Behrens 2014

5.
11 Tribology in Hot Forging

B-A Behrens, A Bouguecha, I Lüken, J Mielke, and M Bistron, An der Universitaet 2, Garbsen, Germany
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
5.11.1 Introduction 211

5.11.2 Load Types for Forging Tools 212
5.11.2.1 Thermal Load 213
5.11.2.2 Mechanical Load 213
5.11.2.3 Chemical Load 214
5.11.2.4 Tribological Load 214
5.11.2.5 Causes of Tool Failures 215
5.11.2.5.1 Mechanical Damage 216
5.11.2.5.2 Thermal Damage 216
5.11.2.5.3 Plastic Deformation 217
5.11.3 Optimization of Tribological Conditions 217
5.11.3.1 Reduction of Tool Wear 217
5.11.3.1.1 State of the Art 218
5.11.3.1.2 Thermochemical Surface Treatments 218
5.11.3.2 Reduction of Thermal Stress 220
5.11.3.2.1 Lubricant 221
5.11.3.2.2 Methods of Cooling Systems 222
5.11.4 Numerical Simulation of the Tribological System in the Hot Forging Using FEM 224
5.11.4.1 Mathematical Description of Friction 224
5.11.4.2 The IFUM Friction Model 227
5.11.4.2.1 Mathematical Formulation 227
5.11.4.2.2 Validation on Representative Processes 228
5.11.4.2.3 Potential of the IFUM Friction Model for Industrial Processes 228
5.11.4.3 Wear Modeling 229
5.11.4.3.1 The Advanced Wear Model 229
5.11.4.3.2 Calibration of the Advanced Wear Model 230
5.11.4.3.3 Application to an Industrial Process 231
5.11.5 Summary 232
References 232
5.11.1 Introduction
According to DIN 50323-1 (1), tribology is defined as the science and engineering of interacting surfaces in relative motion.
It includes the study and application of the principles of friction, the process of wear, lubrication, and also the corresponding
interaction of bounding surfaces between solid bodies, liquids, and/between gases. All components and their properties involved
during tribological loading are referred to as ‘tribological system’ or ‘tribosystem.’
Tribology is of major importance during the process of forging with regard to tool operating life and demand for energy, since
forming is carried out at a temperature above 1000 C, which causes intense friction. From the thermodynamic perspective, all
frictional processes during which a great deal of energy in the form of heat is lost to the surrounding environment (2) are irreversible
and this also represents a significant loss. In addition, high temperatures are required during the process of hot forging in order to
reduce the forming force and to increase deformation. However, a major increase in temperature causes a sharp increase in friction
of up to 300% (3). Consequently, the energy required for the deformation and for the deformation process increases. However,
a high level of friction and energy results in an increase in pressure on the tools as well as damage to the unprocessed components.
Furthermore, changes can occur in the mechanical properties and its distribution on the tool. As a result, there is a variation in the
strength of the component and this leads to an inhomogeneous deformation. The friction is reflected in the results of the defor-
mation, because it influences the material flow (4). The tribology of hot forging thus has great influence on the end product due to
failure and through the wear of the tools. This primarily involves the process of adhesion and abrasion (5). Moreover, the thermal
and mechanical crack initiation leads to tool malfunction. New concepts for lubricants, as well as the use of new tool materials that
are capable of withstanding loads, ensure less wear and increase productivity and component safety. The well-designed cooling
strategy in particular has a positive impact on the load as well as on the wear of the tools (6) especially in the area of precision
forging, where the focus is on the dimensional stability as well as on the quality of the functional areas (2).
The influence of many factors in the interaction between the machine, tool, and part, as illustrated in Figure 1, is a determining
factor for the tool life quality in the area of forging. The tools are subject to a complex thermomechanical, tribological, and chemical
Comprehensive Materials Processing, Volume 5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-096532-1.00538-0 211

Surface condition Contact area

of the workpiece tool / workpiece
- Scaling - Surface topography
Acceptable - Graphitization - Friction conditions
- Phosphating Tool
workpiece - Lubricants material
tolerances - Strength
- Dimension tolerance - Ductility
- Surface roughness - Tempering
- Forging quality σ resistance
Ra
Rm
Influences on the
d
R p0,2
die service life
T
Flow stress of the
workpiece material
- Flow curve
kf Cold
Tool design
- Forging sequences
Hot Tool - Geometry
temperature - Constructive
ϕ
- Cycle time design
- Pressure dwell time
- Temperature of raw part
Tmax Forging press
T
- Machine rigidity
TG - Ram speed
t
Figure 1 Influences on tool operating life in bulk metal forming. According to Reiss, W.; Schröder, G. Werkzeuglebensdauer und Werkzeugbruch in
der Massivumformung Werkstattstechnik 1987, 77, 31–35, 219–222, 333–337.
stress during use. A main source of the system failure is abrasive wear of the forming elements of the tools. Furthermore, it leads to
mechanical and thermal wear as well as plastic deformation of the tool. Extrusion tools, for example, as a result of the long sliding
distance and high sliding speeds are particularly prone to wear (7,8). The tribological conditions are important factors that exert
a considerable influence on the service life of the tools.
These processes usually involve steel materials with temperatures between 900 and 1300 C (9) and processes of the semihot
forging involve temperatures between 650 and 900 C (10). The application of pressure during the process of forging is unsteady.
There is generally a state of triaxial stress and deformation. The forming is inhomogeneous as a result of the friction and mold
constraint (11). The high temperatures and forces exerted during drop forging result in huge stresses and strains of the tools.
The resource efficiency of production processes depends on the amount of energy used and especially on the material of the raw
parts. The specific arrangement of these processes plays an important role during the process of manufacturing. The finite element
method (FEM) serves as an established simulation-based method, waiving costly and time-consuming trial-and-error attempts.
A realistic description of the complex mechanisms in the interaction between the tool and workpiece over a suitable remodeling is
important. The result of the simulation calculations depends to a large extent on the exact reproduction of factors that influence the
process of deformation, e.g., dependent on the friction between the tool and the workpiece.
In order to be able to describe friction in a realistic way, local parameters such as the relative movement, temperature, and stress
in the contact area between the tool and workpiece must be recorded as opposed to standard models in commercial finite element
(FE) programs. Therefore, a friction model was created at the Institute of Forming Technology and Machines (IFUM) that also
includes the stress state depending on relative velocity in addition to temperature- and strain rate-dependent plastic deformation of
the workpiece (12).
The validation of this innovative friction approach is carried out on representative processes. A comparison between measured
and calculated values such as geometry, forming force, and material flow shows a significant increase in the accuracy of the
calculation of the hot forging processes.
5.11.2 Load Types for Forging Tools
The load types can be subdivided into the following: thermal, mechanical, chemical, and tribological loads. They often occur
combined and usually lead to failure of the tool. The causes of failure can also be divided into the following four categories: mechanical
Tribology in Hot Forging 213
and thermal crack initiation and plastic deformation and wear, whereby wear is responsible for up to 70% of tool failures (13).
To begin with, the types of stress that have an impact on the forging tools will be discussed.
5.11.2.1 Thermal Load

During the process of semihot and hot forging, a temporal and local highly variable temperature field develops on the forging tool.
During the pressure dwell times in particular, the temperature increases to more than 700 C (Figure 2) in the region close to the
surface area of the die. The annealing temperature is exceeded in the local area of the die and in this way the strength of the material
decreases. Furthermore, through the cooling rate, the surface area of the die is exposed to temperature fluctuations. Figure 2 shows
the temperature curve on engraving surface of a die during the process of hot forging.
In addition to the pressure dwell times, other decisive factors of thermal stress include the workpiece temperature, the thermal
conductivity of the tool material, as well as any additional intermediate layers. With the help of coolants and lubricants, the tool is
in a very short time once again deprived of a very high proportion of thermal energy. This prevents the resulting reduction in the
mechanical properties and the wear resistance of the tool materials. The resulting cyclic thermal stress and varying local temperature
of the tools leads to mechanical stress in the tool, which can later cause cracks due to thermal fluctuations.
The base temperature, which is also the average temperature of the die, is the equilibrium at each working cycle in the tool energy
introduced and the one between the forging operations by heat conduction and cooling amount of heat removed. In addition to the
amount of energy that is introduced into the tool especially during the pressure dwell times, the initial temperature is also significantly
influenced by the time until the next part. Of additional importance to the lower tool is the holding time of the part during engraving.
The temperature of the regions close to the surface area during the contact phase is determined by many factors, of which tool
material, tool initial temperature, workpiece material, workpiece temperature, lubricant, contact stress, pressure dwell times, and
relative movement between forged piece and tool play an important role. The larger the difference between the forged piece and
tool, the higher and stronger the temperature will be in the edges of the form.
The thermal fluctuation arises from the constant change between a few milliseconds of continuous and abrupt heating of the
area around the edge during the pressure dwell times and the subsequent rapid cooling by the relatively cold base material beneath
the heated zone. In addition, this load is increased by the cooling lubrication of the die, which is applied to the engraved surface.
Forging dies reach temperatures of about 200–350 C during conventional lubrication. The highest temperatures at the surface
during the pressure dwell time can locally exceed the annealing temperature of the die material (13–15).
5.11.2.2 Mechanical Load

