PHYSICS LAB

MANUAL

(2022-2023)

IcfaiTech
ICFAI Foundation for Higher Education
(a deemed to be university under section 3 of UGC act 1956)

1
 CONTENTS

S.No Name of the experiment Page No.

1. Graph Drawing 4

2. Vernier Calipers and Screw Gauge 7

3. Error Analysis and Graph Drawing 9

4. Compound Pendulum 13

5. Moment of Inertia of Fly wheel 18

6. Parallelogram Law of forces and Lamis Theorem 21

7. I–V Characteristics of a Solar Cell 24

8. Determining Planck’s Constant 28

9. Hall-effect 32

10. Magnetic Field along the Axis of a Current carrying 38

Coil by Stewart and Gees Method

11. Resonance in LCR Circuits 42

12. Measurement of e/m by Thomson’s Bar Magnet Method 47

Appendix

More on Error Analysis

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Introduction

General Instructions
A. Performance of the Experiments
The students will do well to read the following guidelines before performing an experiment:
(i) Study all the Background, required at the beginning of each experiment.
(ii) Study the experiment very carefully, and think of the steps you will take in carrying out
the work.
(iii) Check that you have all the required apparatus.
(iv) Perform the experiment methodically, step by step.
(v) Record all the data in your note book systematically in the Tables.
(vi) Read the same quantity several times to reduce random errors. Correct for systematic
errors, where known.
(vii) If a mistake is made in recording a value, pen through it and write the new value by
its side. Do not overwrite. Do not use pencil for recording the observations.
(viii) Draw graphs, where necessary.
(ix) Put units in the final results.
(x) Compute the percentage error, and judge the number of significant figures to be kept
in the result.
(xi) Please keep in mind that the manuals, which have been provided to you, are just a basic
guideline to perform the experiments. You are always encouraged to improve on your
experiments beyond whatever mentioned in the manuals.

B. Writing of laboratory Record

The entire stress is given to the actual record made by the student in the record that (s)he uses
in the class. Never use pencil while entering readings in the workbook.

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 1. Graph Drawing

Drawing graph

If a change in the value of a quantity x causes a change in the value of another quantity y, we
say that a functional relationship exists between x and y. If we use the functional relationship
to determine y from a value of x, y is said to be the dependent variable, and x the independent
variable. A visual display of the functional relationship between x and y is obtained by plotting
them on a graph paper. When the measured values of x and y are quite accurate and the
functional relationship between them is known, it is easy to draw a graph by plotting the
measured values. When the experimental data are not so accurate, one has to draw the ‘best
curve’ that ‘fits’ the data. A straight line represents the simplest functional relationship and is
easy to draw. Even if the relationship between the quantities measured is not a straight line,
mathematical manipulations may be made to obtain a straight line. Thus, if y = ax2, or log y =
A log x, where a and A are constant, we may plot y against x2 or log y against log x, respectively,
to obtain straight line graphs in the two cases. The best straight line that can be drawn from a
given set of experimental data is determined by the principle of least squares, as explained
below.

Suppose that the ‘best’ straight line is to be drawn through the plotted points of y against x. If
one or two plotted points appear to deviate too much from a straight line we have to reject these
points. The straight line that gives the best fit to the remaining data is the one for which the
sum of the squares of the deviations in y from the straight line is a minimum. A rough working
rule that is close to this criterion is the following: Find the arithmetic means x and y of all the
x values and all the y values of the plotted points under question. Draw a straight line through
the point x, yso that the plotted points lie on the line or are close to it such that the sum of
the distances of the points above the line is nearly equal to that for the points below it. This
straight line roughly gives the best fit to the data.

The general rules that should be followed in drawing graphs, straight lines or not, are the
following:
(i) Draw bold lines on the graph paper to serve as x and y axes. The independent variable
should be plotted along the x-axis, and the dependent variable along the y-axis. Write
the plotted quantity and its unit by the side of each axis.
(ii) Note the range of values to be plotted along the two axes. A small division along each
axis is chosen to represent a convenient value of the quantity so that the available space
on the graph paper is well utilized in accommodating these ranges.
(iii) At the large division marks along each axis, write the numerical values of the quantity
to which they correspond.
(iv) Plot each pair of the variables and mark the point by a small dot surrounded by a small
circle. It is unnecessary to write the coordinates of the point by its side.
(v) Draw the best continuous smooth curve through the average of the points. Use a fine
pencil for this purpose. The curve should normally pass through most of the plotted
points; other points should be evenly distributed on the two sides of the curve. Points
lying far away from the curve should be rejected.

