CHEMICALS TREATMENT

FOR OILFIELD BACTERIA

REV.01
BONY BUDIMAN
2021

https://www.linkedin.com/in/bony-budiman-39886031/
COMMON QUESTIONS

• What kind of bacteria that found in the

oil and gas field ?
• How serious is the problem caused by
bacteria ?
• What is biocide, and how is the
mechanism ?
• How to apply biocide ?
• Field cases !
Courtesy Picture : https://dragonflytraining.files.wordpress.com/2013/10/man-with-question-01.png?w=640
OUTLINE

• OBJECTIVE
• INTRODUCTION
• MONITORING
• CONTROL
• CASE STUDY
• SUMMARY
OBJECTIVES

• Explain how bacteria can cause problem in oil and gas

production facilities.
• Explain what Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB)
• Differentiate between planktonic and sessile bacteria.
• Sharing testing methods for identification of bacteria.
• Explain how biocide used to control bacteria growth

Courtesy Picture :https://pngimage.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/objective-icon-png-3.png

OUTLINE

• OBJECTIVE
• INTRODUCTION
• MONITORING
• CONTROL
• CASE STUDY
• SUMMARY
INTRODUCTION

a. Definition
b. Classification
c. Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB)
• Indication of SRB
• Factors Affecting Growth
• Problem Caused
• Places of SRB
 DEFINITION

• Bacteria are single celled microbes. The cell structure

is simpler than that of other organisms as there is no
nucleus or membrane bound organelles
• Bacteria are living organisms that are naturally
occurring and can be found in a very wide range of
conditions.
• In nature, some types of bacteria can be found at the
bottom of 10,000-foot deep trenches in the oceans,
near volcanic areas .Bacteria are very resilient!

Courtesy Picture : https://media.istockphoto.com/vectors/bacterial-cell-diagram-vector-id685763686?s=612x612

 CLASSIFICATION

Bacteria may be classified based on :

• Shape : spherical (cocci), rod (bacilli), spiral (spirilla),
comma (vibrios) or corkscrew (spirochetes)
• Environment
• Temperature : 10°C to approx. 100°C
• Oxygen Dependent : from 0 ppm (anaerob) to saturared (>
8 ppm)
• Nutritional Requirement : self produced from inorganic and
organic or from others living organism
• pH : from 1 to 10
• Pressure : from 0 psig to >10,000 psig
• Suffice it to say, bacteria are everywhere

Courtesy Picture : https://microbiologysociety.org/why-microbiology-matters/what-is-microbiology/bacteria.html

SULPHATE REDUCING BACTERIA (SRB)

• Sulphate reducing bacteria is bacteria that cause

some problems in oil and gas facilities.
• These bacteria are nonpathogenic with various
shape
• There are some species of SRB :
• Desulfobacter - rods
• Desulfococcus - cocci
• Desulfobulbus - lemon shaped
• Desulfosarcina - ellipses
• Desulfonema - filaments
SULPHATE REDUCING BACTERIA (SRB)(1)

• SRB is bacteria that get its energy by sulfates

(SO42-) reduction to sulfide (S2-)
• Anaerobic bacteria (require an oxygen free
aqueous environment)
• Usually live at temperature less than 65oC.
• Rapid reproduction, their numbers can double in
20 minutes

Courtesy Picture : http://wiki.biomine.skelleftea.se/wiki/index.php/Sulfate_reducing_bacteriae :

INDICATION

• Slime in the inner surface facility

• Rotten egg odor
• Black water
• Showed by bacteria reagent test kit.
• Found deposit at filter and causing increase of delta pressure.
• Development of iron sulfide deposits in lines or equipment
• Souring, which means that there are increasing levels of H2S in a
previously sweet system
• Increased or new tendencies of emulsion stabilization
• Microbially Induced Corrosion (MIC) in equipment often
leading to failures
FACTORS AFFECTING SRB’S GROWTH

1) Water
2) Oxygen
3) Metal ion
4) Sulphate (SO42-)
5) Ideal temperature
6) pH
 PROBLEM CAUSED

• Plugging in facilities such as at filter

• Reservoir souring
• Corrosion : SRB create corrosive acid H2S or create slime
that cause Microbial Induced Corrosion (MIC)
• MIC is the term used for the phenomenon in which
corrosion is initiated and/or accelerated by the activities of
micro-organisms (such as SRB). MIC is believed to account
for 20 % of the damage caused by corrosion(2)

Courtesy Picture : https://www.ecscorrosion.com/blog/microbiologically-influenced-corrosion-mic

PLACE OF SRB

• Bacteria could floating in the fluid

known as planktonic or settling known
as sessile bacteria
• Bacteria could be found at fluid stream,
filter, bottom tank or dead leg.. The
deposited SRB known as sessile
bacteria.
SESSILE AND PLANKTONIK

• Planktonic bacteria are free-floating in the fluids.