During the forming process, the forming machine supplies work to the workpiece in the form of energy. This energy is used to
overcome the deformation resistance of the material and to initiate and maintain the formation of the workpiece. This leads to high
800
Dwell time
within the die
700
Spraying of
lubricant
600
Cooling by Waiting for the next

Temperature(°C)
500 thermal conduction,

forging cycle
radiation, and
convection
400
End of dwell time –
removal of forging by handling device
300
Forging
200
100 Base temperature

of c. 180 °C
Minimum temperature
per forging cycle
0
0 1 2 3 Time (s)
Figure 2 Temperature–time course on the engraving surface during a forging cycle. According to STUTE-SCHLAMME Luig, H. Einfluss von
Verschleißschutzschichten und Rohteilverzunderung auf den Verschleiß beim Schmieden, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, Reihe 5, Grund- und Werkstoffe,
Nr. 315. Dissertation, Universität Hannover, 1993.
pressure or stress, which also results in mechanical stress on the forming tool (14). The generated stress field in the die shows how
the temperature field strongly differs temporally and regionally.
There is a high stress on the tool surface and this stress depends on the tool geometry. The stress results in inelastic and possibly
a plastic strain in the tool. This increases as the filling of the engraving increases and attains its maximum at the end of the deformation as
a result of the ram pressure. The highest stress and strains occur in the surroundings of the fillets, which results from the shape of the tool.
In addition to the purely mechanical stress, thermal stress also occurs, which results from the various material expansions of
different levels of heating of the die area and which can eventually lead to mechanical damage of the die. In order to reduce
mechanical and thermal stress, the tool geometry and material properties such as thermal expansion and thermal conduction in the
structure of the die must be taken into account (15,16).
There are contact normal stresses on the tool surface area due to the geometry. This can lead to an increase in the flow stress of the
workpiece material. Time- and location-dependent parameters cause deformation forces to generate high mechanical stresses. They
increase in forging with ridge toward the end of the forming process due to the dynamic pressure in the die. The final stress in the
tool as illustrated in Figure 3 is as a result of the overlapping of mechanical and thermal stress.
The resulting stress here depends on the die geometry. The value of the mechanical load is significantly different in various areas
of the die. For the thermal load, however, the difference is relatively small. Both types of stress compensate each other partially.
Furthermore, the mechanical stress is influenced by thermal conductivity, heat capacity, and thermal expansion of the used die. The
differences of these variables for different hot-working steels are small, so that their influence is only of minor importance.
5.11.2.3 Chemical Load

The high forging temperatures also lead to an increase in the chemical reactivity of the tool and workpiece surfaces. The chemical
types of stress by lubricant additives (e.g., blowing agent) include oxidation processes as well as chemical reactions of the tool
surface with the intermediate layer (13).
5.11.2.4 Tribological Load

The term tribological load refers to the load that a solid body encounters through contact and relative motion with a solid, liquid, or
gaseous antibody. The contact and the relative movement that occurs between the tool surface and the hot forged part during forging
are responsible for the tribological load (17). The contact area causes the fundamental wear mechanisms, which include abrasion,
adhesion, surface spalling, and fretting corrosion (13), the removal of small fragments of material from the tool surface and thus wear.
The reasons for an unfavorable tribological system during warm and hot forging in contrast to other metal forming methods are
as follows:
1. The contact pressure that occurs during forging is very high because the yield stress of the raw part material must be reached.
Moreover, additional hydrostatic stress due to geometry occurs in the tool.
2. Scales develop on the surface when the raw/unprocessed workpieces are heated at the required hot forging temperature between
1000 and 1250 C. It is very brittle and hard and this leads to abrasive wear of the tool surface caused by the relative movement
during the formation of the workpiece to a tool.
3. The temperature in the contact area between the tool and workpiece is between 600 and 900 C, thus reducing the wear
resistance of the tool and improving the adhesive processes.
1 2 Mech.stresses
lower
2500
2
Effective stress σV (N mm–2 )
Mech. stresses 60
2000 Mech.
stresses
Therm. stresses Pressure

1500 heat
0
1000 Die
contour Therm.
stresses
Superimposed
500 mech.+therm. Mech. stresses
higher 1
stresses
0
0 20 40 60 (mm)
Unrolled die contour
Figure 3 Mechanical and thermal stresses at the die surface. According to STUTE-SCHLAMME Luig, H. Einfluss von Verschleißschutzschichten und
Rohteilverzunderung auf den Verschleiß beim Schmieden, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, Reihe 5, Grund- und Werkstoffe, Nr. 315. Dissertation, Universität
Hannover, 1993.
The thermal load of the tool is significantly increased by hot material that emerges from the interior of the workpiece to the
surface during the forming process.
5.11.2.5 Causes of Tool Failures

The interaction between the indicated types of loads leads to various kinds of damage to the engraving of forging tools. These are
shown in Figure 4. About 70% of the failure or need to replace a die is determined by the arising wear. A clear separation of the types
of damage is not possible since they often appear simultaneously (5,18).
According to DIN50323, wear is the progressive loss of material from the surface of a solid body as a result of mechanical causes,
for example, through contact and relative motion with a counter-body. Wear is also referred to as a tribological stress. The wear
mechanisms are classified as follows:
l Adhesion
l Abrasion
l Surface spalling and
l Tribo-oxidation
This can occur separately or simultaneously depending on other factors. In forging, wear is the end result of the tribological
system. This consists of a basic body (die), the counter-body (workpiece), the intermediate layer, and the surrounding medium.
A major cause of wear is the loss of strength (13,14). Wear occurs particularly in areas where large amounts of material with high
relative speed touch each other and a high heat transfer takes place. Such areas include corners and edges of engravings with convex
radii (19). The most common wear mechanisms are abrasion, adhesion, and surface spalling (5,19). The four basic wear mecha-
nisms are shown in Figure 5.
Upper die
Wear 70%
Mechanical crack formation 25%
Thermal crack formation 3%
Plastic deformation 2%
Lower die
Figure 4 Causes for the failure of forging dies. Reproduced from Luig, H. Einfluss von Verschleißschutzschichten und Rohteilverzunderung auf den
Verschleiß beim Schmieden, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, Reihe 5, Grund- und Werkstoffe, Nr. 315. Dissertation, Universität Hannover, 1993.
Figure 5 Wear mechanisms of sliding surfaces. Reproduced from Luig, H. Einfluss von Verschleißschutzschichten und Rohteilverzunderung auf
den Verschleiß beim Schmieden, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI, Reihe 5, Grund- und Werkstoffe, Nr. 315. Dissertation, Universität Hannover, 1993.
According to DIN50323, adhesion is the formation of an interfacial adhesive bond. It consists of a chemical bond that may be so
strong that it remains intact during relative movement. In this case, the soft material in the interior shears (11). The strength of
adhesion is mainly determined by two factors, namely,
l The size and number of the microcontacts in the contact surface, whose entirety represents the contact surface, and
l The size of the binding forces in the microcontact surface between the friction bodies.
The formation and size of the microcontact surfaces depend on the load and deformation formability of the friction bodies. The
crystal structure is therefore an important factor, whereby the number of primary slip systems in particular is crucial. Hexagonal
structures only have three primary slip systems and therefore tend to adhere less strongly than metals with a face-centered cubic
structure. They have 12 primary slip systems. The strength of the adhesive bond is influenced by the oxide layers on the surface and
contaminated films that hinder the adhesion. Through mechanical stress, these layers can be broken or rubbed off and this results in
metallic contact (20). The surface deforms and hardens. As a result, the separation cannot occur between the friction partners but
must remain in deeper areas of the hard body of a friction partner (21). Furthermore, strong adhesion forces occur when the friction
partners differ in their electron configuration. In this case, one of the friction partners acts as an electron donor and the other as an
electron acceptor (22). Materials with a covalent bond are not able to form metallic adhesive bonds. The strength of adhesion
increases in the following order: transition metals (e.g., Cr, Ni, Pd), noble metals (e.g., Cu, Ag, Au), group B metals (e.g., Zn, Sn)
(22). Adhesive wear occurs through direct contact during dry and mixed friction (21).
According to DIN50323, abrasion is a wear mechanism with material removal through scoring or grooving. During this
process, rough peaks or foreign body present on the surface penetrate the surface of the softer partner. Generally, rougher friction
bodies, debris in the lubricant, and hardwearing particles have an abrasive effect (21). The last of these three reaches a micro-
cutting in the contact area of the friction partners. The relative movement of base body and antibody leads to scratches, dents, pits,
and shafts. The harder the material in the nonsolidified state (‘natural hardness’), the greater is the resistance to abrasive wear.
A preliminary bond has no effect on the wear resistance against abrasion, whereas the change of crystal regions (e.g., martensite to
steel) is beneficial (23).
Surface spalling is defined as crack formation or crack growth and also refers to the associated breaking of particles from the
surface. Stress fluctuation in the microarea is required for this to occur. This can occur due to either mechanical stress change or
thermal compressive and tensile stress. The overlapping of these types of stress due to the prevailing stress loads could also occur.
The detached parts, which are a result of surface spalling, are removed from the material during the forming process (11,13).
Tribochemical reactions occur due to mechanical and thermal activation in the surface area. This includes reactions between
contacting surfaces and intermediate and ambient medium. The products of the reaction in metallic contact partners are usually
brittle coatings. These can withstand the induced mechanical stresses only to some extent and fracture at higher stresses. Thus,
a progressive loss of material occurs as a result of chemical reactions. The loose wear particles, moreover, favor the abrasive wear.
Thin oxide layers that were present prior to the frictional stress effect reduce wear (11,13).
An exact definition of the types of wear is difficult because the four wear mechanisms often overlap. In addition, a direct
observation of the wear process is generally not possible. Also, a distinction from the other forms of damage is not easy because
microscopic cracks as a result of thermal and mechanical stress are a starting point for the wear process. Generally, wear takes place
on a forging die throughout its service life. The main factors affecting this process include the following (9):
l Basic tool/workpiece temperature
l Contact normal stress
l Tool and workpiece geometry
l Cooling lubrication/coolant
l Tool/workpiece material
l Other process factors (degree of deformation, deformation rate, pressure dwell times, etc.)
Different approaches can be derived from this to reduce wear. Since wear is the main cause of die failure, its reduction can be the
most important factor for the increase in the tool life of forging dies.
5.11.2.5.1 Mechanical Damage

