Arifin, A., Tanaka, S., Jusop, S., Majid, N.M. & Ibrahim, Z. 2008a. Assessment on
soil fertility status and growth performance of planted dipterocarp species in Perak,
Peninsular Malaysia. J. Applied Sci., 8: 3795-3805.
Blaser, J., Sarre, A., Poore, D. & Johnson, S. 2011. Status of tropical forest
management 2011. ITTO Technical Series No 38. Japan: International Tropical
Timber
Organisation.Retrievedfromhttp://www.itto.int/direct/topics/topics_pdf_download/
topics_id=2645&no=1&disp=i nline
Gaveau, D.L.A., Sloan, S., Molidena, E., Yaen, H. & Sheil, D. 2014. Four Decades
of Forest Persistence, Clearance and Logging on Borneo. PLoS ONE 9(7):
e101654. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101654
140
Hattori, D., Kenzo, T., Kendawang, J.J., Irino, O.K., Tanaka, S., Ichie, T.,
Ninomiya, I. & Sakurai, K. 2009. Effect of light intensity and soil physico-
chemical properties on seedling mortality and growth of six dipterocarp species
planted for rehabilition of degraded grassland, secondary forest and logged forest in
Sarawak, Malaysia. Jpn. J. For Environment, 51(2): 105 – 115
Perumal, M., Wasli, M.E. & Sani, H. 2014. Relationship between soil fertility and
growth performance of planted Shorea macrophylla at reforestation sites of Sampadi
Forest Reserve, Sarawak, Malaysia. Unpublished master dissertation. Universiti
Malaysia Sarawak, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia.
Wasli, M.E., Sani, H., Ho, S.Y., Perumal, M., Zainuddin, Z.A., Lat, J. & Lee, P.S.
2014. Preliminary assessment on the growth performance of Dryobalanops beccarii
Dyer planted under enrichment planting technique at Gunung Apeng Forest Reserve,
Sarawak, Malaysia. Kuroshio Science 8-1(45-52). Retrieved from https://ir.kochi-
u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/10126/5418/2/8-1.45.pdf
Whitemore, T.C. 1998. An Introduction to Tropical Rain Forests. (2nded.). Oxford,
Oxford University Press, 282 pp.
141
GIS Spatial Model Using Remote Sensing Data for Determining Soil
Problems and Environmental Hazard Evaluation
AbdelRahman, M.A.E.
National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, Egypt
E-mail: maekaoud@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
There is a need to develop of spatial models to support regional environmental planning

and management. Satellite remote sensing data and Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) offer excellent tools for the assessment and the evaluation of environmental
impacts. The study aims to identify the environmental impacts of rainfall activities on
soil erosion. The study area is subject to heavy rainfall and increasing changes in land-
use/land-cover that resulting from natural and human activities such as landslide, flash
floods, and construction projects of houses and roads resulting from major
environmental impacts. The resultant map shows that Soil erosion, salinity and sodicity
hazards are serious problems in the study area and lead to reducing the soil quality and
increasing the degradation of soil resources. Initial results show spots which high prone
to environmental hazards and provide very useful information for decision making and
policy planning with such problems. The results include a complete database and
models that can be easily adjusted to different planning goals or regions.
Despite years of study and substantial investment in remediation and prevention, soil
erosion continues to be a major environmental problem with regard to land use in India
and elsewhere around the world. Furthermore, changing climate and/or weather
patterns are exacerbating the problem. Our objective was to review past and current soil
conservation programmes in India to better understand how production-,
environmental-, social-, economic-and policy-related issues have affected soil and
water conservation and the incentives needed to address the most critical problems. We
found that to achieve success in soil and water conservation policies, institutions and
operations must be coordinated using a holistic approach. Watershed programmes have
been shown to be one of the most effective strategies for bringing socioeconomic
change to different parts of India. Within both dryland and rainfed areas, watershed
management has quietly revolutionized agriculture by aligning various sectors through
technological soil and water conservation interventions and land-use diversification.
Significant results associated with various watershed-scale soil and water conservation
programmes and interventions that were effective for reducing land degradation and
improving productivity in different parts of the country are discussed.
Digital Terrain Model: Digital elevation model (DEM) of Chamrajnagar was generated
and prepared. SRTM DEM images of cell size 90 x 90 m were used as the source data
for elevation heights of the study area. As the SRTM DEM image contains some bad
values, the bad values were replaced and removed using ENVI software (ENVI V4.7,
2009).
Software Resources and Maps Production: Data analyses were carried out using ENVI
software. Geographic information system (GIS) analyses were done using ArcGIS9.3.1
142
(ESRI, 2009). Flow direction, flow accumulation, stream order, focal flow and basins
are generated according to the following model, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: GIS model for generating stream network, focal flow and basins
There is one input variable, minimum upstream area in hectares (45). This variable is a
double and is the minimum drainage area required to create a stream segment. Smaller
areas create more stream segments. The model calculates the number of raster cells for
the input area and then uses the Con tool to perform a conditional if/else evaluation on
each of the input cells in the flow accumulation raster. Since a cell value in the flow
accumulation raster is the number of upstream cells flowing into the cell, any cell with
an upstream area greater than the cutoff is selected. Selected cells form stream segments
and are assigned a one (1) in the output raster. The Calculate Value tool divides the
input hectares by the size of a cell in hectares (90 x 90 m= 8100 m2 = 8.1 hectares) to
yield the number of cells for the minimum upstream area.
ESRI (2009) defined the following tools:
- Fill tool fills sinks in the DEM raster to remove small imperfections in the data.
-Flow direction determines the direction of flow from every cell in the raster.
- Stream Order tool assigns a numeric order value to a raster representing branches of
a linear network such as the output of the Con tool. In general, streams with a high order
have higher water flows, so stream order can be used as a surrogate for stream width.
The output of the model is symbolized so that segments with high–order values are
drawn with thicker lines. Strahler method was used to generate the stream orders.
Stream to feature was used to convert the stream order raster to features representing
the linear network
-The output of Flow Accumulation would then represent the amount of rain that would
flow through each cell, assuming that all rain became runoff and there was no
interception, evapotranspiration, or loss to groundwater. This could also be viewed as
the amount of rain that fell on the surface, upslope from each cell.
143
- Stream to Feature tool converts the stream order raster into the output line feature
class. This feature class will be drawn by the result map service using symbology
defined in the result map service.
-Focal Flow uses the immediate 3 x 3 neighborhood to determine which of a cell's eight
neighbors flows into it. Flow is defined by any cell within a neighborhood that has a
higher value than the processing cell.
- Basin tool delineates drainage basins within the Analysis window by identifying ridge
lines between basins. Basin analyzes the flow direction raster to find all sets of
connected cells that belong to the same drainage basin.
-Raster to polygon tool is used to convert basin raster dataset to polygon features.
Field studies and Laboratory analyses were carried out for soil samples collection and
its chemicals, physicals and biological analysis then for Maps production. Surface maps
were geometrically corrected transformed, projected and finally produced using Arc
GIS 9.3.1 software.
Digital Terrain Model (DTM) is the representation of continuous elevation values over
a topographic surface by a regular array of z-values, referenced to a common datum.
Digital Terrain Model was generated to represent terrain relief of Chamrajnagar and its
vicinities.
Stream Network : The primary purpose of the Create Stream Network task is to produce
a stream network for cartographic display. Stream network task depends mainly upon
DTM to extract the required parameters of slope, flow direction, flow accumulation,
stream network, focal flow, and Hillshade, as shown in Figure 5,6,7,8,9,10 respectively.
The Hillshade layer is drawn with a transparency of 50%.
A drainage basin was generated to calculate the total area flowing to a given outlet.
Drainage basins’ areas of Chamrajnagar ranged between 5187.0825 -
35980170673.0374 m2. Total drainage area is 55457597700 m2.
CONCLUSION
Chamrajnagar has first-order streams that are dominated by overland flow of water; it
has no upstream concentrated flow. Because of this, it is most susceptible to nonpoint
source pollution problems and can derive more benefit from wide riparian buffers than
other areas of the watershed.
144
Physical Appearance of Bioplastic Planting Pot under Natural
Environment
Chui, Y.C., Chiang, L.K., Kodoh, J. and Maid, M.
Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Forestry Complex, University Malaysia
Sabah, Jalan UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
E-mail: chuiyee90@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
In the pass, agricultural activities especially planting industries expanded gradually to

meet the market demand. Thus, indirectly it generates waste and issued on the usage of
polybags. The disposal of polybags cause land pollution. As sustainable planting
management implied, the sectors aware of the usage of polybags, thus biodegradable
pots such as were used as the substitution for polybags. Bioplastic pots were made from
material which respect to its biodegradation behavior. This was an important factor for
their application in environment. Degradation of bioplastic pot process actively under
certain soil conditions. This mainly due to microorganisms was responsible for the
degradation (Mostafa et al., 2010). Besides, the microorganisms which present in soil
influence the degradation of bioplastic pot by using it as food sources.Thus, in this
study, bioplastic pots incorporated with newspaper pulp were produced as the
alternative planting pots to evaluate their physical appearance under natural
environment condition.
Newspaper pulp, tapioca starch, vinegar, glycerol (99.5% concentration) and water
were used to making bioplastic pots in this study. Newspapers were obtained, shredded
and soaked overnight in water prior to 15 minutes defibrillization using a Valley Beater.
Bioplastic pots were made with appropriate amount of weight of newspaper pulp and
bioplastic based on these percentage ratios (N-newspaper pulp, B-bioplastic) -
N90:B10, N70:B30, N50:B50, N30:B70, and N10:B90. The mixtures were mixed
together and heated on the hot plate at temperature of 70-80 °C until they obtained
sticky gel texture based on Liew and Khor (2013). This showed plasticization had
occurred. Pots of 100% newspaper pulp (N100:B0) as Control were also produced.
There were 30 replicates of pot for each ratio. Later, the bioplastic pots were formed
into cylindrical square pot dimension of 35 mm width, 100 mm height and 2 mm thick.
The formed pots were then oven-dried at 70 °C for 24 hours. Dried pots were placed
above ground of sandy soil, sandy clay loam soil and clay soil for Soil Burial Test, and
extracted on 60 days and 120 days. Bioplastic pots were examined by an Appraisal
Visual Test giving a value from 0 for pots which no microbial stain to 4 for pots which
had heavy microbial stain covered more than 60% of surface area of bioplastic pots
(Table 1 and Figure 1) according to ASTM G160-03.
145
Table 1: Visual quality scale rating of fungal attack.
Rating scale Description
0 None
1 Trace (less than 10% coverage)
2 Light (10 to 30% coverage)
3 Moderate (30 to 60 % coverage)
4 Heavy ( 60% to complete coverage)
>60% coverage
30-60% coverage
10-30% coverage
<10% coverage
Figure 1: Measurement for degree fungal attack.
From the result, the measurements of fungal attack were taken based on the coverage
of microbial stain on the surfaces of bioplastic pots. Based on Table 2, pots with 100%
newspaper pulp (N100:B0) and N90:B10 fell in the average scale 1.0 while the Analysis
of Variance only show significant different between pots N100:B0 and N30:B70 on 60
days. This was because bioplastic pots were contact with soil as the soil contains
microorganisms (Germida and de Freitas, 2008). Furthermore, as mention by
Briassoulis (2007), presence of oxygen and water in soil were the main factors for the
growth of microorganisms. Hence, sufficient oxygen and water in the soil enhance the
growth of microorganisms and cause the bioplastic pots easily been attacked by
microorganisms.
146
Table 2: Degree of fungal attack of bioplastic pots place at above ground and tested at
different evaluation durations
Degree of fungal attack Duration
Bioplastic pots ratio 60 days 120 days
N100:B0 1.0 x 2.7 x
N90:B10 1.0 x,y 3.1 x,y
N70:B30 0.9 x,y 3.2 x,y
N50:B50 0.7 x,y 3.2 x,y
N30:B70 0.7 y 3.4 y
N10:B90 0.8 x,y 3.5 y
Note: ± denoted standard deviation. The different alphabets of x, y, and z in each column for duration of
evaluation at different bioplastic pot ratio was significant at p≤0.05
0 A B C D E F
0 A B C D E F
day day
60 days 120 days
Figure 2: Physical appearances of bioplastic pots after been attack by microorganisms

on 60 and 120 days
>60% coverage
Broken
bioplastic
pot
Before evaluation After evaluation
Figure 3: Bioplastic pot N70:B50 had heavy coverage of microbial stain on 120 days
On 120 days, bioplastic pots had changes in term of colour and structure as shown in
Figure 2 and 3 while the bioplastic pots fell in the scale between 2.5 to 3.5. The
bioplastic pots covered almost 60% of microbial stain as shown in Figure 3. However,
the broken part of the bioplastic pots due to the penetration of root of Paraserienthes
falcataria. The changes of bioplastic pots’s structure due to the materials for produced
bioplastic pots such as starch and glycerol were both from bio-based materials. Maran
et al. (2014) mention that, they were hydrophilic which favourable for water adsorption,
147
thus it increased the water activity in bioplastic pots. So, it was favourable for the
growth of microorganisms. In addition, based on Kim et al. (2006), cellulosic material
easily been attack by microorganisms. Thus, newspaper considered as cellulosic
material and it was no doubt the bioplastic pots with higher content of newspaper such
as N100:B0, N90:B10 and N70:B30 had greater scale on 60 days for fungal attacked.
CONCLUSION
From the study, sufficient of oxygen and water promotes the growth of microorganisms.
Thus, there were changes in term of structure and colours of bioplastic pots throughout
the evaluation periods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors were grateful to the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation for
the grant support 03-01-10-
148
tons of domestic waste. AHSL was officially closed on 31 December 2006 and the 5-
year Landfill Closure and Post Closure Maintenance Plan (LCPCMP) were in place
(2007-2011). ASHL is surrounded by residential housing and schools. One of the main
reasons this site was selected, was because AHSL is one of the largest landfills in
Malaysia. Despite having undergone closure, researchers have found high heavy metal
concentrations in AHSL landfill leachate, which is another reason why this site was
selected.
Figure 2: Location of study site, Air Hitam Sanitary Landfill
Arthropods samples were collected using the same soil sampling plots. Arthropods
were collected using appropriate pitfall methods at these sampling plots. The average
density of the arthropods was also calculated using the formula:
Where;
xi = each sample observation

n = sample size
The arthropods samples that were collected were O. coarctata and T. corallines. These
species were selected for this study as they were found in abundance at AHSL. All
arthropods collected was killed in a deep freezer and dried in oven at 60 ⁰C for 10 hours
and then stored at room temperature in plastic tubes. Before being analyzed, the
arthropod samples were dried overnight at 105 ⁰C. Acid digestion using aqua regia was
conducted to determine the concentration of heavy metal in all the samples collected.
After digestion, the total concentrations of Cd, Fe, Zn, Cu, and Pb were determined
150
using the Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) (Rajoo et al., 2013). These metals
were selected as other heavy metals such as Cr and As had non-detectable
concentrations. Statistical analyses were conducted using the SPSS program (Ver. 17).
Comparison between the heavy metal concentrations in the washed arthropods samples,
unwashed arthropods samples and the top soil were conducted using one way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) at significance difference of p≤0.05, followed by Tukey HSD
test.
Table 1 summarized the comparison of heavy metal concentration in arthropods of Air

Hitam Sanitary Landfill. Only Cd was found to be significantly higher in both species
of arthropods, for both the unwashed and washed samples. This is an indication that
both O. coarctata and T. corallines are potential bioaccumulators of Cd. This is a
characteristic that has been found to be prevalent in most soil arthropods; most
researchers citing that the outer skeleton of these arthropods, the chitin, is the primary
part that is found to accumulate Cd (Boyd et al., 2009; Nummelin et al., 2013). As some
researchers have established, this chitin can be converted into a natural absorbent of
heavy metals, which makes these two soil arthropod species possible candidates for the
development of such technologies in the future. Besides that, these species can also be
used as a bioindicator for Cd contamination, to study the extent of Cd contamination in
an ecosystem. There is the possibility of these soil arthropod species contaminating the
food chain via dietary cadmium, which has been found to be quite prevalent in Cd
contaminated ecosystems (Zhu et al., 2016). Other heavy metals, Cu, Pb, Fe and Zn
didn’t show any indication of bioaccumulation in both soil arthropod species. Although
some soil arthropods have shown bioaccumulation of other heavy metals, Cd remains
to be the most common heavy metal accumulated by these organisms.
Table 1: Concentration of heavy metals in O. coarctata and T. corallines

O. coarctata T. corallines
Element Concentration (ppm)
Top soil Unwashed Washed Top soil Unwashed Washed
Cadmium (Cd) 0.021b 0.025a 0.025a 0.021b 0.023a 0.023a
Copper (Cu) 28.82a 3.6b 3.6b 28.82a 2.27b 2.25b
Iron (Fe) 20.56a 7.48b 7.48b 20.56a 6.21b 6.26b
Lead (Pb) 44.99a 3.82b 3.82 b 44.99a 3.39b 3.36b
Zinc (Zn) 50.16a 5.50b 5.36b 50.16a 5.04b 5.04b
CONCLUSION
The two soil arthropods in this study, O. coarctata and T. corallines, is able to tolerate
soils contaminated with heavy metals as they were found in abundance at AHSL. Cu,
Pb, Fe, and Zn did not accumulate in both these soil arthropods, indicating that these
species did not bioaccumulate these metals. However, Cd was significantly higher in
both the soil arthropods when compared to the top soil content, meaning that both O.
coarctata and T. corallines were soil arthropods were bioaccumulators of Cd.
More research should be conducted on the exact part the Cd is stored in these
arthropods, as it can be used as a platform to develop natural absorbents of Cd. Besides
that, studies should also be conducted to determine the possibility of these species
causing Cd to sip into our food chain.
151
REFERENCES
Bennett S.D.R. & Kerr H.. 1973. Millipedes in and around structures in Florida. Fla
Entomol., 56:43-51
Boyd R. S. 2009. High-nickel insects and nickel hyperaccumulator plants: A review:
Insect science.,16: 19-31.
Gbarakoro T.N., Oneche E., Umeozor, C.O. 2015. Abundance and Vertical
Distribution of Soil Microarthropodsin Waste Dump Sites at Delta Steel Company,
Warri, Nigeria. International Journal of Environment and Resource. 4: 9-15.
Kenny N.J., Xin S., Thomas C., Nicola W., Fung C.T., Chu. K.H., Han H.M. &
Jerome H.LH.. 2015. Genome of the Rusty Millipede, Trigoniulus corallinus,
Illuminates Diplopod, Myriapod and Arthropod Evolution". Genome Biol. Evol., 7:
1280–95
Nummelin M., Lodenius M., Tulisalo E., Hirvonen E. & T. Alanko. 2013. Predatory
insects as bioindicators of heavy metal pollution. Environ. Pollut.,145: 339–347.
Piatkowski M., Janus L., Rawan-Praglowska J. & Bogdal D., 2016. Psi-Chitosan
copolymer crosslinked with EDTA for heavy metals adsorption. International
Journal of Information Research and Review., 3:2118-2123.
Rajoo K.S., Abdu A., Hazandy A.H., Karam D.S., Jusop S., Aiza S.J. & Zhen
W.W.. 2013. Assessment of heavy metals uptake by Aquilaria malaccensis planted
in soils containing sewage sludge. Am. J. Appl. Sci., 10: 952-964.
Rajoo K.S., Ismail A., Karam D.S. & Muharam F.M., 2016. Phytoremediation
studies on soils contaminated with heavy metals in Malaysia: A review article.
American-Eurasian J. Agric. & Environ. Sci.; 16: 1504-1514.doi: 10.5829/
idosi.aejaes.2016.1504.1514
Zhu D., Ke X., Wu L ., Christie P. & Luo Y. . 2016.Biological transfer of dietary
cadmium in relation to nitrogen transfer and 15N fractionation in a soil collembolan-
predatory mite food chain. Soil Biol. Biochem., 101:207-216.
152
Effects of Biochar and Zeolite on Leaf Nutrients Content of Maize
Grown on Clay Soil
Zaidun, S.W.1, Jalloh, M.B.1, Besar, N.A.2, Musta, B.2, Azwan, A.1, Lum, M.S.1, Haruna
Ahmed, O.3 and Majid, N.A.4
1
Faculty of Sustainable Agriculture, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan Sungai Batang,
Mile 10, 90000, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Jalan UMS,
88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
3
Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Food Science, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, Bintulu Campus, Sarawak, 97008 Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
4
Department of Forest Management, Science, Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
Soils in the tropics are usually considered to be acidic, highly weathered, low in nutrient
reserves and depend on soil organic matter (SOM) for efficient nutrient recycling
(Sanchez and Logan, 1992). These soils are degraded physically, chemically and
biologically by human activities such as intensive farming, continuous and over usage
of fertilisers and pesticides, removal of soil organic matter and the topsoil layer (Scherr
and Yadav, 1996). In support of sustainable agriculture, biochar and zeolite can be
added to soil as amendments or conditioners to improve soil health. Biochar is made
from biomass feedstock that undergone pyrolysis process at relatively low temperature
(300-700°C) producing carbon rich material (Lehmann and Joseph, 2009). Crop
productivity is positively affected by biochar soil amendment as it can increase and
retain nutrients in soil due to its high CEC (Liang et al., 2006). Due to the abundance
of empty fruit bunches (EFB) and palm oil mill effluent (POME) as wastes from the
Malaysian oil palm industry, the practice of charring these waste materials is one of the
effective ways to return the biomass into the soil. Zeolites are hydrated aluminosilicates
of alkaline and alkaline-earth minerals. In agriculture, zeolites are used as slow release
fertiliser, soil amendment for pH buffering, to increase CEC and fertiliser efficiency,
act as water reservoir in the soil due its high porosity, as water filter in aquaculture
systems and as animal feed additives (Polat et al., 2004). Zea mays L. (maize or corn)
is one of the important crops in the world, which serves as livestock feed, food and oil
source for human consumption and raw material for many agro-based industries. This
study was conducted to evaluate the effects of EFB-POME biochar and clinoptilolite
zeolite on leaf nutrients content of maize grown on clay soil.
A field study was conducted at the Faculty of Sustainable Agriculture, Universiti

Malaysia Sabah on a Typic Paleudult clay soil, belonging to the Tanjung Lipat Family
based on Sabah soil classification (Acres et al., 1975). The experiment used a
randomised complete block design involving 3 factors at various rates - EFB POME
biochar (0, 10 and 20 t ha-1), clinoptilolite zeolite (0, 1.25 and 2.5 t ha-1) and urea
nitrogen (60 and 120 N kg ha-1), each replicated four times. Thai Super Sweet maize
was used as test crop. Each plot was 1.5 x 2.5 m in size with planting distance of 75 x
25 cm. Two consecutive maize crops were planted and each harvested at 10 weeks
after planting. Triple superphosphate and muriate of potash fertilisers were applied at
153
60 kg ha-1 P and K, respectively. Leaf samples (leaf opposite the cob) were collected at
50% silking stage. Leaf N content was determined based on Dumas method using Leco
CHN Analyser. Dry ashing method (Jones et al., 1991) was used for leaf P, K, Ca and
Mg extraction. P content was determined by Colorimetry method using continuous flow
auto analyser (SEAL Analytical AA3) whereas plant K, Ca and Mg concentration were
measured using the ICP-OES (Perkin Elmer ICP-OES model Optima 5300 DV).
The main treatment effects and the summary ANOVA results (p <0.05) for the effects
of biochar, zeolite and nitrogen on leaf N, P, K, Ca and Mg are presented in Table 1.
For the first crop, biochar application significantly increased N, P, K and Mg
concentration in maize leaves and higher rate of N fertiliser resulted in higher N
concentration. For the second crop, only biochar showed significant main effect on all
of the parameters. Biochar application resulted in significant increase of N, P, K, Ca
and Mg concentration in maize leaves.
Leaf N increase with the increase of N rates for the first crop was due to higher N
availability in soil treated with higher N rate compared to soil treated with low N. This
was due to the plants getting more N from urea applied at higher rates as urea
conversion to NH4+ follows Michaelis-Menten kinetics, in which an increase in
substrate concentration increases the reaction rate until ample concentration to saturate
the urease enzyme is reached (Singh and Nye, 2006).
Biochar showed significant main effects on leaf N, P, K and Mg concentration for the
first and second crops. Leaf nutrient concentration depends on nutrient uptake a
mechanism which is influenced by ion concentration at the root surface. The rate of
root ion uptake is directly proportional to the increasing ion concentration until
saturation kinetics is reached beyond which uptake rate is independent of ion
concentration (Bassirirad, 2000). The results of soil N, P, K and Mg showed that biochar
showed significant positive improvement on this soil nutrients availability. Biochar
caused increased nutrient concentration in the soil due to its ability to retain nutrients.
Better soil nutrient retention and availability with biochar application may be the result
of the net negative surface charge of biochar that increases soil cation exchange
capacity (Liang et al., 2006). The increase in plant nutrient concentration mirrors the
improvement of the soil fertility status with biochar application.
The results also showed that clinoptilolite zeolite had no significant effects on leaf
nutrient concentrations. These results are similar to the findings of Ahmed et al. (2010)
who also reported no significant effects on maize leaf N, P, K, Ca and Mg concentration
with clinoptilolite zeolite application in Typic Paleudults.
154
Table 1: Mean leaf nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) concentration for the various biochar, zeolite
and nitrogen treatments of first and second crop
First crop Second Crop
N P K Ca Mg N P K Ca Mg
(%) mg kg-1 % mg kg-1
Biochar (t ha-1)
0
10 2.54b 224.72b 1445.50b 371.33a 213.89b 1.97a 193.07b 1531.33b 220.94b 315.91b
20 2.59b 247.75b 2004.44b 378.06a 232.22b 2.05a 232.74b 1770.44a 289.50a 348.53a
P 3.06a 263.77a 2561.20a 516.44a 268.49a 2.23b 266.77a 1762.06a 293.67a 320.35b
se <0.01 <0.01 0.04 0.2 0.03 0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.03
± 0.11 ± 8.28 ± 290.28 ± 63.16 ± 14.26 ± 0.06 ± 16.00 ± 52.43 ± 14.22 ± 9.18
Zeolite
155
(t ha-1)
0 2.56a 250.58a 2182.47a 409.15a 223.29a 2.00a 227.09a 1716.78a 264.06a 332.77a
1.25 2.77a 253.11a 2157.23a 401.11a 250.11a 2.10a 219.00a 1585.00a 267.94a 325.04a
2.5 2.86a 232.55a 1674.47a 455.56a 244.20a 2.15a 246.50a 1762.06a 272.11a 327.00a
P 0.13 0.17 0.38 0.81 0.41 0.19 0.47 0.06 0.92 0.83
se ± 0.11 ± 8.28 ± 290.28 ± 63.16 ± 14.26 ± 0.06 ± 16.00 ± 52.43 ± 14.22 ± 9.18
Nitrogen
(kg ha-1)
60 2.60b 237.50a 2023.51a 414.11a 226.33a 2.08a 233.85a 1690.89a 266.07a 325.48a
a
120 2.85 253.33a 1983.92 a
429.78 a
250.08 a
2.09 a
227.87 a
1685.00a 270.00 a
331.06a
P 0.04 0.11 0.91 0.83 0.16 0.92 0.75 0.92 0.81 0.61
se ± 0.09 ± 6.76 ± 237.01 ± 51.57 ± 11.64 ± 0.05 ± 13.07 ± 42.81 ± 11.61 ± 7.50
Means with the same letter within the columns are not significantly different (p<0.05) using LSD test. p= probability value from ANOVA. NB: There were no significant
interaction effects
CONCLUSION
Leaf nutrient concentrations (N, P, K, Ca and Mg) were enhanced as a result of the
increase in plant nutrients uptake due to better soil nutrients availability with biochar
treatments. The increase in soil nutrients availability and leaf nutrient concentration
with EFB-POME biochar treatments consequently increased maize yield. It was also
established that EFB-POME biochar was more suitable to be used in a tropical clay soil
compared to clinoptilolite zeolite for better plant nutrients concentration.
REFERENCES
Acres, B. D, Bower, R. P., Burrough, P. A., Folland, C. J., Kalsi, M. S., Thomas P
and Wright, P. S. 1975. The Soils of Sabah Vol. 5. England: Land Resources
Division, Ministry of Overseas Development.
Ahmed, O. H., Sumalatha, G. and Nik Muhamad, A. M. 2010. Use of Zeolite in
Maize (Zea mays) Cultivation on Nitrogen, Potassium and Phosphorus Uptake and
Use Efficiency. International Journal of the Physical Sciences, 5(15): 2393–2401.
Bassirirad, H. 2000. Kinetics of Nutrient Uptake by Roots: Responses to Global
Changes. New Phytologist, 147: 155–169.
Jones, J. B. Jr., Wolf, J. B. B. and Mills, H. A. 1991. Plant Analysis Handbook. A
practical Sampling, Preparation, Analysis and Interpretation Guide. Georgia:
Micro-Macro Publishing.
Lehmann, J. and Joseph, S. 2009. Biochar for environmental management: an
introduction. In Lehmann, J. and Joseph, S. (eds.). Biochar for Environmental
Management: Science and Technology, pp. 1–12. London: Earthscan.
Liang, B., Lehmann, J., Solomon, D., Kinyangi, J., Grossman, J., O’Neill, B.,
Skjemstad, J. O., Thies, J., Luizao, F. J., Peterson, J and Neves, E. G. 2006.
Black Carbon Increases Caution Exchange Capacity in Soils. Soil Science Society of
America Journal, 70: 1719–1730.
Polat, E., Karaca, M., Demir, H., and Naci Onus, A. 2004. Use of Natural Zeolite
(Clinoptilolite) in Agriculture. Journal of Fruit and Ornamental Plant Research, 12:
183–189.
Sanchez, P. A., and Logan, T. J. 1992. Myths and Science about the Chemistry and
Fertility of Soils in the Tropics. In Chemistry and Fertility of Soils, pp. 35–46.
Madison: Soil Science Society of America and American Society of Agronomy.
Scherr, S.J. and Yadav, S. 1996. Land Degradation in the Developing World:
Implications for Food, Agriculture, and the Environment to the Year 2020. Food,
Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper 14: International Food Policy
Research Institute. Washington D.C., USA, May.
Singh, R. and Nye, P. H. 2006. The Effects of Soil pH and High Urea Concentration
on Urease Activity in Soil. Journal of Soil Science, 35(4): 519–527.
156
The Effects of Time on Heavy Metal Concentrations under Landfill
Conditions
Keeren, S.R.1, Ahmad Ismail1, Daljit Singh K.2, Syaizwan Zahmir Z.1, Hishamuddin O.1
and Dzarifah Z.3
1
Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM
2
3
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM
4
Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
E-mail: keeren.rajoo@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
The ever expanding industrialization and population bloom has caused a huge increase
in the volume of municipal solid waste (MSW). This increasing amount of waste poses
a major threat to both the environment and to human beings, even for countries with
adequate treatment facilities, as the disposal or storage of these various waste products
usually results in toxic pollutants (Ismail and Manaf, 2013). These contaminants can be
hazardous to both the environment and living organisms. MSW is disposed of in
numerous ways, from burning to disposing it at sea (Lau, 2004). However, the most
common disposal method, including Malaysia, is by using landfills (Tarmudi et al.,
2009).
The primary cause of concern regarding landfills is the potential accumulation of heavy
metals. These heavy metals pose a major environmental problem as they are unaffected
during degradation of organic waste while posing a threat to all living organisms
(USDA, 2000). Some heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be dangerous to
humans even at small concentrations. Some heavy metals, such as zinc, are essential
for humans at smaller concentrations but can be deadly when in high amounts. Heavy
metal accumulation in soils has the potential to enter our food chain, namely due to
plant uptake (Rajoo et al., 2016). It can also be transferred to other areas, especially
through leachates and ground water (Wuana and Okieimen, 2011). Hence, heavy metal
concentrations in soils can be a significant threat to both the environment and humans.
Therefore, heavy metal accumulation in soils at landfill site need to be extensively

studied and a thorough system of understanding needs to be created in order to better
understand and address this growing threat to human wellbeing. This is especially true
for landfills that are under closure, so that better post-closure maintenance can be
conducted. The objectives of this study is to determine the effects of time on heavy
metal concentration under landfill conditions and to evaluate pollution potential due to
heavy metal accumulation at landfill sites.
157
Study site
This study was conducted at AHSL, located at the city of Seri Kembangan, near the Air
Hitam Forest Reserve in Mukim Petaling, Daerah Petaling, Puchong, Selangor and is
located at longitude 101° 39’ 55’’ E and latitude 03° 0’ 10’’ N (Figure1). The Selangor
State Government Council approved Worldwide Sita Environmental Management to
develop this sanitary landfill, on 22nd March 1995. ASHL was built in 1995 and was
the first engineered sanitary landfill site in Malaysia, covering a total of 42 hectares.
During the 11 years ASHL operated, it received approximately 6.2 million tons of
domestic waste. ASHL is surrounded by residential housing and schools. AHSL was
officially closed on 31 December 2006. The site was operated by phases, consisting of
7 phases in total.
Figure 1: Sampling plots and depth
AHSL was selected for this study due to it being the first engineered sanitary landfill
site in Malaysia. It is the most advanced landfill in Peninsular Malaysia, and classified
as a Level 4 landfill. It is equipped with several amenities, including a heavy duty
geotextile liner, a ground water drainage system and a leachate collection system and
treatment plant. This ensures that based on the findings of this research, we would be
able to have a better understanding on the effect an engineered, adequately planned and
managed sanitary landfill site has on the accumulation of heavy metals on the
environment.
Six subplots (20 m x 20 m) were established at each sampling location (Figure 1). The
subplots for each sampling location were done at fix intervals. Composite samples was
obtained using an auger from each subplot at 0-20, 20-40, 40-60, 60-80 and 80-100 cm.
All the samples was kept in a standard plastic container and air-dried before analyzed
for heavy metal content. Soil sampling was conducted at three locations, representing
the different phases of AHSL, which are:
Soil sampling location: Phase 1-5
Phase 1-5 is the earliest phase of AHSL to stop operating, having operated from Nov
1995 to Sept 2003 (Figure 2). This location had slopes on both sides, with planted forest
surrounding the entire phase. The phase was also covered with grass. Figure 2 shows
158
the six sampling plots conducted at Phase 1-5, which was done at fix intervals to obtain
reflective samples.
Figure 2: Soil sampling subplots at Phase 1-5
Soil sampling location: Phase 6
Phase 6 operated from Sept 2003 to Jan 2006, being the second phase to stop operating
(Figure 3). This location was flat with no elevations, and had some trees sparingly
planted. Figure 3 shows the six sampling plots conducted at this phase, which was done
at fix intervals to obtain reflective samples.
Figure 3: Soil sampling subplots at Phase 6
Soil sampling location: Phase 7
Phase 7 was the last to stop operating, having operated from Jan 2003 to Dec 2003
(Figure 4). This phase was flat and only had grass covering the surface. It also had
planted forest surrounding the phase. Figure 4 shows the six sampling plots conducted
at this phase, which was done at fix intervals to obtain reflective samples.
159
Figure 4: Soil sampling subplots at Phase 7
Soil analysis
Acid digestion method was used to determine the concentration of heavy metals in the
soil samples collected. After digestion using aqua regia, the total concentrations of Cd,
Fe, Zn, Cu and Pb was determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (Rajoo et
al., 2013)
Effect of time on heavy metal concentration
As the AHSL phases operated at different periods, the effects of time on heavy metal
concentrations could be determined. The earliest phase, Phase 1-5 ceased operating on
Sept 2003, followed by Phase 6, which stopped operating on Jan 2006. The last phase,
Phase 7, stopped operating on Dec 2006. By comparing these phases, it is determined
whether the concentration of heavy metals changes over time.
A one-way between subjects ANOVA was conducted to compare the effect of time
(Phase) on heavy metal concentration in landfill conditions. If the results were
significantly different, Tukey HSD test was conducted to determine the phases that
were significantly different (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Mean of heavy metal concentrations in soil according to phase
160
Effect of time on Cd concentration
There was no significant effect of time (Phase on Cd concentrations [F(2, 87) = 1.442,
p = 0.242]. Figure 2 shows the mean concentration of Cadmium according to the phases.
Effect of time on Cu concentration
There was a significant effect of time (Phase) on Cu concentrations [F(2, 87) = 17.165,
p = 0.0]. A Tukey post-hoc test revealed that the latest phase (Phase 7) had statistically
significantly higher concentration of Cu (31.38 ± 4.187 ppm) with the earlier phases,
that is Phase 1-5 (26.613 ± 2.322 ppm, p = 0.0) and Phase 6 (27.187 ± 3.547 ppm, p =
0.0). There were no statistical difference in Cu concentrations between Phase 1-5 and
Phase 6 (p = 0.795). This clearly shows that Cu concentrations decreased over time.
Effect of time on Fe concentration
Statistical analysis showed that there was a significant effect of time (Phase) on Fe
concentrations [F(2, 87) = 6.272, p = 0.003]. A Tukey post-hoc test revealed that the
latest phase (Phase 7) had statistically significantly higher concentration of Fe (22.18 ±
2.58 ppm) with the earlier phases, that is Phase 1-5 (20.597 ± 1.27 ppm, p = 0.031) and
Phase 6 (20.097 ± 2.952 ppm, p = 0.003). There were no statistical difference in Fe
concentration between Phase 1-5 and Phase 6 (p = 0.695). Although Phase 7 had
significantly higher concentrations of Fe among all phases, Phase 1-5 had higher mean
concentrations than Phase 6. However, this difference was not significant.
Effect of time on Pb concentration
There was a significant effect of time (Phase) on Pb concentrations [F(2, 87) = 8.148,
p = 0.001]. A Tukey post-hoc test revealed that the latest phase (Phase 7) had
statistically significantly higher concentration of Pb (45.343 ± 4.452 ppm) with the
earlier phases, that is Phase 1-5 (40.103 ± 5.827 ppm, p = 0.0) and Phase 6 (p = 42.217
± 4.79 ppm, 0.049). There were no statistical difference in Pb concentration between
Phase 1-5 and Phase 6 (p = 0.244). This shows that similar to Cu concentrations, Fe
concentrations also decreased over time.
Effect of time on Zn concentration
Zn concentrations was significantly affected by time (Phase) [F(2, 87) = 20.534, p =

0.0]. A Tukey post-hoc test revealed that the latest phase (Phase 7) had statistically
significantly higher concentration of Zn (55.013 ± 5.613 ppm) with the earlier phases,
that is Phase 1-5 (46.510 ± 4.3 ppm, p = 0.0) and Phase 6 (p = 51.41 ± 5.46 ppm, 0.022).
Phase 6 also had statistically significantly higher concentrations of Zn (p = 0.001).
Therefore, Zn concentrations decreased over time, similar to Cu and Pb concentrations.
Influence of time and soil depth on heavy metal concentrations
For all heavy metals analysed, with the exception of Cd, there was a statistically
significant reduction in heavy metal concentration when the phase ceased operating at
an earlier date. This indicates that the heavy metal concentrations in the soil decreased
161
after a period of time. This finding is distinctive; as most metals do not undergo
microbial or chemical degradation, these metals should remain in the soil for long
periods (Wuana and Okieimen, 2011). The reason behind the decrement in metal
concentration is attributed to the heavy metals being leached out through the leachate
collection system that is equipped at AHSL. This is because the bioavailability of
metals can be altered (Wuana and Okieimen, 2011). The environmental conditions and
also the manner AHSL is constructed, allows the metals to have improved
bioavailability and thus removed through the leachate collection system. This is further
proven in a study conducted on the AHSL leachate, where it was found that the heavy
metal concentrations were relatively high (Radzuan et al., 2005).
Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb and Zn concentrations was lower with increasing soil depths. In other
words, the highest concentration of these metals was on the topsoil. This is most likely
due to atmospheric deposition, as there are many industries located in close vicinity to
AHSL. A previous research on heavy metal atmospheric deposition at Seri Kembangan
found that this area was receiving considerably high amounts of heavy metal pollution,
namely Cd and Pb (Praveena et al., 2014). As AHSL is located in Seri Kembangan, this
means that the higher heavy metal concentration at the top soil of AHSL was likely due
to atmospheric deposition contamination. Researchers have estimated that
anthropogenic emission into the atmosphere has three times higher concentration of
heavy metals than natural fluxes (Wuana and Okieimen, 2011).
Comparison of heavy metal concentrations with the Dutch Standard
The Dutch Standards was used to determine the pollution potential of the soil heavy
metal accumulation. All heavy metal concentration was lower than the intervention
value of the Dutch Target and Intervention Values. This clearly shows that the soil
heavy metal concentration at AHSL is not harmful to both the environment and humans.
It also further strengthens the believe that heavy metals are removed via leachates.
CONCLUSION
Proper planning and management of sanitary landfills can reduce the accumulation of
heavy metal in soils. At AHSL, soil heavy metal concentration has been found to reduce
over time. This is because the bioavailability of these metals are improved and
transferred to the leachate collection system. However, the topsoil had the highest
concentration of heavy metals. Studies need to be conducted on the atmospheric
deposition of these heavy metals, as it can become an environmental concern if left
unaddressed. Studies need to also be conducted in the heavy metal accumulation of the
plants at Air Hitam Sanitary Landfill, to determine if the heavy metals were seeping
into the food chain via the plants.
REFERENCES
Fatin, N. & Hamid, K. 2013. Leachate characterization from a closed landfill in Air
Hitam, Puchong, Malaysia. The Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences. 17 (1),
24-29.
Ismail, S.N.S. & Manaf, L.A. 2013. The challenge of future landfill. A case study of
Malaysia. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Science. 5(6), 86-96.
162
Lau, V.L. 2004. Case Study on the Management of Waste Materials in Malaysia.
Forum Geookol. 15(2).
Radzuan, N.Z.M, Yaacob, W.Z.W, Samsudin, A.R. & Rafek, AG. 2005.
Characteristics of leachate at the Air Hitam Sanitary Landfill in Puchong, Selangor.
Geological Society of Malaysia Bulletin. 51, 41-46.
Rajoo, K.S., Abdu, A., Hazandy, A.H., Karam, D.S., Jusop, S., Aiza, S.J., & Zhen,
W.W. 2013. Assessment of heavy metals uptake by Aquilaria malaccensis planted
in soils containing sewage sludge. Am. J Appl. Sci. 10(9), 952-964.
Rajoo, K.S, Ismail, A., Karam, D.S. & Muharam, F.M. 2016: Phytoremediation
studies on soils contaminated with heavy metals in Malaysia: A review article.
American-Eurasian Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Science. 16 (8),
1504-1514.
Tarmudi, Z., Abdullah, M.L. & Tap, A.O. 2009. An overview of municipal solid
wastes generation in Malaysia. Journal Teknologi. 51, 1-15.
Praveena, S.M., Yuswir, N.S., Aris, A.Z. & Hashim, Z. 2014: Potential health risk
assessment of urban soil on heavy metal content in Seri Kembangan. From Sources
to Solution. Chapter 15, 77-81.
USDA (United States Department of Agriculture). 2000: Heavy metal soil
contamination. Soil Quality-Urban Technical Notes. 3, 1-7.
Wuana, R.A. & Okieimen, F.E. 2011: Heavy metals in contaminated soils: A review
of sources, chemistry, risks and best available strategies for remediation. ISRN
Ecology, 1-20.
163
Effect of Using Oil Palm Waste as Medium on the Growth and Yield
of Chili in a Fertigation System
Tamidi, M.H., Murdad, R., Awang, A. and Jalloh, M.B.
Faculty of Sustainable Agriculture, University Malaysia Sabah, Mile 10 Jalan Sg.
Batang, 90000 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
E-mail: mohdhafizulhamidi@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
A fertigation system is that which combines water with fertilizer for irrigation. Soilless
medium such as cocopeat is usually used in fertigation systems. The ideal medium for
use in a fertigation system should have the following characteristics: high porosity (50-
85%), good mechanical properties for rooting, good aeration, pH between 5.0 – 6.5, no
chemical from the medium that will affect plant nutrient uptake, durability and free
from pests and diseases. Oil palm wastes are used as fuel in mills (boiler ash), mulching
and composted fertilizer. Empty fruit bunch (EFB) and mesocarp contain carbon,
sulfur, nitrogen and other nutrients that can sustain plant growth. The EFB and
mesocarp properties are not much different from cocopeat. There is a lot of EFB and
mesocarp waste from oil palm plantings that has a huge potential as media for growing
plants in fertigation systems. High value crops such as ginger, chili and eggplant are
preferred crops grown in fertigation systems because of the high cost to establish the
system. Chili plants (Capsicum frutescens) are use as for the study and the variety that
was use is Kulai variety. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of using palm
oil waste (mesocarp and empty fruit bunch) on the growth and yield of Kulai chilli
variety in a fertigation system.
The experiment was done under a rainshelter at the Faculty of Sustainable Agriculture,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Sandakan. A complete randomized block design with seven
treatments and 7 replications (blocks) was used for this study. The treatments were T1:
control (cocopeat), T2: untreated shredded EFB, T3: boiled shredded EFB, T4:
untreated double shredded EFB, T5: boiled double shredded EFB, T6: untreated
mesocarp and T7: boiled mesocarp. All boiling of the materials was done for 1 hour.
Standard agronomic practices where used for seed germination, transplanting to
polybags, watering, fertilizer application through an irrigation system, pests and
diseases management, weed management and thinning. For growth, plant height and
circumference was measured weekly for 10 weeks. The yield data was total number of
chillies, length of chilli fruit and fresh weight of chilli which was recorded at harvest.
All data were analysed by one way ANOVA using SPSS (Ver. 21).
164
40
T1
plant height (cm)

30
T2
20 T3
T4
10 T5
T6
0
T7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
week
Figure 1: Mean height (cm) of plants for 10 weeks after transplanting for the various
treatments
For the plant height, from weeks 3 to 10 (Figure 1), there were significant differences
between treatments. In week 10, T1 resulted in the tallest plants with mean height of
37.64 cm, followed by T5, 34.67 cm and the shortest was for T3 with mean height of
31.80 cm. For stem circumference, there were no significant differences in weeks 1 and
2 but for weeks 3 to 10, there were significant differences, with T1 resulting in the
biggest circumference of 3.02 cm followed by T6,2.72 cm and the smallest was 2.14cm
for T3 (Figure 2). The pH value for the EFB was 6.9 and cocopeat 5.3, and the suitable
pH for plant growth ranges from 5.2 to 6.3. So, EFB had higher pH outside the suitable
pH range for plant growth compared to the cocopeat and this could be the cause for the
reduced growth of chilli for EFB treatments. Also, the water holding capacity for
cocopeat is higher compared to EFB, so nutrients leaching and water drainage are high
for the EFB which could cause increased moisture reduction and less nutrients available
for plants. When water deficit happens, the leaf stomates will close and carbon dioxide
diffusion will decrease for the photosynthesis process and cause reduced plant growth.
3.50
3.00
Circumference (cm)
T1
2.50
T2
2.00
T3
1.50
T4
1.00
T5
0.50
0.00 T6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 T7
week
Figure 2: Mean plant stem circumference (cm) for 10 weeks after transplanting for the
various treatments
For the yield, there were significant differences in total number of chilli between the
treatments. T1 resulted in the highest number with a mean of 7 cm and T4 the lowest
165
with a mean of 9.6 cm (Table 1). For the fruit length, there were significant differences
between treatments with T5 resulting in the longest fruits with a mean of 18.17 cm and
the shortest was for T7 with a mean of 16.37 cm (Table 2). For the fresh weight, there
was no significant difference between treatments but the highest was for T5 with a mean
of 25.09 g and the lowest was for T7 with a mean of 21.80 g (Table 3).
Table 1: Effect of the various treatments on the mean number of chili fruits
Treatment Mean number of chili fruits ± standard error
T1 (control) (cocopeat) 16.7±1.89b
T2 (EFB shredded) 11.2±2.55ab
T3 (EFB shredded boiled) 12.6±1.94ab
T4 (EFB shredded 2x) 9.6±0.51a
T5 (EFB shredded 2x boiled) 9.7±0.81a
T6 (Mesocarp) 15.6±1.43b
T7 (Mesocarp boiled) 11.3±2.04ab
Table 2: Effect of the various treatments on the mean length of chili fruits
Treatment Mean length of chili (cm) ± standard error
T1 (control) (cocopeat) 16.80±0.82ab
T2 (EFB shredded) 16.47±0.37a
T3 (EFB shredded boiled) 18.05±0.39ab
T4 (EFB shredded 2x) 17.08±0.67ab
T5 (EFB shredded 2x boiled) 18.17±0.34b
T6 (Mesocarp) 17.15±0.26ab
T7 (Mesocarp boiled) 16.37±0.26a
ns: no significant difference at p=0.05
Table 3: Effect of the various treatments on mean fresh fruit wieight

Treatment Mean fresh fruit weight (g) ± standard error
T1 (control) (cocopeat) 23.95±2.77
T2 (EFB shredded) 22.21±1.87
T3 (EFB shredded boiled) 24.68±0.96
T4 (EFB shredded 2x) 24.41±1.66
T5 (EFB shredded 2x boiled) 25.09±1.69
T6 (Mesocarp) 22.16±0.64
T7 (Mesocarp boiled) 21.80±0.69
ns
ns: no significant difference at p=0.05
Nitrogen (N) content in EFB is higher compared to the cocopeat, and N is a nutrient
which affects fruit weight wherein N will increase the fruit weight. This supports the
results where T5 showed the highest weight compared to the control. The water holding
capacity also affects the fruit weight, where according to Nahar et al. (2011) for tomato
fruit weight, 70 % water capacity for plant irrigation resulted in higher fruit weight
compared to the 100% water capacity and T5 had a low water holding capacity. The
higher water holding capacity results in conditions which affect roots functions and
hence nutrient uptake and plant growth. Since the EFB has high porosity, the root
growth is better compared to cocopeat, and good root growth results in better water and
nutrient uptake which translates into better crop growth and fruit weight (Lipiec et al.,
166
2013). EFB is low in potassium (K) due to greater leaching (Ahmad et al., 2004), and
K is an essential nutrient for fruit growth which could be the reason T1 resulted in a
larger number of chilli compared to other treatments.
CONCLUSION
Shredded and boiled EFB is the best treatment based on this experiment as it resulted
in significantly high growth and yield of the chilli plants.
REFERENCES
Ahmad, A., Ismail, M. R., Yusop, M. K., Mahmood, M. & Mohd, S. 2004. Physical
and chemical properties of coconut coir dust and oil palm empty fruit bunch and the
growth of hybrid heat tolerant cauliflower plant. Pertanika J. Trop. Agric. Sci.,
27(2): 121-133.
Lipiec, J., Medvedev, V. V., Birkas, M., Dumitru, E., Lyndina, T. E., Rousseva, S.
& Fulajtar, E. 2003. Effect of soil compaction on root growth and crop yield in
Central and Eastern Europe. Int. Agrophys, 17(2): 61-70.
Nahar, K. & Ullah, S. M. 2011. Effect of water stress on moisture content distribution
in soil and morphological characters of two tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill)
cultivars. J. Sci. Res., 3(3): 677-682.
167
Effects of Amending Soil with Microbes on the Soil Microbial
Population in Oil Plam Plantation
Noor Khairani, M.B.1, Mohamadu Jalloh, B.1,2, Mahmud, S.3, Rakib, M.R.M.1,2,
Markus, A.1,2 and Clament, C.F.S.1
1
Faculty of Sustainable Agriculture, UMS, Locked Bag No. 3, 90509 Sandakan, Sabah,
Malaysia
2
Sustainable Palm Oil Research Unit, Faculty of Sustainable Agriculture, UMS,
Locked Bag No. 3, 90509, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, UMS, 88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah,
Malaysia
E-mail: noorkhairani1001@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Soil is the habitat of a diverse array of organisms which include both micro flora and
fauna. Soil microorganisms play a very important role in soil fertility not only because
of their ability to carry out biochemical transformation but also due to their importance
as a source and sink of mineral nutrients. Changes in microbial communities can be
used to predict the effects of ecosystem perturbations by organic and conventional
management practices (Bending et al., 2000). Agricultural activities such as tillage,
intercropping, rotations, drainage, use of pesticides and fertilizers have significant
implications for the microorganisms present in the soil (Hengeveld, 1996). The soil
microorganisms are sensitive to changes in the surrounding soil and have been shown
that the microbial population changes after fertilization. Fertilizer can directly stimulate
the growth of microbial populations as a whole by supplying nutrients and may affect
the composition of individual microbial communities in the soil. The application of
chemical fertilizer generally improves crop production; however, concerns have been
raised not only about the severe environmental problems posed by such practices but
also about the long term sustainability of such systems (Mader et al., 2002). On the
other hand, use of organic materials as an alternative source holds promise. Organic
applications increased nutrient status, microbial activity and productive potential of soil
while the use of only chemical fertilizers in the cropping system resulted in a poor
microbial activity and productive potential of soil (Kang et al., 2005). In comparison
with conventional farming, organic farming has potential benefits in promoting soil
structure formation (Pulleman et al., 2003), enhancing soil biodiversity (Mader et al.,
2002; and Oehl et al., 2004), and alleviating environmental stresses (Macilwain, 2004).
The present investigation was conducted with an aim to assess the impact of chemical
fertilizer and microbial based product on the dynamics of soil microbial populations in
oil palm plantation.
Study site: This study was conducted at Sekong Estate, Genting Plantation in Sandakan,
Sabah (5º36’00.3”N, 117º59’33.5”E). It is located in the Sukau area, Kinabatangan
district at the distance of 100 km from Lahad Datu. The texture of the soil in the study
area is predominantly clay loam soils, 35% clay, 42% sand and 23% silt, and belong’s
to the Kretam soil association of Sabah.These study areas was covered 12 hectares
comprising 50% flat and 50% hilly area.
168
Experimental design: The field experiment was a randomized complete block design,
consisting of microbial based product and chemical fertilizer treatments total up of 10
treatments (Table 1). Four replicates were maintained for each treatment. Chemical
fertilizers were applied according to the dosage recommended by Sekong Genting
Estate. While, microbial based product were applied according to the standard practice.
Empty fruit bunches was added at two treatment plot. The empty fruit bunches was laid
in a 2 m band in the inter-row of oil palm tree. Control was also set up without the
addition of any fertilizers.
Table 1: Treatments of the study