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(vi) When the graph is a straight line, use a scale to draw it. When the graph is not a straight
line, take care not to introduce any sudden change of curvature. This may be checked
by holding the graph horizontally at the eye level and looking tangentially.
(vii) It may be necessary to read a value from the graph. In that case, mark the corresponding
point and draw its ordinate in broken lines.

Aim: To obtain the refractive index of the material by graphical method

To study graphically the radioactive decay as a function of time

Exercise I
The data below show a representative set of data for Snell’s Law experiment. Plot the
relevant data on the given graph sheet and evaluate the refractive Index of the material.

Angle of Incidence (degrees) Angle of Refraction (degrees)

0.00 0.00
5.00 3.8
10.0 7.6
15.0 11.2
20.0 14.9
25.0 18.5
30.0 22.1
35.0 25.2
40.0 28.6
45.0 32.1
50.0 35.2
55.0 38.0
60.0 40.6
65.0 43.4
70.0 45.0
75.0 46.6
80.0 47.8
85.0 48.8

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Exercise II.

Drawing a smooth curve

Plot the radioactive decay data given below for a new element.

Results:

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2. Vernier Calipers and Screw Gauge

Vernier calipers:
The meter scale enables measurement of length to the nearest millimeter. To measure
smaller distances accurately, Vernier Calliper is used.
Least count LC= one main scale (MS) division - one vernier scale (VS) division.

Alternately, least count of the vernier

Reading of the instrument = MSR + (VC x L.C)

LC in mm =

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 S.No MSR (mm) Vernier VC x LC MSR + (VC x LC)
Coincidence, VC (mm) (mm)

Screw gauge:
Screw gauge works on the principle of screw. It has a linear scale called the main scale or
pitch scale and another scale called the circular scale or vernier or head scale. This is
because the circular scale can be rotated by a head screw. On turning the screw, the circular
scale advances linearly on the main scale. The distance moved by the tip of screw when it
is given one complete rotation, is called the pitch of the screw.

Dividing the pitch of screw by the total number of division on the circular scale, we get the
distance which the screw advances on rotating the screw by 1 division on its circular scale.
This distance is called the least count of the instrument. Thus

Least count =

Total reading = PSR + (HSC X L.C)

Zero error of screw gauge: In a perfect instrument the zeros of the main scale and circular
scale coincides with each other. In this condition screw gauge has zero-error, otherwise the
instrument is said to have zero-error which is equal to the cap reading with the gap closed.
This error is positive when zero line or reference line of the cap lies above the line of
graduation and corresponding corrections will be just opposite otherwise vice-versa.

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LC in mm = Error:

S.No PSR Head Scale (HSC+/-Error) x LC PSR +

(mm) Coincidence HSC (mm) (HSC+/-Error) x LC
(mm)

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3. Error Analysis and Graph Drawing
Aim of the experiment:
To estimate error and draw the Gaussian distribution curve for the various measurements
involved in simple pendulum.

Apparatus:
A metal bob, stop watch, weightless thread, retort stand.

Formula:
Standard Deviation, d = √ [ Σ (Qi – Q )2 / N]
Qi = measurement of a quantity, (Li / Ti2 )
Q = mean of Q
Q = the resultant measurement of (L/T2)
= Q ±d

Theory:
Refer to- ‘Error Analysis in Experiments’

Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter of the bob using vernier calipers at three different positions. From
this determine the radius r of the bob.

2. Arrange the simple pendulum and fix the length of the thread at l =40 cm (measured
from the pivot point to the surface of the bob) so that the length of the pendulum is (40 + r
in cm).

3. Fix the pin vertically on the bob and focus it through a telescope.

4. Displace the bob slightly from its equilibrium position and release it from rest so that
the pendulum makes small oscillations.

5. Note the time t for 20 oscillations and obtain the time period T.

6. Increase the length of the pendulum in steps of 5 cm and find the time period for each
length. Take the readings for ten different lengths of the pendulum.

Calculate (L/T2) value for each observation and estimate maximum error in (L/T2)

If (Li / Ti2) = Qi , then the mean value of (L/T2) observations is Q and the result of the
measurement (L/T2) = Q= Q ± d

Calculate the mean value Q and standard deviation d= √ [ Σ (Qi – Q )2 / N]

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in the measurements and hence obtain the value of (L/T2) = Q

Then find the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ using the formula, g = 42 Q m.s- 2

Graph: Draw the Gaussian distribution curve for (Qi – Q ) values on X-axis versus No.
of observations N on Y-axis after tabulating the results in the table below. (The shape of
the curve is as shown in Figure-1)

S.No. No. of Observations Deviation (Qi – Q )