Damage due to mechanical loads can occur as fatigue or overload fracture (Figure 6). These types of fracture are a result of the fine
cracks on the die surface due to mechanical or thermal factors. When the crack grows over a long period or over several forging
cycles, it is referred to as a fatigue fracture. The overload fracture, on the other hand, occurs during a forging cycle. The continuous
material improvement, heat treatment, and manufacturing processes lead to a steady decrease in fatigue and overload fractures
(14,24).
5.11.2.5.2 Thermal Damage

The source of thermal loads is twofold. First, as a result of the high temperatures, structural changes occur in areas close to the
surface, which leads to the softening or hardening. These areas are the starting point for other types of damage on the surface.
Second, cracks develop in the surface area of the die as a result of thermal stress fluctuation. The reason for this crack formation is the
high residual stresses within the forging die. During the pressure dwell times, the surface of the die is strongly heated. The warmer
die areas try to expand but are hindered by the underlying layers of the die.
Wear
Fatigue crack
Figure 6 Extensive wear and a fatigue crack. Reproduced from Buchmayr, B. Reparaturtechnologien – U¨bersicht der Möglichkeiten, Workshop Schmie-
dewerkzeuge Technologien – Entwicklungen – Analysen; Congress Salzburg, 2011, ISBN 978-3-902078-16-2.
Wear
Thermal cracks
Figure 7 Damage caused by wear and thermal cracks. Reproduced from Buchmayr, B. Reparaturtechnologien – U¨bersicht der Möglichkeiten,
Workshop Schmiedewerkzeuge Technologien – Entwicklungen – Analysen; Congress Salzburg, 2011, ISBN 978-3-902078-16-2.
This results in compressive stresses within the layers close to the surface area. During the subsequent lubricant cooling, the surface
area shrinks once again due to the tensile stress in the area close to the surface. These stress fluctuations between the tensile and
compressive stress lead to the formation of cracks (thermal cracks) through which the resulting strains are reduced (Figure 7). The result
is a fine network of cracks on the surface of the die (5,24). Behrens et al. could reduce this thermal damage by designing and developing
a tool and spray technology for precision forging on high-speed crank presses with a cooling unit designed for the process (25,26).
5.11.2.5.3 Plastic Deformation

Plastic deformation occurs in the tool when the stress exceeds the yield strength of the material. The areas at risk include those that
are exposed to high thermal and mechanical stresses and include the rounding of the pins and mandrels, since the thermal energy
there cannot drain away easily due to the geometry of the tool. This may result in expansion of engraving and change of entire
engraving areas (14).
5.11.3 Optimization of Tribological Conditions

5.11.3.1 Reduction of Tool Wear
According to DIN8580 (27), the following methods can be classified in the area of material property change or coating. However,
some methods could be classified in both areas. The methods involved in ‘material property change’ are based on the changes on the
surface. This can occur either by thermal treatment or by the introduction of certain elements into the material. One of the char-
acteristics of this group is the frequently smooth transition of the treated surface layer to a base material. It is opposed by deposition
welding and coating. Here an adhering layer is formed on a carrier material where a phase transition exists with a fixed boundary.
A change in the material properties can occur through thermal or thermochemical treatment. Thermal treatment leads to a change of
the material structure and thus the hardening of the material. In order to be able to make use of these two advantages, this method is
often used in combination with a thermochemical treatment in order to improve wear (9,28).
5.11.3.1.1 State of the Art

There are several approaches to reduce wear of forging tools, thereby increasing the efficiency of these processes. One possibility is
the stress-based choice of the base material for the forging tool die. The surface technology is another possibility and aims at
changing surface properties. The main idea is the division of functions between the tool and its surface therefore making the
establishment of requirements for the surface of the forging tool and the base material possible (13). The main role of the base
material in this case is forming (29).
The base material should have the following characteristics (13):
l High basic strength and hardness in order to prevent plastic deformation and support the surface layer
l Sufficient ductility in order to withstand mechanical stress without cracking
l High temperature resistance in order to avoid structural change also during high thermal stress
l High thermal conductivity to dissipate heat from the surface into the interior of the die
l Low thermal expansion coefficient and a high heat capacity in order to avoid thermal cracking
l High dimensional stability against thermal distortion in order to prevent delay during the coating process
Hotwork tool steels with high wear resistance such as high chromium and vanadium content or hard nickel base alloys meet
these requirements to a great extent (30).
The following properties are necessary at the die surface:
l High surface hardness to prevent abrasion
l Low adhesive bond strength to prevent welding of the surface with the workpiece material
l High retention of hardness resistance to avoid cracks due to thermal fluctuations
l High chemical resistance to oxidation and corrosion
l Low degree of tendency to crack formation
l Good sliding properties to minimize the friction between the tool and workpiece
This list shows that the base material requirements and its surface are numerous and also contradict each other to a certain
extent. Therefore, the treatment of the surface must be tailored to the particular application, which can be selected from a variety of
methods. Only in this way, a wear protection is customized to the die surface requirements (13,31).
5.11.3.1.2 Thermochemical Surface Treatments