Treatment Fertilizer application
T1 Normal Sekong Estate Practise (NEP).
T2 LSM Best Practise (BP).
T3 LSM BP + NEP.
T4 LSM BP + 50% NEP Chemical Fertilizers Input
T5 LSM BP + EFB.
T6 LSM BP + EFB + 50% NEP Chemical Fertilizers Input.
T7 LSM BP + AO BP
T8 AO BP + NEP
T9 Mycogold BP+ AgriCare Bioorganik BP + NEP
T10 Zero treatment (control)
Note: NEP = Normal estate practice; BP = Best practice; LSM = Living soil microbe; EFB = Empty Fruit
Bunch and; AO = Agri-Organica
Soil sampling: Soil samples were collected aseptically from the surface (0 - 15 cm) soil
depths in each experimental plot at yearly intervals starting from preliminary period
(June 2012) till end of the study for three years (June 2013, June 2014 and June 2015).
From each plot, soil samples were collected randomly and mixed thoroughly to get a
homogenous mixture. About 250 g of the soil samples collected were stored at 4 °C
before air dried and sieved for microbiological analysis of the soil. The data of three
years were used to assess the impact of microbial based product and chemical fertilizer
on the dynamics of soil microbial populations in oil palm plantation.
Enumeration of microbial populations: Populations of selected components of the soil

microbial community were measured with the surface spread plate count method. Then
soil samples were serially diluted from 10-3 to 10-7 dilutions using sterile distilled water
as a blank and they were inoculated in selected agar medium by spread plate technique.
Three (3) types of agar medium were used, nutrient agar, actinomycetes isolation agar,
and potato dextrose agar. After 48 and 36 hours of incubation at 36 oC (room
temperature) the colonies were counted using a colony counter. After the incubation
period, the colony forming units were counted and expressed as CFU x10 g-1 of dry soil
basis.
Statistical analysis: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Tukey) for soil microbial

population was analyzed using Statistica Ver. 22.
169
Colony forming unit counts for total bacteria were on average, ranging from 38.5 to
82.69×106 CFU g-1 dry soil. The total bacteria counts showed there were no significant
different in preliminary count on June 2012 for all treatments. Thus, total bacterial
numbers increased with application of EFB and LSM comparison with application of
chemical fertilizer only. However, the effect of application LSM only significant with
additional applied of EFB. The total bacteria counts, influenced by the type of fertilizer
applied, were higher in treatment 6 (LSM + EFB + 50% NEP chemical fertilizer)
82.69×106 CFU g-1 dry soil and treatment 5 (LSM + EFB) 78.44×106 CFU g-1 dry soil
when compared to the other treatments. Continuous applications of chemical fertilizer
also reduce the population of total bacteria in treatment 1 (NEP chemical fertilizer
application) 38.50×106 CFU g-1 dry soil.
The actinomycetes counts showed there were no significant different (p>0.05) in

preliminary count (2012) for all treatments. However, counts were significantly
different (p<0.05) after 3 year treatment. Actinomycetes counts were higher in
treatment 6 (LSM + EFB + 50% NEP chemical fertilizer) 89.31 x 10-4 g-1 dry soil,
respectively.
Preliminary data taken on June 2012 showed there were no significant different
(p>0.05) in fungi count for all treatments. Fungi counts were higher in treatment 6
(LSM + EFB + 50% NEP chemical fertilizer) 35.81 x 10-5 g-1 dry soil, respectively,
when compared to other treatments in 2015. Growth of fungi was better in treatment 6
compared to other treatments. Continuous applications of chemical fertilizer reduce the
population of fungi in treatment 1 (NEP chemical fertilizer application). Fungi
population was increase with application of EFB in treatment 5 (LSM + EFB) and
treatment 6 (LSM + EFB + 50% NEP). Reduce used of chemical fertilizer also slightly
increase fungi population in treatment 2 (LSM) and treatment 10 (Zero treatment).
Application of chemical fertilizer and microbial based product in oil palm plantation
influence the soil microbial populations. Due to its dominant contribution in soil
metabolism, as well as important source of nutrient for plant, microbial population is
consider to be one of the main characteristic of soil fertility. Microbial population
undergoes rapid change in the soil. This was confirmed by the great different between
the preliminary data and data at the end of this study.
Generally, the highest total bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi counts found in treatment
5 (LSM + EFB) and treatment 6 (LSM + EFB + 50% NEP chemical fertilizer) due to
EFB application as an organic material combined with microbe. Microbe improves soil
structure by the humus they create while digesting organic material and also help in
nitrogen fixing. It contributes to the improvement of soil productivity through
continuous immobilization and release of nutrient from being loose from leaching and
volatilization and made it available to the plant (Vieira and Nahas, 2005). Otherwise,
the lowest bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi counts found in Treatment 1 (NEP). This
soil has been utilized for several yearly and it is periodically fertilized which effects on
the number of CFU of total bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi (Vieira and Nahas, 2005).
However, from previous study show that the type of soil also was considered a
determinant factor in the composition of microbial populations in cultivable soils
170
(Girvan et al., 2003). Instead, other authors (Vieira and Nahas, 2005) have shown that
in the same soil type different plant species influence microbial population distribution.
Results from the present experiment demonstrated that soil microbial population
increased microbial based product amended plots compared to chemical fertilizer and
control plots which may be due to the addition of organic amendments that might have
large impact on the size and activity of microbial population. Bolton et al. (1985) and
Ramsey et al. (1986) reported increases in microbial counts in response to fertilization.
Mader et al. (2002) reported enhanced soil fertility and higher biodiversity in organic
than conventional plots and concluded this may render organic systems less dependent
on external inputs. In general, the bacterial population was higher than the fungal
population at the surface soil depths. The addition of organic matter provided a
significantly greater input of organic carbon, which increased bacterial populations
(Fraser et al., 1994).
Another possible reason is that organic matter promoted biological and microbial
activities, which accelerated the breakdown of organic substances in the added organic
matter. Diversity is directly correlated with system stability (Odum and Barret, 2005)
and diversity increases soil quality by affecting soil agglomeration and increasing
fertility (Kirk et al., 2004). As a conclusion, the increase in bacterial number in response
to chemical fertilizers which may be attributed to a better nutrient status of the soil.
REFERENCES
Bending, G.D., Putland C. & F. Rayns, 2000. Changes in microbial community

metabolism and labile organic matter fractions as early indicators of the impact of
management on soil biological quality. Biol. Fertil. Soils, 31: 78-84.
Bolton, H., Elliott L.F., Ppendick, R.I. & D.F. Bezdicek, 1985. Soil microbial
biomass and selected soil enzyme activities: Effect of fertilization and cropping
practices. Soil Biol. Biochem., 17: 297-302.
Fraser, P.M., Haynes R.J. & P.H. Williams, 1994. Effects of pasture improvement
and intensive cultivation on microbial biomass, enzyme activities, and composition
and size of earthworm population. Biol. Fertil. Soils, 17: 185-190.
Girvan, M.S., Bullimore, J., Pretty, J.A., Osborn, A.M. & Ball, A.S. 2003. Soil type
is the primary determinant of the composition of the total and active bacterial
communities in arable soils. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69: 1800-
1809.
Hengeveld, R. 1996. Measuring ecological biodiversity. Biodiversity Letters, 3: 58-65.
Kang, G.S., Beri V., Rupela O.P. & B.S. Sidhu, 2005. A new index to assess soil
quality and sustainability of wheat based cropping systems. Biol. Fertil. Soils. 41:
389-398.
Kirk, J.L., Beaudette, L.A., Hart M., P. Moutoglis, Klironomosx J.N., Lee H. &
Trevors J.T., 2004. Methods of studying soil microbial diversity. J. Microbiol.
Methods. 58: 169-188.
Macilwain, C., 2004. Is organic farming better for the environment. Nature, 428: 797-
798.
Maeder, P., Fliessbach, A. D., Dubois, Gunst, L., Fried, P. & U. Niggli, 2002. Soil
fertility and biodiversity in organic farming. Science, 296: 1694-1697.
Odum, E.P. & G.W. Barret, 2005. Fundamentals of Ecology. 5th Edn., Thomson
Brooks, Belmont, CA.
171
Oehl, F., Sieverding, E., Mader, P., Dubois, D., Ineichen, K., Boller T. & Wiemken,
A. 2004. Impact of long-term conventional and organic farming on the diversity of
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Oecologia, 138: 574-583.
Pulleman, M., Jongmans A., Marinissen J. & Bouma, J. 2003. Effects of organic
versus conventional arable farming on soil structure and organic matter dynamics in
marine loam in the Netherlands. Soil Use Manage. 19: 157-165.
Ramsey, A.J., Stannard, R.E. & Churchman, G.J. 1986. Effect of conversion from
ryegrass pasture to wheat cropping on aggregation and bacterial populations in a silt
loam soil in New Zealand. Aus. J. Soil Res., 24: 253-264.
Vieira, F.C.S. & Nahas, E. 2005. Comparison of microbial numbers in soils by using
various culture media and temperatures. Microbiol. Res., 160: 197-202.
172
Improving the Extraction of Nutrients Lock Up in Forest Litter for
Liquid Compound Fertilizer
Maru, A.1, Medin, S.1, Haruna Ahemd, O.1,2,3,4 and Majid, N.A.3
1
Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus, Bintulu, 97008 Sarawak, Malaysia
2
Borneo Eco-Science Research Centre, Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak
Campus, Bintulu, 97008 Sarawak, Malaysia
3
Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Serdang, 43400 Selangor, Malaysia
4
Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, 43400 Selangor,
Malaysia
E-mail: alimaru53@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Tropical soils support diverse tree species with tight canopy of 60-90 ft with most
available nutrients in the plant biomass (Boerner, 1982). The tropical forest of Malaysia
is composed of 15,500 species of higher plants. Litter fall is dead plant material, such
as leaves, bark, needles, and twigs that have fallen to the ground from these high plants
(Schlesinger and William, 1997). Tropical forests generate approximately 3.9 to 6.3 t
ha-1 of litter fall annually (Moraes et al., 1999). Malaysia total forest area is about
20,456,000 ha (FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment, 2010) and is with litter fall
of about 79.78 to 128.87 million t ha-1 annually. However, there is limited information
on the use of this litter for agriculture purposes. Instead, the nutrients locked in the
forest litter are mostly lost through rapid decomposition, runoff, leaching, and burning
(Schlesinger, 1997; Boerner, 1982). When Malaysia experienced severe forest fires and
about 64,499 ha of forest areas were burnt (Thai, 1998). To date, there is limited
information on recycling the locked nutrients in litter fall by extracting the nutrients
into liquid compound fertilizer. Liquid form of fertilizers is more uniform in mixture of
nutrients and this enhances nutrients availability due to the presence of water (Kasim
et al., 2011). As part of an ongoing study, a forest litter was composted (unpublished)
and the use of this after composting is more efficient (Shrestha et al., 2012) as more
humic substances are made available and increases the extractant nutrients content
(Kasim et al, 2011). The use of natural water have not been very effective in extracting
nutrient from organic material and Ahmed et al. (2005) used NaOH to extract humic
acid from organic materials and using this concept, this study assumes it would be more
efficient to extract with NaOH than the use of water. Therefore, the objectives of this
study were to: (i) extract liquid compound fertilizer from composted forest litter using
distil water and NaOH solution and (ii) determine either stirring the mixture or
mechanical shaking will aid in the dissolution of nutrient
Liquid compound fertilizer was extracted from composted forest litter using distil water
and 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution. The ratio 1:10 was use by Shrestha et al. (2012)
to extract liquid fertilizer. In this study ratio 1:10 and 1:20 were used. Treatments
evaluated are shown in Table 1. The liquid suspension was filtered using 125 µm sieve
after 7 days.
173
Table 1: Treatments evaluated in the liquid compound fertilizer extraction
Ratio of Forest litter Extraction
Treatments compost and compost liquid Solution type Shaking methods
liquid (g) (mL)
T1 1:10 20 200 Distilled water
T2 1:20 10 200 Distilled water Stirred two times daily for

7 days using spoon
T3 1:10 20 200 0.1 M NaOH
T4 1:20 10 200 0.1 M NaOH
T5 1:10 20 200 Distilled water
Shaken at 180 rpm for 7
T6 1:20 10 200 Distilled water days using a reciprocal
T7 1:10 20 200 0.1 M NaOH shaker
T8 1:20 10 200 0.1 M NaOH
The extracted suspension pH was determined using a digital pH meter (Peech et al.,
1965). The concentration of K, Ca, Mg, Mn, Zn, Fe, and Cu were determined using
Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) whereas P was determined using Blue method
(Murphy and Riley, 1962). Total N was determined using Kjeldhal method (Tan, 2005).
The data was analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) whereas treatments means
were compared using Tukey’s Test (SAS, 2011).
pH was significantly higher in the liquid fertilizers extracted with NaOH solution than
those with distil water and the stirring type had no effect on the pH (Table 2). This was
due to the alkaline condition of the NaOH used (Table 2). The concentration of K in T4
was significantly higher than those of T1 and T2 but similar to that of T3 (Table 2). The
concentration of Ca, Na, Cu, and Zn were significantly higher in T3 and T4 than those
of T1 and T2 (Table 2).This was because the NaOH solution had the ability to extract
most of the humic substances in the compost into soil solution (Palanivell et al., 2013;
Palanivell et al., 2012; Ahmed et al., 2005) as compared with the use of water only.
Total extractable P was significantly higher in T1 than those of T2, T3, and T4 (Table
2). This was possible because the Na in the NaOH solution of T3 and T4 might have
fixed some of the dissolve P.
Additionally, higher ratios of compost and water in T1 increased P concentration in T1

more significantly than that of T2. However, there was no significant difference in the
percentage N concentration among all treatments (Table 2).The result indicates that, the
pH was significantly higher in T4 than those of T1, T2, and T3 (Table 3).This was due
to the alkalinity condition of the NaOH used. However, the pH in T3 was lower than
T4 because the ratio of compost used was higher than that of T4. The concentrations of
K, Mg, Ca, Na, Cu, and Zn were significantly higher in T3 and T4 than those of T1 and
T2 (Table 1). This was because the NaOH solution has the ability to extract most of the
humic substances in the compost into soil solution as compared with water only.
Extractable P was significantly higher in T1 than those of T2 and T4 (Table 3) but
statistically similar to that of T3. This was because of the same of compost of T2 and
T4. However, the mechanical starring enables a similar dissolution of P in NaOH
solution. Generally, nutrients locked in the forest litter dissolved more in NaOH
solution compared with use of water. However, a liquid compound fertilizer needs to
be fortified with N and P, depending on the N and P requirement of crops.
174
The mechanical shaking method and manual stirring of the mixture had similar effects
on the concentrations of Mg, Ca, Na, Cu, Mn, Fe, and Zn. However, for P and K, the
mechanical method yielded more concentrations than the manual shaking. This might
be due to continuous shaking of the mixture for 7 days, a period that enabled breaking
and dissolution of P and K in the NaOH solution.
Table 2: Effects of different extraction ratio and manual stirring on nutrient contents
of liquid compound fertilizer from forest litter compost
Shaking T1 T2 T3 T4
methods
Stirred two times daily for 7 days using spoon
Extraction
Distilled water 0.1 M NaOH
solution
pH 7.20b ± 0.1 7.07b ± 0.04 8.38a ± 0.02 8.72a ± 0.25
TN (%) 0.10a ± 0.01 0.06a ± 0.01 0.05a ± 0.01 0.06a ± 0.02
ppm
P 78.43a ± 13.26 40.02b ± 2.93 37.55b ± 2.84 25.98b ± 3.05
K 185.10bc ±13.75 105.83c ± 6.62 370.00ab ± 17.32 463.33a ± 86.86
Ca 131.80b ± 5.95 77.87b ± 2.29 296.67a ± 14.53 396.67a ± 153.77
Na 74.03b ± 3.39 56.03b ± 1.49 1220.00a ± 37.86 1446.67 ± 182.06
Mg 47.43a ± 3.05 24.40a ± 1.17 46.67a ± 8.82 43.33a ± 8.82
Zn 3.20b ± 0.15 4.13b ± 0.22 383.33a ± 34.80 400.00a ± 20.82
Mn 4.83b ± 1.76 3.23b ± 1.05 266.67a ± 95.28 193.33a ± 92.44
Cu 3.80b ± 1.14 6.43b ± 0.58 536.67a ± 89.50 610.00a ± 97.13
Fe 21.07b ± 0.93 21.57b ± 0.99 2903.33a ±187.02 3023.33a ± 518.53
Note: Different letters within a row indicate significant difference between means of four replicates ±
standard error using Tukey’s test at p≤0.05
Table 3: Effects of different extraction ratio and mechanical shaking on nutrient

contents of liquid compound fertilizer from forest litter compost
Shaking T5 T6 T7 T8
methods
Shaken at 180 rpm for 7 days using a reciprocal shaker
Extraction
Distilled water 0.1 M NaOH
solution
pH 7.35c ± 0.15 7.11c ± 0.03 8.13b ± 0.06 8.95a ± 0.10
TN (%) 0.06a ± 0.01 0.06a ± 0.01 0.08a ± 0.03 0.07a ± 0.01
ppm
TP 69.79a ± 4.23 36.40bc ± 1.60 59.52ab ± 10.32 27.24c ± 2.49
K 207.10b ± 20.79 105.30b ± 9.01 550.00a ± 15.28 550.00a ± 70.00
Ca 153.03b ± 13.18 83.80b ± 6.52 710.00a ± 17.32 686.67a ± 34.80
Na 85.93b ± 16.61 62.53b ± 8.45 1596.67a ± 156.77 1486.67a±161.90
Mg 54.07a ± 5.50 25.57a ± 1.91 60.00a ± 11.55 40.00a ± 11.55
Zn 4.00b ± 0.31 4.37b ± 0.13 296.67a ± 37.12 336.67 ± 57.83
Mn 3.93a ± 0.44 2.30a ± 0.38 190.00a ± 95.39 296.67a ± 124.14
Cu 2.43b ± 1.17 2.40b ± 0.51 436.67a ± 51.75 393.33a ± 61.73
Fe 33.47b ± 5.98 39.37b ± 2.83 3590.00a ± 251.20 3363.33a± 116.95
CONCLUSION
0.1 M NaOH solution effectively extracted K, Ca, Na, Cu, Mn, Fe, and Zn nutrient
elements from composted forest litter as compared with distil water. The mechanical
shaking method increased the dissolution of P in 0.1 M NaOH solution more than
manual stirring. Solution type and shaking methods had no significant effect on N
concentration.
175
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors would like to acknowledge Ministry of Education (MOE), Malaysia for

Mitsubishi Research Grant Scheme (Establish, Restoration, and Ecosystem Health
Assessment of Degraded and Rehabilited Forest) and Universiti Putra Malaysia for
funding this research project.
REFERENCES
Ahmed, O.H., Husni, M.H.A., Anuar, A.R. & Hanafi, M.M. 2005. Effects of
extraction and fractionation time on the yield of compost humic acids. New Zeal. J.
Crop Hort., 33(2): 107-110.
Boerner, R.E. 1982. Fire and nutrient cycling in temperate
ecosystems. BioScience., 32(3):187-192.
Brady, N.C. & Weil, R.R. 2008. The Nature and Properties of Soils, (14th ed.). ed.
V.R. Anthony and S. Kottcamp. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations's Global Forest
Resources Assessment (2005 & 2010) and the State of the World's Forests (2009,
2007, 2005, 2003, 2001).
Kasim, S., Ahmed, O.H. & Majid, N.M.A., 2011. Effectiveness of liquid organic-
nitrogen fertilizer in enhancing nutrients uptake and use efficiency in corn (Zea
mays). Afr. J. Biotechnol., 10(12): 2274-2281
Moraes, R., Delitti, W.B.C. & Struffaldi-De Vuono, Y.A.R.A. 1999. Litterfall and
litter nutrient content in two Brazilian Tropical Forests. Brazilian Journal of
Botany., 22(1): 09-16.
determination of phosphate in natural waters. Anal. Chim. Acta., 27:31-36.
Palanivell, P., Susilawati, K., Ahmed, O.H. & Majid, N.M. 2013. Compost and crude
humic substances produced from selected wastes and their effects on Zea mays L.
nutrient uptake and growth. Scientific World J., 20-13.
Palanivell, P., Susilawati, K., Ahmed, O.H. & Muhamad, A.N. 2012. Effects of
extraction period on yield of rice straw compost humic acids. Afr. J.
Biotechnol., 11(20): 4530-4536.
Peech, H.M. 1965. Hydrogen-ion Activity. In Method of Soil Analysis, Part 2, ed. C.
A. Black, D. D. Evan, L. E. Ensminger, J. L. White, F.E. Clark, and R.C. Dinaue,.
Ithaca: American society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin. 914 – 926 pp.
SAS, 2011. SAS/STAT Software. SAS Institute, (2nd ed.) Cary, NC.16. Cary, NC,
USA
Schlesinger & William H. 1997. Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change.
2nd Edition. Academic Press. 108, 135, 152–158, 180–183, 191–194 pp.
Shrestha, K., Walsh, K.B. & Midmore, D.J. 2012. Microbially enhanced compost
extract: does it increase solubilisation of minerals and mineralisation of organic
matter and thus improve plant nutrition.
Tan, K.H. 2005. Soil Sampling, Preparation and Analysis. (2nd ed.), (1-623). Taylor
and Francis Group. Boca Raton, Florida, USA, CRC Press. 154-174 pp.
Thai, S.K. 1998. Malaysia Country Report presented at the Regional Workshop on
Forest Fire Management - Collaboration in ASEAN, 29-31 March 2001, Chieng
Mai, Thailand.
176
Evaluation of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria to Control
Bottom Rot, Rhizoctonia solani on Lettuce, Lactuca sativa
Sazali, I.H., Amirul, H.U.M, Fitri, A.R and Zakry, F.A.A.
E-mail: zakryfitri@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) is a microbial antagonist has been used

as biological control agent (BCA) extensively in the reduction of either plant diseases,
pest or pathogen (Labuschagne et al., 2010). The benefits of this biological control is
its mechanisms to suppress pathogen results from their types of interactions referred to
as mutualism, commensalism, neutralism, competition, amensalism, parasitism,
predation and protocooperation (Baker, 1987; Pal and Gardener, 2006). Using PGPR
as biological control agent (BCA) in agriculture can potentially reduce the uses of
chemical pesticide (Labuschagne et al., 2010) and fertilizer (Kloepper et al., 1980)is
becoming increasingly imperative in attempts to develop sustainable agriculture. A
good BCA can help reduce diseases management and production cost (Reddy, 2014).
Exploitation of BCA mechanisms to suppress pathogen and plant growth stimulation
could potentially create more sustainably environment (Vejan et al., 2016). Rhizoctonia
solani is a plant fungus found throughout the world and been identified attack lettuce
(Lactuca sativa) along with Pythium species and Thielaviopsis basicola, can
sometimes cause damping-off (Reddy, 2016). Infected seedling exhibit decayed roots
and brown lesions on stems and before or after emergence maybe killed, then the stem
tissue collapses and plants fall over and die (Reddy, 2014). The lettuce industry plays
a significant role in Malaysia, cultivate for domestic and export. Based on wholesale
price for production value on year 2014 about RM 326,104.790 are generated from
2,990 hectare of lettuce plantation (Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry,
2015). Planted area and production of lettuce 2014 shown in the Table 1.
Table 1: Planted area and production of lettuce in 2014

Crops Item 2014
Planted Area (Ha) 3358
Production Area (Ha) 2990
Average Yield (Tonne/Ha 21.8
Lettuce
Production (Tonne) 65221
Production Value (‘000)1 163052.40
Production Value (‘000)2 326104.79
1
Note: Based on ex-farm price
: 2Based on wholesale price
Source: Department of Agriculture
177
A proposed procedure for searching new biocontrol PGPR
Results from laboratory test have shown that 28 strains of PGPR has
biofertilizer/biostimulant potential. Beneficial effects of plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria (PGPR) are tested for biological control agent to suppress bottom rot, R.
solani on lettuce, L. sativa. The present paper outlines the procedures cariied out under
laboratory and greenhouse conditions.
Figure 1: A workflow to search the most promising rhizobacteria for biocontrol and
growth enhancer
Collection of R. solani are obtained from Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of

Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia. R. solani is used to conduct pathogenicity test.
PGPR collection are obtained from culture collection of Laboratory of Microbiology
and Plant Pathology, Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture and Food
Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus. The in vitro inhibition
of mycelial growth of R. solani by PGPR is tested using dual culture technique as
describe by (Landa et al., 1997). Triplicate 20 µL drops of 108 cells per mL suspension
of PGPR is placed on nutrient agar (NA) plate. Then a 4 mm agar plug from fresh PDA
culture of R. solani is placed at the centre of the plate. Plate is incubated for 7 days at
28 oC.
178
The measurement of radii fungal colony towards bacteria colony is evaluated. The
percentage inhibition of mycelial growth (% img) is calculated using the following
formula; %img= (A-B)/A x 100. A refers to the distance from the centre of fungal
growth to the edge of bacteria growth and B refers to the radius of fungal mycelial
growth.
PGPR mechanisms are evaluated for production of antimicrobial substances through

competition, antibiosis, mycoparasitism / hyperparasitism, lytic enzymes, hydrogen
cyanide and induced systemic resistance (ISR). Only shortlisted PGPR are subjected
for greenhouse trial.
The treatments are: uninoculated and inoculated lettuce seeds with PGPR strains with
R. solani, lettuce seeds treated with carbendazim fungicide (0.02%)(Positive control),
lettuce seeds with no treatment (negative control). After 60 days of growth, plant
disease severity is assessed based on rating scale of 0-4 by observing the relative area
as percentage of plant region damage by diseases, where scale 0= no damage, 1=1-25%
damage, 2=26-50% damage, 3= 51-75% damage, and 4= 76-100% damage on the leaf
and stem plant (Villajuan-Abgona et al., 1996). The diseases severity index is
calculated using the following formula (Ooi, 2002):
No.of plants in specific scale x disease scale

DSI=∑ Total No.of plants(n)
(nx0)+(nx1)+(nx2)+(nx3)+(nx4)
=∑ Total No.of plants(n)
Analysis of external root colonization is conducted by using Scanning Electron

Microscope (SEM). Visual assessment is made by comparing root inoculated PGPR,
root inoculated with R. solani, root inoculated with R. solani and PGPR, and normal
root.
Data is subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) and means value between

treatments are compared by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at 5% (p=0.05)
level of significance.
179
CONCLUSION
It is envisage that this evaluation under the greenhouse trial could elucidate the potential
of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) as Biological Control Agent (BCA)
for control Bottom rot, R. solani on lettuce, L. sativa.
REFERENCES
Baker, K.F. 1987. Evolving concepts of biological control of plant pathogens. Annu.
Rev. Phytopathol., 25: 67–85.
Kloepper, J.W., Leong, J., Teintze, M. & Schroth, M.N. 1980. Enhanced plant
growth by siderophores produced by plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Nature.,
286: 885–886.
Labuschagne, N., Pretorius, T. &Idris, A.H. 2010. Plant growth promoting
rhizobacteria as biocontrol agents against soil-borne plant diseases, in: Plant Growth
and Health Promoting Bacteria. Springer, 211–230 pp.
Landa, B.B., Hervás, A., Bettiol, W. & Jiménez-Díaz, R.M. 1997. Antagonistic
activity of Bacteria from the chickpea rhizosphere againstFusarium Oxysporum f.
sp. Ciceris. Phytoparasitica., 25: 305–318.
Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry, 2015. Agrofood Statistics 2014,
Year 2014. ed. Information Management and Statistics Section.
Ooi, K.H. 2002. Chemical characterization and control of Fusarium oxysporum, causes
vascular wilt disease in rosel. Ph. D. Thesis, University Sains Malaysia, Malaysia.
Pal, K.K. & Gardener, B.M. 2006. Biological control of plant pathogens. Plant Health
Instr., 2: 1117–1142.
Reddy, P.P. 2014. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria for horticultural crop
protection. Springer.
Reddy, P.P. 2016. Disinfestation of Soil and Growth Media for Management of
Soilborne Diseases, in: Sustainable Crop Protection under Protected Cultivation.
Springer, 47–60 pp.
Vejan, P., Abdullah, R., Khadiran, T., Ismail, S. & Nasrulhaq Boyce, A. 2016. Role
of Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria in Agricultural Sustainability—A Review.
Molecules, 21: 573.
Villajuan-Abgona, R., Kageyama, K. & Hyakumachi, M. 1996. Biocontrol
ofRhizoctonia damping-off of cucumber by non-pathogenic binucleateRhizoctonia.
Eur. J. Plant Pathol., 102: 227–235.
180
Potential Use of Empty Fruit Bunch Biochar as A Stimulatory Agent
during Composting Process
Fitri, A.R, Amirul, H.U.M, Sazali, I.H. and Zakry, F.A.A
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia is the world largest producer and exporter of oil palm product after Indonesia,
who together produces about 85% of world’s oil palm. In 2014, the total area of oil
palm plantation has covered approximately five million hectares and the number has
increased significantly by 2016 (Awalludin et al. , 2015). Corresponding to the
increasing, the biomass also has extremely generated from the palm oil mills such as
oil palm frond (OPF), empty fruit bunch (EFB), pressed fruit bunch (PFB), palm shells,
palm stones and palm oil mill effluent (POME). Among the solid waste produced, EFB
is highly produced around 22 – 23% from fresh fruit bunch (FFB) as compared to 21%
crude palm oil, 6 – 7% palm kernel, 13.5 – 15% mesocarp fiber and 5.5 – 7% palm
kernel shell (Kong et al. 2014). Mass production and limited current utilization of EFB
would create significant environmental problems such as greenhouse gas emission
(GHG), ecosystem degradation and high disposal costs per year (Shafawati and
Siddiquee, 2013).
Composting is an alternative solid waste management practice which transforms the

organic matter into well stabilized and marketable product. Through composting
process, the organic nutrients are recycled back into the soil, thus can serve as organic
fertilizer for farming. However, there are some major issues associated with composting
are nitrogen loss, GHG emission, and low value of the end product and produce odors
due to rapid degradation of nitrogenous organic matter and presence of anaerobic
pockets in the feed stock (Bernal et al., 2009). Number of studies on the characteristic
of biochar shown that it could be an ideal amendment to formulation of initial feed
stock for composting system because of its ability to bind with contaminants, retain
nutrients and water, and also supports the growth of microorganism (Hunt et al., 2010).
Biochar can be defined as solid substances with high stable carbon content and porous
structure that is distinguished from other charcoals by its use as soil amendment
(Lehmann and Joseph, 2009). Incorporation of biochar with compost has reflected
benefits to composting process which includes shorter composting times, reduced rates
of GHG emission, reduced ammonia (NH3) loss, served as bulking agent for compost
and reduced odor. For biochar itself, composting process helps to charge the biochar
with nutrients which prevents it from leaching and avoid odor emission without
breaking down the biochar substances in the process (Camps and Tomlinson, 2015).
181
Incorporation of biochar with compost
A wide range of biochar application rates to compost is tested from 5 – 20%. A biochar
rate higher than 20 – 30% is not recommended as an excessive amount relative to the
composting material could interfere with biodegradation (Jindo et al., 2012).
Biochar-compost application in fertigation system
In this project, shredded EFB is used as planting media and filled in the polyethylene
bags. The biochar-compost application will be spread uniformly within the planting
media. Each plant test will receive different rate of biochar-compost application based
on respectively treatments.
Table 1: Treatments used in the study

Treatments
Negative control No application of fertilizer
Positive control Recommended fertilizer application rate
Treatment 1 5% of biochar-compost
CONCLUSION
It is envisaged that incorporation of EFB biochar as amendment for the composting

process could optimize the process by reducing odor emissions and the losses of N as
well as producing mature composts with a balanced nutrient composition.
REFERENCES
Awalludin, M. F., Sulaiman, O., Hashim, R. & Nadhari, W. N. A. W. 2015. An

overview of the oil palm industry in Malaysia and its waste utilization through
thermochemical conversion, specifically via liquefaction. Research Gate, 50: 1469–
1484.
Bernal, M. P., Alburquerque, J. A. & Moral, R. 2009. Composting of animal
manures and chemical criteria for compost maturity assessment. A review.
Bioresource Technology, 100(22): 5444–5453.
Camps, M. & Tomlinson, T. 2015. The Use of Biochar in Composting | International
Biochar Initiative. Retrieved 20 February 2017, from http://www.biochar-
international.org/compost
Hunt, J., DuPonte, M., Sato, D. & Kawabata, A. 2010. The Basics of Biochar: A
Natural Soil Amendment. Retrieved 1 December 2016, from
https://pacificbiochar.com/the-basics-of-biochar-a-natural-soil-amendment/
Jindo, K., Suto, K., Matsumoto, K., García, C., Sonoki, T. & Sanchez-Monedero,
M. A. 2012. Chemical and biochemical characterisation of biochar-blended
composts prepared from poultry manure. Bioresour. Technol., 110: 396–404.
182
Kong, S.-H., Loh, S.-K., Bachmann, R. T., Rahim, S. A. & Salimon, J. 2014.
Biochar from oil palm biomass: A review of its potential and challenges. Renew.
Sustainable Energy Rev., 39: 729–739.
183
Screening of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) from
Vegetable Crops for Biofertilizer Production
Amirul Hamzah, M.U., Fitri, A.R., Sazali, I.H. and Zakry, F.A.A.
INTRODUCTION
Vegetables are considered as essential component in human diets that act as an excellent
supplier of vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre, and phytochemicals. Local demand for
vegetables is expected to increase from 1.6 million tonnes in 2010 to 2.4 million tonnes
in 2020, with a growth of 4.5% per annum. In line with the trend in developed countries,
per capita vegetable consumption is expected to grow by 2.6% per annum, from 55 to
70 kilograms per year kilograms in the same period. Vegetable production are expected
to increase from 0.7 million tonnes to 1.7 million tonnes with the growth rate of 9.8%
per annum (FAMA, 2011). Consequently, efforts that have been made to increase
vegetable productivity were greatly hinged on the use of synthetic-based fertilizers.
Improper use of chemical inputs in production system could lead to detrimental effects
on the environment through excessive soil erosion, surface water and groundwater
pollution caused by the associated transport of sediment, chemical fertilizers and
pesticides run off, and greenhouse gas emission.
In this context, the use of biological approach is gaining more attention to substitute the
conventional methods of increasing soil fertility through the exploitation of beneficial
microorganisms as plant growth promoter. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
(PGPR), commonly known as rhizobacteria encompasses naturally occurring soil
bacteria inhabiting rhizosphere, rhizoplane (root surface) and the root itself (within root
tissue), that biologically interact with plant through direct or indirect mechanisms
(Lugtenberg & Kamilova, 2009). They exert beneficial effects on plant development
through recycling of essential elements (da Silveira et al., 2016), solubilisation of
nutrients such as potassium and phosphorus (Meena et al., 2015), and producing
numerous plant growth regulators (Jiang et al., 2012). Inoculation of plant with PGPR
has projected various results especially inconsistency impact in field application. In this
sense, efficient selection strategies are highlighted in this present paper to develop low-
cost and simple methods of screening the most promising strain from abundant isolates
collection.
The bacterial samples were collected from rhizosphere of randomly selected vegetables
grown in Taman Pertanian Universiti (TPU), Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu
Campus Sarawak (3°12'22.0"N 113°04'58.0"E). A total of 340 bacterial colonies with
different colony morphology were isolated on nutrient agar, and purified with repeated
culturing and maintained in mineral oil at 4oC. All the isolates were qualitatively
assessed for plant growth promotion traits i.e nitrogen fixation, phosphate and
potassium solubilisation, and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production. Biological
nitrogen fixation (BNF) activity was determined using method described by Park et al.
(2015). The isolates were grown in Burk’s N-free semi-solid agar for 24 h, and they
184
were considered as nitrogen fixer based on the presence of pellicle formation.
Phosphate solubilising activity was assessed in modified National Botanical Research
Institute’s phosphate (NBRIP) amended with tricalcium phosphate (Nautiyal, 1999).
The presence of a clearing halo around bacterial colonies is indicative for positive
phosphate solubilisation. Potassium solubilisation activity was determined using
Aleksandrov media (Hu et al., 2006). Positive potassium solubilisation was indicated
via clear zone formation around colonies. IAA production by the isolates was assessed
following colorimetric method described by Zakry (2013). The successful isolates that
have all PGPR traits were identified using Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) profiling.
A total of 340 rhizobacteria isolates were collected from rhizosphere of mustard, okra,
and brinjal, and were evaluated for plant growth promotion traits. Among them 45.29%
showed pellicle formation, whereas 35.59% and 37.35% out of total isolates showed
solubilisation zone for phosphate and potassium respectively. Of the 47 isolates that
positive for all NPK assays, only 25 isolates demonstrated IAA production in the
presence of L-tryptophan as precursor. All the isolates were considered positive for all
growth promotion traits when they fitted into each assay requirements as shown in
Figure 1.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1: In-vitro multi-traits assay. (a) Pellicle formation in semi-solid N-free media,
(b) and (c) Clear zone around bacterial colonies, (d) Pink development after reacted
with Salkowski’s reagent
Increasing awareness on screening process for multi-traits PGPR have led to the
selection of specific assays and method of screening. This study emphasized on
screening of rhizobacteria strain that could possess NPK acquisition which enhance
plant uptake. These important macronutrients are routinely applied to crops via
synthetic fertilizer application. However, not all of them are taken up by crops, some
might loss via runoff, evaporated, and rapidly immobilized in the soil. Consequently,
improper fertilization management could harm environment through over-fertilization,
and also has accelerated production costs. Thus, the adoption of biofertilizer containing
PGPR in agronomical practice may potentially reduce reliance on agrochemicals,
promote crop productivity and provide sustainable agricultural ecosystem (Zakry,
2013).
Another way of promoting plant growth by rhizobacteria is through synthesis of

phytohormone such as IAA. IAA is generally considered as the most important native
auxin (Saharan & Nehra, 2011) that functions in root initiation, cell division and cell
enlargement (Reddy, 2014). It is commonly synthesized and released as secondary
185
metabolites by rhizospheric bacteria due to the abundance of root exudates (Ahmad et
al., 2005) for instance amino acid tryptophan (Lugtenberg and Kamilova, 2009). In
present study, the ability of tested isolates to synthesize IAA was determined by
reaction of liquid culture with Salkowski’s reagent in addition of tryptophan. It has been
identified that tryptophan acts as a main precursor for IAA biosynthesis pathways in
bacteria.
All the 25 isolates that positively possessed growth promotion traits were further
identified using MIDI Sherlock Microbial Identification System (Table 1). Among the
isolates, 8 isolates namely BA 24, BA 29, BA 37, BA 46, SA 64, SB 20, SC 5, SC 14,
are belong to genera Pseudomonas, 6 isolates from Klebsiella, 4 isolates from
Salmonella, 3 isolates from Enterobacter, 2 Escherichia, and 1 isolate from Erwinia
and Shigella respectively. In this study, only strains from Pseudomonas putida will be
selected for further studies since the rest of strains could harbour potentially pathogenic
strains as reported by (Barati, et al., 2016; Callahan et al., 2016; Egamberdieva, et al.,
2008). Microbial organisms are classified in risk groups; hence taxonomical
identification of the beneficial strain must be performed during selection process to
deselect opportunistic pathogens (Kamilova and de Bruyne, 2013).
Table 1: FAME identification for bacterial isolates and their PGPR traits
PGPR trait
Isolate name FAME identification
BNF P K IAA
BA 5 Klebsiella pneumoniae + + + +
BA 16 Shigella dysenteriae + + + +
BA 24 Pseudomonas putida + + + +
BA 34 Klebsiella pneumoniae + + + +
BA 45 Enterobacter cancerogenus + + + +
BA 46 Pseudomonas aeruginosa + + + +
BB 2 Salmonella enterica + + + +
BB 29 Klebsiella pneumoniae + + + +
BC 2 Enterobacter hormaechei + + + +
BC 3 Salmonella bongori + + + +
SA 19 Klebsiella pneumoniae + + + +
SA 58 Klebsiella pneumoniae + + + +
SA 64 Pseudomonas aeruginosa + + + +
SB 20 Pseudomonas putida + + + +
SB 22 Klebsiella pneumoniae + + + +
SC 5 Pseudomonas putida + + + +
SC 14 Pseudomonas putida + + + +
TA 39 Escherichia fergusonii + + + +
TB 2 Enterobacter hormaechei + + + +
TC 19 Escherichia vulneris + + + +
TC 22 Erwinia ananatis + + + +
CONCLUSION
The present study demonstrates that proper screening strategies would help in the
selection of most-promising PGPR candidate for biofertilizer production. The author
suggests the in-vitro qualitative assay could facilitate selection of potential strains from
186
abundant sample collections since it can generates fast result with low processing cost
without compromising its efficiency.
REFERENCES
Ahmad, F., Ahmad, I. & Khan, M.S. 2005. Indole acetic acid production by the
indigenous isolates of Azotobacter and fluorescent Pseudomonas in the presence and
absence of tryptophan. Turkish Journal of Biology, 29(1): 29–34.
Barati, A., Ghaderpour, A., Chew, L.L., Bong, C.W., Thong, K.L., Chong, V.C. &
Chai, L.C. 2016. Isolation and characterization of aquatic-borne Klebsiella
pneumoniae from tropical estuaries in Malaysia. International journal of
environmental research and public health, 13(4): 426.
Callahan, M.T., Micallef, S.A. & Buchanan, R.L. 2016. Soil type, soil moisture, and
field slope influence the horizontal movement of Salmonella enterica and
Citrobacter freundii from floodwater through soil. Journal of Food
Protection, 80(1): 189–197.
da Silveira, A.P.D., Sala, V.M.R., Cardoso, E.J.B.N., Labanca, E.G. & Cipriano,
M.A.P. 2016. Nitrogen metabolism and growth of wheat plant under diazotrophic
endophytic bacteria inoculation. Applied Soil Ecology, 107: 313–319.
Egamberdieva, D., Kamilova, F., Validov, S., Gafurova, L., Kucharova, Z. &
Lugtenberg, B. 2008. High incidence of plant growth‐stimulating bacteria
associated with the rhizosphere of wheat grown on salinated soil in
Uzbekistan. Environmental Microbiology, 10(1): 1–9.
FAMA. 2011. Dasar Agromakanan Negara. Retrieved from
http://www.fama.gov.my/fama theme/.../pdf/Dasar-Agromakanan-Negara-2011-
2020.pdf.
Hu, X., Chen, J. & Guo, J. 2006. Two phosphate-and potassium-solubilizing bacteria
isolated from Tianmu Mountain, Zhejiang, China. World journal of Microbiology
and Biotechnology, 22(9): 983–990.
Kamilova, F. & de Bruyne, R. 2013. Plant growth promoting microorganisms: the
road from an academically promising result to a commercial product. Molecular
microbial ecology of the rhizosphere, de Bruijn FJ, Ed: 677–686.
Lugtenberg, B. & Kamilova, F. 2009. Plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Annual
review of microbiology, 63: 541–556.
Jiang, Y., Wu, Y., Xu, W., Cheng, Y., Chen, J., Xu, L., Hu, F. & Li, H. 2012. IAA-
producing bacteria and bacterial-feeding nematodes promote Arabidopsis thaliana
root growth in natural soil. European journal of soil biology, 52: 20–26.
Meena, V.S., Maurya, B.R., Verma, J.P., Aeron, A., Kumar, A., Kim, K. & Bajpai,
V.K. 2015. Potassium solubilizing rhizobacteria (KSR): isolation, identification, and
K-release dynamics from waste mica. Ecological Engineering, 81: 340–347.
Nautiyal, C.S. 1999. An efficient microbiological growth medium for screening
phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. FEMS microbiology Letters, 170(1): 265–
270.
Park, M., Kim, C., Yang, J., Lee, H., Shin, W., Kim, S. & Sa, T. 2005. Isolation and
characterization of diazotrophic growth promoting bacteria from rhizosphere of
agricultural crops of Korea. Microbiological Research, 160(2): 127–133.
Reddy, P.P. 2014. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria for horticultural crop
protection. Springer India.
Saharan, B.S. & Nehra, V. 2011. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria: a critical
review. Life Sci Med Res, 21(1): 30.
187
Zakry, F.A.A. 2013. In vitro and in silico investigation of the plant growth-promoting
rhizobacteria from pepper (Piper nigrum L.) (phd). Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Retrieved from http://psasir.upm.edu.my/38525.
188
Plant Growth-Promoting Potential of Bacteria from Nodule of Aquatic
Legume, Neptuniao oleracea Lourerio
Zaheda, A., Noorasmah, S., Zakry, F.A.A. and Saidin, A.
Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus, Malaysia
E-mail: noorasmah@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Neptunia oleracea or water mimosa, an aquatic legume and also considered as weed
has a symbiotic relationship with the Rhizobium that is present in its bright red root
nodules. This plant has a similar function with other legume crops where the Rhizobium
that live in root nodules can fix nitrogen from the air and convert it into inorganic form
such as NO3-, NH3+ or NH4+. The amount of these inorganic released in water from N.
oleracea were reported high (Noorasmah, 2014). The ability to fix the atmospheric N
in symbiotic state resulting in biological nitrogen fixation. Hence, exists as an
endosymbiotic nitrogen fixing microorganisms associated with legume roots. The
Rhizobium has an important role in plants in which can promote plant growth. This is
known as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR). In agricultural practices, the
cost of fertilizer is very high, so to make it cost effective, natural fertilizer will be used.
This plant can provide green fertilizer which containing nitrogen sources mainly needed
in most plant; therefore, it can lower the input of fertilization. The potential of wild
legume plant can be discovered by screening the activity and performance of Rhizobium
from N. oleracea rhizosphere. The Rhizobium strains from N. oleracea were tested
morphologically and carried out during the study by inoculating it into the mung bean
(Vigna radiata) under laboratory condition.
Rhizobium isolation
Five pink healthy nodules were collected from the root of N. Oleracea and were then
thoroughly sterilized. Rhizobium strains were obtained by crushing the nodules with
glass rod to release the bacteria. The bacteria were isolated by stamping it on the YEA
media and incubated at 28°C for 3 days. Rhizobium strains were obtained and further
streaking of Rhizobium strains was done to get pure cultures. Five strains from the pure
cultures were taken and mixed it into the YEB. YEB containing Rhizobium was put on
the orbital shaker at 120 rpm for 5 days to get the inoculums production. Serial dilution
(10-1 to 10-6) fold was prepared and plated onto YEA plate. All the inoculated plates
were incubated at room temperature for 48 hours and the growth of rhizobia was
observed and counted in cfu unit.
Morphological and physiological characteristics of rhizobium isolates
Gram staining is a technique used to identify the characteristics and the different cell
morphology of the isolated bacterial strains (Case and Johnson, 1984). The gram
reaction of the cultures was identified and classified. Capsule stain is a technique used
to reveal the presence of bacterial capsules by using Athony Staining Method. Flagella
staining is a technique to observe the motility of Rhizobium and provide information
189
about the presence and location of flagella for bacterial identification. N–free medium
was used in this study to isolate the nitrogen fixing bacteria or Rhizobium. Therefore,
any strains that were able to survive and grow on N–free medium were identified as
Rhizobium bacteria.
Screening of rhizobium isolates as plant growth–promoting rhizobacteria
The mung bean (V. radiata) was used as the plant test to determine the effects of PGPR
inoculation on the vegetative growth of bean plant under laboratory condition. The plant
growth parameter used are root length, shoot length, seed germination rate, vigour
index, root dry weight and shoot dry weight. 25 sterilizedmung bean seeds were
immersed in 5 inoculums strains respectively which are one control, strain- A, B, C, D,
and E for 3 hours with 3 replications. All seeds were germinated by using the paper
towel method. The data obtained from the screening of Rhizobium isolates as PGPR
were subjected to ANOVA and the mean differences were compared using the LSD at
p≤0.05 by using SAS Ver. 9.3.
Morphological and physiological characteristic of bacterial isolates
A total of 5 bacterial strains were isolated from the N. oleracea root nodules were all
Rhizobium. All of the isolates i.e., N.O strain-A, N.O strain-B, N.O strain-C, N.O strain-
D and N.O strain-E possessed the excitatory growth in duration of 3 days incubation.
The shaped cells of all bacteria isolates were similar, which is gram–negative rods that
was found in pairs, groups and cluster. All rhizobial isolates from N. oleracea produced
translucent, mucilaginous and round white colonies, motile organism and did not
produce capsules, but extracellular polysaccharide slime and showed acidic when
reacting with bromothymol blue. The isolates were able to fix nitrogen and also grown
on N-free medium. Therefore, those isolates from nodules of N. oleracea are identified
as Rhizobium. Gram negative with rod bacillus bacteria were found in pairs, groups and
cluster. Positive result for the motility test proved that the bacteria have flagella for
them to move around.
Bacteria enumeration
Population size of the bacteria strains at (x 106 cfu/mL) is similar among the treatments
(Table 4.1). It is showed no variation in the treatments and gave the same effect to the
mung bean plant in their growth.
Table 1: Population size of inoculum produced at five days incubation. Different

superscripts letters within the same column indicate significant differences according
to Least Significant Difference Test (p<0.05). (Given as means ± SE, n = 3).
Bacteria population
Treatments
(x 106 CFU/mL)
N.O strain-A 12.65 ± 9.76a
N.O strain-B 14.97 ± 9.82 a
N.Ostrain-C 22.90 ± 17.72 a
N.O strain-D 20.68 ± 15.83 a
N.Ostrain-E 10.42 ± 8.32 a
190
Effect of PGPR strains on seed germination and seedling vigour
The strains of isolated rhizobacterial from N. oleracea significantly affected the growth
of the V. radiata plants (Table 4.2). The PGPR treatment promoted the germination of
mung beans after 3 days by using the paper towel method. The percentages of
germinated seeds of PGPR treatments were comparatively higher than the control. The
seeds inoculated with N.O strain-E recorded 100% of germination. Overall
performance of inoculation on germination was interpreted based on vigour index. The
seedling vigour index was calculated based on the mean of root length and shoot and
germination percentage. As a result, higher level vigour index was obtained from the
seeds inoculated with the Rhizobium strains as compared to the control. Furthermore,
the seeds inoculated with N.O strain-D had greatly vigour index compared to the other
strains. The inoculation plants resulted in better germination and early development. It
was also stated that there are an increases in dry weight of both roots and shoots. Higher
vigour seeds are pre-requisite for better establishment of seedlings. Vigour index
determines the state of the health of seedling and ultimately the state of productivity of
plant. The higher the vigour index, the better the yield of the plant.
Table 2: Effect of PGPR inoculation on seed germination and seedling vigour of mung
bean (V. radiata) plants. Different superscript letters within the same column indicate
significant differences according to Least Significant Difference Test (p<0.05). (Given
as means ± SE, n=3)
Treatments Seed germination (%) Root length (cm) Shoot length (cm) Vigour index
Inoculated
N.O Strain-A 97.33 ± 1.33abc 13.32± 0.77ab 15.60 ± 2.81b 28.08 ± 3.21b
N.O Strain-B 94.67± 3.53abc 10.45± 0.43bc 21.19 ± 1.68a 29.83 ± 1.18b
N.O Strain-C 92.00 ± 4.62bc 8.99 ± 0.29c 23.58 ± 1.17a 29.79 ± 2.22b
N.O Strain-D 98.67 ± 1.33ab 14.08± 2.02a 23.35 ± 0.87a 37.17 ± 1.82a
N.O Strain-E
100.00± 0.00a 9.20 ± 0.66c 23.06 ± 1.36a 32.26 ± 2.00ab
Uninoculated
(control) 90.67 ± 2.67c 7.94 ± 0.60c 14.91 ± 1.26b 20.74 ± 1.39c
Effect of PGPR on plant growth
In general, the rhizobial strains had significant effect on the plant biomass, i.e, dry
weight of shoot and root (Table 4.3). However, the weight of dried root obtained from
the treated plants was not affected by the type of strains. The mass of plant shoots
treated with N.O strain-D and N.O strain-C weighed significantly more than other
strains. Rhizobiumin this study has the ability to stimulate seedling root and shoot
elongation compared to uninoculated seed. Therefore, Rhizobium inoculation can be an
alternative way to be used in sustainable crop production especially in seedling growth
phase. The results demonstrated that the length of shoot and root was significantly
higher for N.O strain-D than other strains and also control. It is ensured that mung bean
seedlings that are infected with Rhizobium strains have a better growth. The effect of
Rhizobium inoculation on performance of mung bean significantly increased the root
length and plant height at maturity stages (Ahmed et al., 2007). Generally, the
191
inoculation of the nitrogen fixing rhizobacterial strains gave a result in the early plant
growth and development.
There was a positive correlation between the increase in plant weight and the
improvement of root development. The grain yields were increased significantly which
is up to 0.8 t ha-1 when the PGPR isolates were inoculated to the rice field (Tran et al.,
2000). Result also indicated the success of seed inoculated of Rhizobium in the mung
bean plant. Burton (1979) has stated that the seed inoculum is done to introduce
sufficient viable Nitrogen fixing Rhizobia in to the area where the seed will germinate
to assure effective nodulation. All grown parameters for inoculated treatments were
showed the significant different over the controls as well.
Table 3: The inoculation effect of different nodule endophytic bacteria strains on

growth of mung bean (Vigna radiata) plants. Values are different letters in the column
were significantly different (p ≤ 0.05) using LSD. (Given as means ± SE, n = 3).
Treatments Root dry weight (mg) Shoot dry weight (mg)
Inoculated
N.O Strain-A 11.87± 0.70a 26.56±0.52ab
N.O Strain-B 11.90 ±1.30a 25.31 ± 1.10ab
N.O Strain-C 11.80 ± 0.34a 27.18 ± 1.29 a
N.O Strain-D 12.84 ± 0.74a 28.54 ± 2.92 a
N.O Strain-E 25.87 ± 1.33ab
11.25 ± 0.42a
Uninoculated
8.63 ± 0.74b 20.23 ± 3.96b
(control)
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that bacteria from nodule of Neptunia oleracea Lourerio has the
potential to promote plant growth. The inoculation increased the seed germination and
seedling vigour of non-host plant, Vigna radiata. Vigna radiata inoculated with N.O
Strain-D has increased seedling vigour by increasing root and shoot length. Therefore,
N.O Strain-D was the most promising candidates in the formulation of beneficial
inoculant.
REFERENCES
Ahmed, R., Solaiman, A.R.M., Halder, N.K., Siddiky, M.A. & Islam, M.S. 2007.
Effect of inoculation methods of Rhizobium on yield attributes, yield and protein
content in seed of pea. J. Soil Nat., 1:30-35.
Burton, J.C. 1979. New development in inoculating legumes: recent advances In
Biological Nitrogen Fixation (Ed.) SubbaRao, N.S. Oxford and Iblt Publishing Co.
New Delhi, India: 308-405.
Case, C.L. & Johnson. 1984. Gram staining. In Laboratory experiments in
microbiology. p. 23-25. California: Benjamin Cummings Publishing Company.
Noorasmah Saupi. 2014. Biology and Ecology of Limnocharisflava (L.) Buchenau
and Neptuniaoleracea Lour for New Vegetables Crops.PhD thesis. Universiti Putra
Malaysia.
192
Tran, V.V., Berge, O., Ke, S.N., Balandreau, J. & Heulin, T. 2000. Repeated
beneficial effects of rice inoculation with a strain of Burkholderia vietnamiensis on
early and late yield components in low fertility sulphate acid soils of Vietnam. Plant
Soil, 218: 273-284.
193
Improving Rice Plant Growth Variables and Rice Yield through Co-
Composted Forest Litter
Nathaniel, M.1, Maru, A.1, Nadzirah, N.A.1, Ahmed, O.H.2,3,4 and Majid, N.A.3
1
2
3
4
Malaysia
E-mail: nathanielmaikol@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
Intensive utilization of chemical fertilizers in rice production has increased leaching of

N and P to ground and surface water bodies (Addiscott, 2005) by elevating the
environmental and health problems (Ward et al., 2005; Gupta et al., 2000; NRCS,
1997). The use of 5 t ha-1 of biochar was reported by Maru et al. (2015) to increase rice
yield to about 7.6 t ha-1 on tropical acid soil besides reducing N by 25%, P by 100%,
and K by 62.5%. However, one ton of biochar cost about RM 5,000 and 5 tons will cost
about RM 25, 000 for one hectare. This is expensive for an ordinary farmer to buy,
therefore, this research proposes to use readily available organic wastes are co-
composted with biochar. This is to reduce the cost of biochar and also increase the
nutrient content of the mixture. Organic wastes such as cow dung and chicken litter are
often used however, these wastes are not readily available to the farmer. Malaysia total
forest area is about 20,456,000 ha (FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment, 2010).
This forest generates about 3.9 to 6.3 t ha-1 of litter fall annually (Moraes et al., 1998)
and Malaysia litter fall is estimated to about 79.78 to 128.87 million ton ha-1 annually.
However, there is limited information it uses for agriculture purposes. Instead, the
nutrient locks up in the forest litter mostly lost through rapid decomposition, runoff,
leaching, and burning (Schlesinger and William, 1997; Boerner, 1982). In 1997 to 1998,
Malaysia experience severe forest fires and about 64,499 ha of forest areas were burnt
where Sarawak and Sabah were mostly affected (Thai, 1998). This research proposes
the use of forest litter which is abundant especially in Malaysia. Hence, the objectives
of this study were to (i) increase paddy plant growth variable through the use of co-
composted forest litter with biochar and (ii) increase plant dry matter and rice yield by
reducing use of N, P, and K chemical fertilizers use.
Pot and field studies were carried out to increase plant growth variables and rice yield
by using co-composted forest litter. For pot trial, the soils were amended with co-
composted forest litter and fertilized as recommended by MADA (2015). Treatments
evaluated are in Table 1. The plants were managed and harvested at panicle heading
stage (determinant of yield). However, the first and second fertilization were skipped
because the co-composted forest litter supplied sufficient nutrients for the plants. The
plant dry matter yield (DMY), plant height and number of tillers were measured using
standard procedures.
194
Table 1: Co-composted forest litter and fertilization schedule of the pot study
Early tillering Formation of
Plant growth stages Active growth
Treat growth stalk
ments Days after transplanting 15 to 20 35 to 40 50 to 55
………...………………………….. g hill-1 ……………………………………….
T1 0 0 0 0
T2 0 Mix A1 0.4 urea Mix B1
T3 20 forest litter Mix A2 0.2 urea 0.09 Urea
T4 20 forest litter + chicken litter (1:1) Mix A2 0.2urea 0.09 urea
T5 20 forest litter + cow dung (1:1) Mix A2 0.2 urea 0.09 urea
T6 20 forest litter + biochar (1:1) Mix A2 0.2 urea 0.09 urea
Note: Mix A1= (0.55 g Urea + 0.50 g TSP + 0.24 g MOP); Mix A2= (0.55 g Urea + 0.24 g MOP); Mix
B1= (0.18 g Urea + 0.19 g TSP + 0.20 g MOP + 0.014 MgO)
A field trial was conducted where T6 was chosen based on its significant effect on
number of tillers which directly influence the number of grain-bearing panicle and
yield. T1 and T2 were also evaluated in the field as a control. The co-composted forest
litter and fertilizers were scaled up base on 100 hills in 4 m2 plot of the experimental
unit at Long Term Research Grant Scheme rice plot. The plants were also managed and
harvested at maturity. Grain yield in addition to plant variables taken in the pot trial
was measured using standard procedures and the data were analyzed using analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was used to test treatment effects whereas treatments means were
compared using Tukey’s Test (SAS, 2011).
In the pot trial, the dry matter yield of T3, T4, T5, and T6 were similar but significantly
higher than those of T1 and T2 (Figure 1). The plant height of T3, T4, T5, and T6 were
similar. However, the height of plants in T3 was significantly higher than those of T1
and T2. Number of tillers ofT6 was significantly higher than those of T1, T2, T3, T4,
and T5 (Figure 1). However, the tillers of T2, T3, T4, and T5 were similar (Figure 1).
This was due to the addition of co-composted forest litter compost as reported by Maru
et al. (2015) and Palanivell et al., (2015). In the first cycle of field study, plant height,
total grain per panicle, and grain yield of T3 were significantly higher than those of T1
and T2 (Figure 2). The grain yield, number of tillers, number of panicles, and total grain
per panicle of T2 and T3 were significantly higher than that of T1 (Figure 2). In the
second cycle of field study, the plant height, number of tillers, number of panicles, total
grain per panicle, and grain yield of T3 were significantly higher than those of T1 and
T2 (Figure 3). The differences in the plant height, total grain per panicle, and grain yield
were due to the effect of co-composted forest litter on nutrient availability and nutrient
use efficiency of N fertilization. Leaching of soil nutrients due to coarse particles in the
soil of this present study might have reduced the number of tillers bearing grains of the
plants under T2 and T1 hence, the lower yield. This confirms the findings of Maru et
al. (2015) and McLaughlin et al. (2009) that organic amendment could be used to
increase rice yield with urea and MOP only. In this study, despite 75% urea and 33%
MOP of the recommended fertilization by MADA (2015) was used, co-composted
forest litter supplemented the required nutrients apart from increasing the nutrient use
efficiency to increase grain yield to about 10 t ha-1 confirming the findings of Maru et
al. (2015). The applied urea might also stimulate the availability of other nutrients
especially available P and K due to K+ displacement from soil exchangeable complex
by NH4+ from the urea added, confirming the findings of Maru et al. (2015) and Patrick
et al. (1985).
195
10 a a 100 a 10 a
a a ab ab ab
Dry matter yield (g pot -1)
Height of the plant (cm)