1 N=1 + Highest
2 N=2
3 N=3
4 N=4
5 N =5 Lowest positive value
6 N=4
7 N=3
8 N=2
9 N=1 - Lowest

(Qi – Q )
Figure-1

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 Observations:
To determine radius of the bob, r :
LC= ________mm
S.No MSR (mm) Vernier Fraction Diameter, D
Coincidence, VC VC x LC (mm) MSR + (VC x LC)
(mm)

Average diameter D = cm Radius of the bob r=D/2 = cm

To determine (L/T2) values

S.No Length of the pendulum Time for 20 Time period

Qi = Li / Ti2
li + r = Li (cm) oscillations t (s) T=t/20 (s) Ti2

1
2

10

Average : Q = Σ (Qi / N)

To estimate errors :

S.No Li / Ti2 = Qi Deviation (Qi – Q ) (Qi – Q ) 2

1
2

10

Results:

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 The standard deviation, d =

The result of the value, Q = Q ± d=

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 42 Q =___________cm/s2

Precautions:
1. The oscillations should be small without damping.
2. The no. of observations ‘N’ taken should be large.
3. The thread should not slide when it is fixed in the split-cork.
4. The time should be noted when the oscillations are regular ie, begin counting the
number of oscillations and switching the timer on, after a few oscillations.

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4. Compound Pendulum
Aim of the experiment:
i) To determine acceleration due to gravity, g, using a compound pendulum.
ii) To determine radius of gyration about an axis through the center of gravity for the
compound pendulum.

Apparatus:
Compound pendulum, Stop watch, knife-edge, meter scale and telescope

Formula:
L
g  4 π2 ( 2
)
T
g = acceleration due to gravity,
L = length of the equivalent simple pendulum,
T = corresponding time period

Theory:
A rigid body which can swing in a vertical plane about some axis passing through it is called
a compound or physical pendulum. In Figure-1 a body of irregular shape is pivoted about a
horizontal frictionless axis through P and is displaced from its equilibrium position by an angle
.

Figure-1

In the equilibrium position, the center of gravity G of the body is vertically below P. The
distance GP is ‘a’ and the mass of the body is ‘m’. The restoring torque for an angular
displacement is

= - mg a sin…(1)

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 d θ
2
for small amplitudes, I  mgaθ , …(2)
d t2
where I is the moment of inertia of the body through the axis P (Figure-1).

d θ
2
 mgaθ  0 , …….(3)
d t2
Expression (3) represents a simple harmonic motion and hence the time period of oscillation
is given by

I
T  2π ….(4)
mga
From parallel axis theorem, I = Io + ma2, where Io is moments of inertia of the body about an
axis parallel with axis of oscillation and passing through the center of gravity G.

Io = m k2 …(5)
where k is the radius of gyration about the axis passing through G.

Therefore, I = mk2 + ma2 = m( k2 + a2 ) ……..(6)

2
( k  a)
m(k 2  a 2) L k
2
Using (6) in (4), T  2π  2π a  2π , where L= (  a) is the
mga g g a
equivalent length of a simple pendulum.

4 π2 k 2
T  (  a)
2
g a
dT 4 π2 k 2

Differentiating above equation, 2T ( 2  1)
da g a
Thus T→ ∞ or maximum when a→0 (if the body were supported by an axis through G) and
T is minimum when a = k

Procedure:
This experiment can be performed with help of a rectangular metallic rod (bar pendulum) about
1m long. This may be suspended on a knife-edge at various points along its length through
circular holes drilled along the bore at about 5 cm intervals. (Figure-2)
1) The pendulum is suspended vertically by passing the knife-edge through the hole at one end
of the bar (end A).
2) A pin is fixed at the lower end of the bar.
3) A telescope is arranged at a distance of about 1 m from the bar and the pin is focused.
4) The pendulum is given a small oscillation such that the entire oscillation falls within the
view of the telescope.
5) Note the time t for twenty oscillations viewing the pin through the telescope and using a
stop watch. Obtain two trial values and calculate the average time period T.

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6) Note the distance of the knife edge from end A.
7) The above procedure is repeated by suspending the pendulum from successive holes (on
both sides of the center of the rod).