Easily spread throughout the system
• Sessile bacteria are attached to the surface.
• Once they are sessile they become potential
bacterial corrosion problems.
• Sessile bacteria can grow into large colonies and
produce acid.
 BIOFILM

• A biofilm is a colony of bacteria residing in a porous organic material

that transports nutrients into the colony and waste products out from
the colony.
• Steps of biofilm :
• At low velocity (< 3 ft/s) planktonic bacteria start to settle and become
sessile bacteria
• The sessile produce and exude sticky material
• Sessile bacteria start to grow and reproduce, increasing the numbers of
bacteria and starting a colony
• The colony may be a mixed colony, made up of two or more types of
bacteria co-existing and growing, while generating H2S, acids, slime, or
other organic materials.
• Pitting will typically be occurring beneath these colonies.

Courtesy Picture : https://www.mdpi.com/ijms/ijms-22-02155/article_deploy/html/images/ijms-22-02155-g001-550.jpg

OUTLINE

• OBJECTIVE
• INTRODUCTION
• MONITORING
• CONTROL
• CASE STUDY
• SUMMARY
MONITORING(6)

• References
• Sampling
• Timing
• Method
REFERENCES

• There are some references that could be used to monitor bacteria population. Some
methods could be used as method for biocides selection.
• The references are :
• NACE TM0194-2014 Standard Test Method Field Monitoring of Bacterial Growth in Oil and
Gas Systems
• ASTM D 4412 Standard Test Methods for Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria in Water and Water-
Formed Deposits.
• Procedure developed by the test kit producer such as from SANI-CHECK SRB, 3M,
MirobMonitor2 etc
MONITORING - SAMPLING

• Based on bacteria location, there are two method of

sampling : liquid sampling and deposit sampling
• Liquid sampling used to monitor planktonic bacteria. The
liquid drawn off directly from the sampling point.
• Deposit sampling used to monitor sessile bacteria. Bacteria
will trapped and settled at the equipment called SRB stud
• Bacteria shall be sampling at area that bacteria may growth.
• Picture beside is method of deposit sampling, known as
Bioprobe methode. The probe inserted to the pipeline and
retrieve similar with corrosion coupon procedure.
MONITORING - TIMING

• The monitoring could be conducted daily, weekly, monthly based on severity and
treatment mode
• If the severity is low with continuous injection, sampling and analysis could be conducted
monthly just to ensure the bacteria is still below specification
• If the severity is medium to high with batching injection, sampling and analysis minimum
conducted before the next batching to ensure the dosage and interval period are
sufficient
MONITORING – METHOD(6)

• Conventional
Count the bacteria using reagent that will provide color change. The intensity of color equal to the bacteria
population. Two popular conventional method :
• Rapid Test
• Serial Dilution.
• Non Conventional
• A.T.P. Photometry (non specific)
• Radiorespirometry (need source of radioactive)
• Fluorescence and immunology
• Gen research
• Enzyme determination
RAPID TEST

• Rapid test kit is a sulfate reducing bacteria test kit

that contains tubes of culture media specifically
formulated to promote the growth of sulfate reducing
bacteria
• When sulfide is liberated, it reacts with iron in the
tubed culture medium to form iron sulfide, a black
precipitate.
• The degree to which the medium blackens, along with
the length of time it takes to change color. Darker and
faster of time means higher bacteria population

Courtesy Picture :https://www.biosan.com/index.php/product/sani-check-srb-kit/

RAPID TEST

• The result will be obtained within 5 days.