8 c bc
No. of tillers
b b b
6 bc
50 5 c
4 b b
2
0 0 0
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Treatment in pot study Treatment in pot study Treatment in pot study
Figure 1: Dry matter yield, plant height, number of plant tillers in the pot study after
harvesting
15 150 15
a a
a
Height of plant (cm)
a
Grain yield (t ha-1)
b b
10 100 10
No. of tiller
b b
5 c 50 5
0 0 0
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
Treatment in first cycle field Treatment in field first cycle Treatment in field first cycle
15 100 a 15
a ab b a
Percent grain filling (%)
Total grain per panicle

80 b
10
No. of panicle
10 60
b b
40 5
5
20
0 0 0
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
Treatment in field first cycle Treatment in first first cycle Treatment in first cycle field
Figure 2: Rice grain yield, plant height, number of plant tillers and panicles, percentage
grain filling, and total filled grain per panicles in first cycle of field study
150 15 a 15 a
a
Height of plant (cm)
b b b
100 10 10
No. of panicle
c
No.of tiller
c c
50 5 5
0 0 0
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
Treatment in second cycle field Treatment in field for second cycle Treatment in field for second cycle
200 80 12 a
Total grain per panicle
a
a 78 a 10
Grain yield (t ha-1)
150 a
% of grain filling
b 76 8
c b
100 74 6
72 4 c
50
70 2
0 68 0
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
Treatment in field for second cycle Treatment in field for second cycle Treatment in field for second cycle
Figure 3: Rice grain yield, plant height, number of plant tillers and panicles, percentage
grain filling, and total filled grain per panicles in second cycle of field study
CONCLUSION
The use of composted forest litter with biochar increased dry matter yield, plant height,
the number of tillers and of panicles, percentage grain filling, and total filled grain per
196
panicles. This practice also reduced the use of N by 25%, P by 100%, and K by 64.37%
whiles increasing rice yield to about 9 to 10 t ha-1.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Assessment of Degraded and Rehabilitated Forest) and Universiti Putra Malaysia for
REFERENCES
Addiscott, T.M. 2005. Nitrate, agriculture and the environment, CABI, Wallingford,
UK.
ecosystems. BioScience, 32(3): 187-192.
2007, 2005, 2003, 2001).
Gupta, S.K., Gupta, R.C., Gupta, A.B., Seth, A.K., Bassin, J.K. & Gupta, A.
2000.Recurrent acute respiratory tract infections in areas with high nitrate
concentrations in drinking water. Environ. Health Perspect., 108: 363-366.
MADA (1970, June 30). Muda Agricultural Development Authority.Paddy,
fertilization.Retrieved September 29, 2015, from
http://www.mada.gov.my/semakan-tanaman-padi.
Maru, A., Haruna, O.A. & Charles Primus, W. 2015.Co-application of chicken litter
biochar and urea only to improve nutrients use efficiency and yield of Oryza sativa
L. cultivation on a tropical acid soil. The Scientific World Journal, 2015.
McLaughlin, H., Anderson, P.S., Shields, F.E. & Reed, T.B. 2009. All biochar are
Not Created Equal, and How to Tell Them Apart, North American Biochar
Conference, Boulder, CO.
Moraes, R., Delitti, W.B.C. &Struffaldi-De Vuono, Y.A.R.A.1999. Litterfall and
litter nutrient content in two Brazilian Tropical Forests. Brazilian J. Bot., 22(1): 9-
16.
NRCS. 1997. Water quality and agriculture: Status, conditions, and trends. Working
Pap. 16. U.S. Gov. Print. Office, Washington, DC.
Palanivell, P., Ahmed, O.H., AbMajid, N.M., Jalloh, M.B. & Susilawati, K. 2015.
Improving lowland rice (O. sativa L. cv. MR219) plant growth variables, nutrients
uptake, and nutrients recovery using crude humic substances. The Scientific World
Journal, 2015.
Patrick, W.H., Mikkelsen, D.S. & Wells, B.R. 1985.Plant nutrient behavior in flooded
soils. In: Fertilizer Technology and Use, (3rd ed.), ed. O.P. Engelstad, pp.197-228.
Ithaca: Soil Science Society of America, Madison WI.
SAS, 2011.SAS/STAT Software. SAS Institute, (2nd ed.) Cary, NC.16. Cary, NC, USA
Schlesinger, William H. 1997. Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change. 2nd
Edition.Academic Press. 108, 135, 152–158, 180–183, 191–194.
Thai, S.K. 1998. Malaysia Country Report presented at the Regional Workshop on
Forest Fire Management - Collaboration in ASEAN, 29-31 March 2001, Chieng
Mai, Thailand.
197
Ward, M.H., deKok, T.M., Levallois, P., Brender, J., Gulis, G., Nolan, B.T. &
VanDerslice, J. 2005. Drinking-water nitrate and health-recent findings and
research needs. Environ. Health Perspect. 113: 1607-1614.
198
Selected Physico-Chemical Properties of Forest Litter Compost
Audrey A.1, Maru A.1, Osumanu H.A.1,2,3,4 and Nik Muhamad, A.M.3
1
2
3
4
Malaysia
E-mail: audreyasap@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Litterfall is dead plant material, such as leaves, bark, needles, and twigs (Schlesinger,
1997). Tropical forests generate approximately 3.9 to 6.3 t ha-1 of litter fall annually
(Moraes et al., 1999). Malaysia’s total forest area is about 20.5 million ha (FAO Global
Forest Resources Assessment, 2010) with an estimated annual litter fall of
approximately 79.78 to 128.87 million ton ha-1. However, there is limited information
on litter uses for agriculture as compared to leguminous trees such as Leucaena
leucocephala and some commonly used animal waste such as chicken litter and cow
dung. Agricultural wastes from plants such as leucaena are substantial (EEA, 2006).
Wastes from animals such as cow dung and chicken manure have recently increased
due to the increase in poultry and cattle industries (EEA, 2014). Composting of this
waste was adopted to naturally and deliberately reduce of organic wastes under
controlled biological and aerobic conditions into a stable product called humus
(Epstein, 1997). Converting the aforementioned wastes to stable humus will improve
soil conditions, soil nutrient availability, and quality of crop product by reducing
leaching, runoff, and pollution. Instead of losing most of the nutrients lock up in the
forest litter through rapid decomposition, runoff, leaching, and burning (Schlesinger,
1997; Boerner, 1982). This study seeks to effectively utilize forest litterfall through
composting. This contributes to improve recycling of nutrients in tropical soils which
are mostly lockup in the forest biomass (Schlesinger, 1997). Therefore, the objective of
this study was to determine some selected physic-chemical properties of compost from
forest litterfall, leucaena, chicken litter, and cow dung by comparing their nutrients
content, humic acid, and toxicity level.
Chicken litter and cow dung were collected from the poultry farm and cattle kraal of
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Bintulu Sarawak Campus (UPMKB). Forest litter and
pruned L. leucocephala (leaves, pulp, and seed) were collected from woodlot of same
UPMKB after which they were shredded. The samples were air dried after which the
leucaena and forest litter were ground using a grinding machine. Polystyrene boxes
with the length of 38 cm, the width of 36 cm, and height of 32 cm was used to compost
the waste. Eight holes with 2 cm diameter will be drilled on the sides of each box to
allow good aeration during the composting process. Treatments evaluated were (i) 6 kg
L. leucocephala (T1), (ii) 6 kg forest litter (T2), (iii) 6 kg chicken litter (T3), and (iv) 6
kg cow dung (T4). 15% molasses was added to all treatments and 2% chicken litter was
199
added to T1 and T2. These are to provide microbe source and nutrients during
decomposition. Each treatment was replicated three times in a completely randomized
design. Prior to composting, each mixture was moistened at 60% and this moisture was
maintained throughout the composting period using the tap water. Ambient and
compost temperature were taken daily at 7 am, 12 pm, and 7 pm using a digital
thermometer. After maturity, the compost pH was determined using a digital pH meter
(Peech et al., 1965), ash content, total carbon, total K, Na, Ca, Mg, and Fe were
determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) whereas P was determined
using Blue method (Murphy and Riley, 1962). Total N was determined using Kjeldahl
method (Tan, 2005). The extraction of humic acid and its purification 5 times with
distilled-water was done using the method describe by Ahmed et al. (2005) and
Palanivell et al. (2012). Phytotoxicity of the compost was determined using germination
index (Gi) method describe by Tiquia (1996). All data were analyzed using analysis of
variance (ANOVA) whereas treatments means were compared using Tukey’s Test
(SAS, 2011).
All the composts underwent mesophilic, thermophillic, and curing stages (Figure 1).
Mesophilic phase lasted for 10 to 13 days for all (Figure 1) and this was within the
temperature range reported by Palanivell et al. (2013). The thermophillic and curing
stages of T2, T3, and T4 lasted for three weeks. However, the thermophillic and curing
stages of T1 lasted for 37 days (Figure 1). The percentage of humic acids of the forest
litter was significantly higher than those of leucaena, chicken litter, and cow dung
(Figure 1). This was because of the high C: N ratio of T1 which contributed to high
temperature and long composting period. The highest humic acid level was in forest
litter and the lowest level in cow dung. This is due to the organic matter levels. Forest
litter had the highest OM and cow dung with the lowest because it was collected in the
kraal where it mixed with soil in the kraal. The pH and ash content increased after
composting and a significant increase was observed in T1 (Figure 1) because of high
mineral content in leucaena. The total carbon content reduces after harvesting and the
reduction was higher in T1 (Table 1). The total P increased after composting and a
significant increase was observed in T3 (Table 1). The total N increased after
composting in T1 and T4, however, in T2, the percentage N decreases after composting
(Table 1). The total K increase after composting in all treatments (Table 1). The total
Na content reduces after composting in T1, T2, and T4. The reduction was significant
in T1 however in T3, the Na content increases after composting (Table 2). The total Ca
and Mg content reduces after composting in all treatments. The Fe content reduces after
composting in T2, T3, and T4 (Table 2). The reduction was significant in T3 and T4
however, in T1, the Fe content increased after composting (Table 2). The differences
were due to nutrients content in the various materials used especially in animal manures
(Bolan et al., 2010).
The phytotoxicity test indicates that for leucaena (T1) and chicken litter (T3) are toxic
and can only be used after 75% dilution (Table 3). This is the due to Cu toxicity in the
leucaena and chicken litter in Table 2. Leguminous plants are noted to have high Cu
content (Dongli and Pingfang, 2013) and copper toxicity damage plant roots, disruption
of the root cuticle and reduced root hair proliferation which lead to severe deformation
of root structure (Sheldon and Menzies, 2005). For forest litter and cow dung compost
was not toxic based on the percentage germination index (Table 4).
200
Ambient T1 T2 8
80 7
Percentage of humic acid in

6
Temperature (°C)
60
compost (%)
5
40 4
3 a
20 2 b
1 b
c
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Luecaena Forest litter Chicken litter Cow dung
Composting period (Days) Compost
Figure 1: Daily temperature and percentage humic acid content of the compost at
maturity
201
Table 1: Physico-chemical properties before and after composting
pH Ash content Total carbon Total P Total N Total K
Treat
Before After Before After Before After Before After Before After Before After
ments
………..………..………………………%…….……………………………………
T1 6.56a 8.2ab 10c ± 1.12 15c ± 1.91 52.21a ± 6.28 49.39b ± 7.53 0.089b ± 0.002 0.54d ± 0.06 0.39b ± 0.06 0.53c ± 0.04 3.77b ± 0.43 3.82b ± 0.75
T2 5.26c 6.45c 9c ± 1.16 11d ± 0.32 52.78a ± 3.65 51.62a ± 6.61 0.042c ± 0.004 0.78c ± 0.07 0.31d ± 0.01 0.25d ±0.03 3.62d ± 0.35 3.67d ± 0.67
T3 7.33a 8.7a 33b ± 4.53 35b ± 4.21 38.86b ± 3.61 34.18c ± 5.26 0.012d ± 0.001 1.45a ± 0.04 0.65a ± 0.03 0.65a ± 0.03 3.85a ± 0.36 4.00a ± 0.75
T4 7.24a 7.66b 61a ± 7.24 66a ± 6.44 22.62c ± 4.52 19.72d ± 1.31 0.951a ± 0.058 0.95b ± 0.09 0.36c ± 0.02 0.59b ± 0.07 3.67c ± 0.426 3.71c ± 0.86
Note: Different letters within a row indicate significant difference between means of four replicates ± standard error using Tukey’s test at p≤0.05
Table 2: Chemical properties before and after composting

Total Na Total Ca Total Cu Total Fe
Treatments Before After Before After Before After Before After
…………………..…………………………… mg kg ………………….………………………………
-1
T1 1150a ± 28 490d ± 24 4600a ± 20 6590a ± 674 15c ± 0.23 210c ± 0.35 102d ± 1.23 192d ± 8.35
202
c c c c c d c
T2 550 ± 43 530 ± 35 3570 ± 36 5160 ± 364 14 ± 0.35 15 ± 0.24 433 ± 20.4 316.1c ± 9.27
T3 1090a ± 63 1240a ± 55 4160b ± 42 5970b ± 642 158a ± 0.40 214a ± 25.77 4348b ± 103.3 1553b ± 231.11
T4 830b ± 29 550b ± 31 3310d ± 37 4720d ± 213 40b ± 0.45 32b ± 2.35 8646a ± 453 4637a ± 231.46
Note: Different letters within a row indicate significant difference between means of four replicates ± standard error using Tukey’s test at p≤0.05
Table 3: Effect of different compost extract ratios on germination index (Gi)
%
Concentration of Germination Average Average % Shoot
Treatments Compost % Germination root Gi
extract (%) (20/Dish) shoots roots growth
growth
T0 Control 0 19.50 97.50 7.07 6.72 100.00 100.00 100.00 Control
25 19.00 95.00 8.48 10.46 119.94 155.65 151.66 ˃ 80
50 18.00 90.00 7.16 5.52 101.27 82.14 75.82 ˂ 80
T1 Leucaena
75 19.00 95.00 7.30 4.20 103.25 62.50 60.90 ˂ 80
100 19.00 95.00 6.84 3.40 96.75 50.60 49.30 ˂ 80
25 17.00 85.00 4.98 8.54 70.44 127.08 110.79 ˃ 80
50 19.00 95.00 9.32 8.90 131.82 132.44 129.04 ˃ 80
T2 Forest litter
75 19.00 95.00 7.48 8.30 105.80 123.51 120.34 ˃ 80
100 20.00 100.00 8.66 7.96 122.49 118.45 121.49 ˃ 80
25 18.00 90.00 9.58 9.96 135.50 148.21 136.81 ˃ 80
Chicken 50 20.00 100.00 5.62 3.88 79.49 57.74 59.22 ˂ 80
T3
litter 75 20.00 100.00 2.26 2.14 31.97 31.85 32.66 ˂ 80
203
100 18.00 90.00 1.60 0.60 22.63 8.93 8.24 ˂ 80

25 17.00 85.00 8.44 10.66 119.38 148.21 138.29 ˃ 80
50 18.00 90.00 9.60 12.54 135.79 57.74 172.25 ˃ 80
T4 Cow dung
75 19.00 95.00 10.38 8.32 146.82 31.85 120.63 ˃ 80
100 17.00 85.00 7.18 10.88 101.56 8.93 141.15 ˃ 80
CONCLUSION
Forest litterfall compost was similar in physical and chemical properties to those of
leucaena, chicken litter, and cow dung. The humic acid in forest litter compost was
higher those of leucaena, chicken litter, and cow dung. Finally, forest litter compost had
a minimum toxicity level making it suitable organic amendment for crop product as
compared to chicken litter and leucaena.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Assessment of Degraded and Rehabilitated Forest) and Universiti Putra Malaysia for
REFERENCES
Ahmed, O.H., Husni, M.H.A., Anuar, A.R. & Hanafi, M.M. 2005. Effects of
extraction and fractionation time on the yield of compost humic acids. N. Z. J. Crop
Hort. Sci., 33(2): 107-110.
ecosystems. BioScience, 32(3): 187-192.
Bolan, N.S., Szogi, A.A., Chuasavathi, T., Seshadri, B., Rothrock, M.J. &
Panneerselvam, P. 2010. Uses and management of poultry litter. World Poultry Sci.
J., 66(4): 673-698.
Dongli, H. and Pingfang, Y. (2013) Proteomics of rice seed germination: Laboratory
of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical
Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China. Plant
Science.https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2013.00246.
European Environment Agency Annual report. 2014 and EMAS environmental
statement 2014. Consolidated annual activity report (CAAR) 2015.
http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/annual-report-2014
European Environment Agency. 2006. KongensNytorv 61050 Copenhagen K
Denmark
Epstein, E. 1997.The Science of Composting.Technomic Publication Company.
Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
2007, 2005, 2003, 2001)
16.
determination of phosphate in natural waters. Anal. Chemi. Acta, 27: 31-36.
Palanivell, P., Susilawati, K., Ahmed, O.H. & Majid, N.M. 2012. Compost and crude
humic substances produced from selected wastes and their effects on Zea mays L.
nutrient uptake and growth. Sci. World J., 2013.
Peech, H.M. 1965. Hydrogen-ion Activity. In Method of Soil Analysis, Part 2, ed. C.
A. Black, D. D. Evan, L. E. Ensminger, J. L. White, F.E. Clark, and R.C. Dinaue,
pp 914 – 926. Ithaca: American society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.
204
SAS, 2011.SAS/STAT Software. SAS Institute, (2nd ed.) Cary, NC.16. Cary, NC, USA
Schlesinger, William H. 1997. Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change. 2nd
Sheldon, A.R. & Menzies, N.W. 2005. The effect of copper toxicity on the growth and
root morphology of Rhodes grass (Chlorisgayana Knuth.) in resin buffered solution
culture. Plant Soil, 278(1-2): 341-349.
Tan, K.H. 2005.Soil Sampling, Preparation and Analysis. (2nd ed.), pp. 154-174 (1-
623). Taylor and Francis Garoup.Boca Raton, Florida, USA, CRC Press.
Tiquia, S.M. 1996. Assessing toxicity of ‘spent sawdust pig-litter’ using seed
germination technique. Environ. Pol., 93: 249-256.
Tiquia, S.M. & Tam, N.F.Y. 1998. Elimination of phytotoxicity during co-composting
of spent pig-manure sawdust litter and pig sludge. Bioresource Technology, 65(1-
2): 43-49.
205
Improving Zea mays Plant Growth Variables and Yield Using
Compound Liquid Fertilizer Extracted from Forest Litter Compost
Nur Hazidah, N.1, Maru, A.1, Audrey, A.1, Ahmed, O.H.1,2,3,4 and Majid, N.A.3
1
2
3
4
Malaysia
E-mail: azienordin94@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Tropical soils are inherently infertile in Fe and Al toxicity (Brady, 2002). Shallow
topsoil’s of Ultisols are highly susceptible to erosion due to high weathering and heavy
rainfalls (Brady and Weil, 2008). However, tropical soils support different tree species
and generate approximately 3.9 to 6.3 t ha-1.year-1 of litter fall annually (Moraes et al.,
1999). However, this litterfall get degraded and lost through forest fire and rain runoff
making it difficult for the soils to increase its organic matter and nutrient content
(Schlesinger, 1997). Studies on litterfall have focused on obtaining measures of the
production, information on decomposition, data on phenology, and nutrient flux), and
the stability and capacity of the ecosystem to recover from disturbance (Vitousek and
Sanford, 1986). However, little studies have been done on the utilization of litterfall for
the production of compound liquid fertilizer by extracting the essential nutrients that
are locked in the falling litter. As part of an ongoing study, a liquid compound fertilizer
was extracted from forest litter compost (unpublished) using NaOH solution. This
current study was to determine effect of this liquid compound fertilizer on growth and
yield of Zea mays L. In recent years, foliar and liquid fertilizer application increased
plant essential nutrients and yields maize, soybean, and peanuts (Giskin and Efron,
1986; Giskin et al., 1984; Barel and Black, 1979). However in this study, the liquid
fertilizer was directly applied to the soil in other to establish the required rates before
been try as folia fertilizer. Because of this, the soil was amended with biochar to
increase the cation exchange capacity of the soil for efficient utilization of the liquid
fertilizer applied (Brady and Weil, 2008). Therefore, the objectives of this study were
to determine the; (i) effects of liquid compound fertilizer extracted from forest litter on
the growth variable of Z. mays and cobs yield and (ii) suitable rate of the liquid
compound fertilizer that would increase the yield of Z. mays.
Field experiment was conducted at Universiti Putra Malaysia Campus on sandy loam
soil, classified as Typic Paleudults (Bekenu Series). The experimental design was a
randomized complete block design with three replications (blocks). The plot size was
8.1 m (length) × 2.25 m (breadth). The distance between plots was 1 m and that between
blocks was 2 m. The planting distance was 0.6 m between rows and 0.6 m within and
between plants and 2 to 3 plant per hole. Liquid compound fertilizer used was extracted
from composted forest litter using sodium hydroxide solution at a ratio of 1:20 w/v
206
(unpublished). The liquid fertilizer was fortified with 2% urea due to the low N content
of the forest litter and the extract. Normal fertilization 1recommended rates by MARDI
(1995) for Zea mays L. (120 kg N ha-1, 60 kg P2O5 ha-1, and 90 kg K2O ha-1) was used.
The biochar based on 5 t ha-1 was applied as organic amendment. The biochar and
fertilizer recommended for normal fertilization were scale down based on the plot size.
The rates of liquid fertilizer use was based on the nutrients content of the liquid
fertilizer. The treatments evaluated in field are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Treatments evaluated in the field using Z. mays test crop

Treatment
Treatments
code
T1 Control (72 g N, 72 g P, and 58.5 g K)/300 m2 for two application
Amount of liquid fertilizer
Biochar Liquid Fertilizer rates
10 DAS 28 DAS
(kg bed-1) (%)
mL
T2 2.7 0 0 0
T3 2.7 25 20 20
T4 2.7 50 40 40
T5 2.7 75 60 60
T6 2.7 100 80 80
The plants variable data such as plant height, number of plant, and number of leaves
were measured using standard procedures. The plant were harvested at 76 days after
planting and the dry matter yield, number of cobs per bed, and grain yield were also
determine using standard procedures. The data were analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was used to test treatment effects whereas treatments means were compared using
Tukey’s Test. Simple linear regression was used to correlate variables using Statistical
Analysis Software Ver. 9.3 was used for the statistical analysis (SAS, 2011).
The height and number of leaves, in all plant treated with forest litter compost were
similar on 10 day after sowing (Figure 1). However, the plant height and number of
leaves in T2 increased until 30 days after which it remained stunted until harvest (Figure
1). This was because it was only forest litter compost used. The number of plant per
planting holes in T2 also reduces because some plant die due to nutrient competition.
This further indicates that the increase in height in T3, T4, T5, and T6 were due to the
liquid compound fertilizer used. The liquid fertilizer increased the plant height and
number of leaves in T3, T5, and T6 more than that of T1 (Figure 1) (Giskin and Efron,
1986; Kasim et al., 2011). The height in T1 was lower until 30 days due to inability of
the plants to response to the applied chemical fertilizers due to slow root growth and
development. However, after 30 days, a rapid increase was observed up to 50 days
(Figure 1). The leaf and stem dry matter yield were significantly higher in T5 and T6
than those of T1, T2, T3, and T4 (Figure 1). This was due to the higher rates of liquid
fertilizer used confirming the findings of Kasim et al. (2011).
The grain yield in T1 and T6 were similar because of the number plants, cobs, and
weight of cobs in T6 that were higher than those of T1 which had higher kernel per ear
(Table 1). However, T1 and T6 were higher than those of T2, T3, T4, and T5 (Table 1).
Despite the forest liquid compound fertilizer increased the number of plant cobs, and
weight of cobs, this could not be translated into yield. This might be due to competition
207
among the plants for nutrients as a result of higher plants on a bed. The yield in those
treated with liquid fertilizer increase with increasing rate of liquid fertilizer used as
reported by Kasim et al. (2011). The relationship between co-application of liquid
compound fertilizer (T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6) and maize grain yield was determined.
There was a linear relationship between grain yield and liquid compound fertilizer rate
(Figure 1) suggesting that grain yield increased with increasing rate of liquid compound
fertilizer and 160 mL could be used to substitute the use of chemical fertilizers in Zea
mays production.
T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3 T1 T2 T3
200 T4 T5 T6 3.5 T4 T5 T6
Number of plants per hole T4 T5 T6 12
Plant height (cm)
150 3.0
10
No. of leave
100 2.5 8
50 2.0 6
0 1.5 4
D10 D20 D30 D40 D50 D60 D70 D10D20D30D40D50D60D70 D10 D20 D30 D40 D50 D60 D70
Days of measurement Days of height measurement
Days of counting
80 60
4 Yield = 0.0008 Liquid fertilizer +
Total dry matter yield
50
Stem dry matter yield
0.4516
60
Maize grain yield (t ha-1)

R² = 0.88*
3
(g plant-1)
40
(g plant-1)
N=5
40 30
b a a 2
b 20 b a a
20 c b
d c 1
10 d
0 0
0
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Treatments Treatments Volume liquid fertilizer (L)
Figure 1: Effect of treatments on plant growth variable of the maize plants and
correlation between the cobs yield and the volume of liquid fertilizers used
Table 1: Effect of treatments on cobs yield, kernel per ear, weight of cobs, and a
number of plant and cobs
Weight of Cobs yield per Cobs yield per
Treatment Plant bed-1 Cobs bed-1 cobs bed-1 Kernel per ear bed hectare
(g) (Bushel bed-1) (t ha-1)
T1 19.33d ± 1.20 18.67d± 0.88 2.43ab ± 0.09 443.67a ± 19.78 92a ± 5.76 4.33a ± 0.27
T2 26.67c ± 0.33 15e ± 0.58 0.57c ± 0.18 90.11d ± 2.41 15d ± 0.18 0.71d ± 0.01
T3 40b ± 0.57 24c ± 0.57 1.03c ± 0.13 113cd ± 5.10 30.17c ± 1.88 1.42c ± 0.09
T4 34.33a ± 0.88 16.67de ± 0.33 0.83c ± 0.03 143.11c ± 6.26 26.54cd ± 1.63 1.25cd ± 0.08
T5 42a ± 0.88 30.33b ± 1.20 2b ± 0.12 201b ± 1.26 67.72b ± 2.46 3.19b ± 0.12
T6 42.33a ± 1.20 36a ± 1.15 2.63a ± 0.03 209.44b ± 4.084 83.87a ± 4.21 3.95a ± 0.20
CONCLUSION
Compound liquid fertilizer extracted from forest litter increased the growth variable
and yield of Zea mays. The suitable rate of the liquid compound fertilizer is 160 mL per
plant of the liquid compound fertilizer could be substituted for the use of chemical
fertilizers in Zea mays production.
208
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors would like to acknowledge Ministry of Education (MOE),

Malaysia for Mitsubishi Research Grant Scheme (Establish, Restoration, and
Ecosystem Health Assessment of Degraded and Rehabilited Forest) and Universiti
Putra Malaysia for funding this research project.
REFERENCES
Barel, D. & Black, C.A. 1979. Foliar application of P. II. Yield responses of corn and
soybeans sprayed with various condensed phosphates and P-N compounds in
greenhouse and field experiments. Agron. J., 71: 21-24.
Brady, N.C. & Weil, R.R. 2008. The Nature and Properties of Soils, (14th ed.). ed.
V.R. Anthony and S. Kottcamp. Pearson Prentice Hall.
Giskin, M. & Efron, Y. 1986. Planting date and foliar fertilization of corn grown for
silage and grain under limited moisture. Agron. J., 78: 426-429.
Giskin, M., Santos, A.T. & Etchevers, J.D. 1984.Decreasing fertilizer inputs by use
of foliar application of essential nutrients. Proceedings, Intl. Symp. Plant Nutrition,
Montpellier, France, 1: 239-242.
Kasim, S., Ahmed, O.H. & Majid, N.M.A., 2011. Effectiveness of liquid organic-
nitrogen fertilizer in enhancing nutrients uptake and use efficiency in corn (Zea
mays). Afr. J. Biotech., 10(12): 2274-2281.
Malaysia Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI). 1995.
Jagungmanisbaru (new sweet corn): masmadu. MARDI, Kuala Lumpur.
16.
SAS, 2011.SAS/STAT Ssoftware. SAS Institute, (2nd ed.) Cary, NC.16. Cary, NC,
USA.
Schlesinger, W.H. 1997. Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change. 2nd
Vitousek, P.M. & Sanford Jr, R.L. 1986. Nutrient cycling in moist tropical forest.
Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 17(1): 137-167.
209
Assessment of Microbial Quality of Selected Kacip Fatimah Planting
Materials: A Case Study at Ledang, Johor
Syafiqah Nabilah, S.B.1, Farah Fazwa, M.A.1, Norhayati, S.1, Siti Suhaila, A.R.2 and
Norulaiman, Y.3
1
Program Membaikbiak Tumbuhan, Bahagian Bioteknologi Perhutanan, Institut
Penyelidikan Perhutanan Malaysia, 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Program Biousahawan Bioteknologi, Bahagian Bioteknologi Perhutanan, Institut
3
Program Pembangunan Hasilan Herba, Bahagian Hasilan Semula Jadi, Institut
E-mail: syafiqah@frim.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Kacip fatimah or scientifically known as Labisia pumila is an undershrub herb belongs

to the family of Primulaceae. This herb is traditionally prepared by the Malay women
for pre and post partum treatment. Labisia is a small genus which consists of seven
species scattered throughout Malesia, Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia (Stone,
1988). This genus usually found under storey, in secondary forest, bamboo forest and
peat forest. The plant can erect from 10 to 40 cm high or prostrate up to 60 cm long. It
has simple leaves more than five per plant with elliptic or ovate in shape. The flowers
are white or pinkish white in colour while the young fruits are green and turn red when
ripe. This species favor shaded areas with humus rich soil, sandy loam and a bit in deep
clay soil or granite soils (Sunarno, 2005).
In Malaysia, research and development (R&D) on kacip fatimah is continuously carried

out by local universities and research institute to ensure the safety and efficacy of this
herbal plants for human consumption. To date, there are many kacip fatimah products
available in local and international market resulted in high demand kacip fatimah raw
materials. Therefore, there is a need to establish kacip fatimah plantation to meet the
demand. Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Bioeconomy Corporation and local
community of Kampung Sagil, Ledang, Johor are in the process of establishing and
producing large amount and quality kacip fatimah plantation. It was started with a trial
planting plot establishment at the site to assess site species suitability and level of
microbial contamination in the planted plants.
Microbial contamination in plants influences by many factor. By their origin, herbal

plants are subject to contamination by microorganisms from soil, air and water may be
present potentially pathogenic microorganisms to man (Figure 1).
210
Figure1: Influence of environmental factors and possible pathways of microbial
contamination of medicinal herbs (Kneifel et al., 2002)
In order to improve the purity and safety of the products, observation of basic hygiene
during preparation, standardization of some physical characteristic such as moisture
content, pH and microbiological contamination levels are desirable (Araújo and Bauab,
2012). Microbial contamination can reduce or even eliminate the therapeutic effect of
drugs or cause drug-induced infections. Previous studies have confirmed the presence
of potential contaminants in herbal preparations (Czech et al., 2001; Kulshrestha et al.,
2008). Thus, manufacturers should ensure the lowest possible level of microorganisms
in the raw material, finished dosage forms and the packaging components to maintain
appropriate quality, safety and efficacy of the natural products (Okunlola et al., 2007).
In line with that, this study was undertaken with the aim to quantify the total microbial
present on the raw materials of kacip fatimah harvested from Kampung Sagil. The
finding from this study is important to ensure any final products produced from the site
are not only of high quality but also safe for consumption.
Sample preparation
The raw materials of kacip fatimah were harvested from the trial planting plot at Kg.
Sagil, Tangkak, Johor. The plants samples were washed with running tap water to
remove the excess of soils and other contaminants. The plants sample were then cut
into small pieces and dried in oven at 60 °C for 48 hours. The dried samples were
ground and sent to Natural Product Quality Control Lab in FRIM for the analysis of
microbial enumeration.
Total aerobic count (for bacteria and fungi)
Microbial enumeration was performed using pour plate method. 10 g sample of kacip
fatimah were transferred aseptically into 90 ml sodium chloride peptone buffer (pH 7.0)
and stomacher to homogenize. Serial dilution of 10-2, 10-3, 10-4, 10-5, 10-6 and 10-7 were
prepared from the mixture. 1 mL of each dilution was aliquot into sterile petri dish in
duplicate. Then 10-15 mL of molten Trypticase Soy Agar (TSA) and Sabouraud
Dextrose Agar (SDA) at 45 °C was poured into the plate. The plate was then swirl for
a few times to homogenized and let to solidify in laminar flow. The solidified plate agar
was then incubated at 32-35 °C for 3-5 days and 20-25 °C for 5-7 days for Total Aerobic
211
Microorganism Count (TAMC) and Total Combined Yeast Mould Count (TYMC)
respectively. After incubation, the individual colonies were counted. The arithmetic
averages of the counts were taken and the number of colony forming units (cfu) was
calculated per gram.
The results obtained from this study were compared with British Pharmacopoeia (2016)
acceptance criteria for herbal traditional medicine (Table 1). The raw materials of kacip
fatimah harvested from Kampung Sagil is safe for consumption since the presence of
microbial and yeast were in the permissible level.
Table 1: Microbial enumeration of kacipfatimah raw materials planted at Kampung

Sagil, Ledang, Johor
Total Aerobic Microbial Total Combined Yeasts/Moulds
Sample Safety
Count (TAMC) Count (TYMC)
British
Pharmacopoeia Max limit: 5 x 107 cfu/g Max limit: 5 x 105 cfu/g
(2016)
Kacipfatimah
9.3 x 105 cfu/g 1.9 x 105 cfu/g +
Kg. Sagil
+: Safe -: Not safe
In general, the main microbial contaminations of plant materials are attributed to total
aerobic mesophilic, enterobacterial, yeast and mould (Kneifel et al., 2002). The
presence of higher numbers of spores bacteria could be explained by the fact that some
of these organisms (e.g. Bacillus and Clostridium spp.) produce spores which are
resistant to harsh processing, elevated heat and dry conditions. Therefore, they can
survive for a long time on the product in a dormant state. Bacillus
cereus and Clostridium perfringens are recognized as having potential pathogenicity
and have been incriminated in food poisoning (Kunene, 1999).
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, microbial quality of raw materials harvested from the site was comply
with the acceptance criteria and safe for consumption. Villages such as Kampung Sagil,
Ledang, Johor should be reserved for any herbal plantation because raw materials
planted are not only of good quality but also safer for consumption. Besides that, Good
Agricultural Practices (GAP) should also be applied to ensure quality and quantity of
the products. In addition, Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) should also be
practiced in handling and storing the harvested plants prior to processing them into
medicinal products.
REFERENCES
Araújo, M.G. & Bauab, T.M. 2012. Microbial quality of medicinal plant
materials. Latest research into quality control, Akyar I (Ed.), InTech, 67-81.
British Pharmacopoeia Commission, 2016. Appendix XVI: F. Microbiological
Examination of Herbal Medicinal Products for Oral Use. In: British Pharmacopoeia
Commission. British Pharmacopoeia 2016: volume V: London: TSO.
212
Czech, E., Kneifel, W. & Kopp, B. 2001. Microbiological status of commercially
available medicinal herbal drugs-a screening study. Planta medica, 67: 263-269.
Kneifel, W., Czech, E. & Kopp, B. 2002. Microbial contamination of medicinal
plants-a review. Planta Medica, 68: 5-15.
Kulshrestha, R., Gupta, C.P., Shukla, G., Kundu, M.G., Bhatnagar, S.P. &
Katiyar, C.K. 2008. The effect of water activity and storage temperature on the
growth of Aspergillus flavus in medicinal herbs. Planta medica, 74: 1308-1315.
Kunene, N.F., Hastings, J.W. & Von Holy, A. 1999. Bacterial populations associated
with a sorghum-based fermented weaning cereal. Int.J. Food Microb., 49: 75-83.
Okunlola, A., Adewoyin, B.A. & Odeku, O.A. 2007. Evaluation of pharmaceutical
and microbial qualities of some herbal medicinal products in south western
Nigeria. Trop. J. Pharm. Res., 6: 661-670.
Stone, B.C. 1988. Notes on the genus Labisia Lindl. (Myrsinaceae). Malay. Nature
J.,42: 43-51.
Sunarno, B. 2005. Revision of the genus Labisia (Myrsinaceae). Blumea-Biodiversity,
Evolution and Biogeography of Plants, 50: 579-597.
213
Tropical Peat Soil as a Carbon Precursor for the Production of
Activated Carbon
Tumirah, K.1, Mohd, Z.H.2, Zulkarnain, Z.2 and Rozita, A.3
1
Forest Product Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Kepong,
Selangor, Malaysia
2
Material Synthesis and Characterization Laboratory (MSCL), Institute of Advanced
Technology (ITMA), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Forest Biotechnology Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109
Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: tumirah@frim.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Tropical peat soils occupy a total area of 2.7 million hectares (Mha) in Malaysia
(Mutalib et al., 1992). They are regarded as problematic soil due to its high acidity and
low levels of available nutrients (Wong 1991), thus, are not suitable for most agriculture
application. Soil management through lime utilization was carried out to reduce the
acidity problem but however, unable to improve its essential nutrients availability
specially the micronutrients. Furthermore, tropical peat soil has very low shear strength
and bearing capacity, making it unsuitable for construction of load-bearing engineered
structures such as highways or buildings (Islam and Hashim 2010). Conversion of
tropical peat soil into activated carbon (AC) would increase the economic value of
tropical peat soil as it can provide a potential non-expensive source material for AC
production.
AC is the most versatile inorganic material in a wide range of industries application,

such as electrochemical (Selvakumar and Bhat 2012), purification systems (Petrova et
al., 2010), adsorbents (Mochida et al., 2012), batteries (Fernández et al., 2010), and
others. Utilization of tropical peat soil as carbon precursor is towards the development
of eco-friendly and low-cost AC.
Materials
The tropical peat soil used in this study was obtained from peat area in Sabak Bernam,
Selangor. The sample was taken at 30-90 cm depth from the soil surface. The peat soil
was oven dried at 60 oC for 48 h. The sample was then ground and passed through a 0.5
mm sieve prior to analysis and used as feedstock for the production of AC.
Preparation of activated carbon from tropical peat soil
2.5 g tropical peat soil as prepared in 2.1 was impregnated with 250 mL solution of 10,
20, 30 and 40 v/v % of H3PO4 and left for 24 hours on an oil bath shaker (70 oC). The
samples were then oven-dried at 120 oC overnight. After oven-dried, the sample was
crushed into fine powder and carbonized at 500 oC for 3 h in a tubular electric furnace
under an inert flow of N2 gas with a flow rate of 100 cm3 min-1. The produced AC was
cooled to room temperature, rinsed with water, and oven-dried for overnight. The dried
214
AC samples were transferred into a sample bottle and kept in a desiccator prior to
analysis. Table 1 shows type of AC prepared from this study.
Table 1: AC prepared using tropical peat soil activated by H3PO4 chemical activation
method at 500 oC for 3 h
Label H3PO4 concentration (v/v %)
AC1 10
AC2 20
AC3 30
AC4 40
Characterization of activated carbon from tropical peat soil
The surface morphology and microstructure of the tropical peat soil and AC prepared
using tropical peat soil were observed using a field emission scanning electron
microscope (FESEM). The dried samples were dispersed on a conductive carbon
adhesive tape surface attached to a FESEM stub and were then Au-Pd coated.
The specific surface area and porosity of the tropical peat soil and AC prepared using
tropical peat soil were determined by nitrogen gas adsorption-desorption at 77K. The
samples were first degassed at 290 oC for 9 hours under vacuum prior to measurements.
The specific surface area, pore size distribution and micropore volume of the samples
were determined using the Brunauer–Emmet-Teller (BET).
The pH of tropical peat soil and AC prepared using tropical peat soil was measured in
a distilled water suspension at samples to water ratio of 1:2.5. The method used in this
study was adopted from MS678:1980-Methods for Soils Chemical Analysis (Part 1:
Soil pH).
The chemical property and functional groups of tropical peat soil and AC prepared
using tropical peat soil was analysed by a Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
(FTIR). The samples were mixed with KBr, then the FTIR spectra and the absorbance
was recorded in the range 250 - 4000 cm-1. The analysis was carried out at room
temperature.
Surface morphology
Figures 1a-d shows the surface morphology of tropical peat soil and activated carbon
prepared from tropical peat soil. The surface morphology of tropical peat soil in Fig 1a
shows quite smooth surfaces with no pores except for some occasional crevices. While,
Figs. 1b-d show increasing number of cavities or pore structure. With increase in the
concentration of H3PO4, increases the interaction between H3PO4 and tropical peat soil.
This enhances the ability of H3PO4 to hydrolyse more hemicellulose, cellulose and
lignin of the tropical peat soil creating more cavities or pore structure on the surface of
tropical peat soil during carbonization process.
215
However, tropical peat soil samples impregnated with 40 v/v % H3PO4 forma sticky,
crust material and become harden and difficult to be crushed, thus cannot be carbonized
for conversion into AC.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 1: FESEM images of (a) tropical peat soil; (b) AC prepared using tropical peat
soil activated by 10 v/v% H3PO4(AC1); (c) AC prepared using tropical peat soil
activated using 20 v/v% H3PO4(AC2) and (d) AC prepared using tropical peat soil
activated using 30 v/v% H3PO4 (AC3).
Specific surface area and type of pore
The specific surface area and type of pores structure of AC are important properties for
application selection. AC for absorbent must have high surface area for effective
chemical contaminant absorption. Table 2 summarises the specific surface area, N2
adsorption-desorption isotherm and pore type of AC. The data shows that the specific
surface area of AC increases with increase in H3PO4 concentration. The nitrogen
adsorption-desorption isotherm exhibited a combination of Type I and II indicating the
existence of micropores and mesopores structure.
Table 2: Specific surface areas, N2 adsorption-desorption isotherm and pore type

Label Specific surface N2 adsorption-
Pore type
sample area (m2/g) desorption Isotherm
AC1 1491 Type I & II Micro- and mesopores structure
216
pH and chemical property of tropical peat soil and AC prepared using tropical
peat soil
Table 3 shows the pH value of tropical peat soil and AC prepared from tropical peat
soil. The pH value of ACs decreases by increasing the concentration of H3PO4. This is
expected that with addition of high concentration of acid will reduces the pH of material
to hydrolyse more cellulosic compound in tropical peat soil.
Table 3 pH values of tropical peat soil and AC prepared using tropical peat soil
Sample pH Main FTIR peak (cm-1)
Tropical peat soil 3.50 -
AC1 2.23 ~1710
AC2 2.14 ~1710
AC3 1.98 ~1710
The main FTIR peak of AC prepared using tropical peat soil activated by various
concentration of H3PO4 are illustrated in Table 3. The main peak at around 1710 cm-1
shows the presence of stretching vibration of C=O from ketones, aldehyde, lactone, and
carboxylic groups. The presence of theses functional groupshas been reported by Puziy
et al. (2005) to indicate the surface acidity of AC. The FTIR results are in agreement
with the pH data.
CONCLUSION
The results of this study showed that tropical peat soil can be easily converted into
activated carbon, using phosphoric acid (H3PO4) as chemical activator under N2 gas
atmosphere. The pore structure and surface chemistry of the AC can be tailor made
using various concentrations of activating agents, thus suitable in wide range of
applications.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) for the financial support and
facilities and Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) for the facility in sample
collection and drying.
REFERENCES
Fernández, F., Valenciano, J., Trinidad, F. &Munóz, N. 2010. The used of activated
carbon and graphite for the development of lead-acid batteries for hybrid vehicle
applications. J. Power Sources,195: 4458-4469.
Islam, M.D. & Hashim, H. 2010. Behaviour of stabilized peat: A field study. Sci. Res.
Essay, 5: 2366-2374.
Mochida, M., Fotoohi, B., Amamo, Y. & Mercier, L. 2012. Cadmium (II) and lead
(II) adsorption onto hetero-atom functional mesoporous silica and activated carbon.
Applied Surface Sci., 258: 7389-7394.
Mutalib, A.A., Lim, J.S., Wong, M.H. & Koonvai, L. 1992. “Characterization,
distribution and utilization of peat in Malaysia, In: Aminuddin, B.Y. (Ed.),
217
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Tropical Peatland, Kuching, Serawak,
Malaysia. MARDI, Kuala Lumpur, pp.7-16.
Petrova, B., Budinova, T., Tsyntsarski, B., Kochcodan, V., Shkavro, Z. & Petrov,
N. 2010. Removal of aromatic hydrocarbons from water by activated carbon from
apricot stones. Chem. Eng. J.,165: 258-264.
Puziy A.M., Poddubnaya O.I., Martinez-Alonso A., Suarez-Garcia F. & Tascon
J.M.D. 2005. Surface chemistry of phosphorus-containing carbons of
lignocellulosic origin. Carbon, 43: 2857-2868.
Selvakumar, M., & Bhat, D.K. 2012. Microwave synthesized nanostructured TiO2
activated carbon composite electrodes for supercapacitor. Applied Surface Science.
DOI: org/10.1016/j.apsus. 2012.09.036.
Wong, M.H. 1991. “The distribution, characteristics and agricultural utilization of peat
in Sarawak”. Kuching, Malaysia: Department of Agriculture in Sarawak.
218
Assessing the Principal Components of Soil Chemical Properties
among Pyritic Soils along the Kelantan Plains, Malaysia
Enio, M.S.K., Shamshuddin, J., Fauziah C.I., Husni, M.H.A. and Malisa M.N.
E-mail: eniokang0505@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
In most years, part of the Kelantan Plains (Figure 1) in the east coast state of Peninsular
Malaysia is submerged during the monsoon months of November to January. To reduce
the effects of flooding in this area, the government of Malaysia has established the
Kemasin-Semerak Integrated Agricultural Development Project (IADP) in 1984. The
land in the flood-affected area was drained and irrigation canals were constructed; this
was to make way for agriculture, especially for rice cultivation. Some years after
development, the paddy fields in the area were mostly degraded due to the occurrence
of extreme acidity released by the oxidation of pyrite present in the soils (Shazana et
al., 2011). Oxidation of pyrite had resulted in the formation of jarosite
[KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6], appearing as yellowish mottles in the soil profiles (Shamshuddin
et al., 2004). The soils in these paddy fields not only are low in pH (<3.5), but also
contain toxic amounts of Al and/or Fe (Shamshuddin, 2006). These acid sulfate soils
are chemically degraded and therefore unsustainable for agricultural production unless
they are properly alleviated with appropriate amendments. In order to ameliorate the
soils sustainably, site specific management must be implemented. Therefore, a study
was conducted to assess the principal components of the soil chemical properties along
the plains for future agricultural management.
The area investigated is situated within the Kemasin-Semerak Integrated Agricultural

Development Project (IADP. Kemasin-Semerak IADP stretches from Bachok, the
northern part of the Kelantan Plains to Pasir Puteh at the south. We have chosen
Bachok, Jelawat-Rusa Irrigation Scheme (JRIS) and Tok Bali for this study. These three
sites were chosen based on evidence of pyrite existence, after a series of preliminary
samplings. JRIS is occupied by acid sulfate soils overlain by peaty materials. This area
is now covered by local plant species called gelam (Meluluecal eucadendron) and nipah
palm (Nipa frutescens). These plant species are known to survive well even under very
acidic condition. While in Bachok, the soil is under grass with sandy topsoils. In Tok
Bali, the pyrite presence on the surface, making it the easiest to find during the
preliminary surveys. Soil profiles were dug and described at each study site. For the
study, the pH of the soil was determined in water (1:2.5), while the electrical
conductivity (EC) was determined using saturated paste. Cation exchange capacity
(CEC) was determined using 1 M NH4OAc buffered at pH 7 (Soil Survey Laboratory
Staff, 1992). Basic cations (Ca, Mg, K and Na) present in the NH4OAc extract were
measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). Exchangeable Al was
extracted by 1 M KCl (1:5) and the Al in the extract was determined by AAS. Total
carbon (TC) was analyzed by the dry combustion method using CNS analyzer. Total N
was determined by the Kjeldahl method and available P was determined by the method
of Bray and Kurtz (1945). Soil texture was determined by sedimentation (Soil Survey
219
Laboratory Staff, 1992). To assess the controlling soil properties, principal component
analyses (PCA) was performed. Correlation between soil properties was assessed using
the Spearman rank correlation coefficient. All statistical considerations were based on
0.05 significant levels.
Figure 1: Kelantan Plains (a) and Kemasin-Semerak IADP (b)
Detailed chemical properties of the soils at selected points were carried out (Table 1).
At these locations, pyrite was found to occur at different weathering stages in the soil
profiles (Figure 2). Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed using the data
from the three sampling sites together to determine the major principal components that
are associated with the soil properties. The results of the PCA for the soil variables in
sites Bachok, JRIS and Tok Bali in this study are shown in Table 2. From the results of
the initial eigen values, the first three principal components were considered, which
accounted for 86% of the total variance. The first principal component (PC1) accounted
for 46% of the total variance, and was highly correlated with soil pH, exchangeable Al,
total N and total C (r>0.8), characterizing the soil acidity and organic matter content
for each sites. PC2 accounted for 25% of the total variance with strong correlation with
the extractable Fe, Ca and Mg (r>0.8), characterizing the nutrient content of the soils.
PC3 accounted for 12% of the total variance, and was loaded solely by the soil K
(r>0.8), characterizing the nutrient content. Figure 3 shows the correlation circle of soil
properties in all sites. From the correlation circle, we know that there is significant
negative correlation between soil pH and exchangeable Al (r=0.85), while total N is
positively correlated with CEC (r=0.82). Other variables show indirect correlation (low
r), but still contribute to the site variability. The high amount of exchangeable Al greatly
influences the low soil pH at all sites.
220
Table 1: Soil chemical properties
Avail. Total Total
Depth EC Al CEC Ext. Fe Sand Silt Clay
Sites/Horizons pH P N C
(cm) (dS/m)
(cmolc/kg) (mg/kg) (%)
Bachok
SulficEndoaquept
A 0-15 5.5 0.14 7.9 10.0 2.3 17.6 0.3 3.3 72.3 12.2 15.5
B 15-55 3.6 0.12 6.0 9.0 1.5 19.1 0.2 1.4 61.4 36.3 2.3
Bw 55-
3.9 0.10 15.7 9.5 11.3 14.2 0.1 1.3 9.5 52.1 38.4
150
Cg >150 4.2 0.08 10.2 12.4 11.9 75.1 0.2 4.2 1.0 57.4 42.1
JRIS
TypicSulfihemists
221
Oe 0-20 3.2 0.12 16.2 14.2 10.8 10.0 0.2 4.4 n.a n.a n.a
A 20-30 3.1 0.17 15.5 11.7 10.4 9.5 0.1 2.0 1.6 51.2 47.3
Bwg 30-45 3.1 0.16 13.8 9.3 8.1 10.1 0.8 0.9 4.9 58.7 36.4
Cg 45-60 3.3 0.18 15.2 17.6 9.1 10.3 0.4 4.6 n.a n.a n.a
Tok Bali
TypicSulfaquept
Ap 0-10 4.0 0.34 8.1 20.4 10.2 14.4 0.4 9.3 3.7 20.5 75.8
Bj 10-35 3.5 0.42 6.2 14.3 10 .1 14.6 0.2 5.3 4.0 21.7 74.3
Bw 35-45 3.1 0.14 15.7 20.1 10.5 17.4 0.5 13.3 0.7 25.8 73.5
Cg 45-75 2.8 0.42 32.1 10.7 10.3 17.0 0.3 15.1 n.a n.a n.a
The peat layer which is a source of high N content contributes to the CEC. Soil pH and
exchangeable Al are two the most important contributing factors for all the sites studied.
Figure 4 shows the dimensional map of Bachok, JRIS and Tok Bali according to depth.
From the dimensional map, we can see that the sites are well grouped. Site in Bachok
is significantly different from JRIS and Tok Bali in terms of all variables at all depth
level, while sites in JRIS and Tok Bali show similar trend and tabulation according to
depth.
(A)
(B)
(C)
Figure 2: SEM-EDX images of pyrite crystals taken from Bachok (A), JRIS (B) and
Tok Bali (C) respectively
Table 2: Variance of soil properties and correlation matrix of the PCA for soil chemical
properties
PC1 PC2 PC3
Eigenvalue 5.06 2.76 1.34
Variability (%) 46.01 25.09 12.14
Cumulative % 46.01 71.10 83.24
pH -0.93 -0.06 -0.19
EC (dS/m) 0.93 0.14 -0.25
Exc.Al 0.92 -0.02 -0.16
Extract.Fe 0.35 0.81 -0.06
P -0.29 0.48 -0.16
CEC 0.81 -0.41 0.33
K -0.12 -0.21 0.90
Ca 0.15 0.86 0.32
Mg 0.46 0.81 0.14
Total N 0.72 -0.37 -0.30
Total C 0.91 -0.26 0.13
The numbers in bold indicate definite assignation to respective component
222
Figure 3: Correlation circle of soil chemical properties
Figure 4: Dimensional map of sites in Bachok (A), JRIS (B) and Tok Bali (C)
according to depth
CONCLUSION
Acid sulfate soils occurring along the Kelantan Plains were uniquely formed when the
sea level was higher than the present some 6,000 BP. Pyritic sediments were found to
be sporadically distributed in the plains; these are the areas where acid sulfate soils
occur. These pyrite-bearing sediments are well distinguished between each other based
on their properties anddepth below soil surface. The oxidation of pyrite leads to the
production of high acidity and the presence of extremely high amount of Al and Fe in
the soils. The peaty materials in the soils contribute to the apparently high total N and
C. Based on PCA, the principal components belong to soil acidity and organic matter
content. The other factor is the nutrient content, contributed by Ca, Mg and K. Due to
severe acidity and the presence of high Al and Fe the productivity of the soils in the
area is low. In future, studies should be conducted to ameliorate the soils in the Kelantan
Plains for sustainable crop production.
223
REFERENCES
Bray, R.H. & Kurtz, L.T. 1945. Determination of total, organic and available forms
of phosphorus in soils. Soil Science. 59(1), 39-46.
Shamshuddin, J. (2006). Acid Sulfate Soil in Malaysia (p. 127). Serdang: UPM Press.
Shamshuddin, J., Muhrizal, S., Fauziah, I. & Van Ranst, E. 2004a. A laboratory
study of pyrite oxidation in acid sulfate soils. Communication in Soil Science and
Plant Analyses, 35: 117-129.
Shazana, M.A.R.S. 2012.Alleviating the infertility of acid sulfate soils for growing
rice using basalt and/or organic fertilizer. MS thesis, Universiti Putra Malaysia
(unpublished)
Soil Survey Laboratory Staff. (1992). Soil survey Laboratory Methods Manual, Soil
Survey Investigation Report No. 42. Washington DC: United States Department of
Agriculture.
224
Mycorrhiza, Plate's Avain Fertilizer and Calcium Application Effects
on the Yield and Quality of Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) Fruit
Ziaeyan, A.H.1 and Ghorbani, M.2
1
Department of Soil Science, Darab Branch, Islamic Azad University, Darab, Iran
2
Soil Science graduated from Department of Soil Science, Darab Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Darab, Iran
E-mail: ziaeyan_39@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
Calcium is an essential element affecting fruit quality. Fruits with enough calcium have
greater capability to transport and warehousing (Lester et al., 2006 and Atri et al.,
2008). Despite of calcareous soils of the country, calcium deficiency is observed in
horticultural crops of Iran. Drying of soils and the lack of sufficient moisture in
summers caused plants transpiration and the flow of materials in xylem, particularly
calcium, be minimized. In such circumstances, the transfer of calcium from the leaves
to the fruit is gradually resulting in symptoms of calcium deficiency in the fruit
appeared (Khoshgoftarmanesh, 2007). Mycorrhizal symbiosis due to increasing of
water and nutrients uptake, as well as increasing of photosynthesis activities, increases
plant biomass (Toussaint et al., 2007; Smith and Read, 2008). Plants with mycorrhizal
symbiosis have better growth and higher yield and show greater resistance to stresses
(Song, 2005). Manure and or compost can provide nutrients for plants and can improve
soil organic matter and soil health (Baldi et al., 2010). Amiri and Fallahi (2009)
reported that by use of manure in apple, yield and average fruit weight significantly
increased. There were little information on pomegranate nutrition. In order to study the
main and combined effects of calcium foliar application, mycorrhiza and manure
application on the yield and quality of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) fruit, this
research was conducted in Darab city at Fars province of Iran.
In order to achieve the desired goals, in 2014, an experiment were conducted on

pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) fruits (Hoseinaghaei cultivar) as factorial in a
randomized completely block design with 12 treatments in three replicates.
Experimental factors were included combinations of two levels of 0 and 500 g.tree-1
mycorrhiza fungus (Glomuss mosea) (M0 and M500, respectively), soil application of
0, 10 and 20 kg tree-1 manure (from sheepish source) (D0, D10 and D20, respectively)
and two treatments of without foliar spray and foliar spray of calcium chloride with
0.5% concentration (Ca0 and Ca1, respectively). Treatments were carried out on two
ten-year-old pomegranate trees with almost uniform growing conditions. Mycorrhizae
and manure were applied before flowering and calcium were sprayed before and after
flowering. Other required fertilizers were calculated based on soil test results. The
measured traits were including yield per tree, contents of pH, brix, carbohydrates and
phenolic acids (sinapic acid, gallic acid, catechin, rutin and ascorbic acid) in the
pomegranate fruits. All the obtained data after analysis of variance by SAS software,
were compared through Duncan test.
225
Chemical properties of the soil
The obtained data (Table 1) showed that the garden soil were sandy loam with very low
salinity and their amounts of copper and manganese were low.
Table 1: Selected physical and chemical characteristics of the garden soils samples
Ec P Ca Fe Zn Mn Cu Sand Silt Clay
pH
(dS m-1) mg kg -1 % % %
3.61 7.45 15 115 5.1 0.84 0.83 0.47 49.28 36.68 14.04
Effects of treatments on some pomegranate parameters
The results showed that main effects of different treatments on the decreasing of
pomegranate juice acidity were significant. Mycorrhiza application, except sinapic
acid, significantly (p<0.01) increased the others studied properties. Foliar applications
of calcium chloride, except the amount of carbohydrates, had a significant effects
(p<0.01) on the other studied properties, such as polyphenols. The manure application
significantly increased all of studied properties. The combined application of
mycorrhiza, manure and calcium, with the exception of fruit weight and juice acidity
had a significant effect (p<0.01) on other traits.
Table 2: The main effects of different treatments on some properties of pomegranate

fruit
Tree Sinapic Gallic Ascorbic
Treat Carbohydrate Catechin Rutin
yield Fruit pH Brix acid acid acid
ments mL-1
kg tree-1 mg L-1
M0 18.7b 3.59a 12.0b 86.9b 14.7a 4.8b 44.5b 13.9b 18.1b
M1 21.3a 3.44b 14.7a 103.2a 14.8a 6.2a 53.7a 16.7a 24.0a
Ca0 19.1b 3.65a 12.1b 91.2a 12.1b 5.3b 47.9a 14.4b 20.5a
Ca1 21.1a 3.38b 14.3a 98.9a 17.0a 5.7a 50.3a 16.2a 21.52a
P0 19.1b 3.60a 12.7c 84.1b 13.3c 4.4b 46.5b 14.7c 17.3b
P1 20.0a 3.52ab 12.9b 92.0b 15.1b 5.8a 49.2b 15.5b 20.3b
P2 20.9a 3.42b 13.8a 109.1a 16.0a 6.3a 51.6a 17.8a 25.5a
*Means followed by the same letters at each column are not significantly differentns at the level p<0.05
Phenolic compounds play an important role in the chemical defenses of plants against
microbes. A little research has been done about the mycorrhizal fungi effects on the
production of phenolic compounds. According to Larose et al. (2002) and Toussaint et
al. (2007) mycorrhizal plants compared to non-mycorrhizal plants have much higher
phenol. There is a lot of evidence showing that the use of mycorrhizae, due to increases
of water and nutrients uptake, and also due to increases of photosynthetic activity, plant
dry matter can increased (Leonel and Tecchio, 2009; Lester et al., 2006). Turk et al.
(2006) and Smith and Read (2008) reported that symbiosis between mycorrhizae with
host plants, by the impact on the various aspects of plant physiology and biochemistry,
caused plants growth improved. Manure and or compost can provided nutrients for
plants and can improved soil organic matter and soil health (Baldi et al., 2010). Amiri
and Fallahi (2009) also reported that the by using of manure in apple, yield and average
fruit weight significantly increased. Kazemi et al. (2013) reported mineral elements,
especially calcium are the most important factors affecting quality of Kiwi fruits so that
226
spraying calcium could increase the amount of calcium in Kiwi and consequently
increase the storage life of fruits.
CONCLUSION
The results showed that application of mycorrhiza, manure and calcium spraying in
pomegranates are effective in its quantity and quality. The highest yield (24.04 kg tree-
1
), the highest average weight of 5 fruits, the lowest juice pH and highest phenolic acids
(sinapic acid, gallic acid, catechin, rutin and ascorbic acid) in the fruits were obtained
from combined application of 500 g tree-1 mycorrhiza, 500 g tree-1 of manure and
calcium chloride spray which in compared with the control treatment showed 42.6%
increase in yield.
REFERENCES
Amiri, M.E. & Fallahi, E. 2009. Impact of animal manure on soil chemistry, mineral
nutrients, yield, and fruit quality in ‘Golden Delicious’ apple. Journal of Plant
Nutrition, 32: 610-617.
Atri, M., Gholami, M. & Karami, F. 2008. The effects of calcium chloride foliar
application on shelf life of strawberry cv. ' Kurdistan '. Agriculture Research, Water,
Soil and Plant in Agriculture, 8(1): 47-55.
Baldi, E., Toselli, M. & Marangoni, B. 2010. Nutrient partitioning in potted peach
(Prunus persica L.) trees supplied with mineral and organic fertilizers. Journal of
Plant Nutrition, 33: 2050-2061.
Kazemi, M., Aran, M. & Zamani, S. 2011. Effect of Calcium Chloride and salicylic
acid treatment on quality characteristics of Kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa cv.
Hayward) during storage. American Journal of Plant Physiology, 6(3):183-189.
Khoshgoftarmanesh, A.H. 2007. Principles of plant nutrition. Isfahan University
Press. 462p. (In Persian).
Larose, G., Chenevert, R., Moutoglis, P., Gagne, S., Piche, Y. & Vierheilig, H.
2002. Flavonoid levels in roots of Medicago sativa are modulated by the
developmental stage of the symbiosis and the root colonizing arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungus. Journal of Plant Physiology, 159:1329–1339.
Leonel, S. & Tecchio, M.A. 2009. Cattle manure fertilization increases fig yield.
Science Agriculture, 66(6): 806-811.
Lester, G.E., Chiffon, J.L. & Max, D.J. 2006. Supplemental foliar potassium
applications with or without a surfactant can enhance netted muskmelon quality.
Horticulture Science, 41:741-744.
Smith, S. E. & Read, D. J. 2008. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. Third Edition. Academic
Press, London, U.K. 804 p.
Song, H. 2005. Effects of VAM on host plant in the condition of drought stress and its
mechanisms. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 1: 44-48.
Toussaint, J.P, Smith, F.A. & Smith, S.E. 2007. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can
induce the production of phytochemicals in sweet basil irrespective of phosphorus
nutrition. Mycorrhiza, 17: 291–297.
Turk, M.A., Assaf, T.A., Hameed, K.M. & Al-Tawaha, A.M. 2006. Significance of
mycorrhizae. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 2(1): 16-20.
227
Effects of Biochar and Phosphorus Fertilization on the Spinacia
oleraces Growth in a Calcareous Soil
Ziaeyan, A.H., Choopani, R. and Khorsandi, F.
1
2
Soil Science graduated from Department of Soil Science, Darab Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Darab, Iran
3
INTRODUCTION
Phosphorous is one of the most essential elements in plant nutrition. The results of
various studies has showed that phosphorous concentration in plant is variable during
different growth stages, and its concentration depends on various factors, most
importantly concentration of available phosphorous in soil (Ziadi et al., 2008). The
most Iranian soils are calcareous. In calcareous soils, due to high pH and high
concentrations of calcium carbonate, phosphorous precipitates rapidly and becomes
unavailable to plants. Therefore, appropriate phosphorous fertilizer management in
calcareous soils of arid regions is important for crop production. Biochar is a solid,
carbon rich material made by chemical-thermal conversion of biomass in an
environment with shortage or absence of oxygen (IBI, 2012). Research has shown that
adding biochar to the soil increases the soil fertility and agricultural productivity
significantly (Chan et al., 2008; Joseph and Lehmann, 2009; Rondon et al., 2007). In
addition, biochar has been shown to affect soil chemical properties (Amonette and
Joseph, 2009; Beesley et al., 2010; Uchimyia et al., 2010). Biochar application
significantly increased pH and soil available phosphorous concentration to lettuce
(Nigussie et al., 2012). Several studies has shown that phosphorous uptake significantly
increases by application of biochar (Nigussie et al., 2012; Streubel, 2011). Therefore,
it is possible that biochar application in calcareous soils may increase the availability
of phosphorous to plants. Considering the importance of phosphorous fertilizer
management in calcareous soils in arid regions, the main objective of this study is to
investigate the usefulness of biochar application on availability of phosphorous and
phosphorous use efficiency and spinach growth in a calcareous soil from Iran.
An open-air, pot experiment was conducted during early spring of 2014, in city of
Darab, Iran. The experimental design was complete randomized, with two treatments
and three replications. The treatments consisted of three levels of phosphorous (P2O5)
from triple superphosphate fertilizer (0, 50 and 100 kg ha-1) and three levels of biochar
(0, 1 and 3% by weight). The plant under study was spinach (Spinacia oleraces). The
soil used in this research was Sandy loam, which a pH of 7.6 and salinity (ECe) of 0.5
dS/m. Phosphorous (P) content of the soil was 5.1 mg kg-1, which is considered P
deficient for spinach. The biochar used was citrus wood charcoal, which was ground
into powder. The specific amounts of biochar and phosphorous for each treatment was
added to pots with 4 kg of soil. All pots received urea (250 kg ha-1), zinc sulfate (50 kg
ha-1) and copper sulfate (50 kg ha-1).Ten spinach seeds were planted in each pot at the
depth of 2 cm. Two weeks later the seedlings were thinned to 3 plants per pot and were
harvested 75 days after start of the experiment. After harvesting, fresh and dry weights
228
of spinach, phosphorous concentration in spinach (Chapman and Pratt, 1982) and soil
available phosphorus content, phosphorous uptake and phosphorous use efficiency
(PUE) of all treatments were measured. The data were statistically analyzed by SAS
statistical software. The comparisons between treatments were performed by Duncan's
multiple range test (DMRT) at 5% probability level.
Soil available phosphorous
The lowest available P was observed in control treatment, which was significantly
lower than all other treatments. The highest plant available P was in 50 kg.ha-1 P
fertilizer plus 3% biochar treatment, but it was significantly higher only than control
and 1% biochar (no P fertilizer) treatments, and did not have significant differences
with the rest of the treatments (Table 1).
Table 1: Selected properties of the biochar used in the experiment

Biochar Ash Moisture OC Phosphorous Ec CEC
pH
properties (%) (%) (%) (mg kg-1) (ds m-1) (cmol kg-1)
Amount 10.00 4.25 88.79 21.4 10.41 18.47 12.84
Spinach dry yield
The effects of biochar and P fertilization treatments on spinach dry matter yield were
variable. When no biochar was used, both 50 and 100 kg ha-1 P fertilizer applications
significantly increased DM but there were no significant differences between the two P
fertilizer treatments. At 1% biochar level, DM significantly increased only in 100 kg
ha-1 P fertilizer treatment, while at 3% biochar level, there was no significant
differences in DM of any P fertilizer treatments. When no P was used, 1 and 3% biochar
application increased DM by 78.8 and 230.3%, respectively, but the increase was
significant only at 3% biochar treatment, and there were no significant differences
between 1 and 3% biochar levels. At 50 kg ha-1 P treatment, 1 and 3% biochar
application reduced DM as compared to no biochar application, which was significant
at 1% biochar level. However, at 100 kg ha-1 P fertilizer application, both biochar levels
significantly increased DM as compared to 100 kg ha-1 P with no biochar application.
Considering the results it seems that under the conditions of this experiment, 50 kg ha-
1
P fertilizer is recommendable for spinach. The results showed that spinach DM of no
P fertilizer + 3% biochar application was not significantly different than 50 and 100 kg
ha-1 P fertilizer application (both without biochar). In addition, spinach DM in no P
fertilizer + 1% biochar application was not significantly different than 100 kg ha-1 P
fertilizer treatment (without biochar). Therefore, it seems that in soils with P deficiency,
as was the case with our soil, 1 and 3% biochar application can significantly increase
spinach DM and reduced P fertilizer application (Table 2).
Phosphorous uptake
Effects of P and biochar applications on phosphorous uptake were similar to their

effects on spinach DM yield. P uptake increased significantly by P fertilizer application
at all levels of biochar. The highest P uptakes were in 100 kg ha-1 P fertilizer + 1 or 3%
biochar application, which were significantly higher than all other treatments, but were
229
not significantly different than each other. In control treatment (no P fertilizer), 1 and
3% biochar application increased P uptake significantly by 90 and 596%, respectively.
At 50 kg ha-1 P fertilizer, biochar application reduced P uptake, which was significant
at 1% biochar level. However, at 100 kg ha-1 P fertilizer level, both 1 and 3% biochar
levels increased P uptake significantly as compared to all other treatments. P uptake in
3% biochar application treatment (no P fertilizer) was not significantly different than
50 and 100 kg ha-1 P fertilizer treatments (without biochar) (Table 2).
Soil available phosphorous
Available P in soil is representative of the amount of P available for plant uptake. The
lowest available P was observed in control treatment, which was significantly lower
than all other treatments. The highest plant available P was in 50 kg ha-1 P fertilizer
plus 3% biochar treatment, but it was significantly higher only than control and 1%
biochar (no P fertilizer) treatments, and did not have significant differences with the
rest of the treatments (Table 2).
Phosphorous use efficiency
The results showed that when no biochar was used, phosphorous use efficiency (PUE)
of spinach decreased significantly by increasing P fertilizer rate from 50 to 100 kg ha-
1
. At 1 and 3% biochar application rates, there were no significant differences in PUE
of 50 and 100 kg ha-1 P fertilizer rates. Therefore, under the conditions of this
experiment, utilization of biochar caused PUE improvement in 100 kg ha-1 P fertilizer
applications, and prevented significant reduction of PUE as compared to the 50 kg ha-1
P fertilizer treatment. The highest PUE was observed at 50 kg ha-1 P fertilizer
application + no biochar treatment, which was significantly higher than all other
treatments (Table 2).
Table 2: Interactive effects of P fertilizer and biochar on the studied parameters

Phosphorous Biochar Spinach dry Phosphorous Soil available Phosphorous
levels levels yield uptake phosphorous Use
(kg ha-1) (%) (g pot-1) (mg pot-1) (ppm) Efficiency
0 3.5d 2.1e 5.5c -
0 1 6.0de 3.0de 10.b -
3 11.3bc 12.0bc 11.8ab -
0 14.0ab 17.0ab 14.0ab 4.5a
50 1 7.8cd 8.1cde 14.2ab 2.3b
3 10.0bc 12.54bc 18.0a 3.3b
0 7.8cd 10.1bcd 16.2ab 1.2c
100 1 18.0a 23.0a 15.5ab 2.9b
3 14.1ab 23.0a 15.5ab 2.3b
*Columns with a letter in common are not significantly different according to DMRT
at 5% probability level.
CONCLUSION
Based on the results, it seems that biochar application in soils that have not received P
fertilizer and have P deficiency can significantly increase soil available phosphorous
levels. In addition, in the above mentioned soil conditions, 1 and 3% biochar application
rates can increase spinach dry weight significantly, and thus, reduce the need for P
230
fertilizer application. Biochar application also improved P uptake by spinach plants.
Phosphorous fertilizer use efficiency (PUE) at 100 kg ha-1 was significantly lower than
50 kg ha-1 P fertilizer rate. Under the conditions of this experiment, 50 kg ha-1 P seems
to be the sufficiency level for spinach and is recommended.
REFERENCES
Amonette, J.E. & Joseph, S. 2009. Characteristics of Biochar: Microchemical

Properties. In: Lehmann, J. and S. Joseph (eds.): Biochar for Environmental
Management Science and Technology. Earthscan, London. 33–43 pp.
Beesley, L., Moreno-Jiménez, E. & Gomez-Eyles, J.L. 2010. Effects of biochar and
greenwaste compost amendments on mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of
inorganic and organic contaminants in a multi-element polluted soil. Environ.
Pollution, 158: 2282–2287.
Chan, C.H., Lehmann, J. & Engelhard, M. 2008. Natural oxidation of black carbon
in soils: changes in molecular form and surface charge along a climosequence.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 72: 1598-1610.
Chapman, H.D. & Pratt, P.F. 1982. Methods of Analysis for Soils, Plants and Water.
Chapman Publisher, Riverside, CA.
International Biochar Initiative (IBI). 2012. Standardized Product Definition and
Product Testing Guidelines for Biochar That Is Used in Soil. Document Reference
Code: IBI-STD-01, IBI.
Joseph, S. & Lehmann, J., 2009. Biochar for environmental management: science
and technology (No. 631.422 B615bi). London, GB: Earthscan.
Nigussie, A., Kissi E.K., Misganaw, M. & Ambaw, G. 2012. Effect of biochar
application on soil properties and nutrient uptake of lettuces (Lactuca sativa) grown
in chromium polluted soils. Am. Eurasian J. Agric. Environ. Sci., 12(3): 369-376.
Rondon, M., Lehmann, J., Ramírez, J. & Hurtado, M. 2007. Biological nitrogen
fixation by common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) increases with bio-char additions.
Biol. Fert. Soil, 43: 699-708.
Streubel, J.D. 2011. Biochar: Its characterization and utility for recovering phosphorus
from anaerobic digested dairy effluent. Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington State
University.
Uchimyia, M., Lima, I.M., Klasson, K.T. & Wartelle, L.H. 2010. Contaminant
immobilization and release by biochar soil amendment: roles of natural organic
matter. Chemosphere, 80: 935–940.
Ziadi, N., Blanger, G., Cambouris, A.N., Tremblog, N., Nolin, M.C. & Claessense,
A. 2008. Relationship between phosphorous and nitrogen concentration in spring
wheat. Agron. J., 100(1): 80-86.
231
Combined Effects of Mycorrhizal Fungi, Organic Fertilizers and
Potassium Application on the Yield and Chemical Composition of
Pomegranate Leaves
Ziaeyan, A.H., Moradi, A., Karami, A., Zareian, Gh.R. and Moghimi, A.
Research Center, AREEO, Shiraz, Iran
INTRODUCTION
Iran is the world's largest producer of pomegranate (Vazifah Shenas, 2014). Potassium
is an essential element in pomegranate nutrition. Mirdehghan and Rahemi (2007)
reported that potassium increases the photosynthesis, increase the transfer of
carbohydrates from the leaves to the phloem, accelerating the transfer of the vessels and
accelerate the carbohydrates transition to the fruit. According to Tehranifar and
Mahmoodi Tabar (2009) potassium by increase photosynthesis intensity and speed up
the handling of materials from leaves to storage tissue, cause yield and fruit quality of
plants increases. Mahmoud and Hafez (2010) reported the use of 250 kg ha-1 potassium
and 2 kg ha-1 humic acids in potato can increases tubers weight. There is a lot of
evidence showing that the use of mycorrhizae, due to increases uptake of water and
nutrients and also due to increases photosynthetic activity, increases plant dry matter
(Leonel and Tecchio, 2009; Lester et al., 2006). Plants with mycorrhizal symbiosis, has
better growth and higher yield and show greater resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses
(Daneshian et al., 2010). Sharma (2002) reported that mycorrhiza has symbiotic
relationship with the roots of plants and by increasing of water and nutrients uptake and
increasing of resistance to pathogens and by reducing of negative impact of
environmental stress, improve growth and increases host plants. Manure and or
compost can provide nutrients for plants and can improve soil organic matter and soil
health (Baladi et al., 2010). Amiri and Fallahi (2009) reported that the use of manure
in apple, yield and average fruit weight significantly increased. There is little
information on pomegranate nutrition. In order to study the effects of mycorrhiza,
potassium and manure application on the yield and chemical composition of the
pomegranate leaves, this research was conducted in Darab city at Fars province of Iran.
In order to achieve the desired goals, in 2014, an experiment was conducted on

pomegranate (Punica granatum L.), Hoseinaghaei cultivar. The experimental design
was a randomized complete block arranged as factorial with three factors and three
replicates. Experimental factors were: soil application of 0 and 500 g tree-1 mycorrhiza
fungus (Glomuss mosea) (M0 and M500, respectively), soil application of 0, 10 and 20
kg tree-1 manure (from sheepish source) (D0, D10 and D20, respectively) and soil
application of 0 and 500 g tree-1 potassium sulfate (K0 and K500, respectively). Each
experimental plot included two 10 years old pomegranate trees with almost uniform
growing conditions Mycorrhizae and manure were applied before flowering and
potassium were applied before and after flowering. Other required fertilizers were
calculated based on soil test results. All field operations were based on research
findings. At optimum time, leaves samples collected from all treatments and analyzed
(Emami, 1996). At harvest time, the yield per tree, fruit weight, fruit yield, grain to skin
232
weight ratio were measured. All the obtained data, after analysis of variance by SAS
software, were compared by Duncan test.
Chemical properties of the soils
The obtained data (Table 1) showed that the garden soil were sandy loam and their
amounts of phosphorous, potassium, zinc, iron and manganese were low.
Table 1: Selected physical and chemical characteristics of the studied garden soils
Ec P K Fe Zn Mn Cu Sand Silt Clay
pH
(dS m-1) (mg kg-1) (%) (%) (%)
3.28 7.7 7 130 5.0 0.5 1.7 1.18 58.2 30.7 12.1
Main effect of treatments on some pomegranate parameters
The results showed that the main effects of mycorrhiza on the tree yield, fruit and skin
weight and kernel weight were significant. The main effects of potassium were
significant on the tree yield, skin weight and skin-to-kernel ratio. Manure application
also had significant effects on the all studied parameters. Mycorrhiza inoculation and
potassium and manure application also had a significant effects (p>0.01) on the
concentration of potassium, phosphorous, copper, manganese in leaves.
Table 2: The main effects of different treatments on the some pomegranate parameters
Tree Fruit Skin Kernel Skin/

P K Fe Cu Mn Zn
Treatments yield weight weight weight kernel
(kg)
g % µg g-1
M0 27.84b 1325b 438b 850b 0.54a 51.3b 22.9b 19.73b 140a 0.21b 2.0b
M500 36.83a 1553a 537a 1105a 0.55a 55.3a 27.9a 19.87a 142a 0.23a 2.3a
K0 30.87b 1410a 441b 968a 0.49b 50.4b 24.1b 19.78b 133b 0.21b 2.0b
K500 33.80a 1470a 535a 987a 0.59a 56.3a 26.7a 19.82a 148a 0.22a 2.2a
D0 24.97b 1328b 567a 909a 0.63a 48.3c 23.8b 19.60c 130b 0.21b 2.0b
D1 34.31a 1446ab 451b 956a 0.55ab 51.2b 25.0b 19.88b 140ab 0.21b 2.0b
D20 37.73a 1543a 445b 1068a 0.44b 60.5a 27.4a 19.93a 152a 0.23a 2.3a
*Means followed by the same letters at each column are not significantly different at the level p<0.05
Combined effect of treatments on some pomegranate parameters
The results showed that the combined effects of mycorrhiza, potassium and manure
application on the tree yield, skin weight and kernel weight and on the potassium,
phosphorous, iron, copper, manganese and zinc concentration in leaves were
significant. The highest average weight of 5 fruits, the highest fruits weight and the
lowest skin-to-kernel weight ratio were obtained from combined application of 500 g
mycorrhizal, 20 kg of manure and 500 g of K2O. Combined use of mycorrhizae,
potassium and manure had a significant effect on the concentration of nutrients in
pomegranate leaves. The highest concentration of potassium and phosphorus and the
highest concentration of iron, copper, manganese and zinc were obtain from combined
233
use of 500 g of mycorrhiza, 500 g K2O and 20 kg of manure (sheep) per each tree.
Diope et al. (2003) reported that the most nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen,
potassium, copper, sulfur, calcium and iron absorbed by mycorrhizal system and
transferred to the plant. The mechanism of absorption is by increasing the volume of
soil available by the hyphae of fungi. Potassium also increases the photosynthesis,
increases the transfer of carbohydrates from the leaves to the phloem, xylem speed
transmission and transfers them to the fruit and ultimately increases performance (Lin
et al., 2001; Lester et al., 2010). Baladi et al. (2010) also reported that application of
manure or compost increases soil organic matter and soil physical health and can
provide some of the nutrients required for plant growth and cause increases yield.
CONCLUSION
In general, the results showed that application of mycorrhiza, especially in the presence
of organic fertilizers can help to production increases and improve pomegranate quality.
The use of potassium based on soil test can also be effective in this way. In this research
pomegranate yield increased through the use of mycorrhiza, potassium and manure.
The highest yield of fruit (44 kg per tree) were obtained from combined application of
500 g mycorrhiza, 10 kg of manure and 500 g of K2O which compared with the control
treatment showed 127% increase in yield. This finding can be recommended for similar
conditions.
REFERENCES
Amiri, M.E. & Fallahi, E. 2009. Impact of animal manure on soil chemistry, mineral
nutrients, yield, and fruit quality in ‘Golden Delicious’ apple. Journal of Plant
Nutrition, 32: 610-617.
Baladi, E., Toselli, M. & Marangoni, B. 2010. Nutrient partitioning in potted peach
(Prunus persica L.) trees supplied with mineral and organic fertilizers. Journal of
Plant Nutrition, 33: 2050-2061.
Daneshian, J., Yousefi, M. & Alimohammadi, M. 2010. The effect of mycorrhizal
and manure on the paper pumpkin fruit yield under water stress conditions. Eco
physiology of Crops, 2(3): 136-146. (In Persian with English abstract)
Diope, T.A., Krasova-wade, T., Diallo, A., Diouf, M. & Gueye, M. 2003. Solanum
cultivar responses to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: growth and mineral status.
African Journal of Biotechnology, 2(11): 429-433.
Emami, A. 1996. Methods of Plant Analysis. Technical Publication No. 182. Soil and
Water Research Institute, Tehran, Iran. (In Persian).
Leonel, S. & Tecchio, M.A. 2009. Cattle manure fertilization increases fig yield.
Science Agriculture, 66(6): 806-811.
Lester, G.E., Jifon, J.L. & Makus, D.J. 2006. Supplemental foliar potassium
applications with or without a surfactant can enhance netted muskmelon quality.
Horticulture Science, 41:741-744.
Lester, G.E., Jifon, J.L & Makus, DJ. 2010. Impact of potassium nutrition on
postharvest fruit quality: melon (Cucumis melo L.) Case study. Plant Soil, 335: 117-
131.
Lin, D., Huang, D. & Wang, S., 2004. Effects of potassium levels on fruit quality of
muskmelon in soilless medium culture. Scientia horticulturae, 102(1): 53-60.
234
Mahmoud, A. R. & Hafez, M. M. 2010. Increasing productivity of potato plants
(Solanum tuberosum L.) by using potassium fertilizer and humic acid application.
International Journal Academic Research, 2: 83-88.
Mirdehghan, S.H. & Rahemi, M. 2006. Changes in physic-chemical attributes of
pomegranate during fruit growth and development. Indian Journal of Horticulture,
63(2): 122-125.
Sharma, A. K. 2002. Biofertilizers for sustainable agriculture. Agrobios, India. 407
pp.
Tehranifar, A. & Mahmoodi, T.S. 2009. Foliar application of potassium and boron
during pomegranate (Punica granatum) fruit development can improve fruit quality.
Horticulture Environment Biotechnology, 50:191-196.
Vazifah, S.M.R. 2014. Final Reports: Registration and identification of commercial
varieties of pomegranates in country. Seed and Plant Improvement Research
Institute, Karaj, Iran (In Persian with English abstract).
235
Evapotranspiration Measurement for Canola in Hormozgan Province
of Iran
Moradi, A., Ziaeian, A.H., Karami, A., Zareian, Gh.R. and Moghimi, A.B.
Soil and water research department, Fars Agricultural and Natural Resources Research
and Education Center, AREEO, Shiraz, Iran
E-mail: moradi1373@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Almost 90% of edible oil needed by Iranians is imported (Mousavizadeh et al., 2016)
and hence, the Cultivation of canola has gain special attention by the government to
overcome the edible oil shortage. Consequently, canola’s planted area is increasing
rapidly in most parts of Iran. Nonetheless, like any other crop, the production of canola
in each area depends mainly on water availability to respond the canola’s
evapotranspiration. Canola’s evapotranspiration data is needed in many irrigation
projects such as irrigation scheduling, planning of water resources and establishing
water rights. The evapotranspiration from canola in turn, depends on climatic
conditions and crop characteristics which would not only vary during growth season
but also change over locations. For instance, in Southern Alberta, it has shown that
canola requires 400-480 mm of water per growing season for optimal growth (Alberta
Agriculture and Forestry, 2016). Canola needs about 495 mm of water during its growth
season. Istanbulluoglu et al. (2010) reported that canola requires 715 mm of water for
optimal growth in Turkey. Seasonal evapotranspiration for canola in Iran was also
reported to be 716 mm in Zarghan (Niyazi and Fuladvand, 2007), 578 mm in Isphahan
(Haghighat, 2003), 557 mm in Zanjan (Esmaeeli et al., 2002) and 675 mm in Karaj
(Zarei et al., 2010). Although canola’s evapotranspiration has been determined in
different parts of Iran, there is no single study so far that determine evapotranspiration
of canola in Hormozgan province and hence, the lack of evapotranspiration data in
Hormozgan, not only restricts precise planning of irrigation projects but also caused
that the local growers do not know how much water to apply at each irrigation during
growth period of canola. Therefore, the objective of this research was to determine
water requirement (evapotranspiration) of canola during growing period in Haji Abad
region of Hormozgan province.
A two-year experiment was carried out in the research station for agriculture of Haji
Abad located at 165 km north from Bandar Abbas, Iran (27.22˚ N and 56. 27˚ E). In the
first year, a drainable lysimeter (3×3×1.9 m) was installed in the center of a 4 ha field
and left for one year so that the soil physical conditions inside the lysimeter become
nearly the same as that for surrounding field. In the next year, canola (Brassica napus
L., Hayula-401 var.) was sown inside the lysimeter and in the surrounding field.
Agricultural practices inside the lysimeter were the same as those in the surrounding
area. Evapotranspiration (ET) from canola was calculated using the following equation
(Jensen et al., 1990) for weekly periods.
(𝐼 + 𝑃 − 𝐷 + ∑𝑛1(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )∆𝑆𝑖
𝐸𝑇 =
∆𝑡
236
Where;
I = Irrigation
P = Precipitation
D = Deep percolation (mm)
n = Number of soil layers
𝜃1 = Volumetric soil water content at the beginning of each weekly period
𝜃2 = Volumetric soil water content at the end of each weekly period
∆𝑆𝑖 = Thickness of each soil layer (mm)
∆𝑡 = Time interval
The P was measured using a rain gage installed in the weather station located at the
research site, and D was determined based on the volume of drained water measured in
the basement of the lysimeter. Soil water content inside the lysimeter to a depth of 1.5
m and in 0.3 m increments was measured weekly and in the top 0.4 m soil depth twice
a week by gravimetric method every 3 days and before each irrigation event. The crop
was irrigated when 40 (±5) % of the soil available water content (AWC) at the active
root zone (0 - 0.4 m) was depleted. In each irrigation event, the soil water content was
increased to the field capacity and the amount of water applied was measured by a flow
meter. Weather data including: Maximum and minimum air temperatures, relative
humidity, sunshine hours, and wind velocity at 2 m elevation were measured every day
in the weather station located at the experiment site.
Evapotranspiration from canola over growing period is shown in Figure 1.

Evapotranspiration measured for canola decreased to a minimum value of 1.77 mm day-
1
at week 5 after planting and then increased to a peak value of 4.67 mm day-1 at week
21 of the growing period and again decreased.
6.0
4.5
ET (mm day-1)
3.0
1.5
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Week
Figure 1: Changes in evapotranspiration of canola during growth period
Reduction in canola’s evapotranspiration between week 2 and week 5, in spite of its

increased canopy was due to decrease in net radiation reached to the plant and soil
surfaces and air temperature (Figure 2). The increased evapotranspiration from week
237
5 to week 21 was mostly due to the increased crop canopy, radiation and air temperature
over time during crop growing period. Fluctuations in crop evapotranspiration within
week 13 to week 21 can be attributed to the combined effects of changes in weather
parameters during this period (Figure 2). As soon as the crop matured, its
evapotranspiration decreased (week 21-23) in response to the senescence of crop leaves
which limit evapotranspiration rather than the ET increase due to the raise in radiation
and air temperature. Seasonal evapotranspiration for canola was about 482 mm, of
which 277 mm was supplied by precipitation and the remain via irrigation.
Figure 2: Changes in weather parameters over growth season of canola
CONCLUSION
This research showed that canola needs about 482 mm of water during its growing
season for optimum growth in Hormozgan province and the areas having the same
climatic conditions. Moreover, weekly evapotranspiration from canola changes from
1.77 to 4.67 mm day-1 over growing period which should be considered in irrigation
scheduling of canola for efficient use of water in the arid region of Hormozan.
REFERENCES
Alberta Agriculture & Forestry. 2016. Irrigation Scheduling for Canola in Southern
Alberta. www. agriculture.alberta.ca )Accessed on 15 Aug 2016 (.
Esmaeeli, M., Golchin, A. & Daneshi, N. 2002. Effects of deficit irrigation on grain
yield of canola in Zanjan province. Proceedings of the 7 th Iranian Crop Science
Congress, 22-24 Aug 2002, Karaj, Iran.
Hagighat, E. 2003. Determination of potential evapotranspiration for canola under
standard condition. Proceedings of the 8 th Iranian Soil Science Congress, 21-25 Mar
2003. Rasht, Iran.
Istanbulluoglu, A., Arslan, B., Gocmen, E., Gezer, E. & Pasa, C. 2010. Biosys Eng,.
105:388-394.
238
Jensen, M.E., Burman, R.D. & Allen, R.G. 1990. Evapotranspiration and irrigation
water requirements. ASCE, Manuals and Reports on Engineering Practice, Manual
No. 70, p. 332.
Mousavizadeh, S.F., Honar, T. & Ahmadi, S.H. 2016. Assessment of the AquaCrop
Model for simulating Canola under different irrigation managements in a semiarid
area. International Journal of Plant Production, 10 (4): 425-445.
Niyazi, J. & Fuladvand, H.R. 2007. Irrigation period and water requirement of three
cultivar of canola in Zargan, Fars Province. Agriculture and Natural Resources
Technology and science Journal 10: 71-81.
Zarei, G.R., Shamsi, H. & Dehghani, S.M. 2010. The Effect of Drought Stress on
Yield, Yield Components and Seed Oil Content of Three Autumnal Rapeseed
Cultivars (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Research in Agricultural Sciences, 6: 29-
37.
239
Relationship between Non Exchangeable Potassium Release with
Mineralogy, Parent Material and Land Use in Ghrah-Bagh Area
Southern Iran
Soil Science Department, Faculty of Agricultural, Shahid Bahonar University of
Kerman, Kerman, Iran
INTRODUCTION
Potassium is the seventh most frequent element of the Earth crust (2.6 weight percent).
It has been well established that a significant proportion of plants’ need of potassium
(K) is met from nonexchangeable fraction of soil K (Mengel, 1985; Srinivasarao et al.,
1999; Sparks and Huang, 1985). Release of K to soils depends on mineralogy and land
use (Jalali and Khanlary, 2014; Najafi-Ghiri et al., 2011). Under intensive cropping, in
the absence of K fertilization, initially exchangeable K in soil contributes to plant K
nutrition, but with further cropping non exchangeable K release could also play a role
in plant K uptake (Srinivasarao et al., 1999).
The major sources of nonexchangeable K in soils are clay minerals such as illite and
vermiculite (Martin and Sparks, 1983). Transformation of illite to smectite followed by
intense cultivation without K fertilization was reported by Simonsson et al. (2009).
Land use has significant effects on soil properties such as nonexchangeable K release
(Papini et al., 2011). Different K forms are greatly depending on mineralogy, land use,
and soil orders (Jalali and Khanlary, 2014). Although a major portion of plant nutrients
is absorbed by crop plants from the surface soil, but subsoil contribution to nutrition is
often substantial (Srinivasarao et al., 2006). Data about non-exchangeable K content
and its release related to mineralogy and land use is highly valuable for fertility
management of soils. The aims of the present research were to study: 1) the non-
exchangeable K release rate in 22 surface and subsurface soils varying in clay
mineralogy and different landforms, 2) the relationship between K release rate and
selected physicochemical properties.
The mean annual temperature is 17 oC and the mean annual precipitation is 339 mm.
Therefore, this area is classified as semiarid region with Xeric moisture and Thermic
temperature regimes. Forty pedons were studied according to soil report and map of
Ghare-bagh Plain, Fars Province, Iran (Hassanshahi, 1989), and 11 representative
pedons were selected for physicochemical, morphological, and clay mineralogical
studies. Samples were collected from the surface and sub-surface soil of representative
pedons. Each horizon was analyzed for physical and chemical properties such as
saturation percentage, soil pH and EC (Rhodes, 1996). Particle size distribution (Gee
and Bauder, 1986), Equivalent calcium carbonate (CCE) (Loeppert and Suarez, 1996),
organic matter (Walkley and Black, 1934 modified by Nelson and sommers, 1996),
cation exchange capacity (Chapman, 1965), gypsum w (Richards, 1954) and non-
exchangeable K (Pratt, 1965) were determined. Clay mineralogy analyses performed
using Kittrick and Hope (1963) and Jackson (1975) methods.
240
Mineralogical analyses of soils indicated that palygorskite, kaolinite, vermiculite,

chlorite, smectite, and illite were the dominant clay minerals that observed in the study
area. All soils have similar clay minerals but with different relative abundance (except
palygorskite that was only observed in saline soils). The decreasing trend of illite with
depth could be attributed to addition of K fertilizers at the soil surface (Table 1). The
same results were also reported by Thompson and Ukrainczyk (2002) and Simonsson
et al. (2009). Cumulative K release and non-exchangeable K showed a significant
correlation with land use, K fertilizers, dominant clay, and parent material (Table 2) as
was also reported by Jalali and Khanlary (2014) and Najafi-Ghiri et al. (2011).
The highest non-exchangeable K (505/7 mg kg-1) were related to Inceptisols containing

high clay content, and the least K content (94.9 mg kg-1) was observed in Entisols with
low clay content. The maximum (299.97 mg kg-1) and minimum K release (86.6 mg
kg-1) were found in Inceptisols and Entisols, respectively (Table 1).
Agricultural land (wheat, barley, and rapes) which were received K fertilizer, showed
high K release rate and non-exchangeable K with high illite content at the surface which
seems to be a result of smectite to illite transformation (Table 1). The same results were
also reported by other researchers (Simonsson et al., 2009; Najafi-Ghiri et al., 2011).
Table 1: Effects of land use, K fertilizer application rate, soil mineralogy and parent
materials on different forms of soil potassium and its release rate
Non- Cumulative
Exchangeable
Soluble K exchangeable Total K K released
K
K (CaCl2)
Land use
Irrigated
farming 16.694b 219.713a 422.915a 5932.997a 244.160a
(wheat)
Dry farming
24.578b 168.325a 388.832a 5489.460a 218.540a
(Barley
Poor pasture 12.767b 176.988a 386.718a 6858.540a 226.710a
dried
39.666a 215.975a 163.794b 1614.540b 141.500a
Marshland
Artificial K
supply
class(kg/ha)
0 25.340a 167.331a 283.475b 4280.707a 182.630a
50 25.074a 197.973a 433.292a 6049.670a 237.960a
100 16.694a 219.713a 422.915a 5932.997a 244.160a
Dominant
clay mineral
class
Smectite 25.340a 167.331a 283.475b 4280.707a 182.630b
Illite 18.789a 214.278a 425.509a 5962.165a 242.610a
241
Table 2: Non-exchangeable K cumulative amount of K release, percent of non-
exchangeable K and illite amount of the soils studied
Cumulative K released Percentage of non
Non exch. K
Soil (n=22) (CaCl2) exch. K released Illite%
(mg kg-1)
(mg kg-1) (CaCl2) (%)
Max. 505.70 299.97 91.23 40

Ave. Top soil 386.75 226.25 60.07 32
Ave. Sub soil 325.26 183.30 59.18 25
Min. 94.90 86.58 50.42 20
CONCLUSION
Non-exchangeable K and K release play an important role in soil fertility and show a
significant relationship with land use and clay mineralogy. High clay content and illite
clay mineral in agricultural land which received K fertilizer caused these soils to have
high non-exchangeable K and K release rate. Addition of K fertilizer transformed
smectite to illite. That is why illite content showed a decreasing trend with depth.
REFERENCES
Chapman, H.D. 1965. Cation exchange capacity, pp. 891-901, in C. A. Black, ed.,
Gee, G.W. & Bauder, J.W. 1986. Particle-size analysis, pp. 383-411, in A. L. Page,
Hassanshahi, H. 1989. Semi-detailed soil science studies of Gharebagh plain of
Shiraz. Technical publication no 797, 1-108. Soil and Water Research institution,
Tehran, Iran. (In Persian
Jackson, M.L. 1975. Soil chemical analysis: Advanced course. Department of Soil,
College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.
Jalali, M. & Khanlari, Z.V. 2014. Kinetics of potassium release from calcareous soils
under differekt land use. Arid Land Research and Management, 28 (1): 1-13.
Papini, R., Valboa, G., Favilli, F. & L’Abate, G. 2011. Influence of land use on
organic carbon pool and chemical properties of Vertic Cambisols in central and
southern Italy. Agriculture, ecosystems and environment, 140 (1): 68-79.
Pratt, P.F. 1965. Potassium, pp. 1022-1030, in, C. A. Black, ed., Methods of Soil
Analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Kittrick, J.A. & Hope, E.W. 1963. A procedure for the particle-size separation of soils
for x-ray diffraction analysis. Soil Science, 96 (5): 319-325.
Loeppert, R. H. & D. L. Suarez. 1996. Carbonate and gypsum, pp. 437-474, in D. L.
Sparks, ed., Methods of soil analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison,
WI.
Mengel, K. 1985. Dynamics and availability of major nutrients in soils. In Advances in
soil science (pp. 65-131). Springer New York.
Najafi-Ghiri, M., Abtahi, A. & Jaberian, F. 2011. Factors affecting potassium release
in calcareous soils of southern Iran. Soil Research, 49 (6): 529-537.
Nelson, D.W. & Sommers, L. 1982. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter,
WI.
242
Madison, WI.
Sparks, D.L. & Huang, P.M. 1985. Physical chemistry of soil potassium. In
‘Potassium in agriculture’.(Ed. RD Munson) pp. 201–276. Soil Science Society of
America: Madison, WI.
Srinivasarao, C., Swarup, A., Subba Rao, A. & Raja Gopal, V. 1999. Kinetics of
nonexchangeable potassium release from a Tropaquept as influenced by long-term
cropping, fertilization, and manuring. Australian Journal of Soil Research, 33: 317-
328.
Srinivasarao, C., Rupa, T.R., Subba Rao, A., Ramesh, G. & Bansal, S.K. 2006.
Release kinetics of nonexchangeable potassium by different extractants from soils
of varying mineralogy and depth. Communications in soil science and plant
analysis, 37(3-4): 473-491.
Soil Science, 37 (1): 29-38.
243
Qualitative Land Suitability Classification of Major Field Crops and
Distribution of Clay Minerals in Mobark-Abad Plains of Southern
Iran
Zareian, Gh.R., Moghimi, A.H., Moradi, A., Karami, A. and Ziaeian, A.B.
Research and Education Center, AREO, Shiraz, Iran
INTRODUCTION
Land evaluation which considering soil and climatic characteristic will have caused
optimum usage of water, soil and capital. In semiarid lands of Iran, the soil aridity,
salinity, acidity and high carbonate content in soils as among the serious limiting
factors. Calcareous soils covered vast areas of Iran. The soils in which a high amount
of calcium carbonate dominates the problems related to agricultural land use. They are
characterized by the presence of calcium carbonate in the parent material and by a calcic
horizon, a layer of secondary accumulation of carbonates (usually Ca or Mg) in excess
of 15% calcium carbonate equivalent and at least 5% more carbonate than an underlying
layer. In some soils the calcium carbonate deposits are concentrated into layers that
may be very hard and impermeable to water. These soils are generally very fertile,
alkaline and saline. Due to alkalinity, they are proved to Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu deficiency
(Cakmak et al., 1996) and experienced phosphorus (P) deficiency and low P-use
efficiency (Korkmaz et al., 2009). Salinity affects plant growth by weakening the
plant's ability to absorb water from the soil. Different crops show intraspecific
variation in response to salinity (Kingsbury and Epstein, 1986; Parida and Das, 2004)
and physical properties of soil (Bagherzadeh, 2013). The present study was to
characterize some calcareous soils of the Mobark-abad plain and evaluate them for
mean crops. Part of the solution to the land-use problem can be solved through land
evaluation in support of rational land use planning and sustainable use of natural and
human resources (Rossiter, 1996).
Clay mineral analysis has been widely used to characterize soil parent material and to
relate it to the bedrock (Khormali and Abtahi, 2003), as well as to associate
mineralogical transformations with changes in climate and weathering intensity (Oliaie
et al., 2006; Farpoor and Krouse, 2008). Palygorskite, smectite, chlorite, illite, kaolinite
and vermiculite are the main clay minerals in arid and semi-arid regions (Abtahi, 1980;
Gharaee and Mahjoori, 1984; Khormali and Abtahi, 2003; Oliaie et al., 2006; Farpoor
and Krouse, 2008). Millot (1970) distinguished three principal processes to account for
the genesis of clay minerals: (1) Inheritance from parent materials, (2) transformation
of other clay minerals, and (3) neoformation from soil solution.
Therefore, the main objectives of this study were; (1) determination of the final class
of Land evaluation depends on soil limitations and (2) to investigate the occurrence,
origin and distribution of clay minerals in an arid region of Southern Iran.
The area covers about 15400 hectares, located in 45 kilometers of western south of
Jahrom in Southern Iran. The mean annual temperature is 22.2 oC and the mean annual
244
precipitation is 306 mm. Therefore, this area is classified as semiarid region with
Aridic-Ustic moisture and Hyperthermic temperature regimes. A profile was dug in
each soil unit and horizons of that profile were districted. A soil sample was taken from
each horizon for physical and chemical analysis such as saturation percentage, soil pH
and EC of soils determined in the saturated paste (Rhodes, 1996). Particle size
distribution (Gee and Bauder, 1986), Equivalent calcium carbonate (CCE) (Loeppert
and Suarez, 1996), organic matter (Walkley and Black, 1934) modified by Nelson and
Sommers (1982), cation exchange capacity (Chapman, 1965) and gypsum (Richards,
1954). Clay mineralogy analyses were used for Kittrick and Hope (1963) and Jackson
(1975) methods.
Soils of Mobark-abad plain were classified as Entisols and Inceptisols. Ochric

epipedons and calcic, cambic, and gypsic subsurface horizons were among the
dominant horizons identified in the area. Undeveloped Entisols were found in steep
slopes (colluvial fans) as Orthents or lowland topographic positions where recent
alluvium caused Fluvents formation. Soils with intermediate development (Inceptisols)
were formed on gentle slope gradients
Results of the study showed that the pH of soils ranged from 7.4 to 8.5 (neutral to
alkaline). The maximum EC 11.1 dS m-1 and minimum EC 0.3 dS m-1. Almost all soils
are highly calcareous throughout with an average CaCO3 contents ranged from 20 to
66%. The Gypsum ranged from 1.1% in Inceptisols to 41.4% in Entisols. Exhibited
CEC of less than 11 cmolc kg-1, while CEC of the others ranged up to 20 cmolc kg-1.
X-ray diffractograms and relative abundance of clay fractions in the studied soils are
shown trend content of kaolinite < palygorskite < vermiculite < chlorite < illite <
smectite was observed. Palygorskite exists in gypsiforous soils, and smectite are the
major clay minerals and other was detected in all soils. Illite, kaolinite, vermiculite and
chlorite are two commonly observed clay minerals in arid environments and their
abundance in the soils is largely due to their presence in parent rocks. These clay
minerals are considered as the precursors for the pedogenic formation of other clay
minerals in arid and semi-arid regions (Khademi and Mermut, 1998). In the present
study simple transformation of other clay, smectite and interstratified minerals is
important, for it shows a relative decrease with slope in soils. Transformation of
smectite into illite at the soil surface is attributed to addition of K fertilizers in irrigated
farming and high weathering at the soil surface (Thompson and Ukrainczyk 2002;
Simonsson et al. 2009).
The morphological description and chemical date available suggested that soils of the
Mobark-abad plain were rather sandy, calcerous, alkaline, slightly saline and received
very little rainfall throughout the year. Based on these characteristics, these soils were
evaluated of their potential for mean crops production. All soils were not flooded and
were well drained and therefore qualified for the S1 class when drainage and flooding
were considered. Looking at the textural class as the evaluation criteria, all soils
qualified into the S1 class, while the Qareaghadj series (soil unit 7.1) S3 class. This is
because of their loamy sand and sandy loam texture throughout the soil profiles and
percent of surface and subsurface stone that reduce the soil moisture availability when
compared to fine texture. Considering the soil pH and the electrical conductivity values,
245
and land slope were finally evaluated as S2 class and S3 class. The results of the land
evaluation for mean crops production is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Soil classification and land suitability evaluation for mean crops in Mobark-
abad plain
Crops
Soil family Subgroups Wheat Barley Maize Cotton
Soils unit
1.1 Loamy – skeletal, S3st S3st N1cs N1s
Typic
1.2 carbonatic, S3st N1s N2cs N2s
Ustorthents
1.3 hyperthermic S3s S3s N2cs N2s
Typic
2.1 Coarse – loamy, Ustorthents
S2s S2s S3cs S3cs
carbonatic,
2.2 S2st S2st S3cst S3cst
hyperthermic
2.3 S2s S2s S3cs N1s
Fine – loamy,
Typic
3.1 carbonatic, S2s S2s S3cs S3cs
Haploustepts
hyperthermic
4.1 Fine – loamy, S2s S2s S3cns S3cs
Typic
carbonatic,
4.2 Haploustepts S2st S2st S3cnst S3cst
hyperthermic
5.1 Fine – loamy, S3s S2s S3cs S3cs
5.2 gypsic, Typic S2ns S2s S3cns S3cs
hyperthermic, Ustorthents
5.3 shallow S3ns S3ns N1cns N1ns
6.1 Fine, carbonatic, Typic S2s S2s S3cs N1s
6.2 hyperthermic Haploustepts S2sw S2sw S3csw S3csw
Coarse – loamy,
Typic
7.1 carbonatic, S3sw S3sw S3cs S3s
Ustifluvent
hyperthermic
CONCLUSION
The parametric method (Square root method) was used to determine land suitability
classes according to FAO system. According to the climatic data, short growth period
(105 days) is the main limiting factor for dry land farming. Climatic data and land
characteristics of the study area were compared with climatic and crop requirements
respectively and the land suitability class was attributed according to the less favorable
characteristics. Result of climatic suitability classification based on different methods
showed that climatic class of area studied was suitable (S1) for planting wheat and
barley, moderately suitable (S2) for planting cotton and marginally suitable (S3) for
planting maize. Considering the existing limitations, the studied area was classified
from suitable (S1) to not suitable (N2) based on the parametric method. However,
determination of the final class of this area depends on soil limitations such as percent
of surface and subsurface stone and gravel, texture, land slope, saline& alkaline and the
amount of lime.
246
REFERENCES
Abtahi, A. 1980. Soil genesis as affected by topography and time in calcareous parent
materials. J. Soil Sci. Soc. Am., 44: 329 -336.
Cakmak, I., Yilmaz, A., Kalayci, M., Ekiz, H., Torun, B., Erenoglu, B. & Braun,
H.J. 1996. Zinc deficiency as a critical problem in wheat production in Central
anatolia. Plant Soil, 180:165-172
Chapman, H.D. 1965. Cation exchange capacity, pp. 891-901, in C. A. Black, ed.,
Farpoor, M.H. & Krouse, H.R. (2008). Stable isotope geochemistry of sulfur bearing
minerals and clay mineralogy of some soils and sediments in Loot Desert, central
Iran. Geoderma, 146(1), 283-290.
Gee, G.W. & Bauder, J.W. 1986. Particle-size analysis, pp. 383-411, in A. L. Page,
Gharaee, H.A. & Mahjoory, R.A. 1984. Characteristica and geomorphic relationships
of some representative Aridisols in southern Iran. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 48: 115 -119.
Jackson, M.L. 1975. Soil chemical analysis: Advanced course. Department of Soil,
College of Agriculture, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.
Kittrick, J.A. & Hope, E.W. 1963. A procedure for the particle-size separation of soils
for x-ray diffraction analysis. Soil Science, 96 (5): 319-325.
Khademi, H. & Mermut, A.R. 1998. Source of Palygorskite in gypsiferous Aridisols
and associated sediments from Central Iran. Clay Miner, 33: 561-575.
Kingsbury, R.W. & Epstein, E. 1986. Salt sensivity in wheat a case for specific ion
toxicity. Plant Physiol, 80:651-654.
Korkmaz, K., Ibrikci, H., Karnez, E., Buyuk, G., Ryan, J., Ulger, A.C. & Oguz, H.
2009. Phosphorus use efficiency of wheat genotypes grown in calcareous soils. J.
Plant Nutr., 32:2094–2106.
Khormali, F. & Abtahi, A. 2003. Origin and distribution of clay minerals in calcareous
arid and semi-arid soils of Fars province. Clay Miner., 38: 511 -527.
Millot, G. 1970. Geology of clays. Masson et Cie., Paris.
Nelson, D.W. & Sommers, L. 1982. Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter,
WI.
Loeppert, R.H. & Suarez, D.L. 1996. Carbonate and gypsum, pp. 437-474, in D. L.
Sparks, ed., Methods of soil analysis. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.
Owliaie, H.R., Abtahi, A. & Heck, R.J. (2006). Pedogenesis and clay mineralogical
investigation of soils formed on gypsiferous and calcareous materials, on a transect,
southwestern Iran. Geoderma, 134(1), 62-81.
Parida A.K & Das, A.B. (2004). Effects of salt on growth, ion accumulation
photosynthesis and leaf anatomy of the mangrove, Bruguiera parifolora. Trees-
struct. Funct., 18:167-174.
Madison, WI.
Rossiter D.G. (1996). A theoritical framework for land evaluation (with discussion).
Geoderma, 72:165-190.
247
Soil Science, 37 (1): 29-38.
248
Effects of Tillage Systems, Water Stress and Nitrogen on the Growth
and Yield of Wheat
Ziaeyan, A.H., Karami, A., Moghimi, A., Moradi, A. and Zareian, Gh.R.
Research Center, AREEO, Shiraz, Iran
INTRODUCTION
Nitrogen is the most important nutrient for human and plants (Robertson and Vitousek,
2009). The amount of plant requirement nitrogen is different in various conditions and
depends on various factors including the type of tillage operation, irrigation water
contents, soil characteristics and the extent of soil organic matter, genotype and etc
(Stevens et al., 2005). Considerable research has been done on the correlation of water
and nitrogen in various crops (Mose et al., 2006; Gheysari et al., 2007; Azizian, and
Sepaskhah, 2014). Based on studies conducted by Jin et al. (2009) turns out that
conservation tillage systems while achieving high yield decreased to 8.15% of its water
use. Halvorson et al. (2006) concluded that in responses of corn in no tillage system is
similar to in conventional tillage so that, by consider some remarks and corrections,
fertilizer recommendations in conventional tillage be recommended in no tillage
system. Zarei et al. (2015) studied effect of tillage systems and water stress on wheat
production and reported that in minimum tillage system compared to conventional
tillage by using less water consumption, the same performance can be produced. Feng
et al. (2014) were studied the effects of tillage and nitrogen fertilizer on corn and wheat,
soil organic carbon and nitrogen and showed that tillage causes adjustment of soil
carbon and nitrogen improving.
During 2012-2015, by using a split-block design, effects of water stress on wheat