5.11.3.1.2.1 Nitrating
Thermochemical surface treatments are based on the change in the chemical composition of the uppermost tool layer. Usually,
metallic or/and nonmetallic elements diffuse into the metal lattice of the tool material. Methods such as nitriding belong to this
group.
Nitriding is one of the most common methods used for forging dies (32,33). It includes diffusion of atomic nitrogen in the steel
surface. The chemical reactions and the storage of the nitrogen atoms in the iron lattice increase the hardness of the tool surface. The
longer the nitriding time, the higher the nitriding hardness depth. The higher the temperature (the process-dependent temperature
range is 350–600 C), the deeper the nitrogen can penetrate in the material at the same time of treatment. Usually, the nitriding
treatment takes place at a temperature range from 500 to 530 C. Since the steel in this area experiences only little thermal stress and
no structural changes, it is a very low distortion surface hardening process (34,35).
During steel nitriding, a layer is formed which can be divided into two main areas. The outer layer that is a relatively homo-
geneous layer is referred to as bonding layer and below it is a diffusion zone in which the concentration of the diffused nitrogen
content decreases with an increase in depth. The hard bonding layer that is close to the surface reaches a thickness of up to 30 mm
and depending on process parameters consists of iron nitrides, which develop into two phases that are different in the ε- and
g-phases. Iron nitrides in the form of Fe2N and Fe3N with a hexagonal lattice structure are referred to as the ε-phase and the resulting
composition/bond in the form of Fe4N (structure to a cubic, body-centered lattice) is referred to as the g-phase. Other nitrates can
also develop when nitrogen combines with alloys, aluminum, chromium, titanium, molybdenum, and vanadium. Alongside iron
nitrides, they contribute a great deal to the hardness of the bonding layer and are resistant to high chemical and thermal stress. In
addition, carbonitrides develop due to the incorporation of nitrogen into the iron carbides and carbides. Together with the special
nitrides, this results in a wear-resistant and thermally stable tool surface, which also exhibits improved friction properties and higher
resistance to corrosion. The maximum hardness of the bonding layer that can be attained is about 1200 HV and a penetration depth
of up to 1000 mm. Due to the high processing time, a penetration depth of more than 300 mm is rarely used. The hardness of the
diffusion zone can reach 1100 HV depending on the material (35). Depending on the material and the desired nitriding depth, the
nitriding process can take up to 160 h. Figure 8 illustrates the structure of a nitrided steel and nitrogen deposition.
The thickness of the bonding and separating layers can be controlled through the selection of materials, the nitriding period, and
the nitriding temperature. The nitrogen content and correlating hardness decrease from the outside to the inside according to the
diffusion laws. A key factor determining the hardness, thickness, and growth rate of the nitride layer is the content of nitride-forming
elements. If the steel contains a high proportion of nitride-forming elements, a large part of the diffused nitrogen is bound relatively
Figure 8 Schematic nitriding process and micrograph of a nitrated zone. fcc, face-centered cubic. According to Fa. EFD Härterei, Industrieverband
für Härtetechnik (IHT). www.efd-haerterei.de/ (accessed May 04, 2012).
early. As a result, the nitride layer on the base material is much bigger. However, the depths of nitrogen penetration and growth rate
reduce simultaneously. The measurement used to evaluate the thickness of the layer is the nitriding depth with the corresponding
hardness limit. Lower hardness limit refers to the hardness that lies 50 HV above the core hardness of the workpiece. The most
commonly used nitriding process for forging tools include gas nitriding and salt bath nitriding (13). Plasma nitriding also known as
ion nitriding represents one of the surface hardening processes. Surrounded by an electrically insulated vacuum container, the tools
are placed in a nitriding box. Subsequently, at a gas pressure of 1–250 Pa, a DC voltage of several hundred volts is applied, during
which the die functions as the cathode and the grounded nitriding box as the anode. The gas molecules are ionized as a result of the
high voltage and thus are electrically conductive. The positively charged nitrogen ions are accelerated depending on the applied
voltage and reach the die surface with high impact velocity. The high kinetic energy leads to warming and nitriding of the material
surface. This type of nitration usually takes place between 350 and 550 C. The advantages of this nitration process include its short
processing time, an application-oriented layer structure, and the possibility of a bonding layer-free nitration (13,16,36).
Other methods exist during which in addition to nitrogen, carbon is present in the boundary area of the component. This
method also includes gas nitrocarburizing, plasma nitrocarburizing, and bath nitrocarburizing.
5.11.3.1.2.2 Coatings Based on Titanium

Although titanium-based coating systems such as TiN and TiCN are thermally stable, they demonstrate unfavorable tribological
reactions at high temperatures and during lack of lubrication, noticeable in its tendency to adhesion. For this reason, TiN and TiCN
are not entirely suitable for forming at elevated temperatures (37). Moreover, its service life can also be reduced as a result of crack
formation and crack propagation in the thin layer. By using multilayer coatings, the wear resistance can be improved and the service
life increased. Huskic (5) analyzed a multilayer coating with the combination TiN–TiCN–TiC with previous plasma, which was
produced in a duplex mode at 500 C. Compared to the monolayer coatings, the ceramiclike hard material layers are more wear
resistant and thermally stable. However, the layers are completely destroyed when they reach their load limit (5). Compared to
other layer systems, TiC–TiN multilayers have a very rough surface and a typical physical vapor deposition (PVD), stalklike
structure. However, this layer system tends to adhere and achieved in the compression–twist test compared to other layers an
insufficient sliding distance (38).
5.11.3.1.2.3 Coatings Based on DLC

In the compression–twist test, both diamond-like carbon (DLC) and Si-doped DLC layers have the best results (38). DLC coatings
are carbon based. They have a very smooth surface and are characterized by low friction (compared to aluminum) and high
abrasion resistance (compared to nitride layers). DLC coatings have a poor gliding distance at room temperature. However, they
have better values at a temperature of 500 C. Si-doped DLC coatings have similar results, while boron carbonitride (BCN) layers in
particular have a low sliding distance at the intermediate temperature (38). Due to the low toughness, the load limit of DLC layers is
relatively low and it can be increased by a multilayer coating, for example, with CrN. According to Ref. (37), carbon-based layers are
limited to temperatures up to 500 C and are therefore mainly used in the deformation of aluminum and magnesium. However,
Ref. (5) mentions the possibility of improving the adhesion of a multilayer coating (TiN-TiC-TiCN) by adding a DLC layer.
5.11.3.1.2.4 Coatings Based on Boron

Boracic layers such as BCN and TiBN can be used at temperatures up to 700 C and are also characterized by good friction
conditions and low adhesion. However, like all carbon-based coatings, they have low toughness. In addition, they are only partially
resistant to abrasive wear. A remedy is the multilayer coating systems in tough and hard/wear-resistant layer variants (37).
BCN coatings can be produced by microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition. This results in very smooth and dense coatings
with some faint lamellar structure perpendicular to the substrate surface. The expansion of the lamella amounts to a few nano-
meters. The attainable coating hardness and hydrogen content are closely related. If the hydrogen content of 23 decreases to 15
atomic percentages, the coating hardness increases from 14 to 20 GPa. A possible cause is the increased spatial network. The
deposition temperature reaches up to 800 C and this can affect the tool structure (39). TiBN can be produced by using DC-PVD and
consists of the TiN, BN, and TiB2 phases, whereby TiB2 is noncrystallized. Coating properties differ depending on the process
parameters. Here, the flow of nitrogen in particular has an impact on the structural and chemical composition. With increasing
nitrogen flow, the crystalline TiN phase changes into a noncrystallized phase and crystalline cubic BN is formed. This process
continues until a pure crystalline structure is formed (40).
5.11.3.1.2.5 Coatings Based on Chrome

Chromium-based coatings are primarily used for steel forging and aluminum extrusion. The layers are characterized by high
toughness and good thermal stability. They are also resistant to corrosion (37) and have a low tendency to form deposits (41). Their
relatively low friction coefficient and adhesion (38) can be improved by incorporating vanadium. Vanadium oxidizes at
a temperature above 550 C, whereby a frictionless vanadium oxide (V2O5) is formed. In addition, CrVN layers are characterized by
greater hardness compared to the conventional CrN coatings if friction and adhesion are reduced equally (37). As a general rule of
thumb, a strength of up to 1500 N mm2 is required for conventional Cr–N coatings and values above 1500 N mm2 are required
for CrCN layers. They both achieve these properties through an improved supportive ability of the transition zone by means of
plasma nitriding (41). Figure 9 illustrates the properties of some hard material coatings. An additional MoS2 coating is required in
order to improve the frictional properties of CrN-, TiCN-, and TiAlN-based coatings as well as TiN and TiC/TiN coatings. These are
sputtered onto one of these hard coatings and can eventually reduce friction on steel from 0.1 to 0.02 (42). Furthermore, carbo-
naceous thin coatings such as DLC, Si-DLC, and WC/C–CrN have low friction coefficients when sputtered with lubricant coatings
and this also depends on the very smooth surface (38).
5.11.3.1.2.6 Ceramic Inserts

Nowadays, forging dies made of hot forging steel are often used in production technology. Due to the high thermal, mechanical,
and tribological loads on the tools, there have been several attempts to take die inserts made of wear-resistant materials such as hard
metal/cermets or ceramics into consideration (43,44). Ceramic materials have high strength (even at high temperature) and high
hardness and are wear resistant due to their strong ionic and covalent bonds. However, a disadvantage is their high brittleness, low
ductility, and fracture toughness, which is why they have so far not been established for all forming tools. Since the hot forging tools
cannot be entirely made of ceramic, a different approach is possible during which the tools are made of hot forging steel and
ceramic. This can be carried out by soldering, which is from a geometric point of view the most flexible way of insertion.
5.11.3.2 Reduction of Thermal Stress