Figure-2

8) Having obtained a set of values for time periods T, and corresponding distances from the
end A, plot a curve of time period vs distance of suspension from the end A. A curve such as
shown in (Figure-3) will be obtained.
9) It will be found that curve is symmetrical about the line representing center of gravity.
Draw any line CAGBD parallel to the X-axis. This cuts the curve at four points A, B, C, D
which have the same time period. The length L of an equivalent simple pendulum for this time
ADBC
period is
2
10) Draw several lines parallel to CAGBD, (Figure-3) CAGBD, CAGBDetc. and
obtain the corresponding sets of values of L and T.
11) Now a tangent is drawn to the curves to obtain a segment MN, the radius of gyration
about an axis through center of gravity is equal to MN/2.
12) Plot L versus T2 obtained from step-10.The value of acceleration due to gravity is
L
calculated from the slope of the graph using g  4 π 2 ( 2 )
T

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 Fig-3

2
T

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Observations:
One side of C.G Other side of C.G
Hole Distance t =Time for 20 t Hole No. Distance t = Time for 20 t
No. from end oscillations (s) Time period T  (s) from end A oscillations (s)
Time period T  (s)
20 20
A (cm) (cm)
1 0 21 100
2 5 20 95
3 10 19 90
4 15 18 85
5 20 17 80
6 25 16 75
7 30 15 70
8 35 14 65
9 40 13 60
10 45 12 55

Calculations :
Line Time period L (cm) L
T (s) L=(AD+BC)/2 g  4 π2 ( 2
)
T
(cm/s2)
CAGBD

C'A'G'B'D'

C''A''G''B''D''

C'''A'''G'''B'''D'''

Result :
Acceleration due to gravity is found to be equal to ………………. cm/s2.
Radius of gyration about on axis through the center of gravity is found to be equal to MN/2 ……………….cm.

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 5. Moment of Inertia of the Fly wheel
Aim:
a) Investigate the dependence of angular acceleration  of a disc on applied torque .

b) Determine the moment of inertia I of the disc using the above dependence.

Apparatus: Fly wheel, weight hanger, slotted weights, stop watch, meter scale, vernier
calipers

Theory:
For linear motion, Newton’s second law F = ma describes the relationship between the
applied force F, the mass m of an object, and its acceleration a. For rotational motion of
some object about a fixed axis, an equivalent description for the relationship between the
applied torque , the moment of inertia (MI) I, and the angular acceleration  of the object
is given by
=I
The MI of a rigid body depends upon the mass of the body and the way in which the mass
is distributed relative to the axis of rotation. For a solid disc of radius R and total mass M,
the MI is
I = MR2 / 2
It is not necessary to know the thickness of the disc to calculate the moment of inertia.
In this laboratory, a disc and axle with a small hub will be caused to rotate by a torque. The
torque is produced by the weight of a mass m on a string wrapped around the hub as shown
in The mass m moves linearly downward as the disc rotates about its fixed axis. The two
forces acting on the mass m are the weight mg and the tension T in the string. Applying
Newton’s second law to the linear motion of the mass gives
mg – T = ma or T = m(g-a)
But  = T r
The mass m is released from rest, accelerates for a distance x, in time t. The acceleration a
is related to x and t by
a = 2x / t2
The linear and angular accelerations are related by a = r  . The relationships described
above will be used in this laboratory to determine the angular acceleration  produced by
different values of torque  applied to the wheel. The moment of inertia of the wheel will
be determined theoretically by treating the system as a simple disc. This is a good
approximation because the hub is hollow and made of a lightweight material, and its mass
contributes very little to the moment of inertia of the system.

Procedure
1. Record the value of r in the Data Table.
2. The wheel and axle system may already be mounted on the wall in a permanent position.
If not, clamp the system to the laboratory table with the wheel hanging over the edge of the
table and the rotation axis horizontal. Use thick, rigid rods to make the system as vibration-
free as possible. The wheel should be mounted above the floor high enough that the mass

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will travel at least 1m and preferably more. The longer distance gives longer time intervals,
which can be measured with greater precision.
3. The apparatus has a small tripping platform on which the mass holder on the end of the
string rests before it is released. Measure the distance from the top of this platform to the
floor and record it in the Data Table as x.
4. Make a small loop in each end of a string that is long enough to wrap around the hub
several times and still touch the floor. Place one loop on the peg of the wheel hub and wrap
the string around the hub. On the loop at the other end of the string place a 0.0500 kg mass
holder, and put it on the platform. Release the tripping platform and simultaneously start a
timer. Stop the timer when the mass holder strikes the floor. Make sure that the mass holder
is resting on the platform with no slack in the string when it is released. Record the value
of the time t in the Data Table. Using this value of m, repeat this process for two trials and
get t1 and t2.
5. Repeat the procedure in Step 4 for a series of different values of the mass m on the string.
6. After the calculations have been done. Plot a graph with  as the y-axis and  as the x-
axis. The slope gives the experimental value of I. Extend the straight line so that it cuts the
y-axis. This value is the frictional torque.

r = __________m, x=______________m

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 S. m t1 t2 t = (t1+t2)/2 a = 2x / t2  = a/r  = m(g-a)r
No. (kg) (s) (s) (s) (m/s2) (rad/s2) (N-m)

Result:

a) The frictional torque is ____________________ N-m

b) I of flywheel was found to be ________________ kg-m2

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6. Parallelogram Law of forces and Lamis
Theorem

Aim: To determine the weight of the given body, using Parallelogram law of forces and
verifying the same using Lami’s Theorem.