nitrogen requirements cultivated in conventional, minimum and no-tillage systems
were studied in Zargan Research Station in Fars province of Iran. In this research, the
main and combined effects of four levels of zero, 90, 135 and 180 kg N ha-1 as urea
source (N0, N90, N135 and N180, respectively) and four levels of 6245, 6700, 7110
and 7460 m3 ha-1 of irrigation water (I4, I3, I2 and I1, respectively) in wheat under
conventional tillage, minimum tillage and no-tillage were studied. In conventional
tillage system, seed bed preparation was performed using moldboard plow and disk
harrow, and seed was planted using grain drill, in the minimum tillage system, a
combination machine was used and all tillage and cultivation operations were
performed in one step and in no-till system, wheat seed was planted using direct seeder
without any tillage operation. Irrigation operations performed by three single line
source sprinkler irrigation system. Irrigation intervals were 8 days. At the harvesting
time, yield, yield components, concentration and absorption of nitrogen, phosphorus
and zinc were measured. All the obtained data, after analysis of variance by SAS
software, were compared by Duncan test.
249
Two-year of wheat results showed that there were a significant differences (p<0.01)
between the three tillage systems in terms of the number of spikes per square meter and
thousand kernel weight. The value of these two parameters in the order of various tillage
were conventional tillage > minimum tillage > no-tillage. In addition, different tillage
systems had a significant effect (p<0.05) on the grain yield and total N uptake by grains.
The highest grain yield was obtained from minimum tillage, conventional tillage and
then no-tillage systems while the highest uptake of nitrogen and phosphorus were in
conventional tillage > minimum tillage > no-tillage systems. There were not significant
differences between the three tillage systems in terms of the number of grains in spikes,
total yield and total potassium uptake (Table 1).
Table 1: The main effects of different tillage systems on yield and yield components
Yield WUE Total uptake
W. of
Protein No. of No. of
Tillage 1000 N P K
content spikes/ grains/ Grain Total
treatments grains (kg m3)
(%) m2 spikes (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1)
(g)
(kg ha-1)
Conventional 11.9a 789a 32.6a 37.9a 15587a 6342ab 0.914a 178a 28.1ab 244a
Minimum 10.5b 711b 31.7a 39.1b 16681a 6652a 0.889a 177a 29.4a 243a
No tillage 10.7b 669c 30.7a 34.9c 15412a 5753b 0.835a 155b 25.6b 250a
*Means followed by the same letters at each column are not significantly different at the level p<0.05
The main effect of irrigation treatments were significant (p<0.01) on the grain yield,
total uptake of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and protein content. In conventional
and no-till tillage systems, the highest grain yield were obtained from the use of 7460
m3 ha-1 of irrigation water and in minimum tillage system obtained from 7100 m 3 ha-1
of irrigation water. Two-year results also showed that nitrogen treatments had a
significant effect (p<0.01) on grain yield and total uptake of nitrogen. In all tillage
systems, the highest the number of spikes per square meter and the highest grain yield
were obtained from 90 kg N ha-1. Combined application of irrigation and nitrogen had
a significant effect (p<0.01) on the number of spikes per square meter, grain number in
spikes, grain yield and total uptake of nitrogen. Overall, in conventional tillage system,
application of 7100 cubic meters of water and 180 kg N ha-1, in minimum tillage system
combined use of 6,700 m3 ha-1 irrigation water and 135 kg N ha-1 and in no- tillage
system combined use of 7460 m3 ha-1 irrigation water and 180 kg N ha-1 is
recommended. In all three tillage systems, the lowest grain yields were obtained by
using of 6250 cubic meters of water without nitrogen consumption (I4N0 treatment).
Based on the obtained results, the highest water use efficiency in conventional tillage
system (1.108 kg m-3) were obtained from the application of I1N180 treatment that with
the other treatments including I3N135 treatment had no significant difference. Due to
the lack of water, application of 135 kg N ha-1 and 6,700 m-3 ha-1 of irrigation water
(I3N135) is introduced in terms of water use efficiency superior treatment in the tillage
system. In minimum tillage system the highest water efficiency (1.114 kg m-3) were
obtained from combined application of 135 kg N ha-1 and 6,700 m-3 ha-1 of irrigation
water (I3N135). This treatment is introduced in terms of water use efficiency superior
treatment in the minimum tillage system. In no-till tillage system, the highest water use
250
efficiency (1.036 kg m-3) was obtained from application of I1N135 treatment. This
treatment was in a statistical group with some other treatments, including treatment
I3N135. Overall, in this system application of 180 kg N ha-1 and 6,700 m-3 ha-1 of
irrigation water as the best treatment in terms of water use efficiency will be introduced.
According to research carried out no-till soils are typically colder, wetter and have less
air than conventional tillage. Such conditions affect soil nutrient uptake by plants and
reduces the amount and rate of diffusion of elements in the soil and release of
mineralization of soil organic matter (Courtney et al., 2008; Hoorman et al., 2009).
Patil and Sheelavantar (2006) showed that conservation tillage by conserve water and
nutrients required by plants increases yield. Moroke et al. (2005) reported that organic
matter in conservation tillage systems improve water infiltration in soil, soil structure
and soil coarse pores. Increasing the infiltration rate generally stimulating movements
of nutrients in the soil and increasing chance to access more nutrients to the roots.
Overall, the results showed that in the same wheat fields, conventional tillage system
could be replaced with minimum-tillage system, but, to achieve the optimal yield, in
minimum tillage systems than conventional tillage, more nitrogen and less water is
required.
REFERENCES
Azizian, A. & Sepaskhah, A.R. 2014. Maize response to different water, salinity and
nitrogen levels: agronomic behavior. International Journal of Plant Production, 8
(1):107-130.
Courtney, P.D., Clain, J. & McVay, K. 2008. Nutrient Management in no-till and
minimum till system. Montana State University, Extension Publications. Available
from http://www.montana.edu/publications
Feng, Y., Ning, T., Li, Z., Han, B., Han, H., Li, Y., Sun, T. & Zhang, X. 2014.
Effects of tillage practices and rate of nitrogen fertilization on crop yield and soil
carbon and nitrogen. Plant Soil Environment, 60(3): 100–104.
Gheysari, M., Mirlatifi, S.M., Bannayan, M., Homaee, M. & Hoogenboom, G.
2009. Interaction of water and nitrogen on maize grown for silage. Agricultural
Water Management, 96(5): 809-821.
Halvorson, A.D., Mosier, A.R., Reule, C.A. & Bausch, W.C. 2006. Nitrogen and
Tillage Effects on Irrigated Continuous Corn Yields. Agronomy Journal, 98(3):63–
71.
Hoorman, H., Islam, R., Sundermrier, A. & Reeder, R. 2009. Using cover crop to
convert to no-till. Ohio State University Extension. Available at:
http://ohioline.osu.edu
Jin, H., Qingjie, W., Hongwen, L., Lijin, L. & Huanwen, G. 2009. Effect of
alternative tillage and residue cover on yield and water use efficiency in annual
double cropping system in North China Plain. Soil and Tillage Research, 104:198-
205
Moroke, T.S., Schwartz, R.C., Brown, K.W. & Juo, A.S.R. 2005. Soil water
depletion and root distribution of three dryland crops. Soil Science Society of
America Journal, 69: 197-205
Mose, S.B., Feil, B., Jampatong, S. & Stamp, P. 2006. Effects of pre-anthesis
drought, nitrogen fertilizer rate, and variety on grain yield, yield components, and
harvest index of tropical maize. Agricultural Water Management, 81: 41-58.
251
Patil, S.L. & Sheelavantar M.N. 2006. Soil water conservation and yield of winter
sorghum as influenced by tillage, organic materials and nitrogen fertilizer in semi-
arid tropical India. Soil and Tillage Research, 89: 246-257.
Robertson G.P. & Vitousek, P.M. 2009. Nitrogen in agriculture: Balan¬cing the cost
of an essential resource. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 34: 97–125.
Stevens, W.B., Hoeft, R.G. & Mulvaney, R.L. 2005. Fate of N15 in a long-term
nitrogen rate study: II.Nitrogen uptake efficiency. Agronomy Journal, 97: 1046-
1053.
Zarei, M.S., Kazmini, A.R. & Bahrani, M.J. 2015. The effect of different tillage
systems and water stress on growth and yield of wheat. Iranian Journal of Field
Crops Research, 12 (4): 793-804.
252
Physical Land Suitability Evaluation for Wheat in Tashkuieh Plain,
Iran
Moghimi, A.H., Zareian, G., Karami, A., Ziaeian, A. and Moradi, A.
Soil and water research department, Fars Agricultural and Natural Resources research
and Education Center, AREEO, Shiraz, Iran
E-mail: moghimiabolhasan@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Several land evaluation studies for some important crops in Iran had been reported by
Garkani Negad et al. (2009). These authors agreed that for arid and semi-arid lands of
Iran, the soil aridity, salinity, acidity and high carbonate content in soils as among the
serious limiting factors.
Most of soils are calcareous. These soils are generally very fertile, alkaline and saline.
Due to alkalinity, they are proned to Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu deficiency (Cakmak et al.,
1996) and experienced phosphorus (P) deficiency and low P-use efficiency (Korkmaz
et al., 2009). Salinity affects plant growth by weakening the plant's ability to absorb
water from the soil. Wheat, like many other crops show intraspecific variation in
response to salinity (Parida and Das, 2004) and physical properties of soil
(Bagherzadeh, 2014). present study was to characterize some calcerous soils of the
Tashkuieh plain and evaluate them for their potential in wheat production.
Tashkuieh plain located about 180 km North of Bandarabbas city in the North part of
Hormozgan province in Southeast Iran, from 27º 57´ to 28º 3´ North longtitude and 56º
25´ to 56º 31´ East latitudes. Sixteen soil profiles within the colluvial fan in different
physiographic units were dug and studied. The morphological properties of the profiles
were described in the field using the field book of USDA (2003). The four
representative profiles were internationally classified using the criteria of soil taxonomy
(Soil Taxonomy, 2014) and their approximate classes in the IUSS working group WRB
(2014) world reference base for soil resources. Soil samples were taken from pedogenic
horizons or layers of the profiles for laboratory analysis.
Soil pH was determined in saturated paste by a glass electrode. Particle size distribution
was determined by the hydrometer method. Organic carbon was measured by Walkly
& Black procedure (dichoromate wet oxidation method) and total N by the micro-
kejeldal technique. Electrical conductivity (EC) was measured in the saturated extract.
Calcium and Magnesium were determined by the atomic absorption spectrometer
(AAS) and potassium and Sodium were determined by flame emission photometry.
Land Suitability of the soils was assessed for wheat production following the method
of Sys (1993). The suitability class of a soil is that indicated by simple limitation and
parametric methods (square root method). Thus, the classes S1, S2, S3, N1 and N2
represent highly, moderately, actually not suitable but potentially suitable and actually
and potentially not suitable respectively.
253
The available phosphorous and K contents in all of the soils are high ranging from 0.00
to 6 and 80 to 333 ppm, respectively on the top of soils. The high base saturation (˃99%
by sum of cation) can be attributed to smectite clay content nature of the parent material
from which the soils have been formed (USDA, 2014). The results of the land
evaluation for wheat production is as presented in Table 1. The mean annual
tempretures of the study site is within 23.7ºC, hence they all fall within S1 (Highly
suitable) class with reference to tempreture requirement. All the study sites are not
flooded and are well drained and are therefore in the S1suitability class when drainage
and flooding are considered.
When textural class was used as an evaluation criteria, soils 1 and 2 fall into the S3
suitability class, while 3 soils fall into S2 suitability class and 4 is N2 respectively,
because of the Loamy sand and Sandy loam throughout the soil profiles. This is because
the soil moisture reserve ability of the soil would be low.
Table 1: Soil classification and land suitability evaluation of representative pedons

Soil Soil CaCO3 pH ECe Suitability Suitability
USDA FAO Texture SAR
no. Unit (%) H20 Ds/m SLM PSR
1 1.1 Aridic Calcaric S2s
SL 40.8 8.1 2.5 6.2 S2tws
Ustortents Regosol
Aridic Calcaric
1.2 LS 52.2 8.2 5.7 11.7 S3s S3s
Ustortents Regosol
2 Aridic Calcaric 48.9
2.1 SL 8.0 11.5 10.7 S2twsn S3s
Ustortents Regosols
Aridic Calcaric
2.2 LS 45.7 8.3 3.8 9.3 S3s S3s
Ustortents Regosols
3 Aridic Calcaric
3.1 L 47.9 8.1 3.4 8.8 S2s S2s
Ustifluvent Fluvisols
Aridic Calcaric
3.2 SL 38.5 8.1 5.1 15.8 S2s S2s
Aridic Calcaric
3.3 L 44.7 7.2 8.5 10 S2sn S2s
Aridic Calcaric
3.4 SL 46.9 7.7 9.2 7.0 S2sn S2s
4 Typic Sodic
4.1 SL 31.2 7.9 16.4 11.1 N2n N2n
Haplosalid Solonchak
*SLM: Simple Limitation Method, PSRM: Parametric Square Root Method
CONCLUSION
All of the soils except soil 4 have Sandy loam texture on top coming down to either
Sandy to Loamy sand subsoil. Soils 1 and 2 have been classified as Aridic Ustortents
(Calcaric Regosols). The soils of have been classified as Aridic Ustifluvent (Calcaric
Arenosols and Fluvisols). The major limitations of these soils are high CaCO 3, Sandy
texture and salinity and sodicity. On the basis of the limitations, all the four soils were
grouped into suitability classes for wheat production as S2s to N2n (permanently not
suitable).
254
REFERENCES
Bagherzadeh, A. & Mansouri Daneshvar, M.R. 2014. Qualitative land suitability

evaluation for wheat and barely crops in Khorasan- Razavi province, Northeast of
Iran. Agricultural research, 3: 155-164.
Cakmak, I., Yilmaz, A., Kalayci, M., Ekiz, H., Torun, B., Erenoglu, B. & Braun,
H.J. 1996. Zinc deficiency as a critical problem in wheat production in Central
anatolia. Plant Soil, 180:165-172.
FAO. 2014. World references base for soil resources. Soil bulletin, 106.
Garkani, N.M.S., Keshvarzi, A., Ahmadi, A. & Hassan, E. 2009. Land suitability
evaluation for important crop productions in gypsiferous soils of Bardsir area in
Kerman Province, Iran. World Appl. Sci., J. 7:726-730.
Korkmaz, K., Ibrikci, H., Karnez, E., Buyuk, G., Ryan, J., Ulger, A.C. & Oguz, H.
2009. Phosphorus use efficiency of wheat genotypes grown in calcareous soils. J.
Plant Nutr., 32:2094–2106.
Parida, A.K. & Das, A.B. 2004. Effects of salt on growth, ion accumulation
photosynthesis an leaf anatomy of the mangrove, Bruguiera parifolora. Trees-struct.
Funct., 18:167-174.
Sys, C., Van ranst, E. & Debaveye, J. 1993. Land evaluation. Part 111: Crop
Requirements. International Training Center for Post Graduate Soil Scientists. Ghent
University. Ghent. Belgium, 199 pp.
USDA. 2003. Field book and describing and sampling soils.
USDA. 2014. Keys to Soil Taxonomy. Soil Survey Staff, USDA, 12th Edition.
255
Soil Carbon Storage in Selected Mangrove Forest of Sarawak,
Malaysia
Abu Hena, M.K.1, Idris, M.H.2, Rhemaneeta, A.1, Sinden, A.1 and Bhuiyan, M.K.A.3
1
Department of Animal Science and Fishery, Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences,
Universiti Putra Malaysia Campus Bintulu Sarawak, Nyabau Road, Post Box No.396,
97008 Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
2
School of Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,
21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu Darul Iman, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Marine and Environmental Sciences, University of Cadiz, Puerto Real
Campus, 11519, Spain
E-mail: abuhena@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Mangrove forests are highly productive ecosystems, which generally thrive between
“the land and the sea” of tropical and sub-tropical coastline worldwide. Besides playing
important ecological and socio-economical roles, these intertidal forests act as nursery
grounds for coastal fishery while filtering nutrients. Although the area occupied by
mangrove is small worldwide, they are an important component in global carbon cycle.
They are the source of oceanic carbon and make a unique contribution to carbon
biogeochemistry in the coastal ocean (Twilley et al., 1992). The carbon dynamics in
coastal mangrove ecosystems is an important topic during the past decades. Studies
revealed that a large amount of organic matter produced by mangroves are transported
into the coastal sea where it forms the foundation of detritus food chain and
subsequently supports to the fishery resources. It has been estimated that about 10% of
oceanic particulate and dissolved organic (POC and DOC) carbon is driven from
mangroves (Jennerjahn and Ittekkot, 2002). This forest is also accountable for about
10% of global organic carbon burial in the coastal ocean (Duarte et al., 2005), therefore,
mangrove is known as a potentially significant component in the ocean carbon budget.
Moreover, soil carbon assessment in any forest gives more stable estimates than the
forest itself.
There are significant numbers of case studies dealing with various aspects of organic
matter cycling in mangrove systems (Kristensen et al., 2008), but the studies on the
magnitude and partitioning of productivity and the density of organic matter formed in
the mangrove ecosystems are scarce. The shortcomings of the published papers on
mangrove carbon budget are (1) mangrove carbon budgets are relatively based on small
data sets; and (2) ignorance of below-ground allocation and wood production due to
methodological difficulties. Notwithstanding, it is vibrant that the possible function of
mangrove forests in global coastal zone carbon budgets is important and a more
polished valuation of global carbon budgets in mangrove ecosystems is outstanding.
The aim of this study is to assess the soil carbon storage in Awat-Awat and Sibuti
mangrove forests in Sarawak, Malaysia.
The study areas were located in Sibuti (03⁰59’N -113⁰43’E) and Awat-Awat (4⁰56’N -
115⁰ 14’E) mangrove forests, Sarawak, Malaysia. The study sites consist of 15-years
old Rhizophora apiculata Blume (Chandra et al., 2011), which is the dominant
256
mangrove for both sites. Surface soils (<10 cm depth) from mangrove forest floor were
collected randomly from seaward and landward zone using a peat auger in February
2011 and October 2012. To prevent and minimize sample contamination, the collected
soil samples were placed into closed labeled plastic bags and put into box case at low
temperature during transportation. The samples were air dried at room temperature,
ground and sieved with 0.05 mm for further analysis. The soil organic matter was
determined using the conversion factor of 1.724. This conversion factor has been used
to convert organic matter to organic carbon based on assumption that organic matter
contains 58% of organic carbon (i.e., g organic matter/1.724 = g organic carbon;
Chefetz et al., 1996; Schumacher, 2002). Soil pH was detected in situ using soil pH
meter (soil pH tester, Takamura Electric Works Ltd). Physico-chemical parameter of
mangrove pore water was detected using HACH Kits (DR-2800) in laboratory (Abu
Hena et al., 2007).
The concentration of pore water nitrate was higher in landward zone, and conversely,
salinity was higher in seaward zone (Table 1). The soil was acidic (pH<7.0) in both the
Awat-Awat and Sibuti mangrove forests. Soil carbon and organic matter of those forests
varied in different zones. The highest soil carbon in both the mangrove forest was found
in landward zone, whereas, the lowest soil carbon was found in seaward zone (Table
2). The percentage of soil carbon was found more than 50% higher in landward zone as
compared to seaward zone in Sibuti mangroves.
Table 1: Soil water physico-chemical factor of Awat-Awat and Sibuti mangrove forests
Sarawak, Malaysia.
Sibuti Awat-Awat
Pore water parameter
Seaward zone Landward zone Seaward zone Landward zone
NH4+ (mg/l) 0.10±0.0 0.01±0.0 0.44±0.02 0.35±0.01
NO3- (mg/l) 1.43±0.06 2.27±0.25 2.1±0.9 9.0±1.51
PO4- (mg/l) 1.79±0.0 0.17±0.0 0.50±0.01 0.36±0.05
Pore water pH 6.8±0.13 7.13±0.07 6.81±0.01 6.9±0.08
Salinity (psu) 19.0±0.01 13.2±0.02 21.33±0.88 19.05±0.57
Table 2: Soil organic matter and carbon of Awat-Awat and Sibuti mangrove forests
Sarawak, Malaysia.
Sibuti Awat-Awat
Soil parameter
Seaward zone Landward zone Seaward zone Landward zone
Soil pH 6.42 6.44 6.48 6.55
Organic matter (%) 7.05 14.91 4.51 4.90
Organic carbon (%) 3.71 7.85 2.62 2.77
Different studies have estimated the organic carbon burial in the mangrove ecosystems
elsewhere. Usually, the organic compounds are found higher in peat soil and wetland
habitats especially in mangrove areas. The soil organic matter in the present study was
higher than the recorded values (0.2-0.4%) by Rajyalakshmi and Chandra (1987) in
Chilka lagoon, India and in mangrove areas (0.5-1.7%) of Bangladesh (Zafar and
Hasan, 2005). The higher soil organic matter content at the study areas revealed that
257
the accumulation of carbon in the superficial soil is the results of the continuous input
of organic matters from aquatic macrophytes i.e. mangroves and its associates (Zafar
and Hasan, 2005). Organic materials were found lower in seaward zone as compared to
landward zone, assuming that the flashing and leaching out of surface soil nutrients
may occur into the adjacent coastal ecosystems.
The carbon content of soil of Sibuti and Awat-Awat mangrove forests, Malaysia (Table
3) was comparatively lower than the soil carbon content from East Kalimantan,
Indonesia (Sukardjo, 1994), Sepetiba Bay, Brazil (Lacerda et al., 1995) and Western
and Eastern Atlantic and Pacific coast (Chmura et al., 2003). Soil organic carbon of
Indian Sundarbans, estimated by Jonathan et al. (2010), found very low: ranging from
0.18-3.52% at 32-36cm depth which is comparable with Sarawak mangrove forests.
This result is also supported by previous works by Zuloaga et al. (2009) and Chatterjee
et al. (2007). The variation of organic matters could be due to differences in mangrove
species composition, geographical location and tidal fluctuation of the mangrove area
(Lacerda et al., 1995).
Table 3: Comparison of soil carbon concentrations of mangrove forests with other

studies.
Author Site characteristics Organic matter (%) Organic carbon (%)
Sukardjo 6.81% (Avicennia forest) 3.96% (Avicennia forest)

East Kalimantan, Indonesia
(1994) 19.61% (Ceriops forest) 11.40% (Ceriops forest)
2.70%-2.80% (under Rhizophora
Lacerda et
South-eastern Brazil - mangle) and 3.80%-6.10% (under
al. (1995)
Avicennia schaueriana)
Chmura et Western and Eastern
- 11.1%
al. (2003) Atlantic and Pacific coasts
Present Awat-Awat mangrove 2.62-2.77% (Rhizophora forest)
4.51-4.90%
study forest, Malaysia
Sibuti mangrove forest,
7.05-14.91% 3.71-7.85% (Rhizophora forest)
Malaysia
CONCLUSION
The soil carbon and organic matter of Sarawak mangrove forest was found higher in
the landward zone as compared to seaward/riverward zone, suggesting the export of
organic into the adjacent South China Sea. Both the Sibuti and Awat-Awat mangroves
showed different percentage of soil carbon content. The river dominant mangrove in
Sibuti retains and buried more organic carbon compared to Awat-Awat mangrove forest
that exists on the shore of South China Sea. The results of this study would be helpful
to estimate the global carbon storage in the mangrove forest soil. Further research on
soil carbon dynamics within these mangrove ecosystems is needed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors would like to say thank to Universiti Putra Malaysia providing research grant
(UPM/700-2/1/GP-IPS/2016/9493500) to conduct this study. Special thanks to
Sarawak Forestry Department and Miri Forestry Department for their permission to
conduct this research.
258
REFERENCES
Abu Hena, M.K., Short, F.T., Sharifuzzaman, S.M., Hasan, M., Rezowan, M. &
Ali, M. 2007. Salt marsh and seagrass communities of Bakkhali Estuary, Cox’s
Bazar, Bangladesh. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 75(1): 72-78.
Chandra, I.A., Abu Hena, M.K. & Seca, G. 2011. Aboveground biomass production
of Rhizophora apiculata Blume in Sarawak mangrove forest. American Journal of
Agricultural and Biological Sciences, 6(4): 469-474.
Chatterjee, M., Silva Filho, E.V., Sarkar, S.K., Sella, S.M., Bhattacharya, A.,
Satpathy, K.K., Prasad, M.V.R., Chakraborthy, S. & Bhattacharya, B.D. 2007.
Distribution and possible source of trace elements in the sediment cores of tropical
macrotidal estuary and their ecotoxicological significance. Environment
International, 33: 346-356.
Chefetz, B., Hatcher, P.G., Hadar Y.Y. & Chen, Y. 1996. Chemical and biological
characterization of organic matter during composting of municipal solid waste.
Journal of Environmental Quality, 25(4): 776-785.
Chmura, G.L., Anisfeld, S.C., Cahoon, D.R. & Lynch, J.C. 2003. Global carbon
sequestration in tidal, saline wetland soils. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 17(4):
1111.
Duarte, C.M., Middelburg, J.J. & Caraco, N. 2005. Major role of marine vegetation
on the oceanic carbon cycle. Biogeosciences, 2(1): 1-8.
Jennerjahn, T.C. & Ittekkot, V. 2002. Relevance of mangroves for the production
and deposition of organic matter along tropical continental margins.
Naturwissenschaften, 89(1): 23-30.
Jonathan, M.P., Sarkar, S.K., Roy, P.D., Alam, M.A., Chatterjee, M.,
Bhattacharya, B.D., Bhattacharya, A. & Satpathy, K.K. 2010. Acid leachable
trace metals in sediment cores from Sunderban mangrove wetland, India: an
approach towards regular monitoring. Ecotoxicology, 19(2): 405-418.
Kristensen, E., Bouillon, S., Dittmar, T. & Marchand, C. 2008. Organic carbon
dynamics in mangrove ecosystems: a review. Aquatic Botany, 89(2): 201-219.
Lacerda, L.D., Ittekkot, V. & Patchineelam, S.R. 1995. Biogeochemistry of
mangrove soil organic matter: a comparison between Rhizophora and Avicennia
soils in South-eastern Brazil. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 40(6): 713-720.
Rajyalakshmi, T. & Chandra, D.M. 1987. On culture of Penaeus monodon in saline
and freshwater ponds in Andhra Pradesh, India. Indian Journal of Animal Science,
57: 348-358.
Schumacher, B.A. 2002. Methods for the determination of total organic carbon (TOC)
in soils and sediments. Ecological Risk Assessment Support Center. Office of
Research and Development US, Environmental Protection Agency. pp. 25.
Sukardjo, S. 1994. Soils in the mangrove forests of the Apar Nature Reserve, Tanah
Grogot, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Southeast Asian Studies, 32 (3): 385-398.
Twilley, R.R., Chen, R.H. & Hargis, T. 1992. Carbon sink in mangrove forests and
their implications to the carbon budget of tropical coastal ecosystems. Water Air Soil
Pollution, 64: 265-288.
Zafar, M. & Hasan, C.K. 2005. Organic carbon in the soils of natural and afforested
mangrove of Bangladesh. The Journal of NOAMI, 22: 1-8.
Zuloaga, O., Prieto, A., Usobiaga, A., Sarkar, S.K., Chatterjee, M., Bhattacharya,
B.D., Bhattacharya, A., Alam, M.A. & Satpathy, K.K. 2009. Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons in intertidal marine bivalves of Sunderban mangrove wetland, India:
an approach to bioindicator species. Water Air and Soil pollution, 201: 305-318.
259
Spatial Relationships between Wheat Grain Yield and Soil Variables
Karami, A., Moradi, A., Afzalinia, S., Zareian, Gh.R., Ziaeyan, A.H. and Moghimi, A.H.
Research and Education Center, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension
Organization (AREEO), Shiraz, Iran
E-mail: Alidad_karami@yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION
Achievement of high wheat yield and conservation of soil quality is only possible by
precision agriculture. Having a comprehensive knowledge about soil texture, moisture
content, and bulk density is necessary for evaluating soil quality and doing precision
agriculture (Sudduth et al., 2013).
Point or station study has limitation like low number of sampling and comparing with
contortion of soil parameters pattern, provides small amount of information (Hofmann
et al., 2010). Variability of natural soil increased at different spatial and temporal scales,
because of, complicated soil formation process and application of materials on soil with
cultivation (Burgos et al., 2006). Soil variability increased with different agricultural
crop management (Godwin and Miller, 2003). Variation of relationship between soil
properties were also reported at sugar-cane lands with uniform management and with
aid of precision agriculture (Cruz et al., 2011).
Variability of soil organic carbon severely depends on natural processes and human
activities (Lacoste et al., 2014). Soil organic carbon at different locations has been
estimated with geostatistical methods especially kriging method (Vasques et al., 2010;
Kempen et al., 2011). Crop yield is affected by inherent soil properties and management
factors; therefore, for optimum using of inputs, protecting environment, producing
healthy food, using variable rate fertilizer technology, adapting irrigation system
designs, and sustainable and economic producing, a comprehensive understanding of
variability pattern of these properties is necessary. Therefore the goals of this research
was to determine the spatial variability of wheat yield and soil properties, and choose
the best geostatisical model for characterizing of these spatial variations. In addition,
soil properties and wheat yield distribution map was provided using the best semi-
variogram model and best interpolator.
Fars province and Darab plain is one of most important regions in Iran for producing
agricultural products. In this plain, a field with 40 ha area, which irrigated with center
pivot irrigation system was selected. This field was located from 28◦, 46‫״‬59, ‫ ׳‬to 28◦ N,
to 28◦, 47‫״‬23, ‫ ׳‬N and from 54◦, 16‫״‬47, ‫ ׳‬E to 54◦, 17‫״‬14, ‫ ׳‬E. The moisture and
temperature regimes of this area are Aridic-Ustic and Hyperthermic, respectively.
Wheat yield data harvested by class lexion 510 combine from plots of 25 m 2 areas
(11340 locations) with corresponding geographical location were used. In addition, soil
samples were randomly taken from 0-30 cm soil depth of 36 sites (points) of this field
and analyzed for soil EC, pH, TNV, OC, SP, and soil sand, silt and clay particles,
Wheat yield was also measured by manual harvesting 2 m2 area of these sites. Besides,
soil bulk density was measured by taking undisturbed soil samples from 0-15 and 15-
260
30 cm soil depths. Collected data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel 2007, SPSS 16,
AGRO-MAP 4, Surfer 10, and GS+ 7 softwares. Data were Interpolated for parameters
at the points without measured data using kriging, inverse distance weighting (IDW),
and cokriging methods by fitting spherical, exponential, linear, linear to sill and
Gaussian models to the experimental semi-variograms and cross semi-variograms
(Lakhankar et al., 2010; Theodossiou and Latinopoulos, 2006). For evaluation of
models and geostatistic estimation validity, mean absolute error, mean biased error, root
mean square error, and variance of error criteria were used (Wakernagel, 2002).
Results showed that variation range of wheat yield was very high. Evaluation of wheat
yield at 11340 points with area of 25 m2 for each point indicated that 321 points had
zero wheat yields. Wheat grain yield harvested with combine varied from 2 to 10.08
ton/ha. This showed that wheat yield and yield components could be considerably
increased by applying precision agriculture, improving management system, and
eliminating existing limitations at the field.
Exponential model was the best fitted model to the grain yield data with the maximum
coefficient of determination and the minimum residual sum of squares, and wheat yield
and 1000 kernel weight had strong spatial structure (Table 1).
Table 1: Fitted model to the experimental semi-variogram and summary of geostatistics

information of wheat yield harvested by combine
C0
Factors Model C0 C0+C A0 R2 RSS
C0  C
Wheat yield Exponential 0.032 0.064 0.02 117.2 0.94 1.43*10-5
Kernel weight Spherical 1.3 53.6 0.02 992 0.91 106
C0: nugget effect, C+C0: sill, C0/C0+C: spatial correlation ratio, A0: range (m), R 2: coefficient of
determination, RSS: residual of sum of square
Based on evaluation criteria, accuracy of point kriging method for estimating wheat
grain yield was higher than IDW method. Therefore, spatial distribution of wheat grain
yield using point kriging interpolator is shown in Figure 2. As it is indicated in Figure
2, wheat grain yield had very high variability. Diacono et al. (2011) also found high
spatial variations for durum wheat yield and quality parameters, and related these
variations to the spatial variability of effective factors on crop yield. Kernel weight of
wheat grain was influenced by soil properties and soil salinity had the higher effect on
the kernel weight than the others. In the northwest of the field that soil salinity as a
limitation factor, amount of kernel weight was low (Figure 1).
261
Figure 1: Spatial distribution map of wheat grain yield using kriging method (right)
and kernel weight with co-kriging method using co-factor of soil salinity (left)
There was significant correlation between wheat yield and soil properties (Table 2).
Results of previous researches have also shown contradictory correlation between soil
bulk density and other soil parameters (Weynants et al., 2009). Similar to results of this
research, Martins da Silva et al. (2016) also reported negative correlation between soil
silt and soil sand percentage. Soil sand had the maximum variation across the studied
field and pH, EC, and ρb showed the minimum variations.
Soil particle size percentage and SP had the maximum variation across the farm area.
Bevington et al. (2016) also reported that soil hydraulic properties were site dependent
because of soil intrinsic heterogeneous. The best semi-variogram model for soil pH,
organic carbon, and soil bulk density at the soil depth of 15 and 30 cm was exponential.
The best semi-variogram model for soil EC, TNV, SP, and soil silt and clay percentage
was spherical and for soil sand percentage was Gaussian. Selection of the best model
for semi-variogram was done based on the maximum determination coefficient and the
minimum residual sum of squares (RSS).
Table 2: Simple correlation coefficient between wheat yield characteristics and

measured soil properties
Yield KW SP pH EC TNV OC ρb15 ρb30 Sand Silt Clay
Yield 1
KW .61** 1
SP -.02 -.33 1
pH -.24 -.04 -.03 1
EC .12 -.39* .27 -.62** 1
TNV .13 .30 -.60** .06 -.11 1
OC -.05 -.29 .73** -.23 .54** -.39* 1
ρb15 .08 .07 -.05 .02 -.14 .20 -.19 1
ρb30 -.01 .01 -.10 -.17 .12 .24 -.19 .37 1
Sand .16 .17 -.64** -.32 .32 .65** -.28 .14 .28 1
Silt -.17 -.39* .51** -.08 .25 -.58** .36* -.31 -.28 -.60** 1
Clay -.07 .06 .44** .46** -.57** -.40* .10 .04 -.15 -.83** .04 1
KW: kernel weight, SP: saturation percentage, TNV: total neutralized value, OC: organic carbon, ρb:
bulk density
Soil EC, TNV, SP, and soil sand, silt, and clay percentage had strong spatial structure;
while, soil pH, organic carbon, and soil bulk density had moderate spatial structure. In
the most cases of soil properties, nugget effect was very low, determination coefficient
was high, and residual sum of squares was very low. The best cross-variorum model
for SP with co-factor of soil clay percentage and for soil EC with co-factor of soil pH
and soil potassium was spherical model. The best cross-variogram model for soil EC
with co-factor of organic matter was exponential. In these cross semi-variograms,
262
nugget effect was small, determination coefficient was high, and residual of sum of
squares was low.
The best interpolator method for soil pH, EC, organic carbon, sand and silt percentage
was kriging and for TNV, saturation percentage, bulk density at 0–15 and 15–30 cm,
and soil clay percentage was obtained IDW method. Interpolation methods for soil
properties were also evaluated with different criteria, but the results were not presented
in this manuscript because of shortening the paper length. Spatial distribution maps of
soil properties were drawn using the best semi-variogram model and the best
interpolation method. For example spatial distribution maps of soil organic matter and
soil salinity is presented in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Spatial distribution map of soil OC (right) using IDW and soil EC (left) using
kriging interpolation method
CONCLUSION
Results showed that wheat yield variability was very high across the studied farm;
however, wheat yield can be increased eliminating factors that have negative effect on
wheat yield. Evaluation of combine default interpolator showed that this interpolator
had low accuracy; therefore, data collected by this system should be corrected. Wheat
yield and yield components had significant correlation with soil properties which
should be taken into account in designing a suitable management system for agricultural
lands. The best models of semi-variograms and the best interpolator for each soil
property and crop parameter was determined and their variation maps were provided.
Spatial distribution maps of soil properties are very useful tools for better management
at different parts of field.
REFERENCES
Bevington, J., Piragnolo, D., Teatini, P., Vellidis, G. & Morari, F. 2016. On the
spatial variability of soil hydraulic properties in a Holocene coastal farmland.
Geoderma, 262: 294–305.
Burgos, P., Madejón, E., Pérez-de-Mora, A. & Cabrera, F. 2006. Spatial variability
of the chemical characteristics of a trace-element-contaminated soil before and after
remediation. Geoderma, 130: 157-175.
Cruz, J.S., de-Assis Jonior, R.N., Rocha Matias, S.S. & Camacho-Tamayo, J.H.
2011. Spatial variability of an Alfisol cultivated with sugarcane. Ciencia e
investigación agraria, 38(1): 155-164.
263
Diacono, M., Troccoli, A., Girone, G. & Castrignanò, A. 2011. Field-scale
variability and homogeneous zone delineation for some qualitative parameters of
durum wheat semolina in mediterranean environment. World Journal of
Agricultural Science, 7(3): 286-290.
Godwin, R.J. & Miller, P.C.H. 2003. A review of the technologies for mapping
within-field variability. Biosystem Engineering, 84: 393-407.
Hofmann, T., Darsow, A. & Schafmeister, M.T. 2010. Importance of the nugget
effect in variography on modeling zinc leaching from a contaminated site using
simulated annealing. Journal of Hydrology, 389: 78–89.
Kempen, B., Brus, D.J. & Stoorvogel, J.J. 2011. Three-dimensional mapping of soil
organic matter content using soil type-specific depth functions. Geoderma, 162:
107– 123.
Lacoste, M., Minasny, B., McBratney, A., Michot, D., Viaud, V. & Walter, C. 2014.
High resolution 3D mapping of soil organic carbon in a heterogeneous agricultural
landscape. Geoderma, 213: 296-311.
Lakhankar, T., Jones, A.S., Combs, C.L., Sengupta, M., Vonder Haar T.H. &
Khanbilvardi, R. 2010. Analysis of large scale spatial variability of soil moisture
using a geostatistical Method. Sensors, 10: 913-932.
Martins da Silva, P., Carvalho, F., Dirilgen, T., Stone, D., Creamer, R., Bolger, T.
& Sousa, J.P. 2016. Traits of collembolan life-form indicate land use types and soil
properties across a European transect. Applied Soil Ecology, 97: 69–77
Sudduth, K.A., Myers, D.B., Kitchen, N.R. & Drummond, S.T. 2013. Modeling soil
electrical conductivity – depth relationships with data from proximal and penetrating
EC a sensors. Geoderma, 199 (SI): 12–21.
Theodossiou, N. & Latinopoulos, P. 2006. Evaluation and optimization of
groundwater observation networks using the kriging methodology. Environmental
Modeling Software, 21: 991–1000.
Vasques, G.M., Grunwald, S., Comerford, N.B. & Sickman, J.O. 2010. Regional
modeling of soil carbon at multiple depths with in a subtropical watershed.
Geoderma, 156: 326–336.
Wakernagel, H. 2002. Multivariate geostatistics. Springer Press, 387 pp.
Weynants, M., Vereecken, H. & Javaux, M. 2009. Revisiting Vereecken pedo-
transfer functions: introducing a closed-form hydraulic model. Vadose Zone
Journal, 8: 86–95.
Yamaguchi, T. & Blumwald, E. 2005. Developing salt-tolerant crop plants:
challenges and opportunity. Trends of Plant Science, 10: 615 –620.
264
Screening and Laboratory Assessment of Various Local Commercial
Solid Biofertilizers
Illani, Z.I.1, Mohd Zafrul, A.R.2 and Norziana, Z.Z.1
1
Crop Science, Soil and Water Programme, MARDI Headquarters, Persiaran MARDI-
UPM, 43400 Serdang, Malaysia
2
Fertilizer Technology Programme, MARDI Headquarters, Persiaran MARDI-UPM,
43400 Serdang, Malaysia
3
Crop and Soil Science Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, Persiaran MARDI-
UPM, 43400 Serdang, Malaysia
E-mail: illani@mardi.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Currently, our market for agriculture input is flooded with various organic and
inorganic products materials with some of it being genuine and some were self-claimed
as biofertilizer. This is one of the factors that caused confusion among consumers
especially to organic growers. Various names were given to these products such as
super bio-organic fertilizer, soil revitalizer, organic grow, plant growth stimulant and
others. Some of these companies have been existed for 20 years with the average
production volume of 1000-2000 tonnes per month. Many private companies have
approached MARDI for the evaluation and verification of their products in order to
boost consumer acceptance. Some of these products are produces locally and some are
imported. Vessey (2003) has defined the term biofertilizer as a material with living
microorganisms which, when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, it colonizes the
rhizosphere or the interior of the plant. It also promotes growth by increasing the
availability of main nutrients to the plant. This is different with the term organic
fertilizer which involved the decay of organic compounds and also could increase soil
fertility by several mechanisms. Biofertilizer also should not be confused with other
terms such green manure, manure, intercrop, or organic-supplemented chemical
fertilizer. In addition, not all plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) can be
considered as biofertilizers because some bacteria which can promote plant growth by
control of harmful organisms should be called biopesticides. Some bacteria can be a
bioenhancer by producing phytohormones and promote the growth. PGPR also can act
as biofertilizer, biopesticide or even bioenhancer. Most consumers and even the
producers are still unclear about the term of biofertilizer itself. A quality screening for
a genuine biofertilizer products as claimed must be standardized. Thus, a study was
conducted to screen the quality of the biofertilizer product in our local market as per
say claimed to contained living microorganisms together with its nutrient assessment.
Laboratory experiment and analyses
A selection of 30 solid local biofertilizers for laboratory tests were purchased randomly
from local agricultural shops and fertilizer suppliers. Initial screening of the biofertilizer
sample’s will be based on microbial population in the products using a serial dilution.
A 10 g of wet weight of biofertilizer samples were diluted in 90 mL of physiological
saline water (0.85% NaCl). Then, a series of dilution factor consist of 100 µL of diluted
samples were then spread on non-selective media (growth media), nutrient agar (Oxoid)
265
and counted for the microbial population of total colony forming unit (CFU/mL). The
number of colony forming unit (cfu) after incubation period (1-7 days) represented the
population density (cfu per g wet weight of biofertilizer). Selected microbial from
samples will be screened on the selective media were N-free agar for free-living
dinitrogen fixing bacteria (NF), phosphate solubilizing media (PSM), potato dextrose
agar (PDA) media for fungi, actinomycetes agar (AA) for actinomycetes and tomato
juice agar (TJA) for Lactobacillus. The selected biofertilizer samples were air-dried for
two days, sieved to 0.2 mm in order to homogenize the materials for chemical analysis.
Microbes from the culture were also isolated for identification using Gram staining
method and analyzing the 16s RNA. The samples were undergwentone genomic DNA
extraction, amplification of DNA template, identificationed of amplified DNA and
DNA sequencing. The chemical analysis of samples with moisture content using
(gravimetric water content), pH=1:10 (w/v) water suspension, total carbon and nitrogen
using CHNS/O analyzer (Elemental) and dry ashing method for other elements.
From 30 samples of biofertilizers product that has been screened for microbial
population study, only five samples have showed a distinctive count (Table 1). Whereas
in the remaining 25 products, no colony growth observed, indicating that there is no
microbial population in the products. The order of microbial quality in samples from
the highest to the lowest was S11 > S2 > S3> S4 and S10.
Table 1: Microbial populations in five samples of selected biofertilizers

Microbial population
Product label
(CFU/mL)
S2 3.8x106
S3 1.93x106
S4 1.25 x106
S10 5.93x103
S11 1.08x107
Defining a standard microbial density for a certain microbial quality is very critical as
only product S11 has >107 CFU/ml that met specification of quality control biofertilizer
set up by Ghosh (2001) and same study reported by Edi et al. (2007), also showed
similar results with only one products has >107 CFU/mL. Usually, several species of
microbes are used in microbial products with an available period of by- products of
about 1~2 and/or 2~3 years. Microbial products can be solid or liquid in form.
However, only five solid biofertilizers products showed counted microbial population
and these products were tested for selective functional groups of microbes. On a
functional group of microbes, the five biofertilizer products showed a microbial density
according to selective media (Table 2).
266
Table 2: Product specification and microbial density on selective media
Product specification Media agar used (CFU/mL)
(form, color) PDA PSM NF TJA AA
S2: solid, black coarse
8.98x104 1.86x105 4.27x105 1.09x105 1.37x106
particle
S3: solid, brown coarse
5.36x104 9.66x104 1.31x106 7.85x104 1.13x106
particle
S4: solid, black fine
4.13x104 2.02x105 4.10x105 2.56x104 1.06x106
particle
S10: solid, black fine
N/A 7.75x104 N/A N/A 4.66x104
powder
S11: solid, brown coarse
1.24x105 1.24x105 1.68x108 1.41x105 8.73x107
particle
While in Table 3, it showed nutrient contents of the selected biofertilizer products. This
result indicated that the carrier used which has been used in the biofertilizer product is
from plant based as typically biofertilizers contain relatively low concentrations of the
actual plant nutrients (Margaret and Labunmi, 2013), and are not immediately available
for plant to utilize. The fortification with microbes together with organic plant wastes
or even composts as a source of organic nutrients are really good combination for both
substances.
Some of the microbes underwent further analysis using 16s RNA. The DNA sequencing
of the microbe samples that have been isolated especially from sample products of S2,
S4 and S10 shown a matched species in the database. Following are the results:
1. Media NF, S2: Species: Bacillus megaterium strain H2

2. Media PSM, sample S2: Species: Bacillus subtilis strain CYBS-20
3. Media NF, sample S4: Species: Bacillus megaterium DSM 319
4. Media PSM, sample S10: Species: Clostridium beijerinckii NCIMB 8052
Bacteria species like Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Lactobacillus, photosynthetic bacteria,

nitrogen fixing bacteria, fungi of Trichoderma and yeast are normally used in microbial
products. Among those microbes, the major species used for the inoculants is
endospore-forming Bacillus. Similarly with the microbes obtained from this study,
most of the microbes are Bacillus and Clostridium species as they can grow well in
anaerobic condition (Sonenshein, 2000).
267
Table 3: Nutrient contents of selected biofertilizer products
Moisture
CEC C N P2O5 K2O Ca Mg Na S Zn Al B Fe Mn
Product content
Label
meq/
%
100 g
S2 45.19 79.40 18.8 0.17 0.05 0.18 1167.07 405.70 587.16 61.19 0.11 0.04 0.39 0.35 0.26
S3 29.99 51.40 9.8 0.01 0.46 0.14 340.15 305.46 634.35 28.25 0.10 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.70
S4 31.94 20.40 13.3 0.03 0.22 0.03 568.88 245.67 43.02 122.66 0.42 0.19 0.14 0.95 7.01
S10 28.62 13.00 10.4 0.01 0.65 0.38 149.55 44.73 188.70 348.40 0.57 0.08 1.33 2.25 0.34
S11 41.42 11.30 7.4 0.02 0.34 0.16 413.48 350.89 299.96 24.99 0.12 0.06 0.17 0.15 0.91
268
CONCLUSION
From the study conducted, it showed many factors gave challenges in the availability,
survivality and sustainability of living microorganisms in commercial biofertilizers and
these really important crucial for the efficacy of the biofertilizers field applications.
Factors affecting microbe’s survival and competition with autochthonous bacteria in
soil need to be investigate further to improve field efficacy. It is also really important
to make sure the microbes in the products are available and present for quality and
market assurance.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge with thank to the Director General of MARDI and the
Director of Crop and Soil Science Research Centre for their support. We thank also to
HH Raja Zainab Raja Abdullah and Mr Abd Rahaman Sadek for their assistance
throughout laboratory analyses. This project was funded under 10th Malaysian Plan
Development Project: 2RS1001148 Exploration and utilization of microbial resources
for white agriculture under Ministry of Agriculture and Agrobased Industry (MOA),
Government of Malaysia.
REFERENCES
Edi, H., Simanungkalit, R.D.M., Rasti, D. & Irawan. 2007. Characterization and
quality assessment of Indonesian commercial biofertilizer. Indonesian Journal of
Agricultural Science, 8(1):31-38
Ghosh, T.K. 2001. A Review on Quality Control of Biofertilizer in India. Fertilizer
Marketing News 32(8): 1-9
Margaret, O.O & Labunmi, L. 2013. Physico-chemical and mineral analysis of
composts fortified with NPK fertilizer, ammonium chloride and kaolin. Journal of
Agricultural Chemistry and Environment. Vol.2 No.2: 27-33
Sonenshein A. 2000. Endospore-Forming Bacteria: an Overview, p 133-150. In Brun
Y, Shimkets L (ed), Prokaryotic Development. ASM Press, Washington, DC. doi:
10.1128/9781555818166.ch6
Vessey, J.K. 2003. Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria as biofertilizers. Plant Soil,
255: 571-586
269
Effect of Different Filling Materials on Physical Properties and
Viability of Encapsulated Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Bacillus subtilis
Upmb10
Khairul Amin1, Radziah, O.1,4, Halimi, M.S.2 and Siti Zaharah, M.W.3
1
Department of Land Management, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Agriculture Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
3
Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
4
Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia
E-mail: radziah@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Concept of microencapsulation technique with addition of selected carrier materials

proves to be beneficial to protect the bacteria in rhizosphere and have long been
practiced (Zhu, 2007). Formulation is an important strategy which involves processing
of active ingredient with various formulative materials to create an effective product.
Natural polymer such as alginate is the most used polymer for this technique. Several
properties of alginate, like its biodegradability and non-toxicity, make it a potential
carrier for controlled delivery of biologically active agents (Bashan et al., 2002).
However, alginate beads have several disadvantages which cause problems such as
distorted shapes, uneven sizes, low mechanical strength and high porosity. In this study,
two types of carrier materials which are rice husk biochar (RHB) and montmorillonite
clay (MMT) were used to improve the properties of the beads and to determine the
effect of two filling materials on characteristics, viability and efficacy of nitrogen-
fixing bacteria.
Sphericity factor
Ten beads from four formulations (Ca-alginate-RHB,Ca-alginate-MMT,Ca-alginate

and Ca-alginate without starch) were sampled randomly and the diameter size was
determined by using stereomicroscope, Leica EZ4. Theshape of the beads was
quantified using sphericity factor (SF) following the method of Chan et al., (2011);
SF = (dmax – dmin)/(dmax + dmin)
Where;
d𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Largest diameter

d𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Smallest diameter
270
Encapsulation efficiency
A total of 200 beads from each formulation was suspended in 9.0 ml of saline solution
for 24 h and crushed. Serial dilutions of the suspension were made and 0.1 mL aliquots
were plated on Nutrient Agar (NA) and incubated at 30±2 0C for 24h. Homogenized
sample was removed from the mixture during preparation process and suspended in 9.0
ml saline solution. Serial dilutions of the suspension were made and 0.1 mL aliquots
were plated on NA and incubated at 30±20C for 24h. The encapsulation efficiency (EE)
was calculated by the following expression:
EE (%) = (Xt / Xi) ×100
Where;
Xt = Total amount of probiotic loaded in alginate beads