Cooling and lubrication technology are a major contribution to wear reduction of forging dies. The goal is to ensure the removal of
heat from the thermally vulnerable areas and, in addition, to improve the frictional properties of the tool surface. It aims at
reducing thermal and tribological stress in a working step for the forging die and its surface. The main functions of a cooling
lubricant include
l high mechanical and thermal separation effect,
l reduction of friction,
l cooling effect, and
l reduced heat transfer (isolation).
Oxide film
1 – 12 µm
Hard-layer
Substrate
Chemical name
Properties TiN CrN TiCN AlTiN W-C:H
Hardness (HV) 2500 2100 2800 2900 3000
Friction factor 0.65 0.5 0.45 0.55 0.15
Oxidation (°C) 500 600 400 750 350
Color Gold Gray Gray Anthrazit Anthrazit
Figure 9 Layer properties. Reproduced from Kayser, O. Kombinierte Anwendung von Plasmanitrieren und Hartstoffbeschichten in Metallumformung und
Formenbau. Beschichtete Werkzeuge – höhere Wirtschaftlichkeit in der Ur- und Umformtechnik; Workshop EFDS: Dresden, 2005.
In addition to ecological and economic requirements, high requirements are set for the cooling lubricant such as good wetta-
bility and adhesion and good sprayability. In hot forging, liquid cooling lubricants such as graphite–water suspensions or water-
soluble metal salts are often used (45,46).
5.11.3.2.1 Lubricant
Passive protection of the tools includes the reduction of wear during the forming process. This means application of a lubricant on
the tool between the various forging cycles or before the process begins. Lubricants differ mainly in their composition and
application. The lubricant is chosen based on the process. In the field of hot forging, liquid lubricants are often used.
A significant contribution to the increased tool life of forging dies is provided by lubricant technology through an improvement
of the tribological conditions on the tool surface. The lubrication of the tools is often carried out with the tool coolant (cooling
lubrication).
In order to increase tool life, a decision must be made on the following parameters:
l Selection/type of the lubricant
l Application of the lubricant on the die
l Cooling of the tool
Lubricants have different functions in forging. Their main function in addition to good separation of sliding surfaces is the
reduction of wear by reducing friction between the die and forging as well as die cooling. The most common requirements of the die
lubricants have been summarized in Table 1 (47,48) (Table 2).
Good lubricating properties are important for maintaining the flow of material and for the right die filling. In addition, tool wear,
surface pressure, and deformation forces can be reduced. A uniformly thin lubrication coating has a positive effect on the separation
characteristics of a lubricant, thereby reducing the ejection forces and preventing sticking. In addition, chemical reactions between the
tool and workpiece surface can be avoided. A good driving force arises from the buildup of high gas pressures in the die, which
prevents sticking in the deep engravings in particular. Of great importance is the thermal stability of the lubricants. The temperature of
the die surface during steel hot forging is about 250 C and higher. Due to a workpiece temperature of about 1200 C and a pressure
dwell time of about 50 ms, the lubricant is exposed to a temperature of up to 800 C (9,49). In order to avoid friction, uniform
wetting of the surface is essential. A homogeneous, closed, and well-adhering surface film is also necessary for inaccessible engravings.
An optimal wetting temperature is necessary for the required quality of the surface film especially for water-miscible die lubricants.
Good cooling plays an important role during hot forging due to the high thermal stress since it increases the service life of the dies.
Another factor that causes wear of the dies is corrosion and lubricant buildup. Consequently, both corrosion and lubricant buildup
should be avoided in order to avoid failures of workpieces. Furthermore, the tendency of diesel effects should be minimal. The so-
called diesel effect occurs when air bubbles are present in mineral oil and this air–gas mixture is compressed at high speed and heated.
This leads to self-ignition of the mixture. The very high pressure and temperature rise can lead to damage on the workpiece surface.
From the viewpoint of ecologists and safety at work, health risks, fire hazards, and environmental pollution should be avoided and
a clean working environment should be ensured. Water-miscible fluids are clearly at an advantage because they pose no fire hazard
Table 1 Requirements of die lubricants
Factors causing reduction of tool wear Properties providing impeccable production process Further requirements
Separation effects Uniformly thin lubricating film thickness No chemical reaction with the tool and workpiece surface
Reduced friction Good sprayability Thermal stability
Cooling effect Low residue Health safety
Reduced heat transfer Good adhesion Economy
Blowing effect Good wettability
Table 2 Lubricant additives
Additive Example
Bactericidal activity Ammoniac (NH3) c. 0.1%

Chloromethylisothiazolinone / strong bactericide, c. 0.03%
Dispersing agents Derivatives of polysaccharides (starch) / short-chain carboxylic acids hydrate
Effectiveness: interfacial activity with high affinity to the pigments
Thickener Cross-linked polyacrylates, polysaccharides (starch)
Ligninarte derivatives and crylic acid (unsaturated carboxylic acids) increased
significantly even in very small amounts of the viscosity
Binders Salts of borates, phosphates, silicates
Effectiveness: adhesion/cohesion funds
Reproduced from Gulde, M. Elektrostatisches Auftragen von pulverförmigen Schmierstoffen in der Warmmassivumformung und in
daran angrenzenden Verfahren, Berichte aus dem IFUM, Band 06/2006. Dissertation, Universität Hannover, 2006.
and essentially give away water vapor. If oil is used as the carrier liquid, the formation of smoke, smell, and physiologically hazardous
gases and vapor must be taken into account. Moreover, lubricants should also be resistant to microbial attack, for example, by
bacteria and fungi. Lubricants must be applied quickly and effectively in order to ensure their economic usage (49).
Die lubricants consist of three main components: solids, lubricant carriers, and additives (45). Solids are the main component of
the water-miscible die lubricants and can also be applied under extreme conditions. They differ according to type, particle size, and
concentration. The lubricant/lubricator is used for the dispersion of the solid lubricant. The reaction of the lubricants depends on
the surface temperature. The temperature can be above or below the boiling temperature of the lubricant. Additives guarantee the
function of die lubricant because they support both the dispersibility of the solids and the wetting ability. In addition, they contain
so-called extreme pressure additives for generating an expulsion agent and pressure stability increase (50).
For hot forging especially, liquid lubricants are given preference due to their easy applicability on the tool. A distinction is made
between the following:
l Liquid lubricants without additives: e.g., stabilized mixtures of mineral oil with suitable emulsifiers and corrosion inhibitors.
l Liquid lubricants with dissolved additives: e.g., with polar additives such as fatty oils and fatty acids or chemically active agents
such as phosphorus, chlorine, and sulfur compounds (transparent lubricants, ‘white’ lubricants).
l Liquid lubricants with suspended solid additives: e.g., graphite, mica, molybdenum disulfide, talc, etc.
Another distinguishing factor is the carrier medium, which is subdivided into the following:
l Water medium: water evaporates in the die cavity leaving a solid lubricating film and depending on the basic substance is made
up of graphite, salts, or glasses.
l Oil medium: oil as a carrier medium forms a continuously liquid lubricating layer that disintegrates under the pressure of the
forming.
The combination of lubricant and solid alone may not attain the required lubricity. Therefore, the use of various additives is
required. Common additives used for water-based die lubricants are (45)
l bactericides,
l dispersant,
l thickener, and
l binder.
Bactericides help to sterilize over a long time. Dispersants prevent the flocculation of dispersed solids in water. In addition, they
improve the sedimentation stability. Thickener increases the viscosity and binder improves the adhesion and cohesion properties of
the lubricant (45,49).
Graphite-free lubricants also contain these additives. However, they lack diversity compared to the number of possible base
lubricating substances. The optimal die lubricant can only reveal its properties when the application method (spray technology)
ensures an adequate transfer efficiency through sufficiently high beam energy and a coordinated droplet spectrum. Only an optimal
combination of lubricant and application technique can guarantee optimal lubricating film formation and thus improvement of the
tribological conditions.
5.11.3.2.2 Methods of Cooling Systems

Because the service life of dies is mostly affected by thermal stress and the resulting abrasive wear, the main function of cooling is to
reduce the thermal load on the dies. The methods that are most commonly used in hot forging include (49)
l dipping,
l showering,
l flow coating, and
l spraying.
Dipping and showers are applied prior to deformation in order to produce a uniform lubricant film on the raw workpiece. Flow
coating is preferably used for horizontal-operating high-speed forging machines. Here, the coolant is supplied via a tube system in
large quantities to the working area.
5.11.3.2.2.1 Methods
During hot forging, a large amount of the coolant cannot be recycled and is therefore lost. From an ecological and economic point
of view, it is therefore necessary to use small amounts of the coolant as effectively as possible. Spray application is more advan-
tageous and most often used for cooling lubrication of dies. Spray systems consist of a complex system of pumps, valves, controllers,
piping, nozzles, and manipulators. They must work properly under extreme conditions (49). There are several spray techniques and
various heat transfer mechanisms including
l conventional spray cooling,
l high-pressure jet cooling,
l segment cooling, and
l spray cooling.
5.11.3.2.2.2 Cooling and Lubrication Systems