• Easy to use to enumerate planktonic SRB
• The interpretation is a below :
SERIAL DILUTION

• Incubation period : 28 days

• More quantitative
• Need trained person
• Could be used to enumerate planktonic and sessile
bacteria
• The calculation method know as MPN : Most
Probable Number
• MPN is a method used to estimate the
concentration of viable microorganisms in a sample
by means of replicate liquid broth growth in ten-
fold dilutions
PRINCIPLE OF MPN

• Water to be tested is diluted serially and inoculated in lactose

broth
• The presence of bacteria is indicated by the color change of the
medium
• The number of total bacteria is determined by counting the
number of tubes giving positive reaction (color change) and
comparing the pattern of positive results (the number of tubes
showing growth at each dilution) with standard statistical tables
TABLE MPN

• Determine positive bottles in 3

latest series
• Find the MPN factor in the table
• Multiply with the lowest dilution
factor
• It may not easy to understand,
please see the next 2 examples
EXAMPLE 1

• The latest 3 positive bottles are

• Bottle No1 : 3 bottles
• Bottle No 2 : 2 bottles
• Bottle No 3 : 0 botle
• From the MPN table, 3 – 2 – 0
correlated to 9.5
• The lowest dilation factor is 101
• Bacteria population = 9.5 x 101
bacteria/stud
EXAMPLE 2

• The 3 latest positive bottles are

• Bottle No1 : 3 bottles
• Bottle No 2 : 1 bottles
• Bottle No 3 : 1 botle
• From the MPN table, 3 – 1 – 1
correlated to 7.5
• The lowest dilation factor is 103
• Bacteria population = 7.5 x 103
bacteria/stud
OUTLINE

• OBJECTIVE
• INTRODUCTION
• MONITORING
• CONTROL
• CASE STUDY
• SUMMARY
CONTROL

• Mechanical
• Routine flushing
• Cleaning such as pigging
• Design : avoid source of SO42- and minimize deadflow area.
• Biological : using competitive bacteria such as Nitrate Reducing Bacteria (NRB)
• Chemical : biocide / bactericide / anti bacteria
• Biocide
• Oxidizing
• Non Oxidizing
• Biostat
BIOCIDE(4)

• Biocides, also called “bactericides” or

+ Biocide “antimicrobials,” are used in oil and gas
production primarily to reduce sulfide
production and microbiologically induced
corrosion (MIC) and related biofouling.
• The aim of a biocide is to kill
microorganisms, especially bacteria, or
interfere with their activity

105 coll/cc < 10 coll/cc

BIOCIDE MECHANISM

• Each type of biocide has specific

mechanism to inhibit bacteria
growth.
• Picture beside illustrate a simple
mechanism of common biocide
• None of biocide that could work for
all bacteria, even one type bacteria
can mutate to become resistant to
certain biocide.
CHARACTERISTIC OF EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENT
BIOCIDE
1. Wide spectrum
2. Short kill time
3. Compatible with others chemcals
4. Low toxicity with others living organism
5. Low decomposition rate
6. Work at various pH
7. Easy to use
8. Cost effective
OXIDIZING BIOCIDE

• Chemicals that will hydrolysis the protein group

• Cost economic and effective for planktonic bacteria
• Reactive with others chemicals
• Corrosive
• Easy to degrade when exposed to open air, direct sunlight or heat
• Common chemical : chlor or hyphochlorite,
• Picture beside is liquid chlorine, one of common oxidizing biocide

Courtesy picture : https://5.imimg.com/data5/ZB/OM/PU/SELLER-2155254/liquid-chlorine-gas-250x250.jpg

NON OXIDIZING BIOCIDE

• Also known as organic biocide. The nonoxidizing organic biocides function

primarily by altering the permeability of the cell walls of the microorganisms and
interfering with their biological processes.
• Common type of nonoxidizing biocide : THPS, Glutaraldehyde, and Quaternary
ammonium surfactants
• More compatible with others organic chemicals
• Effective for planktonic and sessile bacteria
• Some manufacturer mix more than two type of biocide to extend the spectrum.
ALDEHYDE(4)

• Aldehyde biocides include glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, acrolein

and ortho-Phthalaldehyde
• Glutaraldehyde is the most commonly used oilfield nonoxidizing
biocide
• The kill mechanism is by cross-linking outer proteins of cells and
preventing cell permeability
• Glutaraldehyde is pH sensitive: it works well in neutral to alkaline
water; that is, it may be effective for injection waters but less
effective for produced water treatments.
• Aldehydes are not very good at penetrating biofilms and are
often blended with other chemicals such as quaternary
ammonium compounds to increase their penetration efficiency(6)