Xi = Initial amount of probiotic added in the preparation process
Biodegradability study
The biodegradability of the beads was studied by determining the loss of samples mass
at designated times in a soil environment. One gram beads were placed in very fine
mesh (10-20 µm) nylon bags and buried 5 cm below the cocopeat surface. The soil was
maintained at room temperature and constant 30% moisture for 30 days. In order to
monitor the progress of degradation, the initial weight of the dried beads was defined
as Wi, while the buried samples were dug out after various time periods, washed in
distilled water, then weighed as Wt after drying them for 48 h to get constant weights.
The degradation index (%) was calculated by equation below. All the experiments were
carried out in triplicates.
Degradation index (%) = Wi – Wt x 100
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The surface morphology of the samples was analysed using scanning electron
microscopy (JEOL JSM6400, USA). Sample of encapsulated N-fixing bacteria was
examined for the pore space and distribution of bacteria using SEM technique.
Sphericity factor
The shape of the alginate beads was represented using the sphericity factor. The
sphericity factor varies from zero for a perfect sphere to approaching unity for an
elongated object (Chan et al., 2011). Results showed that SF for Ca-alginate RHB was
0.0279 ± 0.02, Ca-alginate-MMT was 0.011 ± 0.004, Ca-alginate was 0.0290 ± 0.002
and Ca-alginate (without starch) was 0.152 ± 0.02. Ca-alginate (without starch) showed
the highest SF compared to other formulation. Due to drying process, the shape of the
Ca-alginate (without starch) was irregular, but the shape of beads with filler remained
spherical. These characteristics resulted from the filler’s ability to reinforce the alginate
hydrogel network and fill the interstitial voids.
271
Encapsulation efficiency
The initial cell count of B. subtillis before bead preparation was 9.27 ± 0.09 log
CFU/mL. The degradation of cell count can be observed in Table 1 due to drying
process. Loss of moisture content influenced the survival of bacterial cells during the
encapsulation process. However, addition of RHB and MMT increasedbacterial
survival as it trapped more cells inside the bead compared to Ca-alginate formulation.
Large surface areas of biochars has been shown to increase the adhesion and entrapment
of bacterial cells (Downie et al., 2009). Pietikäinen et al., (2000) suggested that bacteria
may attach to biochar surfaces and rendering them less susceptible to deatching in soil.
The ability of biochars to retain bacteria also depends on the biochar properties such as
pore size (Rivera-Utrilla et al., 2001). The pore size can be a microhabitant for the cells.
Adsorption to biochar may occur via electrostatic forces. The effect of electric currents
on microbial adhesion and activity is only recently being explored (Bond, 2010). Clays
can act as a desiccant providing excellent storage for dried inoculants due to the large
surface area, pore size distribution, and total porosity. Clay inoculants carriers increased
survival levels of bacteria in soil and provided protective microhabitats accessible to
the bacteria but inaccessible to predators. Clay also is a good biocompatibility of the
wall material. Thus, it reduced cell loss in CaCl2 solution.
Table1: Mean values of the viability of B. subtilis in Xi (initial amount of probiotic

added in the preparation process) and Xt (total amount of probiotic loaded in alginate
beads) and percentage (%) of encapsulation efficiency.
Formulation Xi Xt %
Ca-alg-RHB 9.06 8.9 98.23a
Ca-alg-MMT 9.57 8.69 90.80a
Ca-alg 9.03 8.01 88.70b
The mean values marked with the same letters are not significantly different at p≤0.05
Biodegradability study
Biodegradation of alginate bead in cocopeat was followed for 20 days and was
influenced by the presence of filling material in the bead. Based in figure 1, Ca-alg-
RHB showed the lowest biodegradable percentage compared to other formulation as
rice husk contains SiO2 and other inorganic components that are quite difficult to
degrade biologically.
50
Degradation Index (%)
45
40
35 Ca-alg-RHB
30 Ca-alg-MMT
25
Ca-alg
20
8 days 20 days
Time (Day)
Figure 1: Degradation index of bead in different formulations for 20 days
272
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The cross sectional view of SEM showed addition of fillers were found to improve the
sphericity, flowability, density, visual quality and rigidity of the beads, which are
desirable qualities for processing, handling and consumer usage. In this study, it proved
that pore space inside the capsule can be microhabitat for the nitrogen fixing bacteria.
Porous structure of RHB been viewed inside the capsule which facilitate swelling and
release of bacteria from the capsule.
a b c d
Figure 2: SEM image of (a) Ca-alginate beads without starch (b) Ca-alginate-MMT
beads (c) Ca-alginate-MMT (d) Ca-alginate-RHB
Figure 3: Pore space inside the capsule that act as microhabitat for B. subtilis.
Figure 4: Porous structure of RHB
CONCLUSION
The studies showed that addition of filling materials exert significant effect on the
sphericity, encapsulation efficiency, biodegradability and distribution of bacteria inside
the bead. Addition of rice husk biochar to the formulation increased amount of bacteria
trapped inside the bead and decreased the percentage of biodegradability which
essential for constant supply of bacteria towards the plants root.
273
REFERENCES
Bashan, Y., Hernandez, J.P., Leyva, L.A. & Bacilio, M. 2002. Alginate microbeads
as inoculant carriers for plant growth-promoting bacteria. Biol Fertil Soils, 35:359-
368.
Bond, D.R. 2010. Electrodes as electron acceptors, and the bacteria who love them.
In: Barton, L.L., Mandl, M., Loy, A. (Eds.), Geomicrobiology: Molecular and
Environmental Perspective. Springer, Berlin. 385-399 pp.
Downie, A., Crosky, A. & Munroe, P. 2009. Physical properties of biochar. Biochar
for environmental management: Science and technology. 13-32 pp.
Chan, E.S., Wong, S.L., Lee, P.P., Lee, J.S., Ti, T.B., Zhang, Z., Poncelet, D.,
Ravindra, P., Phan, S.H. & Yim, Z.H. 2011. Effects of starch filler on the physical
properties of lyophilized calcium–alginate beads and the viability of encapsulated
cells. Carbohyd Polym, 83: 225-232.
Pietikäinen, J., Kiikkilä, O. & Fritze, H. 2000. Charcoal as a habitat for microbes and
its effect on the microbial community of the underlying humus. Oikos, 89: 231-242.
Rivera‐Utrilla, J., Bautista‐Toledo, I., Ferro‐García, M.A. & Moreno‐Castilla, C.
2001. Activated carbon surface modifications by adsorption of bacteria and their
effect on aqueous lead adsorption. Journal of Chemical Technology and
Biotechnology, 76: 1209-1215.
Zhu, Y. 2007. Immobilized cell fermentation for production of chemicals and fuels. In:
Yang, S.T. (Ed.), Bioprocessing for Value-Added Products from Renewable
Resource.
274
The Role of Selected Soil Physical Properties on Soil Carbon Stocks in
a National Heritage Tropical Forest
Jeyanny, V., Wan Rasidah, K., Fakhri, M.I. and Suhaimi, W.C.
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109, Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: jeyanny@frim.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Tropical forest soils are known to have higher carbon content compared to temperate
soils due to factors related to litter inputs, organic matter decomposition and
temperature (Lal, 1998). The nature and properties of tropical soils such as clay content,
soil texture and mineralogy have been cited to influence soil carbon stabilization
(Mutuo et al., 2006). Other soil properties that have been reported to influence soil
carbon are soil moisture and bulk density. Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM)
encompasses several forest types which include natural and planted forest ecosystems.
The whole campus has been established since the 1920’s where it is one of the most
prominent forest ecosystem in Malaysia. The natural forest area comprises about 40 ha
and mostly has Shorea Laevis species. Other naturally occurring species are Artocarpus
sp. and Diospyros sp. The planted forests boast 90 year old stands with species of Khaya
ivorensis, Shorea leprosula, and Aquillaria malaccensis. Most of the area falls under
the sandy clay or sandy clay loam texture group derived from the Tai Tak and Rengam
soil series. Our objective for this paper was to determine the effects of selected soil
properties on the soil organic carbon value of the top soil (25 cm) at 3 different areas.
The site selected was within the FRIM campus (3o 14’ N and 101o 38’ E) covering 3
fields which comprises various degrees of tree cover. At each field, soil samples up to
25 cm depth were retrieved using a Jarret auger and was replicated 3 times. Soil corers
were used to collect bulk density samples in the field and for soil moisture
determination using gravimetric procedures. Soil profile samples were also retrieved
for mechanical analysis. Soil samples were processed and analyzed for C content using
carbon analyzer (Analitikjena Multi EA4000, Germany). Soil analytical data were
analyzed using ANOVA and the means comparison was differentiated using Duncan
Multiple Range Test in SAS statistical software. Results of the differences among
variables are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Results of litter and soil C stocks in selected fields in the FRIM campus
Bulk Moisture
Org. C Clay Silt Soil texture Soil C stocks
Field density content
(g cm3) % mg C ha-1
b b a
Bukit Lagong FR 1.05 25.16 1.36 35.6 8.8 sandy clay 35.7
Dipterocarp
1.32a 20.01b 0.27b 34.32 6.6 sandy clay loam 8.91
Arboretum
a a ab
Colluvial area 1.24 34.96 1.13 41.08 14.04 sandy clay 35.03
Notes: Individual values in column with the same letters are not significantly different at p≤0.05
according to DNMRT
275
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) showed that there were significant differences for bulk
density, moisture content, and total C content among plots. The bulk density for Bukit
Lagong FR was 27 and 18% respectively lower compared to Dipterocarp Arboretum
and colluvial area. Soil moisture content values for the colluvial area were also
significantly higher (± 65-75%) compared to the rest of the plots. Carbon contents in
Bukit Lagong FR and colluvial area were 5 and 4 folds significantly higher compared
to the Dipterocarp Arboretum. Comparatively, the combination of higher percentage of
clay and silt combinations of sandy clay texture gave higher values for soil C (Table 1).
Generally, the higher the organic matter the lower will be the bulk density, thus, values
for Bukit Lagong FR showed better saturation of soil C (Hossain et al., 2015) compared
to the rest of the plots, giving more prominent values for C stocks in the first 25 cm
depth. Soil moisture content does not directly influence soil C, however it was found
that soil C may influence soil moisture content. The availability of higher organic
matter will retain more moisture in the soils (Parajuli and Duffy, 2013). In the colluvial
area which is low lying and adjacent to the river, transportation and deposition of soil
sediments in this wet terrain retained higher value of soil carbon and moisture. The area
in Bukit Lagong FR also had higher soil carbon values as it was a natural forest with
minimal disturbance and matured forest stand (diameter at breast height, DBH 11-125
cm) that allowed higher accumulation of organic material. Moreover, the significantly
lower values of soil C in the Dipterocarp Arboretum (Table 1) is owed to the current
management practices whereby organic litterfall and other woody debris are cleared
periodically which inhibits sufficient organic matter input for the soil (Jeyanny et al.,
2016). The sandy clay texture with favourable clay and silt contents are closely related
to soil structure and aggregation where improved soil structure can retain soil C.
Bationo et al. (2007) reported that increased levels of clay and silt in forest
simultaneously increase carbon values in soil leading to higher C stocks in the top soil,
which was concurring with our results for the Bukit Lagong FR and colluvial area.
CONCLUSION
The highest soil C stocks were recorded in the Bukit Lagong FR plot and the colluvial
area (±35.0 Mg C ha-1). The amount of soil carbon is directly related to soil organic
matter where lower bulk density and higher clay and silt proportions gave higher
protection of C retaining higher C values in soil. Further investigations should be
carried out to determine the similar soil properties at various soil depths.
REFERENCES
Bationo, A., Kihara, J., Vanlauwe, B., Waswa, B. & Kimetu, J. 2007. Soil organic
carbon dynamics, functions and management in West African agro-
ecosystems. Agricultural systems, 9:13-25.
Hossain, M.F., Chen, W. & Zhang, Y. 2015. Bulk density of mineral and organic soils
in the Canada’s arctic and sub-arctic. Information Processing in Agriculture, 2:183-
190.
Lal, R., Kimble, J.M., Follett, R.F. & Stewart, B.A. eds. 1997. Soil processes and
the carbon cycle (Vol. 11). CRC Press.
276
Mutuo, P.K., Shepherd, K.D., Albrecht, A. & Cadisch, G. 2006. Prediction of carbon
mineralization rates from different soil physical fractions using diffuse reflectance
spectroscopy. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 38:1658-1664.
Parajuli, P.B. & Duffy, S. 2013. Evaluation of soil organic carbón and soil moisture
content from agricultural fields in Mississippi. Open Journal of Soil Science 3: 81-
90
Jeyanny, V., Suhaimi W.C., Wan Rasidah, K., M. Fakhri, I, Hamdan, O. and
Ahmad Zuhaidi, Y. 2016. FRIM campus: Carbon conservation in a natural heritage
site tropical forest.Pp. 264-266. In: Adzemi Mat Arshad, Ahmed Osumanu Haruna,
Rosazlin Abdullah, Che Fauziah Ishak, Christopher The Boon Sung, Jeyanny
Vijayanathan, Wan Zaliha Wan Embok (eds.) Proceedings of the SOILS 2016. “Soil
Improvement for Sustainable Crop Production”.. Malaysian Society of Soil Science,
TH Hotel & Convention Centre, Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu 5-7 April 2016.
277
Characteristics of Peat Soils at Ayer Hitam under Different Vegetation
Rozita, A., Mohamad Fakhri, I., Wan Rasidah, A.K., Jeyanny, V. and Nur Hafizah, A.H.
Forest Biotechnology Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Malaysia
E-mail: rozita@frim.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Peat can be defined as raw undecomposed organic material formed under water logged
condition. Malaysia has about 2.4 million ha of peat in which 61% of the peatland is
occupied in Sarawak, 35% is distributed in West Malaysia and 4% in Sabah. In West
Malaysia, main peat area are found in Pahang, Johor, Selangor, Perak and Terengganu
(Wan Jusoh and Izham, 2004). Peat constitute of organic soils, which is categorized as
one of the problematic soil after acid sulphate soils, sandy soils, calcareous soils, highly
weathered soils, skeletal soils and saline soils (Xavier et al., 2005). Its dominant
characteristics are high water table, very acidic, poor structure and have high organic
carbon content. Due to limited agricultural land, these organic soils were utilized for
cultivation of various crops such as melons, rubber, pineapples, sago, padi, oil palm,
coconut after proper land management. Organic soils are formed by accumulation of
organic soil materials on soil surfaces. These organic material can consist of either
undecomposed, partly decomposed or highly decomposed of plant remains. The
characteristics of tropical peat can be classified according to peat maturity having either
sapric, hemic or fibric type of materials. Another peat soil classification can be based
on the presence of wood skeletal and peat depth (Paramanathan, 2016). Here, we
discussed on the peat soil characteristics at Ayer Hitam, Johor on forested, oil palm and
rubber plantation.
The study site is centered in the Air Hitam Forest Reserve and surrounding areas which
is situated between 02o00’N and 02o05’N with longitudes 104 o44E and 102 o51’E.
Three soil profiles were developed at forested, oil palm and rubber area. The soil
samples were collected at all the three pedons at different soil depth (0–1000 cm).
Analysis of soil properties and nutrient contents were carried out at Soil Chemistry
Laboratory in FRIM. Soil samples were oven dried at 40 oC and passed through 2 mm
size sieve and 212 micron to cater for variety of soil testing. Loss of ignition (LOI) of
sample was carried in muffle furnace at temperature 550 oC for 2 hours. Total nitrogen
in soils was analysed by Micro Kjedahl digestion followed by distillation and titration
with 0.1 N HCL. Organic Carbon (OC) was quantified by Wakley and Black rapid
titration method. Available P was extracted by Bray and Kurtz no. 2 procedure and its
concentration was determined on UV-Visible Spectrophotometer using Denige Blue
method. The soil acidity was measured on pH meter using 1:2.5 ratio of soil/water
suspension. Soil texture was analysed by pipette method. Exchangeable Ca, Mg and K
were extracted using 1 N Ammonium Acetate and the cations content were analysed on
Inductive Couple Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer. Cation exchangeable
capacity (CEC) was determined from I N potassium sulphate extract and its
concentration was measured using flow analyzer.
278
Profile description
Forested area
The soil profile at forested area in Ayer Hitam consisted of three distinct horizons. The
upper layer of 0-50 cm, Oa1, comprised of highly decomposed sapric organic material,
black in color, with fine granules, dry loose with clear smooth boundary. The middle
layer, Oawud1, at 50-75 cm thickness consists mixed of well decomposed sapric
organic material with many large undecomposed wood pieces. This horizon with wavy
boundary having very dark brown color. The lower layer of 75-110 cm (Oawud2)
similar content as the middle layer but having wet and massive stick materials. The
water table at this site was recorded at 90 cm. The organic soil layer was detected up to
300 cm which favour for deep type of peat soil. At 600 to 1000 cm is C horizon with
sulphidic marine clay underlying beneath the organic soil material. The peat soil at the
study site can be identified as Teraja series, for lowland poorly drained organic soils
(Gambists). This identification suits for deep (150-300 cm) to very deep (>300 cm)
ombrogambists having undecomposed wood underlying marine clay sulfidic.
Rubber and oil palm plantation

Both site at rubber and oil palm plantation had four different layers. The first horizon,
Oa1 at 0-25 cm with dark greyish color layer consisted of highly decomposed sapric
organic soil material, having strong granular structures, dry with gradual smooth
boundary. The next horizon, Oa2, black in color at thickness 25-50 cm. This layer
comprised of decomposed sapric organic soil material, slightly moist with clear
boundary. The third and fourth horizon at layer 50-75cm and 75-100 cm, respectively
contain highly decomposed sapric material, wet fluid and more than 40%
undecomposed material. The third layer (Oawud1) consisted of undecomposed twigs
or branches and trunks with gradual smooth boundary. While the fourth layer onwards,
Oawud2 to Oawud4, comprised of undecomposed pieces of wood. More than 750 cm
depth is the underlayered sulphidic marine clay.
Soil properties
Forested site
Table 1 shows the soil properties of peat soil under forested area. The organic matter
content more than 90% is observed at thickness 0-300 cm. Throughout this O horizon,
the soil has more than 40% of organic carbon indicate the carbon content from organic
material. The soil is acidic with pH ranges from 3.40 to 3.58. At this layer, the soil
shows high CEC of 45 to 73 cmol/kg, but however it has low exchangeable bases with
reading of 0.22 to 2.20 cmol/kg Ca, 0.002 to 0.98 cm/kg Mg, 0.005 to 0.25 cml/kg K
and 0.03 to 0.21 cmol/kg Na. High CEC values could be contributed to the presence of
hydrogen ions. Low amounts of exchangeable bases resulted to low base saturation
values with percentage reading of 0.39 to 5.84. At depth 600 -1000 cm, represent the C
horizon with LOI value dropped to 26% and organic carbon content reduces below
11%. At this layer, the soil shows high percentage of base saturation more than 70%,
which are due to high exchangeable magnesium (11 cmol/kg), calcium (3.6 – 6.3
cmol/kg) and sodium (1.2 – 2.7 cmol/kg). These high value could be related to influence
from underlying marine soil. The percentage clay content at 850 to 1000 cm depth are
279
26 -28%, agreeable to Teraja series description with sulphidic marine clay content of
more than 15%.
Rubber and oil palm plantation

The peat soil properties of site planted with oil palm and rubber are tabulated in Table
2. Similar pattern of chemical properties were also observed for site at rubber and oil
palm plantation. High LOI above 90% and organic carbon more than 40% at layer 0 –
150 cm, indicated the characteristic of organic soil. The soil is acidic with pH value
range from 3.10 to 3.41. Its high CEC reading between 48 to 79 cmol/kg could be
contributed to the presence of hydrogen ions and not from exchangeable cations mostly
gave low reading. Total nitrogen content is within 1.2% imply high nutrient status could
be contributed from organic material and fertilizer application. While available P and
exchangeable K levels at 0-50 cm layer was found to be in the range of 8 to 14 ppm and
0.15 cmol/kg, respectively, which are below sufficient limit required for rubber and oil
palm. At low pH, most of nutrients such as P and exchangeable K become immobolised
for plant used. However, exchangeable magnesium is detected in the high range, with
values of 0.6 cmol/kg for oil palm (0-50 cm) and 0.8 to 1.0 cmol/kg for rubber (0-100
cm), which could be due to water logging. Towards 750 cm depth, the LOI values
reduces to 7.6% and contain 10.6% organic carbon, represent the C horizon. High base
saturation at rubber plantation is detected at this C horizon is contributed from high
exchangeable bases mostly from Mg. The percentage clay is found to be 37% at 750
cm depth onwards. High Mg and clay content more than 15% is associated to sulphidic
marine clay.
CONCLUSION
Peat soil at this site for all the vegetation is categorised under deep type of peat with
depth of 150-300 cm, having more than 95% of LOI and high organic carbon above
40%. The peat characteristic favour to Teraja series, for lowland poorly drained organic
soils with undecomposed wood underlying marine clay sulfidic with clay content more
than 15%.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank FRIM for permission of presenting this paper. The
assistance from all the staff of Soil Management Branch, FRIM is greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
Paramanathan, S. 2016. Tour Bulletin Soil Appreciation 2016: Introduction to

Tropical Peatlands. 25 pp.
Wan Jusoh, W.M. & Izham, A. 2004. Production of quality chilli seeds on peat in
Malaysia. SOILS 2014 Conference Proceedings: Innovation in soil science for
sustainable agriculture 137-141.
Xaviar, A., Paramanathan, S. & Lim, K.H. 2005. Improvement of oil palm
performance on marginal and problem soils and difficult terrain. In: Chew P.S. and
Tan Y.P. (eds.). Proc. of MOSTA Best Preactices Workshops: Agronomy and Crop
Management) Malaysian Oil Scientists’ and Technologists’ Association, Kuala
Lumpur: 317-350.
280
In-Situ Immobilization of Lead in Soil Using Different Source of
Phosphate Materials for The Organic Production of the Medicinal
Plant Orthosiphon stamineus
Khairul Naim, M., Ishak, C.F. and Rosenani, A.B.
Department of Land Management, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), 43400, Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: naimmulana90@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Glasshouse study has been conducted to assess the effectiveness of Pb immobilization

due to chicken manure application using different sources of phosphate materials; bone
meal (BM), Egyptian rock phosphate (ERP) and triple super phosphate (TSP). Several
treatments were tested to oversee their effectiveness when applied to the soil grown
with O. stamineus. Pb, Cu and Zn concentrations in the plant tissues had accumulated
in the aerial parts of plants with ranges for Cu (18.3-37.7 mg/kg), Zn (60.9-92.0 mg/kg)
and Pb (1.9-3.6 mg/kg) respectively. From the fractionation of glasshouse study, the
percentage of exchangeable fraction was reduced with application of P-amendments
with the highest of 20.2% of reduction recorded for 2 t/ha application of TSP. This is
followed by reduction in exchangeable fraction for others treatments: 2 t/ha of BM
(4.1%), 4 t/ha of BM (5.1%), 1 t/ha of ERP (8.1%) and 2 t/ha of ERP at 17.6%.
The media mixed with treatments: control, Egyptian rock phosphate with 2 rates of
application of 1 and 2 t/ha, bone meal with 2 rates of application 2 t/ha and 4 t/ha along
with 2 t/ha of triple super phosphate as a comparison for reactive type phosphate rock.
Method of Tessier et al. (1979) was selected for the fractionation study. The fractions
determined were; (1) exchangeable, (2) carbonates, (3) Fe and Mn oxides, (4) organic
matter, and (5) residual. Analysis of statistical data was carried out using SAS
statistical package 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). When the ANOVA for
interaction parameters was significant, means separation was carried out using HSD-
test. The correlation analyses were conducted to measure the degree of relationship
between parameters.
Based on the results, the O. stamineus was capable of accumulating Pb concentrations

at 1.7 to 3.6 mg/kg, zinc concentrations at 60.9 to 92.0 mg/kg and copper concentrations
at 18.3 to 37.7 mg/kg. O. stamineus has been hypothesized in a study by Abdu et al.,
(2011) as a potential phytoremediator species particularly for lead and zinc when being
applied with high rate of sewage sludge. Later, a study by Manan et al., (2015a)
reported that the roots of O. stamineus accumulated high concentration of zinc, copper
and lead. They concluded that this crop has moderate abilities to accumulate copper,
zinc and lead. Manan et al., (2015b), in another study demonstrated the ability of ‘misai
kucing’ to adapt to metal stress via physical changes, and scavenge oxygen radicals
through enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant productions. All studies indicated
low amounts of trace metals in the soil after being grown with this type of crop. As
such, it is speculated that this plant could accumulate copper, zinc and lead to some
281
extent. Reviewing on apatite application on Pb, Zn and Cu concentration in plant
tissues, only 2 t/ha of TSP application (Table 1) showed higher Cu concentration than
control. Ma et al., (1994) showed that Cu and Zn could also be sorbed by apatite, but
less effective than lead. The mechanism of immobilization for these metals was not
identified, but it can be adsorption or precipitation. The effectiveness of P amendments
decreases in multi-element contaminated soils. The competitive metal sorption was
observed to reduce the binding capacity of hydroxyapatite, as example, Pb, Cu and Zn
when simultaneously present in soil solution (Corami et al., 2007; Cao et al., 2004).
Table 1: Effect of different P-amendments application on heavy metals contents in

O. stamineus aerial plant tissues.
Cu Zn Pb
Treatments
mg/kg
Control 27.98ab 92.03a 3.58a
BM 2 18.33b 73.93a 1.98b
BM 4 26.85ab 85.13a 2.20b
ERP1 24.30ab 60.88a 1.68b
ERP2 22.10ab 64.98a 1.88b
TSP2 37.68a 83.95a 1.73b
Pr>F ns ns *
*Means in each column, followed by the same letter, are not significantly different according to the
Tukey test (p>0.05)
Lead phase association
Soil fraction has been conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of P-amendments in

reducing available Pb for plants uptake (Figure 1). The soil has undergone 5 steps of
sequential extraction according to Tessier et al. (1979) right after harvest. In general,
the application of P-amendments either using bone meal, Egyptian rock phosphate or
triple super phosphate shows a reduction in exchangeable lead fraction and increase in
residual fraction. The application of 10 t/ha of chicken manure added a significant
amount of Pb in the exchangeable fraction. The least percentage of Pb in exchangeable
fraction were in this order;
TSP2>ERP2>ERP1>BM4>BM2. These suggested that application of these P-

amendments have abilities to stabilize the lead in soil from exchangeable and other
fraction into a more stable complex found in residual fraction (Figure 1).
282
Figure 1: The lead content expressed as percentage in 5 fractions; 1) exchangeable, 2)
carbonates, 3) Fe & Mn oxides, 4) organic matter and 5) residual with application of
different P-amendments.
Correlation coefficient between Pb uptake with Pb in soil fractions.
Table 2 indicates the correlation of Pb uptake, available P and soil pH against Pb in all
soil fractions. Its shows that the Pb uptake in aerial plants have a positive significant
correlation with exchangeable Pb fraction of soil (R value=0.42). This means that the
exchangeable fraction particularly contributes for lead uptake in O. stamineus plant
tissues. The total concentrations of heavy metals in soil do not indicate the amounts
that are available for plant uptake (Srikanth and Reddy, 1991). Measurements using
selected pools via fractionation study enables us to assess the fractions which are
responsible to replenish the heavy metals in the soil solution for plant uptake. Based on
Table 2, the significant correlation between exchangeable Pb in soil and plant uptake
for Pb reaffirmed this hypothesis.
Table 2: Pearson correlation coefficients between Pb uptakes and soil fractions (n=24)
Pearson Correlation Coefficients, N=24

Prob >|r| under H0: Rho=0
Exch.Pb Organic Pb Carbo. Pb Fe, Mn, Pb Res
Pb uptake 0.42* 0.024ns -0.22ns 0.11ns -0.40ns
Available P -0.40ns -0.26ns 0.16ns 0.03ns 0.08ns
Soil pH -0.08ns 0.06ns 0.38ns 0.06ns -0.27ns
Remarks: ns-not sig., * p<0.05
CONCLUSION
Based on this study, O. stamineus have abilities to take up certain amounts of copper,
zinc and lead. Applications of P-amendments tested shows effectiveness of TSP in
reducing lead in soils. The best treatments are as follows; TSP 2>ERP
2=ERP1>=BM4=BM2> control. These treatments were recorded able to stabilize the
Pb as per indicated in the percentage reduction in phytoavailable form pools into a more
stable form of complex. The reduction of Pb concentrations in aerial plant tissues also
were portrayed as follows; TSP2=ERP1>ERP2>BM2>BM4 even though the
283
concentrations are not significantly different. Correlation analysis indicates that the
source of available Pb for plant uptakes was derived from the exchangeable fraction.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was financially supported by Putra IPB Grant (Sub-Project)/IPM/IPS-Urban

Agriculture Project: Quality Control on Heavy Metals and Organic Contaminants of
Urban Agriculture Produce.
REFERENCES
Abdu, A., Aderis, N., Abdul-Hamid, H., Majid, N.M., & Jusop, S. 2011. Using
Orthosiphon stamineus B.for phytoremediation of heavy metals in soils amended
with sewage sludge. Am. J. Applied Sci 8: 323-331.
Cao, X., Ma, L.Q., Rhue, D.R. & Appel, C.S. 2004. Mechanisms of lead, copper, and
zinc retention by phosphate rock. Environmental pollution, 131:435-444.
Corami, A., Mignardi, S. & Ferrini, V. 2007. Copper and zinc decontamination from
single-and binary-metal solutions using hydroxyapatite. Journal of Hazardous
Materials, 146:164-170.
Manan, F. A., Chai, T. T., Samad, A. A. & Mamat, D. D. 2015a. Evaluation of the
Phytoremediation Potential of Two Medicinal Plants. Sains Malaysiana 44:503-509.
Manan, F. A., Chia, W. H., Othman, N. F. A., Mamat, D. D., Chong, C. S., Samad,
A. A. & Chai, T. T. 2015b. Physical and antioxidative responses of Orthosiphon
stamineus towards various copper and lead concentrations. Chemical Speciation &
Bioavailability, 27:106-111.
Ma, Q.Y., Traina, S.J., Logan, T.J. and Ryan, J.A. 1994a. Effects of aqueous AI,
Cd, Cu, Fe (II), Ni, and Zn on Pb immobilization by hydroxyapatite. Environ. Sci.
Technol, 28(7), pp.1219-1228. Environ. Sci & Technol, 28: 408.
Srikanth, R., & Reddy, S.R.P. 1991. Lead, cadmium, and chromium levels in
vegetables grown in urban sewage sludge in India. Food Chem 40: 229.
Suzuki, Takashi, Toshiaki Hatsushika, & Yasumasa Hayakawa 1981. "Synthetic
hydroxyapatites employed as inorganic cation-exchangers." Journal of the Chemical
Society, Faraday Transactions 1: Physical Chemistry in Condensed Phases 77, 5:
1059-1062.
Tessier, A., Campbell, P.G. & Bisson, M. 1979. Sequential extraction procedure for
the speciation of particulate trace metals. Anal chem, 51:844-851.
284
Preliminary Study on The Effects of Integrated Rice – Duck Farming
(IRDF) System on Soil Physico-Chemical Characteristics
Norziana, Z.Z. and Abdullah, W.W.
Crop and Soil Science Research Centre, MARDI Headquarters, 43400 Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: zianazz@mardi.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
The present system of rice production often requires heavy doses of chemicals such as
fertilizers and pesticides usages to get higher yields. These chemicals fertilizers and
pesticides are harmful to the environment as they may affect into the water bodies and
later, may also affect animals and human beings. Integrating rice farming and ducks
together has long been appreciated for the reduced need of chemical inputs and the
associated economic, environmental, and ecological benefits (Long et al., 2013; Suh,
2014). By foraging and paddling , the presence of farm ducks in rice fields can
effectively control weeds, arthropods and gastropods (e.g. golden apple snail, Pomacea
canaliculata), as well as plant diseases such as rice blast. The ducks were also reported
could improve the physical structure of the soil, enhancing root growth, soil aeration
and soil oxidation–reduction status, the latter reducing methane emissions and
preventing accumulation of harmful gases such as NO2 in the rhizosphere. The
integrated rice-duck farming system also could be one of the strategies in increasing
rice productivity as it reduces labour and inputs characterized by its devoid use of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Thus, shifting from conventional rice farming
system to this integrated rice – duck farming (IRDF) systems could provides additional
source of income and food to the farmers. The objective of this study is to have a
baseline data on the effects of ducks in rice farming.
The trial was conducted in a rice paddy field in MARDI Seberang Prai in Kepala Batas,
Penang during main season from October 2016 to February 2017. Trial plots were
consisted of two hectares paddy field which was divided into one hectare each for rice-
duck farming system (IRDF) and the other for the conventional farming as practiced by
the rice farmers. Management of field for cultivation of rice is based on local
recommendations. At 30 days after transplanting, ducks were released in the plots at
the rate of 500 birds per hectare. Ducks were remain in the IRDF plot from morning to
evening. Proper measures were taken to protect the ducks from predators and to prevent
their movement outside the designated plots. Soil samples were taken by composite of
0-20 cm soil depth and were taken to laboratory for analyses to determine the density
and porosity of the soil, total nitrogen, pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), organic
carbon, total carbon and phosphorus content. Soil were sampled at the beginning of
planting season and during harvest time. Analysis of N content was determined by the
Kjeldahl method (Bremner and Mulvaney, 1982). Meanwhile, the organic carbon was
determined by Walkey and Black using titration method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982).
Yield and soil parameters data were subjected to analysis of variance and means were
compared with Least Significant Different (LSD) test using the SAS statistical package.
285
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Table 1 shows that the soil textures in the study sites are sandy clay and clay.The
distribution of soil particles size that indicates type of soil in the study site is referring
to the USDA classification.
Table 1: The soil textures in the study site located in MARDI Seberang Prai,Penang
Plot Texture
IRDF Sandy Clay
CONTROL Clay
BULK DENSITY
1.6
1.5
1.4 IRDF
1.3 CONTROL
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
g/cm3
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
BEFORE CROPPING AFTER CROPPING
Figure 1: Changes of soil bulk density in the IRDF and control plot before and after
cropping
Results of soil bulk density for indicated rice-duck integration system shows an
improvement of soil bulk density before and after cropping within the rice duck plot.
However, there is no significant different before and after cropping in both IRDF and
control plot in bulk density. Soil bulk density is an indicator of soil compaction and soil
health. It affects the infiltration, rooting depth/restrictions, available water capacity, soil
porosity and plant nutrient availability. The above results are in conformity with Furono
(1996) who observed and reported that ducks’ movement and feeding activity in the
rice-duck plots disturbed the soil, resulting in the improvement of the soil’s physical
propertes, hence, enhancing the rice root systems.
Table 2: The effects of integrated rice-duck farming system on soil chemical properties
before and after rice planting
Total Organic Phosphorus CEC
Nitrogen Carbon
Plot pH
(%) (%) (µg/g) (meq/100)
Start After Start After Start After Start After Start After
IRDF 4.50 a 4.92a 0.09b 0.10a 1.17a 1.19a 21.66a 18.31a 5.42a 6.82a
CONTROL 4.38a 4.51a 0.20a 0.20a 2.56a 2.64a 13.66a 14.77a 10.53a 12.50a
Means followed by same letter in each column are not significantly p<0.05
The results of soil chemical properties in Table 2 showed an increment in pH, total
nitrogen, organic carbon, cation exchange capacity (CEC) in IRDF and control plot
286
before and after cropping. This results maybe shows that the fertilisation effect of duck
manure on rice growth and yield is not sufficient enough to increase soil fertility and
thus the yield. This explained why the IRDF and control plot gives the same trend of
total nitrogen, phosphorus, organic carbon, total carbon and CEC. Based on previous
study done by Isobe et al. 2005 in Japan, they found that rice yield from the duck
manure did not significantly increase compared to the control plot with no top dressing.
This result suggested that ammonium nitrogen from duck droppings is a minor source
of nitrogen that is taken up by rice. On balance, Isobe et al. 2005 concluded that it
would probably be difficult to obtain a satisfactory yield of rice with duck manure alone
and no additional nitrogen application. It is also discovered that in this trial plot, ducks
were only gathered at one particular side and there are unevenness of the duck’s
distribution and its movements in the IRDF plot.
CONCLUSION
As conclusion, integrated rice duck farming did slightly improved the soil bulk density
in this cropping season. The improvement of soil compaction will later enhance the root
growth, soil aeration and plant nutrient availability. Basically in this study, we are still
compiling knowledge and baseline data on the interactions between rice farming and
ducks, considering positive and negative interactions between the two entities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank Mrs. Raja Zainab Raja Abdullah, Mr. Mohamad Rodzi
Shafiee, Mr. Jamaluddin Ismail, Mr. Shahari Katip, Mr. Mohamad Fakhri Musa and
Mr. Mustafa Kamal Hanafiah for their assistance throughout field sampling and
laboratory analyses for their assistances throughout this project.
REFERENCES
Bremner, J.M.A. & Mulvaney, C.S. 1982. Nitrogen—total. Methods of soil analysis.
Part 2. Chemical and microbiological properties, (methodsofsoilan2), 595-624 pp.
Furono, T. 1996. “Significance and Practice of Integrated Rice Cultivation and Duck
Farming-Sustainable Agriculture”. Kyushu International Center, Japan International
Cooperation Agency, and Kitakyushu Forum on Asian Women. 12 pp.
Isobe, K., Yamaguchi, K., Okumura, K., Yamamoto, M., Asano, H. & Ishii, R.
2005. Characteristics as fertilizer of feces of aigamo ducks for rice plant (Oryza
sativa L.). Plant production science, 8:203-208.
Long, P., Huang, H., Liao, X., Fu, Z., Zheng, H., Chen, A. & Chen, C. 2013.
Mechanism and capacities of reducing ecological cost through rice–duck
cultivation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 93:2881-2891.
Nelson, D.W. & Somners, L.E. 1982. Total carbon, OC and organic matter. In:
Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties.
Agronomic Monograph, vol.9, Second Edition, (Page, A.L., Miller, R.H.and
Keeney, D.R., eds.), 539-577 pp. Madison, WI: Agronomy Society of America and
Soil Science Society of America
Suh, J. 2014. Theory and reality of integrated rice–duck farming in Asian developing
countries: a systematic review and SWOT analysis. Agric. Syst. 125, 74–81pp.
287
Soil Sampling at Racehorse Spelling Station Sdn. Bhd. (Rhss), Ringlet,
Cameron Highlands
Haslizawati, N., Masri. I.N., Mohamed Hafeifi, B., Iskandar, N.L. and Mohamad
Fakhri, M.
MARDI Agrotechnology Park, Cameron Highlands, 39000 Tanah Rata, Pahang,
Malaysia
E-mail: haslizawati@mardi.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Cameron Highlands is a small district located at North West of Pahang in the upper left
corner inside the Pahang state. The place is situated on the main mountain range of
Peninsular Malaysia (Abdullah et al., 2001). Cameron Highlands count roughly 71,000
hectare of lands where 79 percent is still forested which makes 21 percent developed
including three districts, namely Ringlet (the first town after the turn off
from Tapah), Tanah Rata (The Administrative Centre) and Ulu Telom. At present, it is
a stopover for those who want to escape from the heat of the lowlands.
Racehorse Spelling Station Sdn. Bhd. (RHSS) is located at Batu 33, Ringlet, in a natural
highlands environment within the beautiful mountains of the Cameron Highlands. With
moderate climate; cool at the night and warm at the days, and very little humidity. This
is a prime location for horses. This station was the only Spelling Station in the region
to maintain a tradition of professional care of the racehorses, polo ponies and equestrian
horses. Due to the environment and daily care of each individual horse, it doesn’t take
long for the horses that come to us to fully relax, restoring their body and mind. RHSS
services are mainly based on the 3 different groups such as the race horse spelling
station, the meadows and quarantine (http://cameronhighlandsrhss.com/).
Each area has its own identity. Situation and soil fertility, and problems of the area may
vary. Sometimes there are areas that are not the same as the general nature of the land.
Several soil samples from RHSS, Ringlet Cameron Highlands were analyzed for its
chemical and physical analysis. A total 30 soil samples were collected at 15 points and
determined in a single analytical session. The findings indicate certain elements were
enriched that may facilitates economic beneficiation.
Typically fertile soil contains enough nutrients. But when the ground is often planted
with crops without fertilizer, eventually nutrients are depleted. Sometimes nutrient
there may be in the ground, but cannot be absorbed by the roots because of various
reasons such as soil acidity or binding of nutrients by the soil in terms of chemical or
physical. In these conditions the chemicals selected for the land is important to
determine that the amount of nutrients available in the soil reflects the real situation in
terms of availability of these nutrients are absorbed by the roots. Soil analysis to
determine their own identity is necessary to give a bright and to decide how much
fertilizer should be based fertilizers have been unavailable in the soil and the nutrient
requirements of crops to be grown (Abdullah, 1994).
288
This study was carried out at racehorses station area in Cameron Highlands, Batu 33,
Ringlet based on requested from the RHSS to plant alfalfa at their meadows. The soil
samples were collected on 21-22 April 2015 at 15 sampling points (3 different plots, 5
points on each plot, at 3 different depths: 0-15 cm, 15-30 cm, 30-60 cm).
Visual report on sampling area
Map of sampling points
Overall sampling
points of RHSS
Legend
Red colour - plot 1
Lime colour - plot 2
White colour - plot 3
Based on visual observation on all sampling sites:
Plot 1: Slopeland area, full grass coverage, slope getting steeper towards the end on the
road
Plot 2: Slopeland area, full grass coverage, mild slope
Plot 3: Flat land area, full grass coverage
Topography map of sampling site
Topography
mapLegend
Red colour - plot 1Lime

colour - plot 2White
colour - plot 3
289
Soil analysis result
1. Chemical analysis
pH
Indicator pH Location
Highest 6.1 Plot 3, point 3, 30-60 cm depth
Plot 2, point 1, 30-60 cm depth; plot 2, point 2, 0-
Lowest 4.6
15 cm depth
Average 5.4
pH is an indicator to specify the acidity and alkalinity of the soil. Here we can see the
average pH of all the plot is around 4.8-5.4, show that the soil is acidic. Alfalfa needed
pH around 6.3-7.0 to get the optimum growth. Hence, this is not good for alfalfa
cultivation. Thus, it is recommended to add 3-3.5 ton/ha limestone or GML to increase
the soil pH.
Nitrogen
Total N
Indicator Location
(%)
Highest 0.30 Plot 1, point 1, 0-15 cm depth
Lowest Plot 2, point 1, 30-60 cm depth; plot 2, point 4, 30-60
0.01
cm depth
Average 0.12
Nitrogen is essential for photosynthesis. It is also the basic element in plant protein and
important in periods of rapid plant growth. Alfalfa is a legume, that can fix its own
nitrogen, assisted by Nitrobacter that live in associated with alfalfa roots. The soil is
insufficient to nitrogen source, 0.12%. It is recommended to add around 30-50 kg/ha of
N source fertilizer (Urea, Ammonium sulfat etc).
Phosphorus
Avail. P
Indicator Location
(ppm)
Highest 50 Plot 1, point 4, 0-15 cm depth
2 Plot 1, point 1, 30-60 cm depth; plot 1, point 3, 30-60
Lowest
cm depth
Average 11
290
Phosphorus is important for root system, also involve as a principle nutrient in
production of energy and structural DNA. pH 6-7 will reduce the ability nutrient uptake
by root. P deficiency in alfalfa will reduce the leaves size and plant height. The P
available in the soil is 11 ppm in average. Thus, we need to top up around 40-50 kg/ha
of P in the soil.
a. Potassium
K
Indicator Location
(ppm)
Highest 17.16 Plot 3,point 3, 15-30cm depth
Lowest 0.39 Plot 1, point 5, 30-60cm depth
Average 4.29
Potassium is commonly needed by plant for flowering and fruiting stage.

However, Potassium in alfalfa critical for photosynthesis, N fixation by
legumes, water use efficiency and transfer the plants food from the
leaves to other part off the plants. The soils test showed that only 4.29
ppm of K present. It is necessary to put 85-95 kg/ha K fertilizer in the
soil for alfalfa nutrient requirement needs.
b. Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, CEC, Organic C, C/N ratio

Ca Mg Na CEC Org. Carbon
Indicator C/N ratio
(ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (meq/100 g) (%)
Highest 343 29.4 17.48 41.8 8.03 67
Lowest 15.4 1.32 1.84 3.6 0.07 6
Average 50.4 4.56 3.68 15.01 1.6 13.37
Alfalfa required Calcium for cell wall and cell division development.
Normally, calcium element is present in limestone and normally in high
pH soils. Average of 50.4 ppm of Ca is in the soil. We recommend to
supply Ca to the plant directly by foliar fertilizer.
2. Physical analysis
a. Bulk density
Soil with a bulk density higher than 1.65 g cm-3 have higher tendency to
restrict root growth.
b. Moisture content
c. Porosity
Based on the physical analysis result, there should be no problem growing alfalfa on all
the plots. However during sampling we noticed that the soil was impenetrable at about
20cm depth at some points on plot 3. It could be due to compaction because as we did
mention that before all organic matters were dumped at that site; it used to be place for
the horses to run around or it could be just big stones lying around. Other than that, the
soil in plot 3 is suitable for non-deep rooted plants.
291
CONCLUSION
The results indicate that all the three plots should be no problem for alfalfa grown. But
with proper fertilization and good maintenance can greatly help with lush growth and
good yields.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author wishes to extend her appreciation on the MARDI for providing the research
grant. The assistance rendered by Mohd Isa Ariffin, Gopi Managarai, Jamaludin Lan,
Sef Belangok and Zuraidah Mugni, and are greatly appreciated.
REFERRENCES
Abdullah, C.T., 1994. Analysing soil for fertilizer recommendation-A review of

principles and practise. Teknol. Tembakau, Jil. 10: 27-33.
Abdullah, W.Y., Aminuddin, B.Y. & Ghulam, M.H. 2001. Relative sustainability
levels of farming systems in Cameron Highlands Malaysia. Malaysian Journal of
Soil Science, 5: 27-34
292
Soil Properties Assessment at Ledang, Johor for the Production of
Superior Labisia pumila var. alata
Farah Fazwa, M.A., Norhayati, S., Syafiqah Nabilah, S.B. and Siti Suhaila, A.R.
Plant Improvement Program, Forestry Biotechnology Division, Forest Research
Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: farah@frim.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Labisia pumila or more commonly known as Kacip Fatimah has been used widely in
South East Asian communities for a variety of illnesses and in food supplements. This
plant has been widely used by Malaysian women for generations to ease childbirth and
also for its postpartum rejuvenating properties. Traditionally, L. pumila extract is
prepared by boiling the roots, leaves, or the whole plant in water, and the extract is
consumed orally. Its exclusive use by women has led to the belief that it is a
phytoestrogen, a compound with similar chemical structures to estrogen, and is
therefore able to relieve menopausal symptoms. The increasing demand of the plants
for those usages has lead to the over-exploitation in the wild and might endanger the
species if no conservation activities are being carried out. Beside the danger of
extinction, the species also experience severe genetic loss and shortage of raw
materials. Realizing to this, Plant Improvement Programme of Forest Research Institute
Malaysia (FRIM) together with Bioeconomy Corporation and local community of
Kampung Sagil, Ledang, Johor has taken an initiative to establish a trial plot of the
species for the purpose to avoid extinction of the species and to produce high quality
planting materials for commercial plantation. It was started with a trial plot
establishment at the site to assess soil properties and the species suitability before it can
be further cultivated in a large scale. It is anticipated that with the initiative, the
sustainability of the species can be ensured to support the industries demand in the
future. The finding from this study is also important as a reference point for further
fertilizer management research on the species.
Soil collection
The soils were collected from one acre plot located at Kampung Sagil, Ledang, Johor.
Soil samples were randomly composited at depth of 0-15 cm using auger at three points
of L. pumila var. alata planting plot. All soils samples were packed into plastic bags
and transported back to FRIM.
Laboratory analysis and soil characterization
Several chemical and physical analyses were carried at the Soil Chemistry Laboratory,
FRIM using standard lab soil chemistry laboratory analysis method. Total nitrogen in
soils was analyzed by Micro Kjedahl digestion followed by distillation and titration
with 0.1 N HCL. Available phosporus in soils was extracted based on the Bray and
Kurtz no. 2 procedure and its concentration was determined on UV-Visible
Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-Vis 160A). Potassium in soil was extracted by 1 N
ammonium acetate and K concentration was analyzed on Flame Photometer
293
(Sherwood M410). The soil acidity was measured on pH meter using 1:2.5 ratios of soil
and water (Page, 1982). For physical properties, soil texture was analyzed using pipette
method (Rubber Research Institute Malaysia, 1980).
Data collection
For growth performances assessment, observation was recorded on height (cm), leaf
number, leaf length (cm), leaf width (cm) and collar region (mm) at 9 months old plants.
The data was analysed using T-Test to compare the means between two sources of
planting materials which produced from tissue culture and cutting propagation
techniques. Evaluation of total phenolic content were also evaluated for the plants using
Folin Ciocalteu method.
Major soils chemicals and physical properties
Table 1 presents the results of the analysis of major soil chemical properties at
Kampung Sagil, Ledang planting plots. The planting plot composed of 22% of total
nitrogen and 128 ppm of availability of P. For exchangeable K, it was recorded at 0.12
cmol kg-1 which is lower than naturally grown populations of L. pumila (Farah Fazwa
et al., 2012). The soil pH of this area is categorized as acidic at 4.0 where the optimum
pH for plant growth is between 5.5-7.0 (Landon, 1984). Table 2 presents the physical
texture properties, where coarse sand contained of 20%; fine sand (23%); silt (16%)
and clay (43%). Soil texture had major effects on forest species growth especially on
water holding capacity, aeration and organic matter retention (Fisher and Binkley,
2000).
Table 1: Major chemical properties of soil from Labisia pumila var. alata trial plots at
0-15 cm depth in Kampung Sagil, Ledang, Johor
Nutrient Contents in soil
Location Total N Av. P Ex. K CEC
Dry pH
(%) (ppm) (cmol kg-1) (cmol kg-1)
Kampung Sagil, Ledang 0.22 128.28 0.12 NIL 4.02
Table 2: Physical properties of soil from Labisia pumila var. alata trial plots at 0-15
cm depth depth in Kampung Sagil, Ledang, Johor
Percentage Soil texture (%)
Location
Coarse sand Fine sand Silt Clay
Kampung Sagil 20 23 16 43
Effect of soils conditions in growth performances and total phenolic content
Table 3 recorded means of plant growth (height, leaf number, leaf length, leaf width
and collar region) for two sources of planting materials. In terms of height and leaf
number, plants produced from tissue culture recorded higher means, 12.0 cm and 8.5
respectively, compared to plants produced by cuttings. However for leaf length, plants
from cuttings gave higher mean at 22.4 cm compared to plants from tissue culture (18.0
294
cm). Whereas, for leaf width and collar region there were no significant different
between the two sources of plants.
Table 3: Growth performances of Labisia pumila var. alata superior clones produced
from tissue culture and cuttings at 9 months after planting
Means of Plant Growth
Clone Height Leaf Length Leaf Width Collar Region
Leaf Number
(cm) (cm) (cm) (mm)
Tissue
11.96 ±0.60a 8.50±0.34a 17.94±1.38b 8.10±0.52a 5.32±0.31a
culture
Cuttings 8.79±0.82b 6.78±0.3b 22.44±1.12a 8.74±0.36a 5.43±0.21a
Means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at p<0.05, according to the T-Test
After 9 months of evaluation, T-Test revealed that there are no significant differences
in total phenolic content (TPC) of superior clone of L. pumila var. alata produced from
tissue culture (217.39 mg/100 g GAE) and leaf cuttings (282.5 mg/100 g GAE) (Table
4). However, further evaluation are required to be conducted at 12, 15, 18, 21 and 24
months in order to determine the highest value of TPC. The findings of this study can
also be used as a guideline for plant breeder to produce high quality clone of L. pumila
in future.
Table 4: Total phenolic content of superior Labisia pumila var. alata produced from
tissue culture and leaf cuttings
Total Phenolic Content (TPC)
Sources of plants
(50 mg/GAE)
Tissue culture 287.9a
Cuttings 285.0a
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, data presented from this study can be used as references for planter at
Kampung Sagil, Ledang, Johor to manage their kacip fatimah plantation especially in
fertilizer management. It is also concluded that soil health plays an important role in
environmental sustainability and growth response of the plants.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the staff of Herbs and Tree Improvement Branch and Soil
Chemistry Laboratory of FRIM for their assistance in this study. Sincere thanks to
MOSTI for the MOSTI Social Innovation fund (MSI) for funding this project.
REFERENCES
Farah Fazwa, M.A., Aminah, H., Lokmal, N. & Mohd Zaki, A. 2012. Macroelement
and physical analysis of different soil types at naturally grown Labisia pumila
populations. Proceeding of the Soil Science Conference of Malaysia. 381-385 pp.
Fisher, R.F. & Binkley, D. 2000. Ecology and management of forest soil. 3rd ed. John
Willey & sons, New York. 489 pp.
Landon, J.R. 1984. Booker Soil Manual. A handbook for soil survey and agricultural
land evaluation in the tropics. USA, Longman Inc. New York.
Page, A.L., Miller R.H., & Keeney D.R. 1982. Methods of soil analysis: chemical and
microbiological properties. Madison: Agronomy.
295
Determination of Heavy Metal Contents in Samples of Labisia pumila
from Ledang, Johor
Norhayati, S.1, Farah Fazwa, M.A.1, Syafiqah Nabilah, S.B.1, Norhayati, A.2 and
Suhaila, A.R.1
1
Plant Improvement Program, Forestry Biotechnology Division, Forest Research
Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Natural Product Quality Control Laboratory (NPQC), Natural Product Division,
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: norhayatisaffie@frim.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
There is a rising global need for herbal as supplements, health functional food, herbs-
based energy drinks and skin cares. This is based on consumers’ demand for natural
products, plant based phytochemicals in crude form and plant based skin care products
with the connotation of safer and natural. Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) is
one of the institutes that took a granted for supplying quality raw materials in line with
target set up in National Key Economic Area (NKEA). For these purpose, FRIM has
established their germplasm to allocate the superior clones of Labisia pumila that can
be used for supplying the materials in the future. Labisia pumila or locally known as
Kacip Fatimah is one of the herbs that are getting high demand in Malaysia due to its
polyphenolic compounds such as flavonoid and phenolic acid. These compounds has
anti-aging property, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-obesity and anti-inflammatory effects
that are interested by industry to produce the products. Due to this interest, FRIM has
established the trial plot at Kg. Sagil, Ledang, Johor at this initial phase in order to
establish L. pumila plantation for the future. It is one of the alternative to help the
communities of Kg. Sagil to generate their income by planting this valuable herb.
Therefore, it is important for herbal raw materials that were supplied to the industry for
any products purpose should be safe and free from toxicity. The toxicity may exist from
contaminants such as pesticides, microbes, heavy metals, chemical toxins and
adulterants (Rania et al., 2015). Other factors such as geochemical soil characteristics,
contaminants in the soil, water, air, and other growth, transport, and storage conditions
can significantly affect the properties and the quality of the herbal plants and their
formulations (Saad et al., 2006). Based on these contaminants, heavy metals is one of
the crucial issuethat are need to be solved in order to come out with certain products in
the market. Heavy metals refer to a group of elements that are essential for plant
nutrition such as lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As). This metals
are easily transfer from plants to humans and have tendency to give high concentrations
metals if they are planted in contaminated soils. The concern is when the group of these
elements bring a toxicity to human health when they intake above certain permissible
limits (Korfali et al., 2013). Therefore, quick assessment of these heavy metals in
medicinal plants need to be conducted in order to control the level of contaminants in
herbal raw materials. In this study, the level of heavy metals in L. pumila leaf samples
that are collectedfrom Kg. Sagil, Ledang, Johor were determined for the first phase of
trial planting before the large planting is conducting in that area.
296
The two L. pumila plants from cutting and Temporary Immersion System (RITA)
technique that are planted for 6 months trial were collected from Kg. Sagil, Ledang,
Johor. The collected materials were packed properly with wet paper to bring back the
material at FRIM Kepong, Selangor. Then, only leaf of L. pumila from collected
material were used for this study. Leaf samples were washed thoroughly with running
tap water followed by washing with deionized autoclaved water to remove the dust
particles and possible parasites. After that, they were oven dried at 60 ºC and grinded
into powder form. The samples were stored in air tight plastic and labels as PB and RS
for heavy metals determination. For heavy metals test, dried samples were digested with
nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide solution in microwave digester. Heavy metal
contamination was analysed using Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
(GFAAS) model Perkin Elmer Analyst 600. The level of heavy metals in the samples
were compared with maximum limit that are standardized by Drug Registration
Guidance Document (DRGD) National Pharmaceutical Control Bureau (NPCB).
Results of analysis of four heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Hg and As) done in leaf samples of
L. pumila plants are summarized in Table 1. The results clearly showed that raw
materials samples from PB and RS contained very low concentration of lead (Pb),
cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) than permissible level as specified in their standard.
For lead (Pb) level, PB sample showed high amounts (1.03 mg/kg) compared to RS
sample (0.16 mg/kg). PB and RS samples contained very insignificant difference
amounts of cadmium, with 0.04 mg/kg and 0.02 mg/kg respectively. For mercury (Hg)
element, both samples were not detected which the elements maybe quantified little or
no presence. Whereas, arsenic elements are high in PB sample (0.54 mg/kg) rather than
RS sample (0.16 mg/kg).
Table 1: Concentration of heavy metals in leaf samples of L. pumila collected from Kg.
Sagil, Ledang, Johor
Lead Cadmium Mercury Arsenic
Raw Materials (Pb) (Cd) (Hg) (As) Safety
(mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
Standard* 10.0 0.3 0.5 5.0 NA
PB 1.03 0.04 ND (<0.01) 0.54 +
RS 0.16 0.02 ND (<0.01) 0.16 +
*In accordance to Food Act 1983 (ACT 281) specifications and regulations. NA= Not
applicable; ND = Not detected; Less than the minimum detection limit reported + =
safe; - = not safe
CONCLUSION
Based on these findings, all L. pumila samples tested from Kg. Sagil, Ledang, Johor are
free from heavy metals pollution. Raw material samples from this area also are
acceptable for food stuff and medicinal product as none of the samples exceed the
permissible limit. This positive results was convinced us to establish L. pumila
plantations at that area. In future, it was suggested to do a regular screening of raw
material from this site in order to check the levels of these pollutants in the plant parts
297
and extracts before the raw materials are supplying to herbal industry for use in human
consumption.
REFERENCES
Korfali, S. I., Hawi, T., & Mroueh, M. 2013. Evaluation of heavy metals content in
dietary supplements in Lebanon. Chemistry Central Journal, 7(1).
Rania, D., Safa, A.K., Husna, R., & Munawwar, A.K. 2015. Determination of Heavy
Metals Concentration in Traditional Herbs Commonly Consumed in the United
Arab Emirates. Journal of Environmental and Public Health. 2015 (2015),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/973878
Saad, B., Azaizeh, H., Abu-Hijleh, G., and Said, O. 2006. Safety of traditional Arab
herbal medicine. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 3:433-
439.
298
Soil Nutrient Status at Open Sea Mud Flat in Sungai Haji Dorani
Mohamad Fakhri, I., Rasidah, K.W., Rozita, A., Jeyanny, V. and Nur Hafiza, A.H.
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: mohamadfakhri@frim.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Following the tsunami tragedy which hit the region on 2004, rehabilitation programmes
were initiated to protect coastal populated and economic areas from future damages.
Enhancement of mangrove stands through replanting of mangrove seedlings can create
a natural barrier and installation of wave breaker system will reduce wave energy before
reaching the coastline. Placing geotubes (geotextile tube), an engineered structure is
another option to slow down wave impacts on the shorelines and to control soil erosion
and accretion.
One of the areas dedicated for research was the Sungai Haji Dorani coastline, within
the proximity of Kuala Bernam Forest Reserve. Installation of geotube at Sungai Haji
Dorani was put in use in 2007, as frontline barrier to minimize wave energy hitting the
coastal soil (Wan Rasidah and Mohamad Fakhri, 2015). In the early stage of geotube
installation, soil erosion and accretion at the surface occurred intermittently due to
unstable texture of the massive soil. After seven years, it was observed that the soil
become more stable, with maximum erosion and accretion recorded as 11 cm and 6 cm,
respectively compared with the year 2010 in which erosion was measured at 28 cm
(Mohamad Fakhri et al., 2016). Geotube installation in fragile mudflat had resulted in
sedimentation and accretion level of sediment (Wan Rasidah et al., 2010a). Application
of geotube had shown positive effects in reducing the drastic movements of mud and
soil, allowing natural regeneration of mangrove forest and assist conservation efforts
(Mohamad Fakhri et al., 2010). This paper highlights the status of selected nutrient
levels in soils within the ecosystem of Sungai Haji Dorani after seven years of geotube
protection.
The experiment site was established at a coastal mudflat in Kampung Sungai Haji
Dorani (3° 38’ N, 101° 01’ E), adjacent to D’Muara Resort about 5 km from Sungai
Besar town in Selangor. Soil sampling was carried out in May 2015. Soil samples were
collected at two depths, 0 – 15 cm and 15 – 30 cm with 20 points for each layer, giving
a total of 40 samples. Figure 1 shows the sampling locations, and detail of the
experimental design is reported by Mohamad Fakhri et al, (2016). The samples
collected were brought to soil laboratory in FRIM. They were air dried, ground and
sieved through a 0.2 mm sieve. The soil acidity was measured on pH meter using 1:2.5
ratio of soil/water suspension and soil conductivity was determined on conductivity
meter with ratio soil to water of 1:5. Total nitrogen (N) was determined by Micro
Kjedahl digestion followed by distillation and titration with 0.1N HCL. Available
phosphorus (P) was extracted by Bray and Kurtz no. 2 procedure and its concentration
was measured on UV-Visible spectrophotometer using Denige Blue method.
Exchangeable potassium (K) was extracted using 1 N ammonium acetate and its
concentration determined on Inductive Couple Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer.
299
Cation exchange capacity (CEC) in soil sample was determined from 1 N potassium
sulphate extract and analysed using flow analyzer.
Figure 1: Location of soil sampling marked with PVC pin at Sungai Haji Dorani mud
flat
Results from this study were compared with those published data of mangrove soil from
best managed Matang mangrove forest. Data of soil properties and nutrient levels at
Sungai Haji Dorani and Kuala Sepetang, Matang in Perak are tabulated in Table 1. Site
in Matang having mature stand of mangroves, can be considered as the benchmark for
soil suitability for mangrove species due to excellent mangrove performance at the site
(Wan Rasidah et al., 2010b). The soil pH levels at Sungai Haji Dorani were above
neutral, with values above 7 while its electrical conductivity (EC) were within 12
mS/cm. The results were slightly higher but comparable to Matang site with values of
6.9 and 8.2 mS/cm, respectively. The available P and exchangeable K results were at
par with the levels at Kuala Sepetang. The CEC concentration at both soil layers were
much lower (19 to 22 cmol/kg) than Matang having high CEC of 50.8 cmol/kg. But the
CEC values in Sungai Haji Dorani are considered moderate when compared with other
well developed mangrove stand in Delta, Kelantan (Wan Rasidah et al., 2015). High
concentration of exchangeable of K, P and moderate amount of CEC partly contributed
to pH value. At pH above 6, the nutrient in soil become available for plant uptake
(Landon, 1984). However, the amount of N shows lower concentration with values
around 0.14%, compared with healthy mangrove stands at Matang which recorded
0.42% N. This could be due to low vegetation at Sungai Haji Dorani.
300
Table 1: Properties of mudflat soil at Sungai Haji Dorani and Kuala Sepetang, Matang
in Perak
Sungai Haji Dorani Matang
Parameters
0-15cm 15-30 cm 0-25 cm
pH 7.67±0.04 7.64±0.03 6.88
Electric conductivity (mS/cm) 11.02±0.84 12.05±0.57 8.23
Nitrogen (%) 0.14±0.01 0.12±0.01 0.42
Available P (ppm) 51.97±4.75 61.98±4.62 50.60
Exch. K (cmol/kg) 8.76±1.18 11.83±1.32 11.59
CEC (cmol/kg) 16.48±1.67 19.70±1.42 50.80
Note:
1. Data from Sungai Doraini is based on average from 20 readings from each depth.
2. Data from Kuala Sepetang were obtained from Wan Rasidah et al., 2015
CONCLUSION
After seven years installation of geotube, the properties and nutrients levels of soils in
Sungai Haji Dorani were almost at par with soil properties at Matang mangrove forest.
However, other factors such as soil movement in which the coastal soil are prone to
drastic sea wave disturbance, should be taken into consideration. Still, the soil N levels
in Sungai Haji Dorani was much lower than Matang mangrove, probably due to less
vegetation at the site.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank NRE for providing the financial grant to conduct this
research. Special thank to FRIM for permission of presenting this paper. The authors
gratefully thank all personnel in Soil Management Branch, FRIM for assisting in field
and laboratory works.
REFERENCES
Landon, J.R. 1984. Booker Tropical Soil Manual. A Handbook for Soil Survey and
Agriculture land evaluation in the tropics and subtropics. New York Longman inc.
Mohamad Fakhri I., Adi Fadzly A.K., Jeyanny V., Wan Rasidah A.K., Suhaimi
W.C. & Rozita A. 2010. Monitoring Soil Movements in Sungai Besar Selangor,
Coastal Area. Poster presented at International Symposium on Forestry & Forest
Products 2010: Addressing Global Concerns & Changing Societal Needs (ISFFP
2010) 5-7/10/2010.
Mohamad Fakhri, I., Wan Rasidah, W.A.K., Suhaimi, W.C., Rozita, A. &
Jeyanny, V. 2016. Soils stability at open sea mudflat after 7 years protected by a
wave breaker system. In Adzemi, M.A. et al. (Eds.) Proceedings of the Science
Conference of Malaysia 2016, 5-7 April 2016, Kuala Terengganu. 267-271 pp.
Wan Rasidah, K. & Mohamad Fakhri, I. 2015. Environment and Soil Instability.
In Wan Rasidah, K, Mohamad Zaki, MI, Mohamad Fakhri I (Eds.) Muddy substrates
of Malaysian Coasts. Forest Research Institute Malaysia. Kepong. 8–24 pp.
Wan Rasidah, K , Mohamad Fakhri, I,., Rozita, A , Suhaimi, W.C, Jeyanny, V.,
& Adi Fadzly, A.K. 2010a Soil Profiles of mangrove Forests: Case Studies in
Peninsular Malaysia. Paper presented at the Regional Workshop on Mangrove
301
Management and Restoration Tecniques.ISESCO/PERSGA –FRIM. Forest Research
Institute Malaysia 26-29 July 2010.
Wan Rasidah, K , Mohamad Fakhri, I, Suhaimi, W.C., Jeyanny, V., Rozita, A. &
Adi Fadzly, A.K. 2010b. Soil Physical Changes of a Coastal Mudflat after Wave
Breaker Installation. Pp 179-182 in Gilkes R.J. & Prakongkep N. (eds.) Proceedings
19th World Congress of Soil Science: Soil Solution for a Changing World. 1-6
August, 2010. Brisbane , Australia. International Union of Soil Sciences &
Australian Society of Soil Science Inc.
302
Preliminary Findings on Changes of Selected Soil Properties and
Growth of Rhizophora spp. at Mangrove Forest in Tanjung Piai, Johor
Nur Hafiza, A.H.1, Wan Rasidah, K.1, Rosazlin, A.2, Mohamad Fakhri, I.1 and Rozita,
A.1
1
Forest Biotechnology Division, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 52109 Kepong,
Selangor, Malaysia
2
Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science University of Malaya, 50603
E-mail: nurhafiza@frim.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Mangrove forests play an important role as protective green barriers along the coastal
line, lowering the chances of the land being damage by the currents, preventing the land
from being eroded and also limiting the wave energy (Bulow and Ferdinand, 2013).
Mangrove trees are very unique particularly with their root system, and site specific to
salty conditions where no other trees can survive well. Besides that, mangrove trees
also reduce pollution by filtering suspended materials, preserving water quality and
assimilating dissolved nutrients as they have the natural ability to act as a sink of
anthropogenic and industrial pollutants (Subodh and Abhiyoop, 2013). They can
survive in soils with less concentration of nutrient as they were adopted such
environment (Seca et al., 2016). However, mangrove, especially at the germination
stage, cannot tolerate with extreme pH conditions even though many mangrove species
have specific adaptation to help them cope with harsh conditions (Lim et al., 2012).
This paper will report the preliminary findings on the changes of selected soil properties
which is the available phosphorous and the soil pH, and the growth of Rhizophora spp.
within three months at mangrove forest in Tanjung Piai, Johor. Phosphorous (P) is an
essential nutrient which plays a key role in global biogeochemical cycle (Gurmeet et
al., 2015).
This study was set up at mangrove forest in Tanjung Piai National Park in Johor, located
at the most southern tip of Peninsular Malaysia. This forest areas made up mostly of
mangroves and mudflats. Four different study areas have been selected for this research.
The height of the Rhizophora spp was measured to record tree growth within three
months (June 2016 to September 2016). Soil samples were taken by depth of 0 – 10 cm
and 10 – 30 cm at each study area. One of the study areas is where the Rhizophora spp
grow naturally and the rest, mangrove saplings were planted by the various corporate
social responsibility (CSR) programmes.
For each site, an area within the dominant numbers of trees was marked as sampling
location. Thus number of measured trees varies for each location as measurement was
based on the number of survived trees within the demarcated plot.
303
Figure 1: Site A
Figure 2: Site D
For the determination of available phosphorus in soil, Bray and Kurtz procedure of
extraction and colormetric determination by Denige method were used. 2 g of soil were
extracted with 1N ammonium fluoride and 1N hydrochloric acid. The phosphorous
were measured calorimetrically using UV-Visible spectrophotometer at 660 nm
wavelength as the molybdenum-blue complex formed in the presence of molybdate and
stannous chloride. Soil pH was determined by adding 25 mL of distilled water with 10
g of sample. The mixture was shaken for one hour and the pH reading was determined
by the pH meter.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The number of Rhizophora spp that had been recorded their height in June and
September 2016 are shown in Table 1. At Site A, number of Rhizophora spp. decreases
by 17.4% in September due to the geographical factors of the area. Facing an open sea,
the site is exposed to continuous wave current generated largely by the passing vessels
along the Malacca Straits. The Rhizophora spp. regenerated in between the rocks and
some trees might have been washed away by the waves. Compared with the other three
plots, matured mangrove stands available along the coastal shore help to reduce the
energy of waves reaching the planting sites. The highest tree growth rate recorded was
at Site C with increment ranging from 4 – 12 cm, sitting on decomposed organic
deposits (sesai).
304
Table 1: Number of mangrove and tree growth in three months
Number of plants Number of plants Tree growth in three
Sites
(June) (September) months (cm)
A 224 185 2 to 8
B 144 133 3 to 9
C 150 144 4 to 12
D 199 197 1 to 7
The available P data shows that most of the subsoil layer of 10 – 30 cm contains higher
values compared with the upper soils of 0 – 10 cm (Table 2). Overall, concentration of
the available P mostly decreased for all locations in September except for Site D.
However, as we can see the rate of tree growth for site A and D are slow as some of the
trees only growth 1 – 2 cm in three months. Plant will grow slowly with low levels of
phosphorous in soils and it is difficult to determine whether or not soil phosphorous is
sufficient for optimum plant production. Even though there was an increase in
concentration of available P at site D, the growth of the mangrove were comparatively
slow at this site as some of the Rhizophora spp only grow for 1 cm (Table 1).
Table 2: Available P (ppm) in soil sample of two different depths for June and
September
June September
Site
0 – 10 cm 10 – 30 cm 0 – 10 cm 10 – 30 cm
A (FRONT) 7.19 6.23 4.11 2.89
A (BACK) 7.23 6.61 4.91 4.86
B 13.39 16.24 15.90 13.17
C 3.62 4.86 2.84 5.26
D 7.87 8.05 7.21 7.53
According to Lim et al., (2012), increase in pH may affect the growth of the seedling.
Their study carried out at the initial stage of growth of Avicennia alba showed that pH
range from 5.16 to 7.72 is an optimal pH for the early growth of this mangrove species.
Results presented in Table 3 shows that pH value for sites A and B does not change
within this three months’ measurement period. For sites C and D, the pH values
recorded were below 7, very likely the influence from organic waste (sesai) deposited
at these study areas. Advance decomposition of these organic materials lead to increases
in pH values measured in September. Rozita et al. (2011) had reported that this sawdust
like organic waste were acidic as the pH recorded for 0 – 30 cm of soil depth is 3.49
and it is not suitable for the growth of mangrove. Optimal pH will maximize the growth
rate of mangrove trees where, too high pH (above 7.5) can cause manganese, copper,
iron, boron and zinc ions to be less available to plants (Lim et al., 2012).
Table 3: Soil pH of two different depths for June and September