Several methods have been tested for the cooling lubrication process in which the main focus is the separation of the cooling and
lubricating effect. This is done to avoid overlubrication in areas with high cooling capacity because adequate wetting of the
engraving in the subsequent processing steps cannot be guaranteed due to overlubrication (51). In addition, separate procedures
can be ecologically and economically more efficient because some lubricant can be saved. Conventional forging machines can be
designed for automatic and rapid multistep processes with a separate cooling and lubrication circuit. It results in the following three
strategies:
l Separation of cooling and lubrication with internal cooling channels
l Separation of cooling and lubrication with external cooling
l Conventional cooling lubrication with controllable coolant or lubricant supply
For the separation of cooling and lubrication with internal cooling channels, coolant channels are integrated into the die. The
lubricant must be applied to the die on/from the outside. This method can only be used when there is low mechanical stress since
the strength of the dies decreases due to the integrated cooling channels. In addition, the dies are expensive due to the rising cost of
production.
The separation of cooling and lubrication by external cooling is carried out in two stages. First the die is cooled with water to the
desired temperature and after it dries up completely, a lubricating film is applied. The die must dry up completely because residual
water will be included in the deformation and evaporate at a high temperature. As a result, there is high local pressure, which can
damage the tool or the workpiece. The conventional cooling lubricant with a controllable cooling and lubricant supply is
a modification of conventional spray cooling whose cooling and lubrication are controlled by an additional pump. In this way,
water can be added, which prevents the excessive application of the lubricant and at the same time increases the cooling capacity
(45,51). Figure 10 illustrates the difference between conventional die lubrication and surface water cooling. During separate cooling
lubrication, the waiting time is used to carry out surface water cooling. Finally, the lubrication is carried out at a low die temperature;
meanwhile, cooling lubrication is carried out for conventional die lubrication.
During die cooling, the decisive factor is the thermal energy extracted per unit time and area. This is defined by the heat flux
density (W m2). The parameters are determined by the cooling capacity and the heat transfer coefficient, which defines the
influence of material, coolant properties, and flow characteristics of the cooling medium. The thermal coefficient defines the
relationship between the heat flux density, the tool surface, and the temperature gradient of the coolant (51).
There are three areas during heat dissipation from a water film (see Figure 11):
l Free convection
l Bubble evaporation
l Film formation
There is an unconstrained flow of heat during free convection due to the difference in temperature. In the second phase, the
thermal conductivity coefficient increases due to the bubbles. The bubbles rise up and stir up the water. The so-called bubble
evaporation begins at about 106 C. At 130 C, the maximum heat flux density is attained. This is the point of burnout. At this point,
a vapor film starts to develop, which depending on the temperature, separates into an unstable and a stable region. The vapor film is
220 °C
Conventional die cooling
Insertion Forging Dwell time Removal Lubrication
140 °C
Splitting of cooling and lubrication
Insertion Forging Cooling Removal Lubrication
Figure 10 Comparison of conventional cooling lubrication and separated cooling and lubrication. Reproduced from Doege, E.; Bederna, C. Analysis
of Boundary Stresses and Temperatures in Hot Massive Forming. Prod. Eng. 1996, 3 (2).
Heat transfer
coefficient
(W m–2 K–1)
50 000
20 000
10 000
5000
Convection Bulk Film
boiling boiling boiling
2000
1000
Unstable Stable
500
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
Temperature difference (K)
Figure 11 Leidenfrost temperature. Reproduced from Czechowski, D. Modell zur Bestimmung der Leidenfrosttemperatur bei der Sprühkühlung
von Schmiedewerkzeugen. Dissertation, Universität Hannover, 2007.
interrupted by the stirring up of the water at temperatures of up to about 200 C and this makes it unstable. A stable vapor film
develops above 200 C (Leidenfrost temperature). The heat flow is interrupted, which eventually decreases the heat flux density and
can only be raised by radiation (51).
Vapor films, which are unwanted in most cases, develop when the Leidenfrost temperature is reached. The Leidenfrost point is
not bound to a fixed temperature. In addition to the material properties, it also depends on the following parameters:
l Nozzle opening diameter
l Drop diameter
l Flow rate
l Nozzle distance
5.11.4 Numerical Simulation of the Tribological System in the Hot Forging Using FEM
With regard to the demand of shorter development times, the numerical computation of forming processes using the FEM reduces
costly and time-consuming pilot tests. The result of the simulations depends to a considerable extent on the exact figure of the
forming process-influencing factors such as the friction between the tool and workpiece.
In order to describe the frictional state in the simulation in a realistic way, in contrast to the standard friction models to be
retrieved in commercial FE programs, local factors, such as the relative velocity, temperature, and stress state in the contact area
between the tool and workpiece, have to be detected. Therefore, at the IFUM, a friction model was developed that incorporates
a function of the relative velocity in addition to temperature- and strain rate-dependent plastic deformation of the workpiece and
the local stress state (12).
The validation of this innovative friction law is based on representative processes. Here, the comparison between the measured
and calculated variables, such as geometry, material flow, and forming force, leads to a significant increase in the accuracy of
calculation of forging processes. This means that during the simulation-based design process, accurate information regarding the
possible material flow and temperature distribution is possible.
5.11.4.1 Mathematical Description of Friction

The friction between the forging dies and the workpiece is substantially influenced by the prevailing local state of stress and the
locally changing contact conditions. Moreover, the sliding velocity has a great influence on the frictional shear stress. To describe the
frictional behavior during a forming process and the local and temporally changing friction conditions, all relevant conditions
(Figure 12) have to be considered in the friction law.
Due to the great importance of friction in the modeling of forging processes, it remains a dynamic research domain, where
numerous research works have been carried out (52–63). Conventional friction models classically resort to constant model
parameters for the description of contact condition within FE simulation.
The friction in numerical calculations of forming processes has been traditionally described using the Coulomb–Amontons
friction model (62). This model expresses the ratio of frictional shear stress sR to the contact pressure sN based on a constant friction
coefficient m from eqn [1]:
sR ¼ m$sN [1]
In Figure 13, the correlation for different friction coefficients has been illustrated, whereupon m ¼ 0 is sliding without friction
and m ¼ 1 describes sticking.
Figure 12 Factors influencing friction during the forming process. Reproduced from Doege, E.; Behrens, B.-A. Handbuch der Umformtechnik:
Grundlagen, Technologien, Maschinen; Springer-Verlag: Berlin Heidelberg, 2007.
Figure 13 Coulomb–Amontons friction model.
The main disadvantage of this model is that the frictional shear stress is overestimated as soon as the material shear yield strength
k is exceeded. The friction factor model (62) has been developed to remedy this deficit. This approach (eqn [2]) shown in Figure 14
correlates the frictional shear stress to the product of the shear yield strength k of the deformed material through a constant friction
factor m (eqn [2]), with m1 ¼ 0 for sliding without velocity and m3 ¼ 1 for sticking:
sR ¼ m$k [2]
Although the friction factor model considers the local shear yield strength k regarding a contact pair, whose surface undergoes
plasticizing as a result of the prevailing stress state, it does not describe the frictional shear stress state for low normal stresses
accurately enough. Therefore, a combination of the Coulomb–Amontons model with the friction factor model is currently being
used to describe the friction state in the simulation of the forming processes (54) (Figure 15).
Figure 14 Friction factor model.

