CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS

BIOLOGY UNIT ONE

TEACHER: Ms. MELESSA CHICHESTER
MODULE ONE: CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO BIOCHEMISTRY

Biochemistry is the study of biological molecules and their roles in organisms. These molecules
are usually the building blocks of life-constantly being assembled and taken apart. Metabolism
is the term given to all the chemical reactions that occurs in organisms and can be divided into
two groups: anabolism the reactions that build up larger biological molecules from smaller ones;
they are known as anabolic reactions. Catabolism the reactions that break down large biological
molecules into smaller ones; they are known as catabolic reactions.

All the major compounds that make up an organism is based on the element Carbon. This
element can form covalent bonds with itself and with other atoms. These covalent bonds are very
strong; it can also form single and double bonds. Biological molecules provide energy, carry
messages, catalyze reactions, store energy, store and retrieve information, transport messages
and have many other functions.

The air around you is composed of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen and other gases.
These are inorganic compounds. The complex compound of carbon is known as the organic
compounds. There are small molecules that assemble into larger ones. Glucose is a relatively
small molecule that is assembled in different ways to give larger molecules. The small molecules
are known as monomers, the larger ones molecules as polymers. The biological molecules are:

Macromolecules Elements Sub-unit molecules Examples Roles in

organisms
Carbohydrates C,H,O Glucose Starch Energy store
Glycogen
Cellulose Support
Lipids C,H,O Glycerol, fatty acids Triglycerides
Energy storage
Phosphate(phospholipids) Thermal isolation
Phospholipids Electrical
insulation
Membranes
Proteins C,H,O,N,S Amino acids Haemoglobin Transport
Collagen Support
Amylase Catalysts
Pepsin
Insulin

Prepared by M.Chichester
 CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS
BIOLOGY UNIT ONE
TEACHER: Ms. MELESSA CHICHESTER
MODULE ONE: CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Antibodies
Nucleic acids C,H,O,N,P Nucleotides DNA Information
storage
RNA Information
retrieval
Production of
proteins

WATER

Water has a unique structure and properties, which make it essential to life. Water is abundant on
the earth surface in oceans, lakes, rivers, glaciers and clouds. All living organisms require water
as a medium for biological reactions within their cells and water constitutes a large percentage of
all living organisms including humans. There are hydrogen bonds between water molecules.
These exist because the oxygen atom has a greater attraction for the electrons in the covalent
bond with hydrogen. This makes the oxygen atom slightly electronegative and the hydrogen
atom slightly electropositive so that a water molecule is dipolar. The partial charges are
indicated by the symbol 𝛿 (delta) with a 𝛿- on the oxygen and 𝛿+ on the hydrogen.

Chemical structure of water

Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen atoms have one electron and oxygen atoms
have eight. Six of the eight electrons take part in the bond formation. Orbitals are the regions
around atomic nuclei in which electrons may be found. An orbital may contain one or two
electrons or it may be empty. A water molecule has one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms
bonded together. In a water molecule, eight electrons (six from the oxygen and one from each
hydrogen) are found in four similar orbitals. The covalent bond in the water molecule is made up
of one electron from hydrogen and one from oxygen. The H-O-H angel is 105o which is very
similar to the 109.5o in a regular tetrahedron (s solid having four plane triangular faces, like an
Egyptian pyramid). The H-O-H angle of 105o is due to the greater repulsion between the non-
bonding pairs on the oxygen atom pushing the hydrogen atoms close together.

Prepared by M.Chichester
 CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS
BIOLOGY UNIT ONE
TEACHER: Ms. MELESSA CHICHESTER
MODULE ONE: CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Structure of a water molecule

Oxygen has a higer capacity to attract electrons than hydrogen. in this case we say that oxygen
has a higer electronegativity than hydrogen. Therefore, electrons forming the bonds in a water
molecule are pulled slightly away from hydrogen and towards the oxygen atom. This means that
hydrogen atom have regions of positive charge and the oxygen atom have region of negative
charge. The presence of these charges make water a polar molecule.

PROPERTIES OF WATER

The properties of water relate to the shape, polar nature, and ability of water molecules to form
hydrogen bonds with other water molecules and molecules of other substances. A hydrogen
bond is the force of attraction formed when regions of a water molecule with small positive
charge come close to the negatively charge region of another water molecule. A hydrogen bond
is about one-tenth the strength of a covalent bond.

Property Explanation Roles of water in Roles of water as an

organisms environment

Good solvent for Polar molecules(glucose) Solvent within cells, Solvent for nutrients
charged substances and ions are charged and solvent in transport and gases ( oxygen and
that dissolve readily in are attracted to the weak media e.g. blood carbon dioxide)
water charges on water plasma,phloem and
molecules xylem saps

Prepared by M.Chichester
 CARIBBEAN ADVANCED PROFICIENCY EXAMINATIONS
BIOLOGY UNIT ONE
TEACHER: Ms. MELESSA CHICHESTER
MODULE ONE: CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

High specific heat 4.2 J are necessare to Specific heat capacity of water is higher than that
capacity increase the temperature of other common substances. This limits the
of 1g of water by 10C; fluctuations in the temperature of organisms and
this thermal energy the environment of those that live in water.
breaks the hydrogen
bonds between water
molecules

High latent heat of Much thermal energy is Loss of water for Water in shallow aquatic
vaporization needed to cause water to cooling ( transpiration habitats
change to water vapour and sweating) is
efficient as a lot of
thermal energy is
needed to evaporate
small quantities of
water

High latent heat of Much thermal energy is Water in cells tend to

fusion needed to turn ice to stay liquid so the cell
water; much is transferred membranes are not
from water when it turns damaged by ice crystals
ice

Reactive Water splits to form Raw materials for

Hydrogen ions (H+) and photosynthesis provides
hydroxyl ions (OH-) hydrogen ions and
electrons for
photosynthesis and
respiration.

Used in hydrolysis
reactions e.g. digestipn

Density Ice is less dense than Ice that forms in cells Provides bouyancy for
water breaks cell membranes aquatic organisms so
and kills the cell; they do not need higly
organisms at risk of developed skeleton
freezing make ‘anti-
freeze’ compounds that Ice floats on water- acts
lowers the freezing as an snsulatuon for
point of cytoplasm aquatic organisms
beneath

High cohesion Hydrogen bonds hold Supports column of Gives surface tension-
water molecules together water in xylem some organisms live on
water surface.

N.B READ UP ON ACIDS, BASES AND BUFFERS

Prepared by M.Chichester