Materials Required:

Parallelogram Law of Forces apparatus

(Gravesand's apparatus),Two hangers
with slotted weights, a body whose
weight is to be determined, Thin strong
thread, White drawing paper sheet,
Drawing pins, Mirror strip, Sharp
pencil, Half meter scale, Protractor, set
squares

Procedure:

 Set up the Gravesand's apparatus and ensure its board is vertical using the plumb line.
 Fix the white drawing paper sheet to the board using the drawing pins.
 Take three pieces of strong threads and tie one end of all three together to make a knot - O. This
knot becomes the junction of the three threads.
 From the other ends of the two threads, tie a weight hanger with the same slotted weights in
each; we will name these weights as P and Q.
 From the end of third thread tie the given body, S.
 Pass the threads with weights P and Q over the pulleys and let the third thread with, stay vertical
in the middle of the board.
 The weights P, Q and S acts as the three forces along the three threads. At the junction O, the
forces are in equilibrium.
 Now adjust the weights P and Q (forces) such that the junction O stays in equilibrium slightly
below the middle of the paper.
 See that all the weights hang freely and that none of them touch the board or the table.
 Mark the position of junction O on the paper using a sharp pencil.

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One gram weight is the force exerted by a body of mass one gram due to gravity. So by definition. One
gram weight = (1/1000)(9.81) = 9.81 x 10-3 N

 Take the mirror strip and keeping it lengthwise under each thread, mark the position of the
ends of the image of the thread in the mirror, covering the image by the thread. These new
positions are P1, P2 for the thread with the weight P, and Q1, Q2 for the thread with the
weight Q and S1, S2 for the thread with the weight S. Or By shining a light sources
perfectly perpendicular to the surface of the board, mark the points P1, P2, Q1, Q2, S1, S2
from the shadow the strings make on the paper.

 Remove the paper from the board and with the help of the half metre scale draw lines
through the points P1 and P2 to represent P, through points Q1 and Q2 to represent Q and
through points S1 and S2 to represent S. These lines must meet at point O.
 Assuming a scale of 1cm = 50 g (say), mark OA and OB to represent P and Q.
 Complete parallelogram OACB using the set squares and join OC. This represents the
resultant vector R which corresponds to the weight S.
 Measure OC and multiply it by the scale to get the value of the unknown weight (S).
 For different sets of observation, change P and Q suitably.
 Verify using Lami’s Theorem, P/sinα = Q/sinβ = S/sinγ

Where α, β and γ are the angles opposite to P, Q and S respectively.

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Observations:

Scale 50 g = __________ cm

Values of
Unknown From Lami’s law
Forces
weight (g wt)
No Sides
of
obs P Q OA OB OC
S (g wt) S (g wt)
(g wt) (g wt) (cm) (cm) (cm)

1
2
3

Calculation
Mean value of unknown weight S = ---------- g wt.

Result
The unknown weight of given body = ------------------ g wt.

Lami’s theorem has been verified.

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 7. I-V Characteristics of a Solar Cell
Aim of the experiment:
To study illuminated characteristics of a solar cell for different illumination levels.

Apparatus:
Solar cell, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, illumination source, variac and connecting wires

Principle:
When a solar cell is exposed to the solar spectrum, a photon with energy less than Eg (band
gap energy of the solar cell) makes no contribution to the cell output. A photon with energy
greater than Eg contributes to the cell output. Such an illuminated cell can deliver power to
the external circuit. By using a proper circuit, the open circuit voltage and short circuit
current and the power drawn from the solar cell are measured.

Theory:
Consider a p-n junction diode illuminated by light without an external bias voltage. Each
absorbed photon creates an electron and a hole. When these carriers diffuse to the junction,
the built-in electric field of the junction separates them at the energy barrier. The separation
of the carriers produces a forward voltage across the barrier, forward because the electric
field of the photo excited carriers is opposite to the built-in field of the junction.