Figure 15 Combined friction model.
The main drawback of this approach is that the changing local contact conditions are neglected.
A number of modified friction models that assess the changing local stress state and the material properties during hot bulk
metal forming processes have been developed by Doege and Bederna (52), Shaw (63), Bernhardt (57), Bay and Wanheim (55),
Neumaier (61), as well as Alasti (53).
Shaw developed a law on intermediate layers, which presents a combination of Coulomb’s model and the friction factor model
(Figure 16).
Shaw’s approach (63) is described mathematically by Betten (64) with eqn [3]
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ms n
sR n N
¼ tanh [3]
k k
with the friction coefficient m, the normal stresses sN, the shear yield strength k, and a natural number n that describes the transition
from Coulomb–Amontons model to the friction factor model.
Similar to the combined model, Doege and Bederna (9) developed an alternative approach, where the frictional stress is
represented as a continuous function (Figure 17).
Figure 16 Qualitative course of the function of Shaw. Reproduced from Shaw, M. C. The Role of Friction in Deformation Processing. Wear 1963, 6,
140–158.
Figure 17 Friction model (transition model). Reproduced from Doege, E.; Behrens, B.-A. Handbuch der Umformtechnik: Grundlagen, Technologien,
Maschinen; Springer-Verlag: Berlin Heidelberg, 2007.
They continued the straight theoretical considerations and validated this model based on experimental studies (65,66). Bay and
Wanheim (55) developed a general model in order to assess friction on the tool–workpiece interface. Chen and Kobayashi (58) were
the first to have considered the relative sliding velocity between the workpiece and the dies in their friction model. The influence of
the contact area in the interface layer between the tool and the workpiece was introduced by Bernhardt and Neumaier in their
investigations.
In Ref. (57), an alternative approach that consists of combining the frictional coefficient model and the friction factor model is
proposed. The approach (eqn [4]) is based on experimental investigations during which the workpiece surface reacts on contact with
the forming tools in an elastic, elastoplastic, or dominantly plastic way with the Poisson’s ratio y, the yield stress sy, and the normal
stress sN:
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u " 2 #
u1 sy 1 2y 2
mmax ¼ t [4]
3 s2N 1y
Neumaier proposed in Ref. (61) a friction law (eqn [5]) based on the researches of Chen and Kobayashi (58) as well as Mikic
(60). It is also based on the changing conditions, taking into consideration the real contact area between the tool and workpiece. His
studies were based on experimental studies of Kaminski, which were carried out in the field of metal forming (67). He proposed
a model that uses the surface conversion by the scaled porosity for the description of the active surface friction with a constant
friction factor m0, the shear yield strength k, the normal stress sN, the yield stress sy, the relative sliding velocity vrel, and the
parameter C (61):
v
sN 2
sR ¼ m0 $k 1 exp 1 $ arctan rel [5]
sy p C
He found out the following data for the special forming processes:
l Hot forming: m0 ¼ 0.45
l Semihot forming: m0 ¼ 0.25
l Cold forming: m0 ¼ 0.15
Other friction laws comprehend the local change of contact conditions. Nevertheless, the authors did not take into account the
elastic tool modeling in their model of elastic intermediate layer. Alasti (53,68) looked into the elastic deformation of the tools due
to the tool load for the first time. In his work, he showed the very difficult calibration. He developed the model using phenom-
enological observations of a backward can extrusion process, see eqn [6]. Here the equivalent stress seq; the yield stress sy; the
normal stress sN; the unknown parameters s1 and s2, which had to be determined (53); and the sliding speed vrel are used:
s2

seq seq sN
sR ¼ 0:15$ 1 $sN þ k$ $ 1 exp s1 $ $f ðvrel Þ [6]
sy sy sy
5.11.4.2 The IFUM Friction Model

A new model is introduced for the process-oriented friction modeling in hot forging. This new approach requires the proposed
continuous transition model for small and large contact pressures. This was determined based on mathematical and mechanical
considerations. For this purpose, Alasti’s approach for describing friction as a function of the stress state and the contact normal
pressure was adopted. Furthermore, the real contact area between the workpiece and tool according to Neumaier (61) and the
relative velocity in the contact zone was included as well.
5.11.4.2.1 Mathematical Formulation

The model is given by equation eqn [7]:

seq seq jsN j
sR ¼ m$ 1 $sN þ k$ $ 1 exp $f ðvrel Þ [7]
sy sy sy
The frictional shear stress depends on state variables, such as equivalent stress seq, normal stress sN, the sliding velocity vrel, the
flow stress sy, and the shear yield strength k of the workpiece material. The influence of the sliding speed is set on the mechanical
characteristics and mathematical considerations, according to eqn [8]
1vrel 2
f ðvrel Þ ¼ exp [8]
2 C
The parameter C in eqn [8] reduces the influence of the sliding velocity on the frictional shear stress between the workpiece and
the die and thus reflects the behavior that has been assumed.
Figure 18 represents the curve of the functional relationship for various values of C for 1 C 150. With an increasing value of
the factor C, the influence of the sliding speed decreases to the friction shear stress. The areas of sliding without friction, adhesion,
and transition region are clearly shown here.
Figure 18 Variation of the velocity of the proposed friction model.
5.11.4.2.2 Validation on Representative Processes

The validation of the developed friction model was carried out based on experimental investigations. The results obtained were
compared to the numerically obtained data, in order to assess the quality of the friction model (69). Different lubrications such as
water-based and oil-based lubrications were investigated in the current study. Also, its use during an industrial process is shown. The
friction model given by eqn [7] was used in the commercial FEM software FORGE (Transvalor S.A.) via available user subroutines.
Moreover, the model was implemented into the software system Simufact forming.
The validation was done by processes with different contact pressures and different sliding velocities during the process times.
In Figure 19, a backward can extrusion process is illustrated that is exemplarily described.
Here, various raw materials, rates of forming, and temperatures were examined using experimental investigations. Numerical
and experimental investigations of the backward can extrusion process were carried out.
The workpiece of the can extrusion process in this example (material: EN 1.7225) was heated to an initial temperature of
1200 C. The punch speed was set to 250 mm s1. The lubricant is Molykote (MoS2).
Forging forces of the process were recorded by measuring and recording equipment. In addition, this process has been inves-
tigated numerically. This process was simulated using the friction factor model with variation of the factor m between m ¼ 0.2 and
m ¼ 0.7 and with the IFUM friction model. In Figure 20, the calculated force–time curves are shown comparison with the
experimentally measured values. The best agreement was obtained with the proposed friction model by adjusting the velocity
weighing parameter C to 150.
In summary, the calculation of the can extrusion process shows reputable agreement with the experimentally determined data
and more accurate calculation results than with the standard friction models.
Comparisons of the calculated geometry with the IFUM friction model geometries show an improvement. This fact can be
connected directly to an improved material flow calculation using the IFUM friction model.
5.11.4.2.3 Potential of the IFUM Friction Model for Industrial Processes

The IFUM friction model has also been applied for industrial processes. The results from the numerical analyses were compared to
experimental data. A relatively good agreement between calculated and measured geometry is obtained using the IFUM friction
model. The contour of the real parts was digitized with the help of the optical measurement system ATOS-II, GOM mbH, and
compared to calculated contours (12,69). The realistic presentation of forging laps and other component failures is also achieved in
calculations with the new model. In the following, the application of the new friction model in a friction-sensitive process is
illustrated. By using the IFUM friction model, the simulation was able to predict this kind of failure, whereas simulations with
classical friction models did not.
Figure 21 shows a real component in which there is a substantial formation of forging laps. The process stage sequence was first
calculated using a standard friction model. A change in the friction coefficient and material properties did not lead to the desired
results and did not lead to the real figure (Figure 22).
(a) (b)
Upper punch Workpiece
Lower die
Figure 19 Model of backward can extrusion process: (a) Before and (b) after forming.
Figure 20 Comparison of the experimentally determined and the simulated force–time curves of the forming process of the backward can extrusion
process.
Figure 21 Forging part with a forging lap. Reproduced from Behrens, B.-A.; Bouguecha, A.; Mielke, J.; Schafstall, H. Innovative Reibmodellierung in
der Warmmassivumformung. In Umformtechnik – Innovationen aus Industrie und Wissenschaft; Behrens, B.-A.,Hrsg.; 20. Umformtechnisches Kollo-
quium: Hannover, 2011; pp 199–211; Wohlmuth, M.; Schafstall, H. Neueste Entwicklungen in der Reibmodellierung von Massivumformprozessen.
XXIX. Verformungskundliches Kolloquium Planneralm; 2010; pp 119–124.
By using the IFUM friction model, the simulation was able to predict this kind of failure, whereas simulations with standard
friction models did not (Figure 23). Afterward, the process design was changed such that the final part was produced without laps.
Thus, the new friction model shows good results with regard to the realistic numerical description of the material flow behavior in
hot die forging processes.
5.11.4.3 Wear Modeling

Due to high temperatures and forming forces that arise in forging processes, the dies are exposed to a combination of high ther-
momechanical loads. These loads can lead to premature die failure due to mechanical and thermal material fatigue. As a result of
cyclic loading, there is tool material fatigue, which can lead to premature tool failure, mainly in the form of wear and cracking.
In order to optimize the design of the forging process and the design of tools, a tool stress analysis is carried out. This is done
nowadays by using the FEM.
Since wear is the most common cause of failure of forging dies, an FE-based prediction of the expected tool wear is scheduled to
take place during the design and planning phase of forging. Wear calculation by commercial finite element analysis (FEA) systems is
not possible or limited to simple models.
5.11.4.3.1 The Advanced Wear Model