Courtesy picture : Malcolm, Kellan., Production Chemicals for the Oil and Gas Industry,Second Edition, CRC Press
THPS(4)

• Salts of the tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium

(THP) ion have been shown to be excellent
nonoxidizing,
• Nonfoaming biocides
• THPS kill bacteria mainly by cross-linking of proteins,
which leads to collapse of cell membranes (cell lysis).
• A concentration of 50–100 ppm is normally needed
for planktonic treatments, but much more for
established biofilms
• THPS degradation is faster under alkaline conditions

Courtesy picture : Malcolm, Kellan., Production Chemicals for the Oil and Gas Industry,Second Edition, CRC Press
QUATERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS(4)

• Quaternary ammonium surfactant (quat) biocides are very

surface active, and because of this property, they are sometimes
used in blends with other biocides to improve the performance.
• The most common “quats” in this class are long-chain n-
alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chlorides
• Most effective in alkaline pH ranges, but lose their activity in
systems fouled with dirt, oil, and other debris
• Low concentrations (<250 ppm)

Courtesy picture : Malcolm, Kellan., Production Chemicals for the Oil and Gas Industry,Second Edition, CRC Press
COMPARISON OF SOME BIOCIDES
 LABORATORY TEST

• The objective of laboratory test is to select brands, estimate dosage and injection mode.
• Parameters during laboratory test :
• Dosage required
• Bacteria population

• General procedure refer :

1. Add 10 mL of the field water to each of the labeled 10-mL bottles
2. Add biocide at various brand at each bottles. Let 2 bottles without biocides as blank / control.
3. Conduct the bacteria test refer to NACE TM0194-2014 Standard Test Method Field Monitoring of
Bacterial Growth in Oil and Gas System
4. Repeat steps 1-3 above with various dosage at one selected brand.

Courtesy picture : https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC6249174/figure/Fig2/

KILL TIME PARAMETER

• Kill time is parameter used in the laboratory biocide

selection
• This parameter calculate how long time required for
biocide to kill the bacteria.
• At picture beside, a biocide injected at various
dosage
• At 200 ppm, after 5.5 hours biocide treatment the
bacteria population could be decreased to max 103
coll/cc.
• At 400 ppm, after 6 hours the population is near to
100 coll/cc, while at 1000 ppm only require 2 hours
INJECTION METHOD

• Continuous
• Batching
• Continuous - Batching
BIOCIDE TREATMENT INJECTION

• The best injection method at each field need review of the monitoring after treatment. But as
rule of thumb or for initial treatment may consider the following condition:
• Clean system (bacteria population less than 102 coll/cc)
Continuous treatment 5- 25 ppm
• Moderate to dirty system (bacteria population 102 – 103 coll/cc)
• Batch treatment
• Dosage 200 - 1500 ppm, 1-6 hours per treatment, twice per month

• Dirty system (bacteria population > 103 coll/cc)

• Batch treatment (300 – 600 ppm) 3-4 hours per treatment, once a week
• After batching do continuous injection (5 - 25 ppm)
FACTOR AFFECTING BIOCIDE PERFORMANCE

• The effectiveness of biocide affected by :

oType of biocide include the %active content
oDosage of treatment
oContact time
oCompatibility with others chemicals
opH
oCleanliness of System
COMPATIBILITY EFFECT(6)

• The compatibility with any other chemicals to be used in the system must also be
checked. In the presence of oxygen scavengers, either of two approaches may be followed
o The chlorine may be added a sufficient distance downstream to permit the oxygen
scavenging reaction to go to completion prior to reaching the chlorine injection
point.
o If chlorine is to be injected upstream of oxygen scavenger injection, additional
scavenger must be injected so that there will be enough present to react with both
the chlorine and the oxygen. Since this results in removal of the chlorine, it is
necessary to inject chlorine or some other biocide downstream of oxygen
scavenging if a biocide is required in the downstream portion of the system.
pH EFFECT

• Picture beside shows effect of

pH for glutaraldehyde
application, the biocide works
optimum at high pH (8.5).
• Otherwise, liquid chlorine will
degrade rapidly at pH > 7
CLEANLINESS OF SYSTEM(6)

