4.

WATER: A UNIQUE SUBSTANCE ESSENTIAL FOR LIFE

4.1. A FANTASTIC MOLECULE

All of matter and of life are all about the vast variety of molecules composing
matter and living organisms. We are rightfully highly impressed by the remarkably
complex molecules of DNA composed of billions of atoms that make up the genetic
code of organisms. Chemists are constantly trying to synthesize new molecules, such
as those in pharmaceuticals that may be extremely complex and fiendishly difficult
to make. But among all molecules, one stands out for its diversity, its occur-rence
throughout the environment, its vast variety of uses, and its role as a medium for
life. This is the molecule of water, which has the very simple formula of H 2O.
Essential for life, useful for a vast variety of applications, and totally recyclable,
water is the ultimate green chemical compound.
Although the chemical formula of water is simple and the H2O molecule is
small, the behavior of this unique substance is unusual and complex. The special
properties of water are because of its molecular structure and the interaction of
water molecules with each other. These aspects of water are discussed along with its
chemical properties in Chapter 5. But at this point, several things need to be empha-
sized regarding the water molecule. The formation of the water molecule from
atoms of hydrogen and oxygen were shown in Figure 3.6. Rather than showing the
water molecule as a linear structure of H–O–H, it was illustrated with the two H
atoms forming an angle on the same “side” of the O atom. The reason for this
structure is that the outer shell of eight electrons in the O atom of H2O is composed
of four pairs of electrons, two pairs of which are in the covalent bonds between the
H and O atoms and two pairs of which are not involved in bonds. It turns out that
such pairs of electrons tend to be arranged in the imaginary sphere around the O
atom to be as far from each other as possible. This is illustrated in Figure 4.1.
The structure of the water molecule shown in Figure 4.1 does two things that
determine water’s properties. The first of these is that the end of the water molecule
with the two unshared pairs of electrons is relatively negative compared to the end
with the two H atoms, so that the water molecule is electrically polar. Secondly, an
unshared pair of electrons on the oxygen atom of one molecule can bond to an
100 Environmental Science and Technology: A Sustainable Green Approach

(+)
H H H H

Shared pair O O O
of electrons
in H-O bond
(−)Rotate 90° H H
Unshared pair Hydrogen bond
of electrons connecting two
O
water molecules

Figure 4.1. Because of the arrangements of the four pair of electrons making up the outer
electron shell of the O atom in the water molecule, the molecule is electrically polar and can
form spe-cial bonds called hydrogen bonds with other water molecules. These characteristics
determine the chemical and physical diversity of water.
H atom on another water molecule in a special kind of bond called the hydrogen
bond. These two characteristics, especially hydrogen bonding, mean that water mol-
ecules are strongly attracted to each other. So, when water is heated, which means
that the water molecules move more rapidly, a large amount of heat energy must be
put into a mass of the substance to raise its temperature. Furthermore, when solid
ice is melted, a very large amount of heat energy is required (to enable the molecules
of H2O to move from their relatively fixed positions in the solid to their mobile state
in the liquid) compared to that needed to melt other substances, and an even larger
amount of heat energy is required to convert liquid water to vapor (steam).
Similarly large amounts of heat energy are released when steam condenses to liquid
water, as liquid water cools, and when liquid water freezes.
The heat-storing and heat-transfer capabilities of water are very important in its
practical use and influence on the environment. Steam produced by heating water in a
boiler can be moved in steam lines to buildings where it is condensed in radiators
releasing heat to the buildings. Some modern “green” buildings have cooling systems in
which water is frozen at night by heat pumps when cooler temperatures and lower
electricity demand make it relatively efficient to do so; the ice is then melted during hot
daytime periods absorbing heat and cooling the buildings. Europe owes its relatively
mild winters, despite its more northern latitudes, to the Gulf Stream, consisting of water
warmed in the Gulf of Mexico region that flows near the surface of the Atlantic Ocean
to European shores, cools as it releases its heat to the air in European regions, then sinks
as colder, denser water and flows back to the region from which it came.
Water has several important properties that are very important in its
environ-mental influence and practical uses. These are listed in Table 4.1 and
discussed further in this chapter.

4.2. WATER AS AN ESSENTIAL RESOURCE

Throughout history, the quality and quantity of water available to humans

have been vital factors in determining their well-being. Whole civilizations have
 Water: A Unique Substance Essential for Life 101

Table 4.1. Important Properties of Water

Property Effect or Significance

Excellent solvent, especially
for ionic substances
High surface tension
Transparent
Maximum density as a
liquid at 4°C
High heat of evaporation
High latent heat of fusion
High heat capacity
Transport of nutrients and wastes in biological systems; makes
nutrients available to plant roots; dissolves, transports, and
deposits minerals
Controlling factor in physiology; governs drop and surface
phenomena such as in rainfall formation
Enables light to penetrate water to some depth enabling algae and
other plants in water to carry out photosynthesis
Ice floats, water in bodies of water is stratified into layers during
summer months
Large quantities of heat are absorbed when water evaporates and
are released when water vapor condenses enabling use of steam
for heat transfer and strongly influencing weather phenomena
Temperature stabilized at the freezing point of water
Stabilization of temperatures of organisms and geographical areas

disappeared because their supplies of essential water became unsustainable because of changes in
climate, abuse of soil, deterioration of the watershed land on which water was collected, and
exhaustion of underground water aquifers. Even in temper-ate climates, fluctuations in
precipitation cause problems. Devastating droughts and destructive floods are problems in many
areas of the world.
Waterborne diseases such as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery killed millions of people in the
past and still cause great misery in less developed countries. Ambitious programs of dam and dike
construction have reduced flood damage, but they have had a number of undesirable side effects in
some areas, such as inundation of farm-land by reservoirs, failure of unsafe dams, and destruction
of fisheries. Globally, problems with quantity and quality of water supply remain and in some
respects are becoming more serious. These problems include increased water use because of
population growth, contamination of drinking water by improperly discarded haz-ardous wastes
and destruction of wildlife by water pollution.
Water chemistry and biology are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5 and require some
understanding of the sources, transport, characteristics, and composi-tion of water. The chemical
reactions that occur in water and the chemical species found in it are strongly influenced by the
environment in which the water is found. The chemistry of water exposed to the atmosphere is quite
different from that of water at the bottom of a lake. Groundwater characteristics are strongly
affected by the geochemical characteristics of the underground aquifers that contain the water.
Microorganisms play an essential role in determining the chemical composition of water. Thus, in
discussing water chemistry, it is necessary to consider the many gen-eral factors that influence this
chemistry.