The appearance of a forward voltage across an illuminated junction is called the

photo voltaic effect. An illuminated junction can deliver power to an external circuit. Large
area p-n junctions of silicon are used to convert solar photons to electrical energy. When
the junction device is short circuited (V = 0), there is a short circuit current from ‘p’ to ‘n’.
The usual (when the cell is not illuminated) I-V characteristics for a p-n junction diode is
shown below:

Figure 1 (Non Illuminated condition)

25
When the diode is illuminated, the nature of the I-V characteristic curve is modified. Now,
the curve passes through fourth quadrant also.

Figure 2 (When the device is illuminated)

When the circuit is open, I = 0, and the potential across the junction due to optical
generation of electron hole pairs, becomes Voc.

When the photo diode is to be used for detector application, it is usually operated in the
third quadrant. If power is to be extracted from the device, it is operated in the fourth
quadrant. (The equivalent circuit is given in the figure 3.) When the series resistance RS is
equivalent to the value of RL, the power delivered through the load RL is maximum. Again
to receive maximum power from solar cell, it is designed with large surface area coated
with appropriate materials to reduce the reflection of incident light and to reduce the
recombination. Therefore in the solar cell device, the junction depth from the surface must
be less than the recombination length of electrons and holes from both sides to ensure that
the optically generated carriers can reach the depletion region before recombination with
the majority carriers in the semiconductors. In most of the cases, the incident photons
penetrate the ‘n’ and ‘p’ regions and are absorbed in the depletion region.

Procedure:
Complete the circuit as shown in Figure 3.
Illuminate the solar cell and adjust the rheostat position for resistance so that the voltmeter
reads zero.

This is the short circuit connection. Adjust the variac (maximum up to 230 V) such that
the ammeter reads a value of about 500 mA. Note down the value of current as short
circuited current, ISC. Increase the resistance by varying the rheostat slowly and note down
the readings of current and voltage until a maximum voltage is read. Take at least 15-20
readings in this region.

26
Disconnect the rheostat and note down the voltage. This is the open circuit voltage, VOC.
Repeat the experiment for another intensity of illumination source.

Figure 3

Tabulate all the readings and calculate the power using the relation P = IV

Plot I versus V with ISC on the current axis at V = 0 position and VOC on the voltage axis at
I = 0 (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

27
Identify maximum power point Pm on each plot. Calculate the series resistance of the solar
cell using the formula Rs = ∆V/∆I

Exercise:

1) What is a solar cell?

2) Give practical uses of a solar cell in general and explain why the solar cells are of large
surface area?
3) Distinguish between p-n junction diode I-V characteristics and solar cell I-V
characteristics.
4) What is the significance of fourth quadrant of the curve?

Observations:

Illumination I : variac voltage Illumination II : variac voltage

S. No Voltage Current Power Voltage Current Power

Calculations:
(i) Fill up table above and identify maximum power points for both illumination levels
(Pm1 & Pm2)
(ii) Plot I versus V for both the illumination levels
(iii) Mark Pm1 and Pm2 on the plots
(iv) Note down ∆V and ∆I

Results:
1. The I-V Characteristics are drawn for the given solar cell for two illumination levels.

2. The open circuit voltage VOC and short circuit current ISC for two different illuminations
are measured as

VOC1 = VOC2 =

ISC1 = ISC2 =

28
 8. Determining Planck’s constant
Aim of the experiment
To determine the value of Planck’s constant using a photocell.

Apparatus
Photo electric cell, DC power supply, ammeter, a source of white light, monochromatic
filters.

Basic Methodology
Light from a white source is passed through a monochromatic filter and made to fall on a
photoelectric cell. Photoelectrons are ejected from the photo-metal plate of the photo cell.
From Einstein’s photoelectric equation, Planck’s constant can be found. Characteristics of
the photocell can be studied from this principle.

Theory
The emission of electrons from a metal plate (like cesium, copper, silver, zinc, platinum,
potassium, sodium etc.), when illuminated by light or any other radiation of suitable
frequency is called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons.

The photoelectric cell consists of an electrode made of photoelectric metal and

another electrode of ordinary metal, sealed in an evacuated glass bulb. When light is
incident on the photoelectric metal, electrons are ejected from its surface. The photo
electrons are attracted towards the anode resulting in a photoelectric current.

A simple experimental arrangement is shown in figure 1.

Figure 1

The apparatus consists of a photo sensitive surface K (Cathode) and another

metallic surface A (Anode) enclosed in an evacuated glass bulb. K is connected to the
negative terminal of a variable power supply (through a micro ammeter) while the plate A
is connected to the positive terminal. In the absence of any light, there is no flow of current
and hence there is no deflection in the micro ammeter but when monochromatic light is

29
allowed to fall on plate K, current starts flowing in the circuit. The current is known as
photocurrent. The photocurrent depends upon the following factors: (i) The potential
difference between the two electrodes i.e., between K and A (ii) The intensity of incident
radiation (iii) The frequency of incident radiation, and (iv) The photo metal used.