• The first rule of successful use of bactericides is to clean the system. A thorough cleaning
job is necessary and has only one purpose: to remove all obstacles between the
bactericide and the bacteria. :
• Clean out the injection lines and tubing , using solvents, acid and line scrapers if necessary.
• Open all tanks, vessels and filters, and manually clean out all accumulated sludge and scale.
• Backflow all injection wells. If the wellbores are plugged with bacterial deposits or slimes,
strong oxidizing agent such as sodium hypochlorite is normally used to attack them.
• In order to achieve maximum effectiveness, the sodium hypochlorite is usually followed by
hydrochloric acid.
• NO CHEMICAL CAN KILL BACTERIA IF IT CANNOT CONTACT THEM!
BIOCIDE TREATMENT EVALUATION(6)

A good monitoring program will include some combination of the following procedures, carried out across the system on a
regular schedule:
1. Inspection of the chemical injection points to ensure that the chemical is the one you selected, and that it is being
injected into the system at the proper concentration.
2. Estimation of specific families of planktonic bacterial population in water samples using serial dilution or other
culturing methods.
3. Estimation of total planktonic population in the water using ATP or Fluorescence Microscopy.
4. Estimation of the sessile bacterial population using a Robbins Device for collection, ATP or Fluorescence
Microscopy for estimation of the total population, and culturing to identify the types of bacteria.
5. Measurement of H2S concentrations.
6. Visual examination of the water and suspended solids measurements.
7. Internal inspection of the system for deposits and corrosion.
OUTLINE

• OBJECTIVE
• INTRODUCTION
• MONITORING
• CONTROL
• CASE STUDY
• SUMMARY
CASE STUDY

1. Injection Rate Arrangement

2. Reformulation
3. Velocity Effect
4. Oil Recovery
1. INJECTION POINT REARRANGEMENT
Injection Point Rearrangement
H Cluster

A Cluster

Injection point
Injection Point Rearrangement
WELL DATA & SRB TEST

Well No BOPD BWPD

A1 523 843
A7 20 930
A10 433 1045
H2 322 774
H4 295 123
H5 17 830
H8 123 657
H 11 556 889
 Injection Point
Rearrangement
H-5

Injection point

Injection point

A-7
Injection Point
Rearrangement
CONCLUSION

1. Bacteria shall be controlled when the population is minimum. If the population is too
much, more chemicals required.
2. One of the best injection point is at wellhead that contain higher bacteria population
than others wellhead
2. BIOCIDE REFORMULATION
BIOCIDE REFORMULATION
A#2

Inj Point A#5

A#6

A#8

A#10
BIOCIDE IMPROVEMENT

SRB
Sampling point Fe content (ppm)
(coll/cc)

Manifold 101 0.2

Well Alpha # 2 103 1.2
Well Alpha # 5 102 0.6
Well Alpha # 6 101 0.3
Well Alpha # 8 104 0.9
Well Alpha # 10 102 0.4
BIOCIDE REFORMULATION

• Increase rate
• Re arrangement injection point
• Batching

• Only slightly improvement

• Try to find another biocide

BIOCIDE REFORMULATION
:11 - 7 -
start 09 Days
Chemicals : Biocide 1 2 3 4 5
Uji Formula 12-Jul 13-Jul 14-Jul 15-Jul 16-Jul
konsentra
Formula si
Blank x + + + + +
Blank x + + + + +
Inc 15 + + + + +
Inc 15 - + + + +
1A 15 - - - - -
1B 15 - - - - -
2A 15 - - - - +
2B 15 - - - - -
3A 15 - - - - -
3B 15 - - - - +
4A 15 - - - - +
4B 15 - - - - -
5A 15 - - - - -
5B 15 - - - - +
BIOCIDE IMPROVEMENT

SRB
Sampling point Fe content (ppm)
(coll/cc)

Manifold 101 0.2

Well Alpha # 2 101 0.3
Well Alpha # 5 101 0.2
Well Alpha # 6 101 0.3
Well Alpha # 8 101 0.4
Well Alpha # 10 101 0.4
3.VELOCITY EFFECT
 VELOCITY EFFECT

• At Kapha Field, one monitoring point near water injection

well KP#109 the corrosion rate is 16 mpy. Much higher
than specification maximum 5 mpy. Others monitoring
points meet specification.
• As shown at picture beside, the corrosion coupon
blanketed with black deposit after retrieved, and after
cleaning we found a general corrosion form at the coupon
• Dose of corrosion inhibitor has been increased from 8 to
13 ppm for several months with no significant improvement
Coupon Before Coupon After
Cleaning Cleaning
VELOCITY EFFECT