June September
Plot
0 – 10 cm 10 – 30 cm 0 – 10 cm 10 – 30 cm
A (FRONT) 7.78 7.82 7.88 7.86
A (BACK) 7.82 7.82 7.92 7.89
B 7.72 7.66 7.79 7.79
C 4.78 5.58 5.14 5.93
D 5.53 5.96 5.74 6.48
305
CONCLUSION
The value of available P at Plot B has the highest value for both months compare with
other three plots. Plot C showed the highest tree growth which is from 4 to 12 cm even
the values of available P at the site is lower than other sites. However, this paper only
reports the preliminary findings and only two soil properties result were included in this
paper. Further report will be publish on this study on more soil properties and the data
obtained from this study can be used for further analysis on the rehabilitation of the
mangrove forest in another area.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank FRIM for permission of presenting this paper. The
assistance from all staff of Soil Management Branch, FRIM, University of Malaya and
also the Tanjung Piai National Park is greatly appreciated.
REFERENCES
Bulow, E.S. & Ferdinand, T.J. 2013. The Effect of Consumptive Waste on Mangrove
Functionality: A Comparative Analysis. McGill University Panama Field Study
Semester Centro de Incidencia Ambietal (CIAM). 1-33 pp
Gurmeet, S., Rita, C., Rajesh, K.R., Balakrishna, P.M., & Ramanathan, A.L. 2015.
Phosphorous Dynamics in Mangrove of India. Current Science. 108:1874-1881.
Lim, Z.K., Ngoh, H.P., Goh, M.M., & Loh, T.Y.K. 2012. Investigating the Effect of
Soil pH on the Germination of Avicennia alba Seedlings. Natural Society
(Singapore).
Rozita, A., Wan Rasidah, W.A.K., Mohamad Fakhri, I., Jeyanny, V., & Suhaimi,
W.C. 2011. Ciri-Ciri Tanah Sesai di Hutan Bakau Tanjung Piai, Johor. Prosiding
Seminar Kebangsaan Projek-Projek Penyelidikan dan Pembangunan (R&D) bagi
Hutan Pesisiran Pantai di Malaysia. (2) 183-186 pp.
Seca. G., Ahmad Mustapha, M.P., Muhamad Nazrin, S.Z., Ahmad Hanafi, H.,
Pakhriazad, H.Z., & Arrifin, A. 2016. Assessment of Nitrogen and Phosphorus in
Mangrove Forest Soil at Awat-Awat Lawas Sarawak. American Journal of
Agriculture and Forestry. 4:136-139.
Subodh, K.M & Abhiroop, C. 2013. Effects of Anthropogenic Pollution on Mangrove
Biodiversity: A Review. Journal of Environmental Protection. 4, 1428-1434 pp.
306
Assessing the Potential of Treated Sewage Sludge as an Organic
Fertilizer
Aziera, Z.N. and Majid, N.M.
Institute of Tropical Forest and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM
E-mail: nurazierazainuddin@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Treated sewage sludge is the stabilized organic residue generated from domestic
wastewater and can be the most economical way to provide nutrients and organic matter
for plant growth. The use of treated sewage sludge as a fertilizer for plant growth is not
only beneficial to agriculture but also reduces the disposal costs of treated sewage
sludge. However, the presence of pathogenic microorganisms and hazardous
compounds in treated sewage sludge is an important environmental issues.The fertility
benefit must be balanced against the heavy metal contamination through application of
sludge to agricultural soil. It has been shown that the addition of sludge to agricultural
soils increase crop production. Dowdy et al. (1978) reported that the increase in crop
yield by sludge application often exceed the yield obtained from the use of chemical
fertilizer. Therefore, studies on sludge are important due to the economic and
environmental implications of these material. The present work is to determine the
potential of treated sewage sludge as an alternative source of nutrients for plant growth.
The experiment was conducted over a four-month period in a greenhouse at Universiti

Putra Malaysia using Jarak (Ricinus communis) as the test species. The average
temperature of the greenhouse in the morning was 26 °C, 36 °C at noon and 30 °C in
the evening. The growth media is soil mixed with five levels of sewage sludge mainly:
T1 = 100% soil, T2 = 25% sewage sludge + 75% soil, T3 = 50% sewage sludge + 50%
soil, T4 = 75% sewage sludge + 25% soil and T5=100% sewage sludge. The experiment
was laid out in a Complete Randomized Design (CRD) with four replications. Seedlings
were transplanted into the pots after filling the pot with 10 kg growth medium based on
the above combinations. Soil samples before planting and at harvest were collected
from each pot and air dried. At the end of the fourth month after planting, plant samples
were collected; air dried and kept in plastic containers. Plant and growth media samples
were analyzed for physical and chemical properties. Soil pH, N, P and K percentage
were measured using glass electrode pH meter, CHNS analyzer and atomic absorption
spectrometer (AAS), respectively. ANOVA was done to detect any significant
differences among treatments.
Soil pH
There was a significant difference (p≤0.05) in soil pH before planting between

treatments. Soil pH before planting ranged from 3.94 to 5.34. The highest value (5.34)
was in T1 and the lowest (3.94) in T5 (Table 1). At harvest, soil pH decreased in all
treatments. There was also significant difference (p≤0.05) in pH after harvesting among
307
treatments with a range of 3.88 to 5.08. The lowest value (3.88) was in T5 whereas the
highest was in T1 (5.08) (Table 1).
Table 1: pH of growth medium before planting and at harvest

pH
Treatment
Before planting At harvesting
T1 3.94d 3.88d
T2 4.09c 4.03c
c
T3 4.15 4.07c
T4 4.31b 4.20b
a
T5 5.34 5.08a
Mean values followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at p≤0.05 by
Tukey’s multiple range tests
Total N, P and K in the Growth Medium before Planting and at Harvest
Total amount of N in the growth medium before planting was significantly different
(p≤0.05) among treatments. The range was 0.4% to 3.11%. The highest value (3.11%)
was detected in T5 whereas the lowest in the control (0.4%) (Table 2). At harvest, there
was also a significant difference (p≤0.05) between all treatments and the range of total
N was 0.21% to 1.40%. The highest value (1.40%) was detected in T5 whereas the
lowest (0.21%) in the control (Table 2).
Total amount of P in the growth medium before planting was significantly different
(p≤0.05) among treatments and the range of P was 0.0019% to 0.0031%. The highest
value (0.0031%) was in T5 whereas the lowest (0.0019%) was in the control (Table 2).
At harvest, there was also a significant difference (p≤0.05) among treatments and the
range of total P was 0.0017% to 0.0022%. The highest value (0.0022%) was detected
in T5 whereas the lowest (0.0017%) was in the control (Table 2).Total amount of K in
the growth medium before planting was significantly different (p ≤0.05) among
treatments and the range of K was 0.00304% to 0.00576%. The highest value
(0.00576%) was in T5 whereas the lowest (0.00304%) was in the control (Table 2). At
harvest, there was also a significant difference (p≤0.05) among treatments and the range
of total K was 0.0025% to 0.0038%. The highest value (0.0038%) was in T5 whereas
the lowest (0.0038%) was in the control (Table 2).
Table 2: Total N, P and K in the growth medium before planting and at harvest
Before planting (%) At harvest (%)
Treatment
Total N Total P Total K Total N Total P Total K
T1 0.40e 0.001985d 0.00304d 0.21d 0.001673c 0.002458d
T2 0.73d 0.002765c 0.00363c 0.64c 0.001748bc 0.002665cd
T3 0.86c 0.002878bc 0.00383c 0.75bc 0.00183b 0.002855c
T4 1.14b 0.002978ba 0.00430b 0.87b 0.002068a 0.00339b
T5 3.11a 0.003088a 0.00576a 1.4a 0.002168a 0.003825a
Mean values followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at p≤0.05 by
Tukey’s multiple range tests
308
Plant height and total biomass
There was a significant difference (p≤0.05) in height among treatments. The average
height for first observation (January) ranged from 28.95 cm to 33.55 cm, the highest
(33.55 cm) was in T5 and the lowest (28.95 cm) was in T2 (Figure 1). After four
months, the average height range from 53.88 cm to 95.50 cm. The highest (95.50 cm)
was in T4 and the lowest (53.88 cm) was in T5. Plant height increased with the
increasing amount of treated sewage sludge but with 100% treated sewage sludge the
plant were retarded. For total biomass, there was significant difference (p≤0.05) among
treatments at harvest (Figure2). The average total biomass ranged from 53.9 g to 155.8
g. The highest (155.8 g) was in T4 and the lowest (53.9 g) was in T5. Total biomass
also increased with increasing amount of treated sewage sludge but with 100% treated
sewage sludge total biomass decreased. The decrease in height and biomass probably
due to heavy metal toxicity.
Figure 1: Plant height
Figure 2: Total biomass
In general adding treated sewage sludge to the soil increased soil pH and N, P, K
concentrations. The chemical analysis of sewage sludge showed that the pH was acidic
(5.4) and the levels of N, P, and K are 3.11%, 0.003% and 0.0055, respectively. The
concentrations of these elements gradually increased as the ratio of sewage sludge
increased. The highest plant height and biomass was in T4 which consists of 75%
treated sewage sludge and 25% soil. This treatment level can be considered as the
optimum rate for plant growth.
309
CONCLUSIONS
The application of treated sewage sludge as an organic fertilizer can increase soil pH,
macronutrients, and soil organic matter content. Total N, P, and K in the growth
medium increased with increasing amount of treated sewage sludge. Plant height and
total biomass responded positively to the treated sewage sludge. The best result based
on plant height and total biomass is in treatment T4 (75% treated sewage sludge+25%
soil). N, P and K concentrations were highest in treatment T5 (100% sludge) but due to
heavy metal toxicity, plant height and total biomass were lowest. From this study, it
was found that treated sewage sludge can be used as an organic fertilizer in order to
reduce cost in mineral fertilizer and reduce environmental pollution.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank to the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for financial
support through the Research University Grant Scheme (91784) to Universiti Putra
Malaysia and also to Indah Water Konsortium (IWK) Kuala Sawah Negeri Sembilan,
Malaysia for providing the sewage sludge.
REFERENCES
Dowdy, R.H., Larson, W.E., Titrud, J.M. & Latterell, J.J. 1978. Growth and metal
uptake of snap beans grown on sewage sludge-amended soil: a four-year field
study. Journal of Environmental Quality, 7:252-257.
310
Tropical Forest Restoration Experimental Project
Majid, N.M.
Institute of Tropical Forest and Forest Products, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM
E-mail: nikmatmajid.upm@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
In 1990, Universiti Putra Malaysia (formerly known as Universiti Pertanian Malaysia),

signed an agreement with Yokohama National University (YNU) with sponsorship
from Mitsubishi Corporation to undertake a joint project on Rehabilitation of Tropical
Rainforest Ecosystem. The project was to rehabilitate a degraded area into a man-made
tropical rainforest through replanting a mixture of indigenous trees species of Borneo.
The project was carried out on approximately 50 hectares of land at Bintulu in Sarawak,
Malaysia. Previously, the site had been subjected to shifting cultivation. The objective
of this project is to develop techniques of planting indigenous Malaysian tree species
on degraded sites such as abandoned shifting cultivation area, secondary forest and
other degraded sites. The project site is located in the UPM Bintulu Campus which is
situated about 600 km north-east of Kuching, the state capital of Sarawak. The site is
on latitude 3o 12’N, longitude 113o 05’E and altitude 50 m above sea level. In 2008, a
new agreement was signed between UPM and Mitsubishi Corporation to establish a
new site covering 12 hectares of planting area in the main campus, Serdang, Selangor.
To date, a total of 25,000 seedlings from 136 species have been planted in the area. The
establishment of these projects in Serdang and Bintulu campuses allows many research
projects to be conducted not only by the scientists from Japan, but also UPM students
(both graduate and undergraduate) as well as UPM’s lecturers (from both the Bintulu
and Serdang campuses). Among the major research thrust areas carried out are soil
science, water quality, entomology, carbon storage, climate change, wildlife, biology
diversity, economics, physiology and pathology. These researches projects are funded
by Mitsubishi Corporation with matching grant from UPM, Ministry of Science,
Technology and Innovation (MOSTI) and the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE)
Malaysia.
This project is based on the success of restoration of native forest land in Japan and
results of some field surveys conducted in the different forest of South East Asia
countries since 1978. The scientific basis for the success of the project is based on the
concept of vegetation association introduced by Dr. Miyawaki. In commercial forestry,
young trees of the same species are normally planted at a rate of about 1,000 per hectare.
The Miyawaki method calls for high-density planting of various species of seedlings
between 20,000 to 30,000 per hectare. With this intensive mixed planting approach, the
trees grow by competing for limited space, nutrients and light. For the first two or three
years the area was monitored and weeded. The trees are then left to grow without further
human intervention.
311
PROGRESS AND OUTCOMES
From degraded shifting cultivation area to a mature forest ecosystem
More than 500,000 tree seedlings from 130 local species of Sarawak have been planted.
A total of 100 research plots have also been established in the area.
Biological diversity
The area is now a mature ecosystem. This is an excellent example of highly successful
forest rehabilitation project on degraded area. Birds, mammals and other plant species
have enriched the biodiversity of the rehabilitated forest.
Annual tree planting ceremony
UPM and Mitsubishi Corporation have shown a strong commitment in restoring

degraded tropical rainforest. The tree planting programme provides the appropriate
platform for the gathering of the general public and experts to develop and share forest
rehabilitation issues and solutions. Over the past 26 years, the project has involved at
least 10,000 participants during the tree planting ceremonies. This has been widely
covered by both local and international media, including the National Geographic
Channel. Two international conferences (1991 and 2011) were organized to discuss
research findings from this and related projects.
ACHIEVEMENTS
This project has contributed to UPM being ranked 17th among 95 universities in the
world in the Green Metric World University Ranking for promoting sustainability
through environmental conservation and green technology. This project has also
contributed to the human capital development where as many as 20 BSc, 7 MSc and 6
Phd candidates graduated through their scientific studies in the area. The research site
in UPM Bintulu has also been designated as a research center for ACAP (Asia Center
for Air Pollution Research), based in Niigata, Japan. This station is one of the research
stations in the Asia Pacific region aimed at monitoring the effects of acid rain and air
pollution on land and ecosystem.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Mitsubishi Corporation for financial support, Universiti Putra
Malaysia for land allocation for this project and research funding from Ministry of
Higher Education Malaysia.
312
Proximate Analysis Used to Assess Quality of Oil Palm Trunk Biochar
Nursu’aidah, H.1, Rosazlin, A.1 and Tumirah, K.2
1
Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, 50603
2
Forest Product Divisions, Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109, Kepong,
Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: suaidah239@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Biochar has been the main focus area of research worldwide since a decade because of
its ability in improving physico-chemical and biological properties of soil by storing
bulk carbon (C) in soil for sustainable agro-ecosystem (Major, 2010). Besides that,
biochar can be used to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases (Klingmüller, 2013),
and recently reported can be acts as a promising removal technology (Cui et al., 2015).
Biochar is a product of thermal decomposition of carbonaceous material, produce at a
low temperature of <700 oC in the oxygen (O2)-limited condition (Lehmann and Joseph,
2009). Basically, a wide variety of carbonaceous material can be utilized as a precursor
for the production of biochar including crop residues, forest waste etc. (Clough et al.,
2013). The physical and chemical properties of biochar including C contents are closely
related with the nature of precursor use and pyrolysis conditions (carbonization
temperature and carbonization time) (Ronsse et al., 2013). Application of biochar is
emerging as an attractive approach not only to improve soil quality and crop production
yield but also to mitigate the climate change problem by reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. However, research on the quality of biochar is still lacking. One of the
important parameters to produce good quality of biochar can be identified based on its
C content. Hence, the aim of this paper is to identify quality of biochar derived from oil
palm trunk (OPT) based on C content (fixed C) using proximate analysis method. A
comprehensive assessment on effect of different carbonization temperature and time on
C content of biochar obtain has also been presented.
The oil palm trunk (OPT) samples were collected from Banting, Selangor, Malaysia.
The OPT sampleswasthen cut into three parts to represent the whole trunk: i) front, ii)
middle and iii) back. Each part was air-dried for several days, followed by oven drying
at 60 oC until constant weight was recorded to remove excess moisture as to avoid the
growth of mould and fungus on samples. The OPT samples was briquetted into cubic
form with approximately size of 27 cm3 (3 cm x 3 cm x 3 cm) and carbonized using
pyrolyzer at various pyrolysis temperature (300 oC, 350 oC, 400 oC, 450 oC) and
different carbonization time(1 h, 2 h, 3 h). The biochar obtained was cool to room
temperature prior to proximate analysis. The proximate analysis of OPT biochar was
carried out based on the ASTM D1762-84 Standard Test Method. The raw OPT was
used as a control. The fixed C contents of the samples were determined using formula:
Fixed carbon (%) = 100 % – [Moisture content (%) + Volatile matters (%) + Ash
content (%)].
313
Table 1 shows the proximate analysis of raw OPT, while Figure 1 shows the proximate
analysis of OPT biochar. Four different data were obtained from proximate analysis
which consist of moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed C content.
Table 1: Proximate analysis of raw OPT

Proximate analysis (%)
Sample
Moisture content Volatile matter Ash content Fixed C
OPT 5.83 59.16 1.48 33.53
(b) 60 1 hour
(a))) 4 1 hour
50 2 hours
Volatile matter (%)

2 hours
3 3 hours
3 hours 40
Mositure content
2 30
(%)
1 20
10
0
0
300 350 400 450
300 350 400 450
Carbonization temperature (oC) Carbonization temperature (oC)
(c) 20 (d)60
15 45
Fixed carbon (%)
Ash content (%)
1 hour
1 hour
10 2 hours 30 2 hours
3 hours 3 hours
5 15
0 0
300 350 400 450 300 350 400 450
Carbonization temperature (oC) Carbonization temperature (oC)
Figure 1: Proximate analysis (a) moisture content (b) volatile matter (c) ash content (d)
fixed carbon of OPT biochar samples prepared using different carbonization
temperature and carbonization time
The moisture content of biochar declined consecutively from 300 to 450 oC. The
moisture loss was caused by the first stage of lignocellulose components decomposition
(Brebu and Vasile, 2010). Sadaka et al. (2014) stated that moisture content is sensitive
against carbonization temperature compared to carbonization time. Volatile matters of
biochars produced were decreased with increasing carbonization temperature and
carbonization time. Singh et al. (2015) observed similar trend in their study. At elevated
temperature, the biochar experienced a significant loss of volatile matter. This implies
that the degradation of major components of lignocellulose; i.e. cellulose (between 315
and 400 oC), hemicellulose (between 220 and 315 oC) and lignin (200 to 400 oC) took
place (Brebu and Vasile, 2010). Ash content of biochar produced increased
significantly with increasing carbonization temperature and carbonization time. The
results demonstrated at an increase in carbonization temperature and carbonization
time, ash content in biochar rose up to two-fold (from 8.04% to 17.21%). Werner et al.
(2014) mentioned that there was a positive correlation between fixed C content and ash
content. As expected, fixed C content of biochar showed the same trend as ash content
of biochar. Carbonization temperature and carbonization time influenced the fixed C
content of biochar produced. As the temperature increased, the fixed C contents of each
sample increased. Based on the result, biochar produced with the highest value of fixed
C (59.83%) was observed at 450 oC for 3 h where it exhibited higher fixed C content as
314
a compared to raw OPT (33.53%). The higher of storing of bulk C in soil was reported
better for soil fertility and crop production yield, therefore biochar with high C content
is more preferred nowadays. The results obtained from this study shows that proximate
analysis is the fastest and cheapest method that can be used to determine fixed carbon
content in biochar samples.
CONCLUSION
OPT biochar prepared using carbonization temperature of 450 oC for 3 h exhibited the
highest fixed C (59.83%). Thus, the biochar derived from OPT using that particular
carbonization temperature and carbonization time can be regarded as a good quality
biochar. Based on the results, it shows that proximate analysis can be used to determine
fixed carbon content in biochar sample.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful for the financial support (UMRP023-14AFR and
FRIM/234101017005, respectively) and facilities of the University of Malaya (UM)
and Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Malaysia.
REFERENCES
Brebu, M. & Vasile, C. 2010. Thermal degradation of lignin – A review. Cell. Chem.
Technol., 44 (9): 353–363.
Clough, T. J., Condron, L. M., Kammann, C. & Muller, C. 2013. A review of
biochar and soil nitrogen dynamics. Agron. J., 3: 275–293.
Cui, L., Yan, J., Li, L., Quan, G., Ding, C., Chen, T., Ding, C., Chen, T., Yin, C.,
Gao, J. & Hussain, Q. 2015. Biochar for Cd and Pb in solution. Bio Resources,
10(1): 88–104.
Klingmüller, M. 2013. Effects of biochar on greenhouse gas fluxes from agricultural
soils and resulting greenhouse gas abatement cost–an Austrian case study.
(Master’s Thesis). University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna,
Austria.
Lehmann, J. & Joseph, S. 2009. Biochar for Environmental Management: An
Introduction. In: Lehmann J and Joseph S (eds.) Biochar for Environmental
Management: Science and Technology. Earthscan Publ., London, 1–12 pp.
Major, J. 2010. Guidelines on practical aspects of biochar application to field soil in
various soil management systems (Ver.1.0). Retrieved from http://www.biochar-
international.org/sites/default/files/IBI%20Biochar%20Application%20Guidelines
_web.pf
Ronsse, F., vanHecke, S., Dickinson, D. & Prins, W. 2013. Production and
characterization of slow pyrolysis biochar: Influence of feedstock type and pyrolysis
conditions. GCB Bioenergy, 5:104–115.
Sadaka, S., Sharara, M. A., Ashworth, A., Keyser, P., Allen, F. & Wright, A. 2014.
Characterization of biochar from switchgrass carbonization. Energies, 7: 548–567.
Singh, A., Biswas, A. K., Singhai, R., Lakaria, B. L. & Dubey, A. K. 2015. Effect of
pyrolysis temperature and retention time on mustard straw-derived biochar for soil
amendment. J. Basic. Appl. Sci. Res., 5(9): 31–37.
Werner, K., Pommer, L. & Broström, M. 2014. Thermal decomposition of
hemicelluloses. J Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis, 110:130–137.
315
Pre and Post-Harvest Performances of Belalai Gajah (Clinacanthus
nutans Lindau) Grown on Bris Soil in Relation to Mixed and Single
Species of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza
Nur Farhana, R.1, Ain Najwa, K.A.1, Rosazlin, A.2, Yusnita, H.1, Zuraida A.R.3 and Wan
Zaliha, W.S.1
1
School of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21300
Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
2
Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
3
Biotechnology Research Centre, Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development,
Serdang Persiaran MARDI-UPM, Malaysia
E-mail: wzaliha@umt.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
The herbal industry in Malaysia was estimated to grow at the rate of 15 percent per
annum, with the market value rising from 7 billion ringgit in 2010 to some 29 billion
ringgit in 2020 (Ecer, 2011). Eleven potential herbs have been recognized in Malaysia
as a new target to increase the economic growth such as tongkat ali, kacip fatimah,
misai kucing, dukung anak, hempedu bumi, rosel, pegaga, mengkudu, ginger (MOA,
2015) and belalai gajah (Ramlan et al., 2015). However, one of the important local
herbs is not listed in the group, Clinacanthus nutans or commonly known as Sabah
Snake Grass or Belalai Gajah. This leafy herbaceous plant contains high medicinal
properties and commonly used to treat cancer (Roosita et al., 2008), cure insect and
snake bite, skin rashes, herpes simplex virus (HSV) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
lesions (Sakdarat et al., 2009) and also diabetes and dysentery (Hariana, 2008). Due to
its beneficial bioactive compounds, the demand of this herb exceeds supply and not
enough for local and export market. In Terengganu, this therapeutic herb is not yet
commercialized due to the occurrence of infertile soil, Beach Ridges Interspersed with
Swales (BRIS) which dominate large part of the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia.
Mohd. Ekhwan and Mazlin (2009) reported that BRIS soil covers approximately 67,582
hectares in Terengganu. This soil has more than 98% sand, excessive drainage, high
surface soil temperature, low moisture and nutrient content (Wan Rasidah et al., 2010).
In order to overcome above mentioned problem and exploit potential herb industry, the
application of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) fungi could be the best method to be
implemented. It works on all soil types and helps to improve soil fertility which
increases growth and yield of the plant. The symbiosis between the fungi and the plant
root will benefit the plant itself. Currently, information on the effectiveness of AM
fungi species on herbal plants is still lacking. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate
the effects of arbuscular mycorrhiza on both pre and postharvest performances Belalai
Gajah grown on BRIS soil.
The experiment was conducted at Greenhouse, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu with

average temperature of 35 – 45 °C. The experiment was arranged as according to
Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with 2 factors which are different type
of AM species and different rate of AM species. The treatments were i) 0g of Glomus
sp., ii) 10 g of Glomus sp., iii) 50 g of Glomus sp., iv) 0 g of Scutellospora sp., v) 10 g
316
of Scutellospora sp., vi) 50 g of Scutellospora sp., vii) 0 g of Gigaspora sp., viii) 10 g
of Gigaspora sp., ix) 50 g of Gigaspora sp., x) 0 g mixed sp., xi) 10 g mixed sp. and
xii) 50 g of mixed sp. Mixed sp. consists of the aforementioned Am species. Each
experimental unit contain single plant then replicated three times. Thirty-two-nodes
stem cutting of Belalai Gajah with 2 nodes were transferred into polybag containing
sterilized BRIS soil (90-110 °C for 8 hours) which was collected from Stesen
Pembangunan Komoditi Rhu Tapai, Setiu, Terengganu. The respective inoculum
treatments (mixed and single species) were placed into each planting hole before
transplanting. AM inoculum was placed in thin layer to a depth of 5 cm to ensure better
infection. The observation was recorded a week after transplant. All plants experienced
similar cultural practices such as irrigation and fertilization. The experiment was
conducted for 77 days (September 29, 2015 – November 26, 2015). Stem diameter was
recorded at weekly basis, 0, 7, 14, 21, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63, 70 and 77 days after
transplanting, (DAT) while spore count and root infection were taken on day 0, 14, 28,
42, 56 and 70 DAT. Meanwhile, postharvest parameters assessed at harvest were fresh
and dry weight of leaves and stems, cumulative dry weight, leaf area and root volume
of Belalai Gajah plants. The data were subjected to the analysis of variance (ANOVA)
using GLM (General Linear Models) procedures and further separated by Tukey for
minimum significant difference at p≤0.05 (SAS Institute Inc., 1991).
No significant interactions between two factors, different species and different rates of
AM were recorded in pre- and postharvest parameters of Belalai Gajah grown on BRIS
soil except for leaf dry weight, cumulative dry weight (the weight of individual organs
such as leaf and stem) and spore number (Figures 1, 2, and 3). The inoculation of 50 g
mixed AM species and 10 g of Gigaspora sp. and Scutellospora sp resulted in the
highest leaf dry weight and cumulative dry weight of plant organs (2.48 g and 4.88 –
4.90 g respectively).
As expected, the number of spore and root infection of Belalai Gajah grown on BRIS
soil increased as the experimental period extended (Figure 3 and Table 1). Belalai Gajah
inoculated with 50 g AM mixed sp. resulted in the highest spore number (110 spore
per 10 gram soil) (Figures 3, 4 and 5). The higher percentage of spore count gives the
better absorption of nutrient to the plant. Wan Zaliha et al. (2015) claimed that the
inoculation of 150 g AM without Rice Husk Biochar (RHB) results in the higher
number of AM spore (394 spores), followed by inoculation of 50 g AM+RHB (229
Spores) on 77 days of planting Belalai Gajah. Similar findings were recorded in the
research done by Ain Najwa et al. (2016) and Nur Amirah et al. (2013). Mohammad
Saharkhiz et al. (2011) claimed that O. sanctum inoculated with combination of G.
mossae and G. versiforme had higher root colonization, chlorophyll content and flower
stem length than non-inoculated. Possibly, AM fungi produce higher number of active
translocation of minerals along the extrametrical hyphae which resulted in more
effective fungus to exploit a volume of soil (Rhodes and Gerdemann, 1975). Similar
observation was also reported by Sam and Enom (2006) who noted that AM
colonization exhibited a significant correlation with the root development. On the other
hand, irrespective of rate of AM, all species had an increasing trend of root infection.
The highest infection was noticeable in Belalai Gajah inoculated with Mixed sp of AM
(57.55%). Similarly, Ishi and Kadoya (1994) observed the increase of root infection by
AM on citrus. In addition, AM fungi infection produces different effects depending on
317
the type of crop, the soil type and its fertility, environmental condition and also water
irrigation. These factors could be the reason for the inconsistent result in this study.
3
a
2.5
Leaf Dry Weight (g)

ab
2 ab
ab
1.5 bc bcd bc
bcde
1
cde cde
de e
0.5
Treatments
Figure 1: Effects of different species and amounts AM on leaf dry weight of Belalai
Gajah. Means with the same letter are not significantly different at HSD (p≥0.05)
5 a a
Cumulative Dry Weight (g)
ab ab
4 abc
abc
3 abc
abc abc
abc
2
bc
1 c
Treatments
Figure 2: Effects of different species and amounts AM on cumulative dry weight of

Belalai Gajah. Means with the same letter are not significantly different at HSD
(p≥0.05)
140
Glo 0g Glo 10g
Glo 50g Scu 0g
120
Number of spore (per 10g soil)
Scu 10g Scu 50g

Giga 0g Giga 10g
100
Giga 50g Mix 0g
Mix 10g Mix 50g
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80
Days after transplanting
Figure 3: Effects of different species and amounts AM on number of spores of Belalai

Gajah
318
H
Figure 4: Arbuscular Mycorhizal fungi infectionin Belalai Gajah root showing vesicle
(V) within the root cortex and hyphe (H)
A
C
Figure 5: Spore of Arbuscular Mycorhizal fungi on Belalai Gajah soil showing

different species Glomus sp. (A), Scutellospora sp. (B) and Gigaspora sp. (C)
Table 1: Effects of three rates and four species of Arbuscular mychorriza root infection
of Belalai Gajah grown on BRIS soil
Factor/days 0 14 28 42 56 70
AM rates (R)
0 0 0c 0b 0c 0c 0c
10 0 16.17b 33.16a 50.50b 73.91b 79.92b
50 0 21.83a 37.16a 61.33a 80.16a 85.25a
F-test
- ** ** ** ** **
significance
AM species (S)
Gigaspora sp. 0 11.55b 16.82a 34.33b 50.88a 53.44a
Scutellopora sp. 0 11.50b 16.38a 32.67b 50.33a 53.67a
Glomus sp. 0 12.22ab 19.46a 35.44b 50.88a 55.55a
Mixed sp. 0 15.22a 20.98a 46.67a 54.22a 57.55a
F-test
- ** ns ** ** ns
significance
Interaction, RxS - ns ns ** ns ns
NS, *: non significant or signifcant at p<0.05. Mean separation within columns and factors followed by
the same letter are significantly different by HSD at p≤0.05
Even no interaction between two factors was observed, stem diameter significantly
affected by the inoculation of different AM species and rates. The bigger stem diameter
319
of Belalai Gajah was observed in 50 g of mixed species inoculated plants on day 70
(data not included). Stem and leaf fresh weights, leaf area and root volume were
influenced only by different rates of AM fungi (Table 2). Regardless of AM species,
inoculation of 50 g AM mostly show the positive feedback on growth performances of
Belalai Gajah. Similarly, Ain Najwa et al., (2016) claimed that no significant
interaction was observed between different species and rates of AM on stem diameter,
leaves fresh weight, cumulative fresh weight and leaf area. Meanwhile, irrespective of
AM species, the presence of AM increased the root volume thereby positively impact
to the uptake of nutrient in the soil. Jamaluddin et al. (2001) claimed that the growth of
plant was enhanced by mycorrhizal infection by increasing nutrient uptake in the
absorbing surface area of roots.
Table 2: Effects of three rates and four species of Arbuscular mychorriza on leaf and
stem fresh weights, leaf area and root volume of Belalai Gajah grown on BRIS soil
Leaf fresh Stem fresh Leaf area Root volume
Factor
weight (g) weight (g) (cm2) (cm3)
AM rates (R)
0 3.49b 3.36b 206b 12.50b
a a a
10 6.57 8.76 448 19.17a
50 6.20a 8.43a 464a 21.67a
F-test
** ** ** **
significance
AM species (S)
Gigaspora sp. 6.40a 4.77a 341a 10.00a
a a a
Scutellopora sp. 7.52 5.45 343 14.44a
Glomus sp. 6.59a 7.13a 352a 24.44a
a a a
Mixed sp. 6.89 4.27 365 22.22a
F-test
ns ns ns ns
significance
Interaction, RxS ns ns ns ns
NS, *: non significant or signifcant at p<0.05. Mean separation within columns and factors followed by
the same letter are significantly different by HSD at p≤0.05
CONCLUSION
Irrespective of AM species, 50 g AM was pronounced in enhancing the growth of

Belalai Gajah planted on BRIS soil. However, no specific species can be deduced in
improving the development of Belalai Gajah as all species had similar effect.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank Universiti Malaysia Terengganu and Ministry of Science,
Technology and Innovation for the grant provided under Fundamental Research Grant
Scheme (FRGS) (59340).
REFERENCES
Ain Najwa, K.A., Yusnita, H., Rosazlin, A., Zuraida A.R. & Wan Zaliha, W.S.
2016.
Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza on Growth and Postharvest Performances of
320
Hempedu Bumi (Andrographis paniculata Nees) Grown on BRIS soil. 26th Malaysian
Society of Plant Physiology Conference. 9 – 11 August 2016. Abstr. 51 pp.
ECER. 2011. Investment and business opportunities in the Herbal and Biotechnology
cluster development in East Coast Economic Regions (ECER). Accessed on: 25
September 2015.
Hariana, H.A. 2008. Tumbuhan obat dan khasiatnya 2 penebar, Swadaya Jakarta. 56
pp.
Ishii, T. & Kadoya K. 1994. Effects of charcoal as a soil conditioner on citrus growth
and vesiculararbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) development. J. Jpn. Soc. Hortic., 63:
529-535.
Jamaluddin A., Chandra K.K. & Goswami M.G., 2001. Effectiveness of various
types of VAM inoculum on growth and biomass of Bambusa nutans. Mycorrhiza
News, 12: 15–17.
MOA. 2015. Herba. Retrieved: December 1, 2015.
Mohammad Saharkhiz, J., Mohammad, M., Mehdi, Z. & Jaime A. Teixiera, D.S.
2011. Responses of Ocimum sanctum to inoculation with arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi and fertilization with different phosphate sources. Med. Aromat. Plant Sci.
Biotechnol. 5(2): 114-118.
Mohd. Ekhwan, H.T. & Mazlin, M. 2009. Analysis of the physical characteristics of
BRIS soil in coastal Kuala Kemaman, Terengganu. Research Journal of Earth
Sciences. ISSN 1995-9044. 1(1): 01-06.
Nur Amirah, Y., Wan Zaliha, W.S., Yusnita, H. & Zuraida, A.R. 2013. Effects of
arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi and foliar fertilizer on the growth performance of Misai
Kucing (Orthosiphon stamineus Benth). Proceedings of SOILS 2013. Bukit
Gambang Resort City, Gambang, Pahang. 16-18 Apri1 2013.170-175 pp.
Ramlan, A., Sarmidi, M.R., Rohaizan, K.A., Jeffrey, S., Mariani, A.H. & Harisun,
Y. 2015. Developing herbal based cosmeceuticals in Malaysia: Potential and
challenges to be a global market player. Institute of Bioproduct Development.
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Retrieved: January 14, 2015.
Rhodes, L.H. & Gerdemann, J.W. 1975. Phosphate uptake zones of mycorrhizal and
non-mycorrhizal onions. New Phytol. 75: 555-561.
Roosita, K., Kusharto, C. M., Sekiyama, M., Fachrurozi, Y. & Ohtsuka, R. 2008.
Medicinal plants used by villagers of Sudanese Community in West Java, Indonesia.
J. Ethnopharmacol. 115: 72-81.
Sakdarat, S., Shuyprom, A., Pientong, C., Ekalaksananan, T. & Thongchai, S.
2009. Bioactive constituents from the leaves of Clinacanthus nutans Lindau.
Bioorg. Med. Chem., 17(5): 1857-1860.
SAS Institute Inc. 1999. SAS Procedure Guide, Version 9.1. Cary, NC.
Wan Rasidah, K.A., Rosazlin, A.B. & Rozita, A. 2010. Growth of tongkat ali
(Eurycoma longifolia) on a sandy beach ridges soil in Malaysia. Pp 104–107 in 19th
World Congress of Soil Science: Soil Solutions for a Changing World. 1–6 August
2010, Brisbane.
Wan Zaliha, W.S. Norul Husna, A.K., Yusnita, H. & Zuraida, A R. 2015. Effects
of mycorrhizal inoculation on growth and quality of roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa
L.) grown in soilless culture system. Malaysia Application Biology, 44(1): 55-60.
321
Nutritional Improvisation of Soil by Fish Amino Acid
Faeiza, B.1, Rosazlin, A.2, Hidayat, H.M.1, Nurul Hana, L.1 and Khairul, A.1
1
Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450, Shah Alam, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
2
Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
E-mail: eicha@salam.uitm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Fish processing industry is one of the producers of insignificant garbage due to

abundant generation of waste mainly composed of fish bodies’ parts. Fish wastes such
as skin, scales, bones and fins are major by-products in the fishery and aquaculture
industries (Pang et al., 2013. The best alternative to utilize the fish wastes is by
producing fish amino acid. Fish Amino Acid (FAA) is produced through the
composting of fish waste (bones, gut, fins and viscera) liquefy through fermentation.
Usually, these wastes contain protein (58%), extract or fat (19%) and minerals. There
are three types of proteins presence in fish which are structural proteins, sacroplasmic
proteins and connective tissue proteins. These proteins can be used as functional
ingredient in composting because of their properties of water holding capacity and
emulsifying properties. Furthermore, there are 16-18 amino acids present in the fish
proteins based on its species and seasonal variations. This amino acid helps in the
growth and fertility of plant (Woltz, 1963). Other than that, monosaturated acids, oleic
acid and plamitic acid were also identified to be abundant in fish waste (22%). FAA
can be used as soil amendments because of their properties which is high in water
holding capacity. FAA will provide just enough N to the plant for optimum uptake and
production of chlorophyll to maintain health of plant (Ghaly, 2013). With an adequate
of soil moisture it can be beneficial for immobile nutrients in soil such as P and K
(Bushong et al. 2014). This study aimed to investigate the effect of different
concentration of fish amino acid for nutritional improvisation in soil.
Fish waste contained as head, bones, skin, fins and viscera were grinded and mixed
with an equal amount of brown sugar (1:1 ratio by weight). The mixture was kept in
polystyrene boxes with holes at two sides of the boxes to allow good aeration during
the composting process of fish wastes. Each box was covered and stored out of direct
sunlight in a cool, well-ventilated and secured from animal. The process took two
months to complete the composting process. Determination of types of amino acid
present in FAA was done by HPLC. The FAA was then filtered and diluted with
distilled water on dilution factor of 1:50; 1:100; 1:1000. According to Weinert (2014),
1:1000 dilution factor is equivalent to 4 ml of FAA per gallon of water (1gal= 3800ml).
Each diluted FAA was sprayed on soil for 2ml of diluted FAA per kg of soil (Weinert
et al. 2014 and Ghaly et al. 2013). The soil samples were taken from Taman Botani,
Shah Alam. It was then treated with diluted FAA and the soils were analyzed using pH
meter, Inductively Coupled Plasma - Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) in
order to measure the P and K value (phosphorus and potassium) and CHNS elemental
analyzer to obtain the reading of N (nitrogen) value. Chilli plant was planted to
investigate the effectiveness of fish amino acid on soil.
322
After two month, the liquefying produced from the fish composting of sardine species
produced sweet, slightly fishy odour. Due to instrumental error, only 5 types of amino
acid were detected in FAA – Asparagine, Serine, Glutamine, Glycine and Histidine.
Each of the amino acid gives different benefit and function to the plant such as
photosynthesis, stress resistance and protein synthesis. However, soil treated with FAA
that was planted with chilli plant was observed to grow green and healthier leaves
compared to plot without FAA treatment. Chilli plant requires N (nitrogen) for the
synthesis of protein at the early stage its growth. Higher concentration of N will give
positive respond in increasing number of leaves (Haifa, 2006) as asparagine play role
as storage and transport N (nitrogen) in plant. On the other hand, N helps in the
vegetative growth of pepper plant and require for photosynthesis reaction for leaves to
appear green. Figure 1(a) shows the number of leaves produced increase from 11 leaves
to 18 leaves in one month time.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: (a) Soil treated with FAA and (b) untreated soil
Figure 2(a) presents the NPK analysis of FAA. N concentration in FAA was the highest
concentration, 24514 mg/mL compared to K and P which was 7664.9 mg/mL and 2104
mg/mL respectively. As stated by Ghaly (2013), fish is a source of protein and nitrogen.
FAA at 1:1000 has pH of slightly acidic which is 6.3 compared to others that lower pH.
Murray and Anderson (2004) had obtained the pH of 5.78 for liquid fish fertilizer which
was greater than 5.5 and the results of NPK concentration was low compare to this
study which is 2 mg/mL, 3.0 mg/mL and 39.9 mg/mL respectively.
(a) (b)
Figure 2: (a) NPK values for different diluted FAA. (b) pH of FAA
323
CONCLUSION
This study revealed that fish waste has potential as source of nutrients for soil and
plants. Five types of amino acid in sardine species were identified in this study which -
asparagine, serine, glutamine, glycine and histidine with the pH 5.07. The number of
leaves of chilli plant from increased from 11 leaves at week one to 18 leaves at week
four. Moreover, FAA is suitable in enhance the nutrient and growth of chilli plant
because it fulfilled the requirement of nutrients needed by pepper plant where K was
contained higher concentration, 7664.9 mg/mL compared to P, 2104 mg/mL in raw
FAA.
REFERENCES
Bushong, J. T., Arnall, D. B. & Raun, W. R. 2014. Effect of Preplant Irrigation,