Study of the effect of potential difference

For a given photo metallic surface K, keeping the intensity and frequency of the incident
radiation fixed, let us consider the effect of potential difference between the plates. When
the positive potential of A is increased, photocurrent is also increased. However, if positive
potential is further increased such that it is large enough to collect all the photo electrons
emitted from plate K, the photocurrent reaches a certain (limiting) maximum value. This
value of current is known as saturation current (see Fig.2). Further increase in the potential
hardly produces any appreciable increase in current. If the potential difference is kept zero,
it is observed that photocurrent still flows in the same direction. If the potential of the plate
A is made negative and the negative (retarding) potential is further increased (made more
negative), the photo current decreases and finally becomes zero at a particular value of the
retarding potential. The negative potential difference at which the photocurrent becomes
zero is called as cut off potential or stopping potential Vo. Thus stopping potential is that
value of retarding potential difference which is just sufficient to stop the most energetic
photoelectrons emitted.

Figure 2. Figure 3.

Einstein explained the photoelectric effect on the basis of quantum theory of radiation.
According to this, light consists of photons and when light falls on a metal surface, light
photon is completely absorbed by the electron of the metal, which thereby gains quantum

30
of energy and may be emitted from the metal. Thus the photon’s energy hν is used in the
following two parts:

(i) A part of its energy is used to free the electron from the atom and away from the
metal surface. This energy is known as photoelectric work function of the metal.
This is denoted by Wo.
(ii) The remaining part is used in giving kinetic energy mv2/2 to the electron.

Thus hν = Wo + (mv2)/2 (1)

where v is the velocity of the emitted electron.

Eq.(1) is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
When the photon’s energy is of such a value that it can only liberate the electron
from the metal, then the kinetic energy of the electron will be zero. The above equation
then reduces to
Wo = hνo , (2)
Where νo is called the threshold frequency. Threshold frequency is therefore defined as the
minimum frequency which can cause photoelectric emission. It represents the lower limit
of frequency for photoelectric effect.
If the frequency of the photon is below the threshold frequency (i.e. ν < νo), no emission of
electrons take place.
The equation can be rewritten as

h ν = h νo + ( mv2 )/2 or

(mv2 )/2 = h (ν - νo) (3)

νo is characteristic of the metal surface emitting the electrons. Therefore, for a particular
metal, hνo or νo is constant.
If Vo is the stopping potential, then eVo is the maximum kinetic energy of photo
electrons emitted. Then, Eq.(3) becomes,

eVo = h (ν - νo) or

Vo = h (ν - νo) /e (4)

In Eq.(4) h and e are constants, and νo is constant for a particular metal surface. A graph
between stopping potential Vo and frequency ν would be a straight line with slope (h/e)
(Fig.3).
For a given photo-metal, by using different monochromatic filters, the frequency
ν of the incident light can be changed and the corresponding stopping potentials measured.
The value of Planck’s constant can be determined from the slope of the ν versus Vo plot.

Procedure
Circuit is connected as shown in the diagram. Distance between phototube and source is
kept about 4-5 cm. A filter is inserted and the voltage is decreased towards 0 V at suitable
intervals and the corresponding current is noted. Now, polarity of the battery is reversed

31
and voltage is increased till we get zero current. The voltage corresponding to zero current
is called the stopping potential. The same procedure is repeated for the remaining filters
(by inserting different monochromatic filters in the holder). A graph of photocurrent vs
voltage is then plotted and stopping potentials are marked for all the filters. Stopping
potential is then plotted as a function of the frequency of the incident light. Note down the
value of frequency where the straight line cuts the frequency axis. This frequency is the
threshold frequency νo. Determine the slope of the straight line graph.
Slope m= (h/e) from Einstein’s photo electric equation, Vo = h (ν - νo) /e.
Hence, calculate the Planck’s constant, h = (slope)e, h = (slope) (1.6 x 10-19) J.s

Observations
Frequency of monochromatic filter ν =

S.No Voltage Photocurrent S.No Frequency Stopping

V (V) I (A) ν Potential
V0

Results
Threshold frequency of photoelectric metal νo =
Planck’s constant h =

Precautions
(i) Do not apply very high voltages to the photocell.

Exercise
1. Can a photo cell be used to study photoelectric effect in the UV or infrared region?
2. What is the effect of increasing the intensity of incident radiation for a given
frequency of incident radiation?
3. From the graph of stopping potential Vo versus frequency (ν), what does the
intercept of straight line on Vo axis represent?