One common approach to calculate wear is the approach of Archard (70–72). It takes into account that the expected tool wear was
a function of the contact normal stress sN, the sliding path of the workpiece on tool L, and the tool hardness H (eqn [9]). The wear
coefficient K has to be determined depending on the process:
sN $L
w¼K [9]
H
Figure 22 Calculated geometry with the friction factor model (m ¼ 0.27). Reproduced from Behrens, B.-A.; Bouguecha, A.; Mielke, J.; Schafstall, H.
Innovative Reibmodellierung in der Warmmassivumformung. In Umformtechnik – Innovationen aus Industrie und Wissenschaft; Behrens, B.-A.,Hrsg.;
20. Umformtechnisches Kolloquium: Hannover, 2011; pp 199–211; Wohlmuth, M.; Schafstall, H. Neueste Entwicklungen in der Reibmodellierung von
Massivumformprozessen. XXIX. Verformungskundliches Kolloquium Planneralm; 2010; pp 119–124.
Figure 23 Calculated geometry with the IFUM friction model (C ¼ 150). Reproduced from Behrens, B.-A.; Bouguecha, A.; Mielke, J.; Schafstall, H.
Innovative Reibmodellierung in der Warmmassivumformung. In Umformtechnik – Innovationen aus Industrie und Wissenschaft; Behrens, B.-A.,Hrsg.;
20. Umformtechnisches Kolloquium: Hannover, 2011; pp 199–211; Wohlmuth, M.; Schafstall, H. Neueste Entwicklungen in der Reibmodellierung von
Massivumformprozessen. XXIX. Verformungskundliches Kolloquium Planneralm; 2010; pp 119–124.
This wear model does not consider the dependence of the hardness on the tool temperature and the process time. Therefore, an
extension of the calculation approach according to Archard is required (73). The extended wear model of Behrens takes into account
the wear abrasion Dw per forging cycle (eqn [10]). Furthermore, the tool hardness H (t, T) is determined as a function of the process
time t and the die temperature T:
k X
Dw ¼ sN vrel Dt [10]
Hðt; TÞ inc¼1
Here k is a process-dependent constant wear, vrel is the relative velocity, Dt is the time step of the current increment, and sN is the
normal contact stress. This innovative wear approach has been already implemented in commercial FE program systems and
successfully applied for the calculation of the wear of forging processes (74,75).
5.11.4.3.2 Calibration of the Advanced Wear Model

Experimental wear investigations were carried out to establish a basis for the development of a realistic tool wear model. The used
forging process with rotational symmetry part geometry is used. Below is the validation of the wear model exemplified on an
extrusion process.
Examples of the validation of the wear model in a cup-producing process are shown below (73,76). Figure 24 shows the
measured and numerically computed wear at the mandrel between 1000 and 2000 forging cycles.
The wear model also shows good results for the wear determination of complex industry forging processes (26,77). In
Figure 25, a worn gear matrix is presented for the production of helical gears. A comparison of the numerical prediction of
(mm)
–0.06
Figure 24 Comparison of measured and simulated wear profiles at mandrel.
Figure 25 Wear of a real part of a gear wheel and simulated wear amount. Reproduced from Behrens, B.-A.; Huskic, A.; Gulde, M.; Küper, A.
The Performance of Ceramic Coatings for the Use in Hot Massive Forming. XVI Conf. Sc. Tech., June 14–16, 2004; Poznan, PL, 2004; pp 65–76.
wear in the machining tool and the experimental data corresponds well with wear that occurs on industrial practice gear
cutting tools (78).
5.11.4.3.3 Application to an Industrial Process

The modeling approach for die wear calculation was verified based on an industrial process for the hot forging of a driveshaft,
shown in Figure 26. The model was applied to the upper die of the final process stage, made of hot work steel 1.2367 (DIN EN
standard), using the appropriate model parameters for this tool material. Identification of this parameter set was based on the
analysis of two die components of a tool system for hot forging of a wheel hub and one forward extrusion die.
Measured data and FEA results of the wear depth were analyzed along the outline of the tool surface, which is also represented in
Figure 26. Figure 27 shows a comparison of measured and simulated wear profiles after, for example, 4000 and 8000 process cycles.
Regarding characteristic features of the wear profiles, the FEA results show a good correlation to the measured data. In areas with
maximum wear amount, e.g., the convex radius at the top of the punch, the quantitative estimation of the wear depth is satisfying.
The consideration of thermal softening effects on the tool material allows considering the increasing progress of the abrasive wear
between 4000 and 8000 process cycles.
Figure 26 Verification of the computational model regarding an industrial hot forging process of a driveshaft.
Contour line s (mm)

0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42
–0.00
–0.02
–0.04
–0.06
–0.08
Wear (mm)
–0.10
–0.12
–0.14
–0.16
–0.18 Measurement, 4000 cycles
Simulation, 4000 cycles
–0.20
Measurement, 8000 cycles
–0.22 Simulation, 8000 cycles
–0.24
Figure 27 Comparison of measured and simulated wear profiles at certain numbers of process cycles.
5.11.5 Summary
Hot forging dies are exposed to a combination of cyclic thermal, mechanical, tribological, and chemical loads. These often occur in
combination and are responsible for wear of forging dies, which can be divided into mechanical and thermal cracking, plastic
deformation, and wear. The very short pressure dwell times to the requirements adapted for tool material and an increased mold
surface temperature show their potential to help reduce damage of the forging die. In addition, the spraying time and lubricant
concentration are advantageous to the tool life of the dies.
The friction and lubrication conditions in metal forming are influenced by a variety of parameters. These parameters depend on
the workpiece, tool, lubricant, process, as well as machine. Accurate friction and wear modeling and wear are necessary for process
description and the process design.
Friction modeling is essential for an accurate calculation of forging processes. However, in most of the available FE programs, it is
based on the assumption of constant coefficients for the model equations. These local influences are not detected with the required
accuracy and are not included in the FE simulation. In those cases, the quality of the simulation can only be accepted to a limited
extent.
By means of mechanical and mathematical observations, a new friction model was developed and validated using experimental
representative processes and numerical simulations. It was followed by the validation on industrial processes.
The FEA-based process simulation with the new friction model leads to a more accurate prediction of the component geometry,
material flow, and forming forces. It also shows the high potential in the application of the IFUM friction model for the numerical
simulation of industrial hot forming processes.
The IFUM friction model in eqn [7] was included in the commercial software system Simufact.forming10.0 of Simufact Engi-
neering GmbH. The default implementation in other commercial FE programs is expected.
Due to the exact description of friction, the necessary requirements for an improved wear modeling are provided. Therefore,
a significant increase in calculation accuracy in the FEA-based tool analysis of hot forging processes is possible.
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5.

11 Tribology in Hot Forging

5.11.1 Introduction 211

Comprehensive Materials Processing, Volume 5 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-096532-1.00538-0 211

Surface condition Contact area

5.11.2 Load Types for Forging Tools

5.11.2.1 Thermal Load

5.11.2.2 Mechanical Load

Cooling by Waiting for the next

500 thermal conduction,

100 Base temperature

5.11.2.3 Chemical Load

5.11.2.4 Tribological Load

Therm. stresses Pressure

5.11.2.5 Causes of Tool Failures

Mechanical crack formation 25%

Thermal crack formation 3%

5.11.2.5.1 Mechanical Damage

5.11.2.5.2 Thermal Damage

5.11.2.5.3 Plastic Deformation

5.11.3 Optimization of Tribological Conditions

5.11.3.1.1 State of the Art

5.11.3.1.2 Thermochemical Surface Treatments

5.11.3.1.2.2 Coatings Based on Titanium

5.11.3.1.2.3 Coatings Based on DLC

5.11.3.1.2.4 Coatings Based on Boron

5.11.3.1.2.5 Coatings Based on Chrome

5.11.3.1.2.6 Ceramic Inserts

5.11.3.2 Reduction of Thermal Stress

Table 1 Requirements of die lubricants

Table 2 Lubricant additives

Bactericidal activity Ammoniac (NH3) c. 0.1%

5.11.3.2.2 Methods of Cooling Systems

5.11.3.2.2.2 Cooling and Lubrication Systems

5.11.4.1 Mathematical Description of Friction

Figure 13 Coulomb–Amontons friction model.

Figure 14 Friction factor model.

Figure 15 Combined friction model.

5.11.4.2 The IFUM Friction Model

5.11.4.2.1 Mathematical Formulation

Figure 18 Variation of the velocity of the proposed friction model.

5.11.4.2.2 Validation on Representative Processes

5.11.4.2.3 Potential of the IFUM Friction Model for Industrial Processes

Upper punch Workpiece

5.11.4.3 Wear Modeling

5.11.4.3.1 The Advanced Wear Model

5.11.4.3.2 Calibration of the Advanced Wear Model

Figure 24 Comparison of measured and simulated wear proﬁles at mandrel.

5.11.4.3.3 Application to an Industrial Process

Contour line s (mm)

1. Tribologie: Teil 1 – 3. Deutsche Norm DIN50323; Beuth Verlag, 1988.

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