Nitrogen Fertilizer Application Timing, and Phosphorus and Potassium Fertilization
on Winter Wheat Grain Yield and Water Use Efficiency. Intl. J. Agron., 2014, 1-12.
doi: 10.1155/2014/312416
Ghaly, R. V. V. 2013. Fish Processing Wastes as a Potential Source of Proteins, Amino
Acids and Oils: A Critical Review. Journal of Microbial & Biochemical
Technology, 05(04). doi: 10.4172/1948-5948.1000110
Haifa. 2006. Nutritional recommendations for PEPPER in open-field, tunnels and
greenhouse. 3-29.
Murray, R. & Anderson, R.G. 2004. Organic fertilisers and composts for vegetable
transplant production. University of Kentucky.
Pang, S., Chang, Y.P. & Woo, K. K. 2013. The Evaluation of the Suitability of Fish
Wastes as a Source of Collagen. IPCBEE, 53 (15):77-81.
Weinert, J., Sherri A. Miller, David M. Ikeda, Kim C. S. Chang, Joseph M.
McGinn, & Michael W. DuPonte. 2014. Natural Farming: Fish Amino Acid. J.
Sustain. Agric., SA-12.
324
Ameliorating Plant Available Water by Addition of Treated Palm Oil
Mill Effluent (POME) Sludge on Entisols
Mohd Nizar, K.1,3, Isharudin, M.I.2, Abd. Jamil, Z.1, Khairul Najmudin, K.2, Hamdan,
J.2 and Syahrizan, S.4
1
Institute of Agricultural Production and Food Innovation (AGROPOLIS), Universiti
Sultan Zainal Abidin, Campus Tembila, 22200 Besut, Terengganu, Malaysia
2
3
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Pahang),
26400 Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia
4
Faculty of Plantation and Agrotechnology, Universiti Teknologi MARA Melaka,
Campus Jasin, 77300 Merlimau, Melaka, Malaysia
E-mail: imi@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
In Malaysia, palm oil industry has contributed almost RM53 billion annually and
expected to achieve RM178 billion in 2020 (MPOB, 2010). According to MPOB
(2015), nearly 415 mills were operating in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak to
process all the fresh fruit bunches. However, the fresh fruit bunch could produce 26.7
million tonnes of solid waste from the palm oil such as empty fruit bunches (EFB),
palm pressed fibres (PPF) and palm oil mill effluent (POME) (Yacob et al., 2005). It is
estimated that nearly 50-60% of palm oil waste is POME (Baharuddin et al., 2010). In
the mills, POME was treated in the treatment ponds before it was discharged into the
river. After treated, POME produced a sediment in the treatment ponds it was called as
POME sludge. According to Khairuddin et al. (2016), the POME sludge was consisted
some nutrients including nitrogen, potassium, sulfur and carbon that can be utilized as
an organic fertilizer. It has high moisture content and the pH of 8.4. In addition, the
heavy metal content was at the safety level to be used and followed the standard
requirement by Codex Alimentarius Commission (FAO/WHO) (2001). In this study,
Rasau series based on USDA soil taxonomy known as Entisols was used to observe the
effect on selected soil physical properties and hydraulic characteristics after application
of treatments. Gasim et al. (2011) stated that Rasau series was consisted mainly sandy
loam and low organic matter content. Mostly, Rasau series was characterized as sandy
soil texture with more than 54% of sand, silt is around 30% - 32% and the clay content
is with an average of 13%. The soil physical properties such as bulk density, soil
porosity, soil compaction, hydraulic properties, soil losses and yield were observed in
this experiment. The objectives of this study were to determine the effect of treated
POME sludge from mixing pond (MP), anaerobic pond (ANP), facultative pond (FP),
algae pond (ALP), dumping pond (DP) and un-amended soil (Control) on soil physical
characteristics and soil losses of Rasau series for maize production. Finding from this
research was expected to enhance soil physical properties and improves fertility status
of the soil by addition of organic matter. According to Dexter (1988), organic matter
content affected the soil bulk density and soil compaction. El-Shakweer et al. (1998)
also reported that the organic matter was able to increase soil porosity and infiltration
rate. Improvement in soil physical properties would increase crop yield and quality.
325
The experimental site was located at Research Farm of the Universiti Teknologi MARA
Pahang, Campus Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia (3.7562 °N, 102.5611 °E) for a period of
Feb 2015 to June 2016. The POME sludge samples were taken from palm oil mill, Felda
Jengka 8, Bandar Tun Abdul Razak Jengka, Pahang, Malaysia from different treatment
ponds system (mixing, anaerobic, facultative, algae and dumping). POME treatment
system was set up at different Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) process such as:
cooling ponds (1 day), mixing ponds (2 days), anaerobic ponds (45 days), facultative
ponds (20 days) and algae ponds (7 days). Dumping ponds was used as dislodging
sediment for maintenance purposes two times a year. The soil and POME sludge was
dried, powdered and sieved through a 2 mm size. The Rasau soil series (Entisols) was
dug up from 10 cm deep and dried, homogenized and sieved. The study was conducted
consisted in polybag 16 x 20cm and planted with Zea mays (Hibrimas variety) in
randomized complete blocks design (RCBD). Treatments in the amount of 50 g per
polybag with different POME sludge (mixing, anaerobic, facultative, algae and
dumping) were used as soil amendments with un-amended soil as control (C). Bulk
density was measured using 10 g of soil sample that was dried in the oven at 105 °C
and transfer into a measuring cylinder and gently tapped for compaction (g cm -3)
(Radojevic and Bashkin, 2006). Soil porosity test was carried out using a cylindrical
ring of 100 cm3 volume with three replicates to determine a total porosity by the core
method (Huang et al. 2005). Meanwhile, soil compaction test was used to determine
the compaction status of the soil samples (Torbin et al. 1995). To determine the soil
hydraulic properties, RETC modeling was used based on Van Genuchten – Mualem ,
A (m=1-1/n) (Van Genuchten, 1980).
𝜃𝑠− 𝜃𝑟
𝜃 = 𝜃𝑟 + [1+(𝛼ℎ)𝑛]𝑚 (1)
The retention model was used to describe the soil water retention function where the
subscripts r and s denoted as residual and saturated water contents, respectively.
According to Van Genuchten et al. (1991), five independent parameters (θr, θs, α, n,
m) and that the residual and saturated water contents are considered here as an empirical
parameters. They are defined the retention model, and fitted to observe the data using
water retention model (Van Genuchten et al., 1991). The most general formulation
arises when the parameters m and n are assumed to be independent. The parameters are
estimated with an algorithm described by Marquardt (1963). Statistical analyses were
conducted using SAS 9.4 statistical package (SAS, 2007). Analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was conducted to test the treatments effect while means of treatment were
compared using LSD test at p< 0.05.
Selected physiochemical properties
Table 1 shows the changes of POME sludge’s bulk density in the different treatment
ponds. In general, the highest bulk density were identified in control (C) (1.44 g cm-3)
followed by MP (1.27 g cm-3), ANP (1.26 g cm-3), FP (1.23 g cm-3), ALP (1.19 g cm-3)
and DP (1.03 g cm-3). According to USDA (2008) which stated that loose, porous soils
and rich in organic matter have low bulk density. Moreover, Khalid and Mustafa (1992)
326
clarified that the effect of organic matter on the reduction of dry bulk density in soil
was similar to the DP treatment in this experiment. The soil porosity presented in Table
1 increased significantly for C (45%) and DP (61%), respectively, whereas no
significant difference was reported to MP (52%), ANP (52%), FP (53%) and ALP
(54%). According to Pagliai et al. (1993), a soil structure will improve with the
increased of soil porosity. Soil compaction analysis revealed that there was a significant
difference of compaction in each treatment (Table 1). The study showed that
compaction status was declining from MP (224.08 kPa) > ANP (172.37 kPa) > DP
(115.49 kPa) treatments as compared to the control (448.17 kPa). However, there was
no significant changes in FP (163.75 kPa) and ALP (163.75 kPa) that was observed.
Decreased in compaction was an indicative of high organic matter content in the POME
sludge. In addition, soil compaction mostly related to bulk density (Panayiotopoulos et
al., 1994) and similar to the results in this experiment. The organic matter content in
DP treatment was 2.68%, whereas for ALP, FP, ANP and MP there were 2.65%, 2.32%,
2.32% and 2.01% reduction in each treatment as compared to the control (1.15%). Table
1 shows that there was a significant difference between the DP, MP and the control
treatments, respectively. Thus, the POME sludge might increase organic matter content,
decreased bulk density and provided more nutrients to the soil. According to Pascual,
et al. (1997), organic amendments was shown a greater effect in decreasing the C: N
ratio.
Table 1: Bulk density, soil porosity, soil compaction and organic matter in different
POME sludge treatment (Means with the same letter are not significantly different at
p<0.05)
Control MP ANP FP ALP DP
Bulk density (g/m³) 1.44a 1.27ab 1.26ab 1.23b 1.20b 1.03c
Porosity (%) 45.03c 52.08b 52.45b 53.68b 54.81b 61.32a
Soil compaction (kPa) 448.16a 224.08b 172.37bc 163.75bc 163.75bc 115.49c
Organic matter (%) 1.15c 2.01b 2.32ab 2.32ab 2.65a 2.68a
Hydraulic parameters
Result of hydraulic characteristics of different POME sludge are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 shows that there is different texture, θ r and θ s (residual and saturated soil
water content), respectively, α and n are vVn Genuchten (1980) parameter, and Ks
(hydraulic conductivity) of the Entisols in all treatments.
Table 2: Hydraulic parameter of van Genuchten Mualem, A (m = 1-1/n) equation for

retention curve.
Treatment Control MP ANP FP ALP DP
Sand (%) 55 55 55 55 55 55
Silt (%) 32 32 32 32 32 32
Silt (%) 13 13 13 13 13 13
θ r (cm3/cm3) 0.047 0.050 0.050 0.051 0.052 0.552
θ s (cm3/cm3) 0.386 0.423 0.426 0.434 0.441 0.488
α (1/cm) 0.018 0.015 0.015 0.014 0.014 0.012
n (-) 1.452 1.480 1.481 1.482 1.483 1.479
Ks (cm/day) 29.64 56.38 58.54 66.07 74.03 143.35
327
There was significant different in each treatment applied followed by ALP (74.03
cm/day), FP (66.07 cm/day), ANP (58.54 cm/day) and MP (56.38 cm/day) treatments
(Figure 1). There was significant different of the hydraulic conductivity (Ks) in DP
(143.35 cm/day) that was due to low bulk density existed in the dumping pond sludge
treatment. Correlation analysis revealed that hydraulic conductivity and bulk density
was highly correlated (R² = 0.925) (Figure 2). The incorporating of bulk density and
soil texture (silt and clay) was important to determine the hydraulic conductivity in the
soil residue. Therefore, high hydraulic conductivity (Ks) could cause the decreased in
soil bulk density and increased the total porosity. Figure 2 indicated that as the treatment
applied, the organic matter content was increased, control (1.15%) < MP (2.01%) <
ALP (2.32%) < FP (2.33%) < ALP (2.65%) < DP (2.68%). Hati et al. (2011) identified
that addition of organic amendment improved the aggregation status of the soil. Soil
permeability is a function of effective pore volume, increased pore volume has a
positive influence on hydraulic conductivity of the soil (Hati et al., 2011).
160 142.50a
Hydraulic conductivity
140
120
100
(cm/day)
74.03b
80 65.95c 58.38d
56.06e
60
40 29.16f
20
0
DP ALP FP ANP MP Control
Treatment
Figure 1: Hydraulic conductivity from different treatment ponds: control, MP, ANP,
FP, ALP and DP. (Means with the same letter are not significantly different at p<0.05)
(a) (b)
150 y = -269.46x + 404.2
150
R² = 0.925 y = 50.21x - 38.863

Hyraulic conductivity
100 100 R² = 0.5544

(cm/day)
(cm/day)
50 50
0 0
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
Bulk density (g/cm³) Organic matter (%)
Figure 2: Correlation between hydraulic conductivity (cm/day) measured by bulk

density (g/cm³) and organic matter (%)
Plant available water (PAW)
Figure 3 shows the relationship of water content and soil hydraulic conductivity. Based
on the prediction of relative hydraulic conductivity, the soil water retention curve acts
as a function in both of water content and hydraulic conductivity (Ks) as shown in
Figure 3. Hydraulic properties among all treatments varied significantly in an
increasing order: C (29.64 cm/day) < MP (56.38 cm/day) < ANP (58.54 cm/day) < FP
(66.07 cm/day) < ALP (74.03 cm/day) < DP (143.35 cm/day) respectively. The
increased of the hydraulic properties was correlated to the bulk density and soil organic
matter. Besides that, the increased of water content may be associated with the
treatment of C, MP, ANP, FP, ALP and DP which showed significant effect on the
328
hydraulic conductivity based on Van Genuchtem–Mualem model, A (m=1-1/n).
Therefore, the hydraulic conductivity was also increased due to the high organic matter
content. It is proven by Nemes et al. (2005) that the organic matter might affect the
pore-size distribution of the soil through soil structure development which also
influenced the hydraulic conductivty.
10
0 DP
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
-10 ALP
(cm/day) -20 FP
-30 ANP
MP
-40
C
-50
Water content (cm³ cm⁻³)
Figure 3: Relationship between water content (cm3 cm-3) and hydraulic conductivity
(cm/day) by RETC model in every treatment
According to Romano et al. (2002), while the time-based approximation is used to

estimate field capacity, pressure head based approximation has been used to estimate
its capacity in the laboratory. For example, a commonly used approximation of water
content at field capacity for coarse textured soil is 100 kPa based on Romano et al.
(2002). Figure 4 illustrates the available water capacity among the treatments where
there was significant difference in DP treatment (0.22 cm cm-3) compared to the control
treatment (0.16 cm cm-3). As the treatment was applied in this experiment, the trend of
plant available water (PAW) increased in the following order whereby C < MP < ANP
< FP < ALP < DP. The dumping pond (DP) treatment showed the highest amount of
plant available water (PAW) compared to the other treatments. This was due to the high
organic matter content and low bulk density which increased the plant available water.
The USDA (1998) stated that organic matter content increased the plant available water.
As an example, each 1% of organic matter added to the soil would increase 1.5% of
plant available water (PAW).
0.25 0.2254f
Plant Available Water
0.1827b 0.184c 0.1913d0.1946e

0.2
0.1556a
(cm3 cm-3)
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
C MP ANP FP ALP DP
Figure 4: Plant Available Water (PAW) after treatment application
CONCLUSION
The Rasau soil series showed significant results after application of treatments in some
selected soil physical properties. The significant results were observed on soil bulk
329
density, porosity, soil compaction and organic matter with POME sludge from DP
(dumping pond). With the present of high organic matter content, low bulk density and
less compacted soil, DP treatment showed the best result in plant available water for
plant growth. The other treatments were also shown significant effect on plant available
water compared to the control treatment. As a conclusion, the DP treatments was the
best treatment that could ameliorate soil physical properties, hydraulic properties and
plant available water. Therefore, the growth performance of crops may also be
increased significantly.
REFERENCES
Baharuddin, A.S., Lim, S.H., Md Yusof, M.Z., Abdul Rahman, N.A., Md.
Shah,U.K., Hassan, M.A., Wakisaka, M., Sakai, K. & Shirai, Y. 2010. Effect of
palm oil mill effluent (POME) anaerobic sludge based compost using fourier
transform infrared (FTIR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis. Afr. J.
Biotechnol., 10(41): 2427-2436.
Codex Alimentarius Commission (FAO/WHO). 2001. Food additives and
contaminants, Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program, Alinorm 01/12A: 1-289.
Dexter,A. R. 1988. Advances in characterization of soil structure. Soil Till. Res.
11:199–238.
El-Shakweer, M.H.A., El-Sayad, E.A. & Ewees, M.S.A. 1998. Soil and plant analysis
as a guide for interpretation of the improvement efficiency of organic conditioners
added to different soil in Egypt. Common. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 29 (11-14): 2067–
2088.
Gasim, M. B., Ismail, B. S., Mir, S. I., Rahim, S. A. & Toriman, M. E. 2011. The
physico-chemical properties of four soil series in Tasik Chini, Pahang, Malaysia.
J. Asian Earth Sci., 4(2): 75.
Hati, K. & Bandyoopadhay, K. 2011. Fertilizers (mineral, organic), effect on soil
physical properties. In Encyclopedia of Agrophysics (pp. 296-299). Springer
Netherlands.
Huang Y., Wang S.L., Feng Z.W., Wang H. & Huang H. 2005. Comparative study
of selected soil properties following introduction of broad-leaf trees into clearfelled
Chinese fir forest. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 36: 1385–
1403.
Khairuddin, M. N., Zakaria, A. J., Isa, I. M., Jol, H., Rahman, W. M. N. W. A. &
Salleh, M. K. S. 2016. The Potential of Treated Palm Oil Mill Effluent (Pome)
Sludge as an Organic Fertilizer. Agrivita, 38(2): 142.
Khalid, A. R., & Mustafa, W. W. 1992. External benefits of environmental regulation:
resource recovery and the utilisation of effluents. Environmentalist, 12(4): 277-285.
Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB). 2015. Palm oil production. MPOB Bulletin.
Reviewed on 14 Jan 2017 at http://www.mpob.gov.com
Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB). 2010. National Key Areas (NKEA): National
Biogas Implementation (EPP5). Malaysia Palm Oil Board kilang Reviewed on 14
Jan 2017 at mpob.com.my/National_Key_Economic_Areas.pdf.
Marquardt, D. W. 1963. An algorithm for least-squares estimation of nonlinear
parameters. J. Soc. Ind Appl. Math. 11:431-441.
Nemes, A., J.H.M. Wo¨sten, J. Bouma, & G. Va´ rallyay. 2005. Soil water balance
scenario studies using predicted soil hydraulic parameters. Hydr. Proc. In Press.
Pagliai, M., & De Nobili, M. 1993. Relationships between soil porosity, root
development and soil enzyme activity in cultivated soils. Geoderma. 56: 243–256.
330
Panayiotopoulos, K., Papadopoulou, C. & Hatjiioannidou A. 1994. Compaction and
penetration resistance of an Alfisol and Entisol and their influence on root growth of
maize seedlings. Soil Till. Res., 31:323–337.
Pascual, J. A., Garcia, C., Hernandez, T. & Ayuso, M. 1997. Changes in the
microbial activity of an arid soil amended with urban organic wastes. Biol. Fertil.
Soils, 24(4): 429-434.
Radojevic, M. & Bashkin, V. N. 1999. Practical environmental analysis. Royal
Society of Chemistry, RSC Publishing, London.
Romano, N. & Santini, A. 2002. Water retention and storage: Field. Dane, J. H., and
Topp, G. C., Eds. Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 4: Physical Methods, 721-738.
Madison: Soil Science Society of America.
SAS Intstitute Inc. 2007. SAS/STAT software, version 9, Cary, NC, USASAS
Institute, Inc.
Torbin, R., Heirtzler, F., Lukasiewicz, M. & Artzberger, T. 1995. Soil compaction
meter. In International gas research conference. 782-790 pp..
USDA. 2008. Soil bulk density/moisture/aeration. USDA Natural Resources Services.
USDA-NRCS. 1998. Soil quality. Agronomy Technical Note No. 6.
Van Genuchten, M. T. 1980. A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic
conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 44(5): 892-898.
Van Genuchten, M. Th., Leij, F.J. & Yates, S.R. 1991. The RETC Code for
Quantifying the Hydraulic Functions of Unsaturated Soils. U.S. Salinity Laboratory,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service Riverside, California
USA.
Yacob, S., Hassan, M.A., Shirai, Y. Wakisakaa, M. & Subash, S. 2005. Baseline
study of methane emission from open digesting tanks of palm oil mill effluent
treatment. Chemosphere, 59, 1575–1581 pp.
331
Succession of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi in Forest Reclamation of Post-
Mining Sites
Patahayah, M., Mohd. Salleh, S., Abriza, M. Z., Mohd. Farid, A., Wan Muhammad
Azrul, W.A. and Ahmad Syazwan, S.
Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), 52109 Kepong, Selangor, Malaysia
E-mail: patahayah@frim.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Post-mining sites are categorized as one of the problematic area in Malaysia which need
intensive works for reclamation. Planting of forest tree species is one means to turn this
areas into a productive land. Once the reclamation completed and the vegetation
established, therefore there is a need to evaluate the success of the reclamation.
Assessment on the diversity and community of the ectomycorrhizal fungi is vital as
mycorrhizal fungi is one of the organism group that enhance the development of a forest
communities via interaction of vegetation succession and soil environment changes.
However, the occurrence of ectomycorrhizal fungi in certain areas is also influenced by
the occurrence of the host plant community. This study was conducted to assess the
diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi under mixed forest stand established in slime and
sandy tin tailings.
The study site
This study was conducted in a reclaimed post tin mining sites in Bidor, Perak which
located about 138km from the central of Kuala Lumpur. This 120 hectares area of ex-
tin mine had undergone afforestation program since 1998 by planting with selected
timber species such as Hopea odorata, Acacia mangium, Fragrea crenulata, Khaya
ivorensis, Swietenia macrophylla and many more. Two mixed forest stands ie. mixed
Acacia mangium-Hopea odorata and mixed Hopea odorata- Fragraea crenulata were
choosen for the foray activities. The mixed Acacia mangium-Hopea odorata stand was
established on sandy tin tailings and the mixed Hopea odorata- Fragraea crenulata
stand established on slime tailings.
Basidiocarps collections
The basidiocarps observation and collection was conducted at monthly interval from
April 2016 until February 2017. During the fungal foray activities, ectomycorrhizal
basidiocarps were collected, put into plastic box or wrap with aluminum foil and
transferred to the Mycology and Pathology Laboratory, FRIM for identification. In the
field, the site where the basidiocarps grew, tree host and the number of individual
collected and observed were all recorded. In the laboratory, identification and
description of fresh basidiocarp were based on morphological characteristics of the size,
shape, colour, textures of cap and the lower surface of the cap following the available
keys for identification of the larger fungi (Largent, 1973; Largent and Thiers, 1977;
Largent et al. 1977). Microscopic characterization was examined using the Olympus
BX61 and Olympus SZ10 microscope. The samples were given ID number along the
332
identification processes and then were kept in the FRIM Fungarium as dried specimens
for future reference.
Based on the observation and identification, we found that 16 species of

ectomycorrhizas were associated with the stand grown in the slime and sandy tailings.
All these ectomycorrhizal basidiocarps observed were in the form of mushrooms,
toadstools, earthballs and coral fungi. The total of 16 species of ectomycorrhizal fungi
recorded were belong to the family Boletaceae, Sclerodermataceae, Russulaceae,
Amanitaceae, Clavariaceae, Clavulinaceae, Boletinellaceae and Inocybaceae (Table 1).
The Boletaceae had the highest species (6), followed by Russulaceae (3),
Sclerodermataceae (2), Amanitaceae (2) and the other families represent by one species.
We also noted that Clavulina sp., commonly known as coral fungi was the most
abundant, followed by Scleroderma sp. 1, Lactarius sp., Boletus sp. 1 and Russula
brevipes.
Table 1: Family, genus and number of ectomycorrhizal basidiocarps observed and

collected under mixed forest stand grown in slime and sandy tailings in Bidor, Perak
Individual
Family Genus Abundance (%)
(basidiocarp)
Boletaceae Boletus sp. 1 82 10.8
Boletus sp. 2 8 1.1
Boletus sp. 3 12 1.6
Boletus sp. 4 16 2.1
Arcangiella sp. 57 7.5
Sclerodermataceae Scleroderma sp. 1 104 13.7
Scleroderma sp. 2 18 2.4
Russula brevipes 77 10.1
Russula sp. 1 53 7.0
Lactarius sp. 86 11.3
Amanitaceae Amanita sp. 1 2 0.3
Amanita sp. 2 2 0.3
Boletinellus
Boletinellaceae 59 7.7
exiguus
Clavariaceae Scytinopogon sp. 6 0.8
Clavulinaceae Clavulina sp. 117 15.4
Inocybaceae Inocybe sp. 62 8.1
Total number of individuals observed 761 100
The abundance of ectomycorrhizas in both sites may also influenced by the occurrence
of the host trees. In tropical region, the ectomycorrhizal fungi is known to associated
with the tree host from the family of Dipterocarpaceae, Fabaceae, Fagaceae and
Gnetaceae. In Malaysia, the Russulaceae, Boletaceae, Amanitaceae Sclerodermataceae,
Cortinariaceae and Tricholomataceae were mostly associated with the members of
Dipterocarpaceae (Watling and Lee, 1995) H. odorata (Dipterocarpaceae) and A.
mangium (Fabaceae) are ectomycorrhizal trees while mycorrhizal status of F. crenulata
(Gentianaceae) is un-known. A. mangium is known to associate with the
ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius. However, no basidiocarp of this fungus
was observed during the foray.
333
Slime tailings Sandy tailings
 Scleroderma sp. 2
 Boletinellus exiguous  Boletus sp. 2
 Scleroderma sp. 1  Boletus sp. 3
 Russula brevipes
 Boletus sp. 1  Boletus sp. 4
 Russula brevipes
 Russula sp. 1  Amanita sp. 2
 Inocybe sp.
 Lactarius sp.  Clavulina sp.
 Amanita sp 1
 Arcangiella sp.
 Scytinopogon sp.
Figure 1: Ectomycorrhizal fungi observed in two types of tin tailings in Bidor, Perak
There is a difference in fungal communities in both tailings, where Boletinellus exiguus,

Russula brevipes and Inocybe sp were only observed in the slime tailings areas. While
Scleroderma sp 2, Boletus sp 2, Boletus sp. 3, Boletus sp. 4, Amanita sp 1, Clavulina
sp., Arcangiella sp., and Scytinopogon sp. were observed in the sandy tailings. Fungal
species that observed under both sites were Scleroderma sp. 1, Boletus sp. 1, Russula
sp. 1, Lactarius sp. In term of fungal diversity, sandy tailings seem to be more diverse
compared to slime tailings, with 12 and 8 species observed at both sites respectively
(Figure 1).
The diversity and distribution of ectomycorrhizas in forest ecosystem may also affected
by the condition of host plants, soil nutrients and the environmental factors such as light
intensity, temperature, humidity, aeration and root exudate (Mardji, 2014). It was
noticed that, during the whole period of fungal observation, several fungi only occurred
in certain month but in mass. No collection made during Jun and October to December
2016 which refer to the driest and the wettest months of the year, respectively.
CONCLUSION
Sixteen genera of ectomycorrhizal fungi were observed and collected in reclaimed

slime and sandy tailings. By planting of forest tree species, which also function as
ectomycorrhizal host, soil physical and nutrient status of a heavily degraded soil can be
improved and thus increased the diversity of the soil mycoflora. More study is needed
to understand the existence of certain ectomycorrhizal genera in specific soil type.
REFERENCES
Largent, D.L. 1973. How to identify mushrooms to genus I: macroscopic features. Mad
River Press, Inc. Eureka, Carlifonia. 86 pp.
Largent, D.L. & Thiers, H. D. 1977. How to identify mushrooms to genus II: field
identification of genera. Mad River Press, Inc. Eureka, Carlifonia. 32 pp.
Largent, D.L., Johnson, D. & Watling, R. 1977. How to identify mushrooms to genus
III: microscopic features. Mad River Press, Inc. Eureka, Carlifonia. 86 pp.
334
Mardji, D. 2014. Diversity and dominance of ectomycorrhizal fungi on after burned
and unburned forest in Kutai National Park (Indonesia). International Journal of
Innovation and Applied Studies, 5(4):344-353.
Watling, R. & Lee, S.S. 1995. Ectomycorrhical fungi associated withs the members of
Dipetrocarpaceae in Peninsular Malaysia-1. J. Trop. For. Sci., 7(4): 657 – 669.
335
Effects of Different Shade Levels on Dry Matter Yield and Total
Nitrogen Uptake of Boesenbergia stenophylla R.M Smith
Tracy, S.1, Abdullah, N.A.P.1, Franklin, R.K.1 and Aicher, J.T.2
1
Department of Crop Science Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Universiti
Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus, 97000 Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia
2
Department of Agriculture, 93050 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
INTRODUCTION
Identifying the plant habits toward exposure to light is of great significance for
improving the agronomic practices. Boesenbergia stenophylla is an understory forest
herbs that thrive well under shade, lower temperature and high altitude. It is not
cultivated but have important economic value as a medicinal herbs. This study
investigates the effects of different levels of shades: 70% and 90% and effects of
organic and inorganic fertilizer on growth of B. stenophylla. The objectives includes i)
to study N uptake of the plant from organic and inorganic fertilizer application ii) to
determine effects of shade on B. stenophylla N uptake.
Field experiments were conducted at Ba’kelalan (3°58’51.26N, 115°36’48.06”E) with

a range of temperature between 19°C to 20°C and at elevation of 975m. Plants were
collected from the surrounding forest and hardened for 3 months before planted in burnt
soil (pH 7) as planting media. The experiments were arranged in factorial in randomized
complete block design (RCBD) under two different shade levels, 70% and 90% shade
cloth. The fertilizer treatments used in the experiment are i) T1 as control, no fertilizer
apply to the plants ii) T2, chicken dung ii) T3, NPKMg and iv) T4, mixed of chicken
dung and NPKMg. After 9 weeks, the sample plants were harvested for further plant
nutrient analysis. The data were analysed for significance using analysis of variance
(ANOVA) at the p<0.05 level in SAS 9.3.
The results show there was no significant different of nitrogen uptake between all the
treatments (p<0.2172). However, among the treatments with fertilizer (T2, T3 and T4),
T3 shows the higher total nitrogen uptake (Figure 1). The total nitrogen uptake of B.
stenophylla that grown in different levels of shade (90% and 70%) show a significant
different with a p=0.0333.
336
100 a
Total N uptake (mg/plant)

80 a
60 a
40 a
20
0
1 2 3 4
Treatments in field study
Figure 1: Effects of different fertilizers treatment on total N uptake by B. stenophylla
Results in Figure 2 shows there is significant correlation between treatments and dry
matter yield. However, there is no significant different in dry matter yield between each
treatment as stated in Figure 2. Shade levels of 90% and 70% also significantly affected
the dry matter yield of the plant with a p=0.0081. Moreover, the shade level of 90% and
70% has significant different as shown in Figure 2 with a p=0.0008.
6 a
Dry matter yield (g)
5
4 b
3
2
1
0
Shade level
Figure 2: Effects of different shade levels on dry matter of B. stenophylla.
Based on the results, B. stenophylla grown under 70% shade shown higher dry matter
yield. This proved that higher light intensity enhanced the biomass of the plant. Ma et
al. (2016) discovered that increasing light intensity contributed to the biomass of
pakchoi. The researchers also mentioned carbohydrate biosynthesis and carbon fixation
are limited ATP availability when under low light intensity. Semchenko et al. (2012)
indicated plants that were 90% shaded would significantly lower that the dry matter
yield of those plants grown under full sunlight. The results revealed there is correlation
between total N in B. stenophylla and its dry matter yield in different shade as shown
in Figure 2 and Figure 3. As discussed in Garbin and Gillenburg (2008), high
accumulation of N would increase the plant dry matter. Gent (2008) mentioned the
nitrogen uptake of tomato reduced when shade was applied. The plant dry matter yield
was influenced by nitrogen as it plays important roles in plants photosynthesis and
biomass accumulation (Casey et al., 2004).
337
a
80
Nitrogen uptake (mg/plant)

60
40 b
20
0
1 2
Shade level
Figure 3: Effects of different shade levels on total N uptake by B. stenophylla
CONCLUSION
The growth of B. stenophylla R.M. Smith is influence by the light intensity. Optimum
light availability for cultivation of this understorey plants is vital as light influences the
nutrients uptake of the plants and directly influence the growth and performances of B.
stenophylla R.M Smith when cultivated in nursery.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Universiti Putra Malaysia and Ministry of Higher Education
for providing the technical and financial support under the FRGS, respectively.
REFERENCES
Ma, Q., Cao, X., Wu, L., Mi, W. and Feng, Y. 2016. Light Intensity affects the uptake
and metabolism of glycine by pakchoi (Brasscica chinensis L.). Scientific Reports,
6.
Semchenko, M., Leplk, M., Gotzenberger, L., Zobel, K. 2012. Positive effect of
shade on plant growh: Amelioration of stress or active regulation of growth rate. J.
Ecol., 100: 459-466.
Garbin, M.L., Dillenburg, L.R. 2008. Effects of different nitrogen sources on growth,
chlorophyll concentration, nitrate reductase activity and carbon and nitrogen
distribution in Araucaria angustifolia. Brazilian Society of Plant Physiology, 52:
295-303.
Gent, M.P.N. 2008. Density and duration of shade affect water and nutrient use in
greenhouse tomato. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci., 133(4): 619-627.
Casey, C.A., Mangan, F.X., Herbert, S.J., Barker, A.V., Carter, A.K. 2004. Acta
Hortic., 629: 215-229.
338
Isolation and Screening of Plant Growth Promoting Bacteria from
Healthy Cocoa Root Tree
Nurfadzilah, M. and Tan, G.H.
5th, 6th & 7th Floor, Wisma SEDCO, Lorong Plaza Wawasan, Off Coastal Highway,
Locked
Bag 211, 88999 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
E-mail: nurfadzilah@koko.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Plant growth promoting bacteria (PGPB) is a bacteria that colonize the plants roots and
enhance the plant growth. PGPB are defined as a free-living soil, which can be found
either in rhizosphere, rhizoplane, endophytic, where in certain condition will help in
plant growth (Bashan and de-Bashan, 2005). This PGPB are able to help in plant growth
through different mechanism such as biological nitrogen fixation, solubilizing insoluble
forms of nutrients such as phosphate and potassium, siderophore production and
releasing phytohormone.
The process of transforming the Nitrogen in atmosphere (gas) into ammonia by the
enzyme called a nitrogenase. Nitrogen comes from nitrogen gas (N²) in the atmosphere
where approximately 34,500 tons of it over every acre of the earth’s surface. However,
plants cannot use it because it forms in a complex compound (immobilized form). With
the helps in specific bacteria such as a Rhizobium, Azospirillum, and Azotobacter, they
absorb the gas and convert into ammonia and ammonium which later plant can absorb
it.
Similar to N, several PGPB can solubilize phosphates (Canbolat et al., 2006), resulting
in an increased availability of phosphate (P) in the soil that can be taken up by the plant.
Many soils contain large amounts of phosphate, but unavailable to plants. Bacteria with
the ability to solubilize organic phosphorus in the soil belong to genera of Bacillus,
Pseudomonas and Penicillium (Gaur, 1990). A phosphate solubilizating bacterium
(PSB) is a group of heterotrophic microorganisms known to have the ability to
solubilize inorganic P from insoluble sources (Subba, 1983) The PSB solubilise the
fixed soil P and applied phosphates may result in higher crop yields.
Potassium is the major macronutrient which is needed in plant growth and development.
There are certain bacteria in the soil which can transform potassium from unavailable
form into available forms. Studies have shown that a variety of bacteria in the soil can
helps in releasing soluble K from mineral such as mica, illite and feldspar. Microbes
will release organic acid, which quickly dissolve rock and chelate silicon ions, releasing
K ions into the soils (Bennett et al., 1998). This study was conducted to investigate and
classified the bacteria which colonize the healthy cocoa root tree. Classification was
based on ability to fix nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus and potassium.
339
Cocoa root tree sampling
The isolation and screening of PGPR was performed from eight different locations
around Malaysia namely i) Bukit Kerayong, Selangor, ii) Cocoa Research and
Development Centre Jengka, Pahang, iii) Serian Sarawak, iv) Beseri, Perlis, v) Cocoa
Research and Development Centre Tawau, Sabah, vi) Tanah Merah, Kelantan, vii) Kg.
Patah Pedang, Batu Pahat, Johor and viii) Cocoa and Development Centre Hilir Perak,
Perak. Two sample of cocoa root tree were collected from each location. Root sample
were randomly composited at depth of 0-50 cm by using auger and hoe. All cocoa root
tree samples were packed into plastic bags.
Isolation of rhizospheric cocoa root tree
Fresh and whitish cocoa root tips were cut (2-2.5 cm) and were washed twice by using
sterilized distilled water to wash off adhering soil. These root were transferred into
McCartney bottles containing 15 mL sterilize distilled water and shaken for 1 minute.
1 mL of the solution was diluted in a serial dilution technique. Exactly, an aliquot of 1
ml from each bottle were pipetted and spread on Nutrient Agar media and incubated for
24 to 72 hour at 28 ⁰C for isolation of bacteria.
Isolation of endophytic cocoa root tree
The whitish cocoa root tips from rhizospheric bacterial isolation were taken out and
surface sterilized by soaking into 95% of ethanol for 10 seconds. Then, soak into 1%
of sodium hypochlorite for 2 minutes and wash the root with sterilized distilled water
for six times. The roots were cut into small pieces by using sterilized blade. 1 mL of
the solution was diluted in a serial dilution technique. Exactly, an aliquot of 1 mL from
each bottle were pipetted and spread on Nutrient Agar media and incubated for 24 to
72 hour at 28 ⁰C for isolation of bacteria. Isolated, predominant, morphological distinct
colonies were selected, purified by repeated culturing and maintained on Nutrient Agar
slants.
Screening of isolated bacteria from healthy cocoa root tree
Bacteria from rhizospheric and endophytic cocoa root tree were screen through series
of test, which is Nitrogen fixation ability, Phosphorus and Potassium solubilization
ability. The selected bacteria from the series of test either containing the capability to
fix nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus and potassium were recorded.
Based on the data of microbial isolates from eight different locations, the bacterial
isolates were categorized as follows; 116 endophytic bacteria and 140 rhizospheric
bacteria. The highest number of bacterial isolation was from Bukit Kerayong, Selangor
with 41 isolates, followed by sample from Beseri, Perlis with 36 isolates, Cocoa
Research and Development Centre Jengka with 33 isolates, Tanah Merah, Kelantan
with 32 isolates, followed by sample from Cocoa Research and Development Centre
Hilir Perak with 31 isolates, sample from Serian, Sarawak with 29 isolation, Kg. Patah
340
Pedang, Batu Pahat with 28 isolates and lastly from Cocoa Research and Development
Centre Tawau, Sabah with 26 isolates.
Table 1: Microbial isolates from eight different locations

Locations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Rhizospheric 21 18 19 21 14 16 17 14
Endophytic 20 15 10 15 12 16 11 17
To classify the plant growth promoting bacteria, three series of test which is nitrogen
fixation, phosphorus and potassium solubilizing test by using agar plates have been
done. Based on the result gain, 98 of these bacteria isolates were positive for nitrogen
fixation, phosphate and potassium solubilization. 55 isolates show the positive effects
for both nitrogen and phosphate solubization, 17 isolates show the positive effects for
nitrogen fixation and potassium solubilization, 16 isolates were positive for phosphorus
and potassium solubilization, 18 show only positive for nitrogen fixation, 25 isolates
shows positive for phosphate solubilization, 7 isolates shows positive for potassium and
20 isolates shows negative effects for nitrogen fixation, phosphate and potassium
solubilization.
Table 2: Classification of plant growth promoting bacteria based on the ability to fix
nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus and potassium
Locations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Nitrogen 3 2 3 1 2 3 1 3
Phosphorus 5 2 2 1 1 7 0 7
Potassium 1 3 2 0 0 1 0 0
Nitrogen and Phosphorus 8 4 4 11 5 8 8 7
Nitrogen and Potassium 7 3 2 2 1 0 1 1
Phosphorus and Potassium 4 5 1 1 1 1 3 0
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
10 10 13 18 12 7 15 13
Potassium
Negative 3 4 2 2 4 5 0 0
7.8% 7%
9.8%
2.7%
38.3%
21.5%
6.3% 6.6%
NN PP KK N&P
N, P N&K
N, K P&K
P,K N,P&K
N, P, K NEGATIF
NEGATIVE
Figure 1: Percentage of total bacteria isolates according to the ability to fix N,

solubilize P and K
341
Based on Figure 1, 38.3% from total bacteria isolates able to fix nitrogen, solubilize
phosphorus and potassium. 21.5% from bacteria isolates shows the ability to fix
nitrogen and solubilize phosphorus, 6.6% able to fix nitrogen and solubilize potassium,
6.3% able to solubilize phosphorus and potassium, 7% from total bacteria isolates only
can fix nitrogen, 9.8% only can solubilize phosphorus and 2.7% only can solubilize
potassium. 7.8% from total bacteria isolates shows negative effect for the series of
ability test.
CONCLUSION
Some beneficial microbes are able to fix nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus and potassium
in the soil. This research is aimed to search and identify bacteria in cocoa root which
can survive and fix nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus and potassium. In cocoa root, there
are many potential microorganisms whether rhizosphere or endophytic bacteria that
help in fixing nitrogen, solubilize phosphorus and potassium. With this potential
bacteria isolates, it could be suggest using it as a bioenhancer to help in increasing the
potential growth and development for cocoa tree.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank the Acting Director General of the Malaysian Cocoa
Board, YBhg. Datin Norhaini Udin for permission to publish this paper. A special
thanks to Mr. Haya Ramba, Director of Cocoa Upstream Technology, Dr. Rozita Bt.
Osman, En. Saaidan B. Said and staffs of CRDC Jengka for their technical assistance.
REFERENCES
Bashan, Y. and De-Bashan, L.E. 2005. Plant growth-promoting. Encyclopedia of

soils in the environment, 1, pp.103–115.
Bennett, P.C., Choi, W.J. and Rogera, J.R. 1998. Microbial destruction of
feldspars. Mineral Management, 8(62A): 149–150.
Canbolat, M.Y., Bilen, S., Çakmakçı, R., Şahin, F. and Aydın, A. 2006. Effect of
plant growth-promoting bacteria and soil compaction on barley seedling growth,
nutrient uptake, soil properties and rhizosphere microflora. Biology and fertility of
soils, 42(4): 350–357.
Gaur, A.C. 1990. Phosphate solubilizing micro-organisms as biofertilizer. Omega
scientific publishers.
Subba Rao, N.s (1983). Phospahte solubilization by soil microorganism (Ed. Subba
Rao, N.S) Advances in Agricultural Microbiology, Butterworth Scientific London,
P. 295-303.
342
Effect of Spent Mushroom Waste as Media on Growth of Honeydew
(Cucumis melo)
Chuang, Y.C., Kundat, F.R., Abdullah, N.A.P. and Jiwan, M.
Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus, Sarawak, Malaysia
E-mail: franklin@upm.edu.my
INTRODUCTION
Spent mushroom waste (SMW), also known as the spent mushroom substrate (SMS),
is the leftover after mushroom have been harvested in mushroom cultivation (Fasidi et
al., 2008). In 2014 alone, 18,000 tons of mushroom wastes were produced and this was
projected to increase due to intensification of mushroom cultivations. In average, to
produce 1 kg of mushroom, 5 kg of culturing media will be used. It is reported that
SMW is an effective soil amendment and conditioner (Idowu and Kadiri, 2013).
Addition of SMW to soil can increase the yield of crops (Iwase et al., 2000). Hence,
the objective of this study is to determine the effects of spent mushroom waste alone
and in combination with commercial cocopeat (CP) on the growth of honeydew
(Cucumis melo).
Spent mushroom waste (SMW) were collected from mushroom cultivator in Bintulu.
SMW and cocopeat (CP) were mixed in different ratios (v/v). The treatments included
A = 100% SMW, B = 100% CP as control, C = 80% SMW + 20% CP, D = 60% SMW
+ 40% CP, E = 40% SMW + 60% CP and F = 20% SMW + 80% CP. The experiment
was arranged in RCBD with three replicates each and conducted at the Fertigation Unit
of UPMKB. Data were analyzed using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure
with SAS Software Program version 9.4. Differences of means among treatments were
determined using the Duncan Multiple Range Test at p<0.05.
Plant heights of honeydew were recorded at 20, 40 and 65 days after transplanting
(DAT), and were significantly influenced by growth media at all sampling dates (Table
1). At 20 DAT, honeydew grown in 100% SMW produced the shortest plant (10.67
cm). Growth media of 20% SMW and 80% CP produced statistically similar plant
heights with 100% CP. Media of 40% SMW and 60% CP produced the highest plants
(23.22 cm). At 40 DAT, the shortest honeydew plants were recorded for 100% SMW
while the tallest with 40% SMW and 60% CP (55.83 cm). At 65 DAT, plant heights
varied significantly among growth media ranging between 32.5 cm and 136.67 cm.
Honeydew grown in 40% SMW and 60% CP resulted in the tallest plant (136.67 cm).
343
Table 1: Effect of different treatments on plant height
Plant Height
Treatments At harvest
20 DAT 40 DAT 65 DAT
100% SMW 10.67 c 16.00 b 32.50 c
ab a
100% CP 20.00 55.00 120.00 ab
80% SMW + 20% CP 14.33 bc 28.33 b 65.00 bc
60% SMW + 40% CP 13.33 c 25.67 b 45.00 c
40% SMW + 60% CP 23.33 a 55.83 a 136.67 a
ab a
20% SMW + 80% CP 19.33 48.67 123.33 ab
SMW = spent mushroom waste, CP = cocopeat, DAT = days after transfer. Means within the same
column followed by the same letters are not significantly different at p<0.05
200
a
ab ab
Plant Height (cm)
150
100
bc c
50 c
0
A B C D E F
(control)
A = 100% SMW, B = 100% CP as control, C=80% SMW + 20% CP, D = 60% SMW + 40% CP, E =
40% SMW + 60% CP and F=20% SMW + 80% CP
Figure 1: Plant height at 65DAT for each treatment with standard error
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the use of spent mushroom wastes as a media in growing honeydew can
reduce the dependency on cocopeat. Besides, it is also a more environment friendly
method to recycle spent mushroom waste. However, growing media with 100% of spent
mushroom waste alone is not suggested and still need improvement and can be possibly
be utilized by the inclusion of essential nutrients in the formulation. Media with
mixtures of 40% cocopeat and 60% spent mushroom waste gave the best honeydew
height growth and is the growth media with the highest potential as a substitute for pure
cocopeat media.
REFERENCES
Fasidi, O., Kadiri, M., Jonathan, S.G., Adenipekun, C.O. & Kuforiji, O.O.
2008. Cultivation of Tropical Mushrooms, Ibadan University Press, Ibadan,
Nigeria.
344
Idowu, O.O. & Kadiri, M. 2013. “Growth and yield response of okra to spent
mushroom compost from the cultivation of Pleurotusostreatus an edible
mushroom,” Academic Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 1, pp. 39–44.
Iwase, Y., Umezawa, K. & Masuda, K. 2000. “Cultivation of Pleurotusostreatus with
beer spent grain and utilization,” Mushroom Science, vol. 15, pp. 819–826.
345
Enhancing Cocoa Seedlings Growth Performance by Soil Composition
Amendment in Nursery Stage
Nurafiza, A.
Lembaga Koko Malaysia, Pusat Penyelidikan dan Pembangunan Koko, Lot 248, Blok
14, Biotechnology Park, 94300, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Beg Berkunci 3131, Jln
Perdana Pending, 93250, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
E-mail: nurafiza@koko.gov.my
INTRODUCTION
Soil compositions is an essential component on enhancing plant growth and it effect

can be visibly seen of seedlings grown in the greenhouse. Main role of soil is to
accelerate the function of plant roots (Latour, 1996) and soil borne microbes (e.g. root
endophytic fungi, mycorrhizal fungi, rhizobia, and plant growth-promoting
microorganisms) and nutrients availability. Mainly functioning through the soils,
nutrients in the soils might be the most important factor to affect the growth of plants
and their phytochemical contents (Yuwatida et al., 2014). Less fertile soil may lead to
high percentage of seedlings mortality and unhealthy seedlings. In standard nursery
practices, soil media used is mainly top soil without any other mixture. Hence, this
research study was conducted to determine the effect of different soil composition on
grafted-cocoa seedlings growth performance at nursery stage.
The research study was carried out in the nurseries of the Malaysian Cocoa Board,
Research and Development Centre, Sarawak from April to August, 2015.
Approximately 243 cocoa seedlings of one-month grafted were used in this study. The
cocoa seedlings were planted into three different soil composition (T1, T2 and T3) as
shown at Table 1 under 50% light intensity. Regular nursery practices of manuring
(one month after grafted), watering twice daily and weeding were carried out
throughout the research study period. Three clones involved were MCBC8, KKM22
and APA8. Mean height (cm) and diameter increment (mm) were recorded biweekly
within four months study period. The field layout design was a randomized complete
block (RCBD) with three replicates.
Table 1: Soil composition and ratio for three different treatments.

Treatment Soil Composition Ratio (kg)
T1 Top soil + CML + CIRP + pure chicken manure 1:0.5:0.5:1
T2 Top soil + GML + CIRP + organic compost 1:0.5:0.5:1
T3 Top soil + GML + CIRP + organic compost + sand 1:0.5:0.5:1:1
*GML = Ground Magnesium Limestone
*CIRP = Christmas Island Rock Phosphate
Data analysis
Statistical analysis were carried out for one-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) and
Tukey’ Test using Statistical Product and Service Solution (SPSS 21.0) software for
mean comparison if the treatment are significantly different.
346
Results showed that mean height increment (cm) of all three clones used (MCBC8,
KKM22 and APA8) had significantly different (p<0.001) only for Treatment 1 (Top
soil + CML + CIRP + pure chicken manure) and Treatment 3 (Top soil + GML + CIRP
+ organic compost + sand) as shown at Table 1. Mean height increment (cm) increasing
gradually according to soil composition whereas T1 had the lowest with 15.39 cm,
followed by T2 and T3 by 21.44 cm and 26.68 cm, respectively.
The combination of compost and sand does have significant effect on enhancing cocoa
seedlings height by improving soil structure. Sand helps to increase the soil porosity
(Rosilaine et al. 2007) enabling water and nutrient particles to infiltrate easily and be
taken by cocoa seedlings root systems. Unlike T1 which only had top soil as the
composition, T3 had a well-developed structure which contributed to large pores that
promotes aeration and accommodates soil aeration. This will eventually help in plant
nutrient uptake (Catriona et al., 1999). Compost on the other hand, helps to provide
suffice amount of nutrients needed for cocoa seedling unlike chicken manure, by
reducing N leaching and gaseous losses (Stainer et al., 2008). This observation agreed
by Catriona et al. (1999), which immature or pure compost have adverse effect on plant
growth which it can indirectly by N availability in soil or it can be too excessive. Hence,
explaining the lowest height increment of T1 compared to T2 and T3.
However, there were no significantly different for mean diameter increment (cm) for
all treatments (T1, T2 and T3). Total diameter increments within four months period
(for all three clones) were only slightly different whereas T1 with 3.54 mm, followed
by T2 and T3 with 3.95 mm. This observation is consistent with Akanbi et al. (2014)
findings whereas the stem diameter of cocoa seedlings planted in cocoa pod husk ash
(CPHA) and oil palm bunch-ash (OPA) were depress in values. This may be due to the
immobilization of soil organic matter and edaphic factor contribute to unavailability to
the seedlings (Akanbi et al. 2013).
Table 1: Mean height (cm) and mean diameter (cm) increment of T1, T2 and T3.
Mean height increment Mean diameter increment
Treatment N
(cm) ± SE (mm) ± SE
T1 27 15.39 ± 2.23ab 3.54 ± 0.29a
T2 27 21.44 ± 1.49b 3.95 ± 0.12a
c
T3 27 26.68 ± 1.38 3.95 ± 0.16a
*Mean within columns followed by the same letter is not significantly different at p=0.05 according to
Tukey’s Test. Treatments are T1 - Top soil + CML + CIRP + pure chicken manure, T2 - Top soil + GML
+ CIRP + organic compost and T3 - Top soil + GML + CIRP + organic compost + sand (mean ± S.E.)
347
Figure 1: Mean height increment (cm) of MCBC8, KKM22 and APA8 for three
treatment (Treatments are T1 - Top soil + CML + CIRP + pure chicken manure, T2 -
Top soil + GML + CIRP + organic compost and T3 - Top soil + GML + CIRP + organic
compost + sand.
Figure 2: Mean diameter increment (mm) of MCBC8, KKM22 and APA8 for three
treatment (Treatments are T1 - Top soil + CML + CIRP + pure chicken manure, T2 -
Top soil + GML + CIRP + organic compost and T3 - Top soil + GML + CIRP + organic
compost + sand.
CONCLUSION
The combination of top soil, GML, CIRP, organic compost and sand gave better growth
performance of cocoa seedlings in term of height increment. Therefore, it is advisable
to add organic compost and sand to improve soil texture in for cocoa seedlings in the
nursery, and which are important before field planting.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges the Head of Director of MCB for her permission
to publish this paper. Appreciation is extended to the Director and Head of Section of
348
Cocoa Upstream Technology Division for their guidance, critical reading and
comments. Sincere thanks also to all field staffs for their assistances in the field work.
REFERENCES
Akanbi, O.S.O., Ojeniyi, S.O., Fawaye, A.O., Ipinmoroti, R.R., Ibivemo, O.S.,
Oloyede, A.A., Taiwo, N., Adecode, I.A & Orisasona, T.T. 2013. Utilization of
ashed cocoa pod husk and urea fertilizer on growth and dry matter yield of coffee on
Alfisol in Ibadan. Nigerian Journal of Soil Science. 23: 10-16.
Catriona, M.K., Laryea, K.B. & Unger, P.W. 1999. Soil physical constraints to plant
growth and crop production. Conservation and Production Research Laboratory,
Bushland, Texas, US.
Latour, X., Corberand, T., Laguerre, G., Allard, F. & Lemanceau, P. 1996. The
composition of Flourescent Pseudomonad population associated with roots is
influenced by plant and soil type. Appl Environ Microbiology, 62: 2449-2456.
Rosilaine, C., Sandra, F.B.T., Vera Lúcia, R.B. & Eraldo, S.S. 2007. The effect of
different soil properties on arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of peanuts, sorghum
and maize. Acta botanical bras. 21(3): 723-730.
Steiner, C., Glaser, S., Teixeira, W. G., Lechmann, J., Blum, W.E.H. &BZech, W.
2008. Nitrogen retention and plant uptake on highly Central Amazonian Feralsol
amendmend with compost and charcoal. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science.
171.
Yuwatida, S., Mei-Hua, H. & Chiu-Chung, T. 2014. Effects of soil type and plant
growth promoting microorganism on cabbage and Spodoptera litura performance.
349
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AAS Atomic Absorption Spectrometer

AC Activated carbon
AHSL Air Hitam Sanitary Landfill
AIC Akaike information criterion
ANOVA Analysis of variance
AWC Available water content
BCA Biological control agent
BD Bulk density
BET Brunauer–Emmett–Teller
CCE Calcium carbonate equivalent
CEC Cation exchange capacity
CFU Colony-forming Units
CRD Completely randomized design
CV Coefficient of variation
DEM Digital elevation model
DMRT Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
DMY Dry mass yield
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
DOA Department of Agriculture
DRBC Dichloran Rose Bengal Chloramphenicol
DRGD Drug Registration Guidance Document
DSI Diseases severity index
DTM Digital terrain model
EC Electrical conductivity
ET Evapotranspiration
FAAS Flame-atomic absorption spectroscopy
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FELCRA Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority
FELDA Federal Land Development Authority
FESEM Field emission scanning electron microscope
FG Flux-gradient technique
FRGS Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
FT-NSS Flow-through non-steady-state
GAFR Gunung Apeng Forest Reserved
GAP Good Agricultural Practices
GFAAS Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
GGR Girth growth rate
GHG Greenhouse gas
GIS Geographic Information System
GMP Good Manufacturing Practices
GPP Gross Primary Production
GPS Global Positioning System
GWC Gravimetric Water Content
HRU Hydrologic response units
HSG Hydrologic soil groups
IDW Inverse Distance Weighting
IRGA Infrared gas analyzer
350
IRRI International Rice Research Institute
ISR Induced systemic resistance
ISSS International Soil Science Society
JRIS Jelawat-Rusa Irrigation Scheme
LCPCMP Landfill Closure and Post Closure Maintenance Plan
LSD Least Significant Difference
MADA Muda Agricultural Development Authority
MBC Microbial biomass carbon
MDFs Mixed-dipterocarp forests
MJO Madden-Julian Oscillation
MOE Ministry of Education
MOP Muriate of Potash
MSW Municipal solid waste
NARSS National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Science
NCRS National Corvette Restorers Society
NEE Net ecosystem exchange
NPCB National Pharmaceutical Control Bureau
NPP Net primary production
OM Organic matter
PCA Principal component analysis
PCR Polymerase chain reaction
PGPR Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria
PIRG Percentage Inhibition of Radial Growth
PLFA Phospholipid fatty acid
POME Palm oil mill effluent
PUE Phosphorous use efficiency
RCBD Randomized Complete Block Design
RDF Recommended dose of fertilizer
RISDA Rubber Industry Smallholders' Development Authority
rRNA Ribosomal ribonucleic acid
RSS Residual Sum of Squares
RWC Relative water content
SAS Statistical Analysis System
SCS Single carbon source
SE Standard error
SEM Scanning Electron Microscopic
SHC Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity
SOC Soil organic carbon
SOM Soil organic matter
SP Saturation percentage
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
SRTM Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
TAMC Total Aerobic Microorganism Count
TNV Total Neutralizing Value
TPSF Tropical peat swamp forest
TSP Triple Superphosphate
TYMC Total Combined Yeast Mold Count
USDA US Department of Agriculture
VWC Volumetric water content
WF Watering frequencies
351
WUE Water use efficiency
XRD X-ray diffraction
352

Proceeding of SOILS 2017

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Proceeding of SOILS 2017

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON

SUSTAINABLE SOIL MANAGEMENT (SOILS 2017)

Quality Soil Drives Productivity

ParkCity Everly Hotel,

Malaysian Society of Soil Science (MSSS)

Dr. Zakry Fitri Ab. Aziz

1. Soils the Media for Sustaining Life on our Planet Earth

2. Profit Analysis of Soil Carbon Sequestration with Biochar and

3. Precision Agriculture: A Strategy that makes Farmers and Soils

4. Effect of Peat Swamp Conversion into Oil Palm Plantation on Soil

5. Greenhouse Gas Emission from Pineapple Cultivation on a

6. Planters’ Experience on Managing Challenges and Limiting

7. The Effects of Cacao Pod Husk Biochar and Watering Frequencies

9. Economic Viability of Including Cliptilolite Zeolite Rice Straw

10. Soil Microbial Communities and Mineralization Responses to

11. Antibiotic Resistance Profile and Genetic Traits of Soil Isolated

12. Preparation and Characterization of Encapsulated Bacillus

13. Assessment of Soil Fertility Status through Geospatial Techniques

14. Conservation Agriculture Influences on Sustainable Soil Fertility

15. Quantitative Assessment of Surface Runoff at Arid Regions

16. Great Flood of December 2014: Its Effects on the Properties of

18. Comparing Growing-Season N2O Flux of a Corn Field Measured

19. Effects of Basalt Dust Application on Soil Properties and Growth

20. Spatio-Temporal Variability of Heavy Metal Concentrations in

21. A Revisit: Method for Determining Cation Exchange Capacity of

22. Soil Carbon Balance at Various Landscape Positions in Dedelow,

23. Genesis, Classification and Clay Mineralogy of Soils in Ghrah-

24. Development of Rubber Zone for Sustainable Rubber Plantation

25. Photosynthetic and Stomatal Responses of Pepper Grown on

27. Fine Roots Distribution of Matured Theobroma cacao and Sub-

28. Live Staking Technique Using Chinese Boxthorn for Slope

29. Diversity of Trichoderma Species in Cultivated Soils in Machang

30. Soil Water Properties of Kerangas Forest Soil after Invasion by

31. Soil Properties of Acacia-Invaded and Non- Acacia Invaded

32. Invasive Acacia Changes Soil Physico-Chemical Properties in

33. Effect of Bio-Soil Amendment on the Growth of Six Varieties of

34. Effect of Biofertilizer Utilization on Soil Nutrient Status of

36. Soils Properties at Reforestation Sites After Different Silviculture

38. Physical Appearance of Bioplastic Planting Pot under Natural

39. Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals in Soil Arthropods

40. Effects of Biochar and Zeolite on Leaf Nutrients Content of Maize

41. The Effects of Time on Heavy Metal Concentrations under

43. Effects of Amending Soil with Microbes on the Soil Microbial

45. Evaluation of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria to Control

46. Potential Use of Empty Fruit Bunch Biochar as A Stimulatory

47. Screening of Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) from

48. Plant Growth-Promoting Potential of Bacteria from Nodule of

50. Selected Physico-Chemical Properties of Forest Litter Compost

52. Assessment of Microbial Quality of Selected Kacip Fatimah

54. Assessing the Principal Components of Soil Chemical Properties

55. Mycorrhiza, Plate's Avain Fertilizer and Calcium Application

56. Effects of Biochar and Phosphorus Fertilization on the Spinacia

57. Combined Effects of Mycorrhizal Fungi, Organic Fertilizers and

58. Evapotranspiration Measurement for Canola in Hormozgan

59. Relationship between Non Exchangeable Potassium Release with

60. Qualitative Land Suitability Classification of Major Field Crops

62. Physical Land Suitability Evaluation for Wheat in Tashkuieh

63. Soil Carbon Storage in Selected Mangrove Forest of Sarawak,

64. Spatial Relationships between Wheat Grain Yield and Soil

65. Screening and Laboratory Assessment of Various Local

66. Effect of Different Filling Materials on Physical Properties and

67. The Role of Selected Soil Physical Properties on Soil Carbon

68. Characteristics of Peat Soils at Ayer Hitam under Different

70. Preliminary Study on The Effects of Integrated Rice – Duck