• Hypothesis : the molecule of corrosion inhibitor cannot form a thin

layer film to protect corrosion at inner pipeline due to the black
deposit.
KP # 029 KP # 109
• What is the black deposit ? The fluid of water injection shall be a
treated water with minimum oil content, so it shall be not crude oil
deposit.
• We conduct bacteria rapid test to deposit KP#109 and at near
monitoring point, KP#029
• As shown at picture beside, the deposit of KP#109 is bacteria slime.
 VELOCITY EFFECT

• Why the bacteria slime deposit found at KP#109 and

not found at others while the waters coming from
same source ?
• Refer to NACE Paper No.07516 Microbiologically
Influenced Corrosion (MIC), the sessile SRB may
found when the pipe velocity is ≤ 0.35 m/s or equal
to 1.1 ft/s.
• Flow velocity at KP#109 on October 2010 is 0.5 ft/s
meanwhile flow velocity at others is more than 2 ft/s

Courtesy Picture : https://www.woundsource.com/blog/biofilm-and-wound-healing

 VELOCITY EFFECT

BC Surfactant BC CI • Since the suspect root cause of high corrosion rate is

Corr Rate deposited slim SRB, the action objective is how to reduce
Month Batching Batching Continuous the slime
(USG) (mpy)
(USG) (USG) (USG)
• Below are the summary action :
Jan - - - 82 14.9 • Every month, Slug dose / batching mode 260 US Gallon
Feb - - - 82 51.0 biocide (BC) at the skimmer tank (water source for all
Mar - - - 82 53.9 Kappa field), continue with slug dose 208 USG surfactant
Apr 260 208 72 51 4.1 to clean clean the surface
Mei 260 208 72 51 2.2 • Continue injection with Biocide and Corrosion Inhibitor
Jun 104 208 72 51 3.4 • The corrosion rate significantly decrease and meet
specificati0n
4. OIL RECOVERY
 OIL RECOVERY

• A La Ventana oil field in Argentina was experiencing a challenge with high oil content and H2S levels from the primary
separation tank (TK-401) to the water injection system.
• Hydrocarbon content in the effluent water was progressively increasing, to an average of 198 ppm. The water in the tank was
black, indicating suspended iron sulfide in the water.
• Total sulfide content in the water was approximately 15 ppm
• The iron sulpide was suspected cause oil-water stabilizer in the separation process

Courtesy picture : CS1567EN oil & gas producer recovers additional 117 barrels of oil per month and reduces cost of operation with SUEZ’s ProSolv* biocide technology
OIL RECOVERY

• The biocide injectedat an average dosage rate of 200

ppm (based on total tank volume).
• In addition, the same biocide was applied continuously
to the incoming water at a rate of 6 ppm.
• Oil-in-water content was reduced by 36% and the H2S
levels decreased to 7 ppm at the tank outlet.
• The iron sulfide stabilized interface pad was reduced
and eventually stopped forming in the separation
system
OUTLINE

• OBJECTIVE
• INTRODUCTION
• MONITORING
• CONTROL
• CASE STUDY
• SUMMARY
SUMMARY

1. Bacteria especially SRB may cause problems such as corrosion and pugging
in oil and gas facilities
2. Biocide is chemicals that used to control bacteria's growth.
3. Some consideration in bacteria treatment using biocide :
• Water analysis
• Bacteria mapping
• Injection re arrangement
• Biocide selection
• Velocity and system cleanliness
REFERENCES

1. G.F. Yuzwa, Corrosion By Sulphate Reducing Bacteria, Alberta, 1991

2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311998547_Microbiologically_Influenced_Corrosion
3. NACE TM0194-2014 Standard Test Method Field Monitoring of Bacterial Growth in Oil and
Gas System
4. Malcolm, Kellan., Production Chemicals for the Oil and Gas Industry,Second Edition, CRC
Press
5. NACE 07516 Investigation Of The Effects Of Fluid Flow on SRB Biofilm, Jie Wen, Tingyue Gu
and Srdjan Nesic, Institute for Corrosion and Multiphase Technology, Ohio University , 2007
6. Applied Water Technology, Charles C. Patton, C. C. Patton & Associates, Inc., Dallas, Texas,
1986