32
 9. Hall Effect
Aim
For a given semiconductor (Germanium), determine the Hall coefficient (RH), type of the
charge carriers, whether it is n type or p type density of charge carriers and carrier mobility
(μ).

Apparatus
Hall probe of semiconductor, Hall-effect setup (digital milli-voltmeter and constant current
generator), Electromagnet, constant current source and digital Gauss meter.

Principle and theory

Figure 1: Semiconductor material under the effect of electric and magnetic fields.

Consider a semiconductor sample placed in the magnetic field B that is in the z-direction
(Figure 1). Suppose a current I is passed through the sample perpendicular to the magnetic
field, say in the x-direction, then the "free" electrons and "holes" in the sample experience
a force given by the Lorentz equation,
  
F  q(v  B) (1)

Where, q is the charge of free carriers and v their velocity. This force deflects any charge
carriers towards the positive y-direction. If the charge carriers are predominantly electrons,
this creates an excess negative charge on the +y-direction of the semiconductor sample,
and thus a positive charge on the –y-direction. This charge distribution generates an electric
field EH (the Hall field) pointing in the +y-direction which

(i) balances the Lorentz force so as to keep current flowing along the x-direction, and
(ii) yields a voltage difference across the width w of the sample. This voltage difference
is called the Hall voltage, named after E.H. Hall who discovered this effect in 1879.

33
 Hall voltage VH = wEH (2)

Considering the balance of forces on the charge carriers

   
F  q(E H  v  B)  0 (3)

From (2), we get EH  vx Bz (V/m) (4)

Since I  q vx , the sign of the Hall voltage VH depends on whether the charge carriers are
predominantly negatively (electrons) or positively (holes) charged. Thus, by measuring the
Hall voltage we can determine whether the semiconductor is n-type or p-type.

Suppose the charge carriers in the sample are electrons, i.e. the semiconductor is n-
type. Taking into account the dimensions of the sample, the total current is related to the
density of charge carriers n and their drift velocity vx as

I  nq vx wt (A) (5)

because current I is the product of the current density J = -qnvx and the cross-sectional area
(wt) of the conductor.

From (2), (3) and (4), the following expression is obtained from which the charge density
n is determined by
I Bz
VH   (V) (6)
nqt

J Bz
Alternately, EH   (7)
nq

1
In (7), define Hall coefficient as R H  E H  (m3/C) (8)
J Bz nq
RH is negative when the charge carrier is negatively charged.
These expressions are used if the Hall voltage VH is negative.

If VH is positive, the sample is a p-type semiconductor, the current through which is carried
I 1
by holes the density which, p, is VH  Bz and Hall coefficient is R H   , a positive
pqt pq
number.

34
Figure 2: Actual Hall-effect measurement setup.

Figure 3: (1) Circuit connections for Hall-effect. (2) Constant current source generator.

Procedure
This includes two steps:
A. Calibration of the Electromagnet: Using the digital Gauss meter and the constant
current source.
1. Gauss meter Probe
Take out the probe, along with the cable, out of pocket provided on the rear side.
Any kind of strain on the probe element is to be avoided.
2. Zero Adjustment
Switch on the instrument. Keep the probe away from any magnetic field and adjust
the display zero with 'ZERO' control.
3. Measurement
Keep the sensor in between the electro magnets.

35
  The range switch is now set to the appropriate range.
 The probe cap is removed and the probe is kept in the magnetic field to be
measured. The flat face of the probe is kept perpendicular to the direction
of the magnetic field.
 The reading of the meter multiplied by the range value gives the flux density
of the magnetic field in gauss. If the field strength is not known it is
advisable to start with X10 range.
The value of magnetic field is changed using the Constant Current source-
 Set ‘Current’ knob to minimum (anticlockwise) (say 0.5 A) so that the
Gauss meter shows some value (say 1000 gauss).
 Set ‘Range Switch’ to the desired range.
 Adjust ‘Current’ knob for desired current displayed on the ‘Panel Meter’
A table for different values (say three) of current from the constant current source
to the electromagnet (I vs B) is prepared. This table will be used to match the
magnetic field to its corresponding current value to be used later in the experiment.

B. Plot for obtaining the Carrier density: Using the Hall Effect setup and
Electromagnet.

Change in the Hall Voltage with change in the probe current, keeping the
magnetic field constant (I vs Vh)
1. Complete the following circuits. Part of the circuit (1) in figure 3 connected to
points A and E, supplies the probe current, typically in milliamperes, not exceeding
20 mA. The other part of this circuit, connected to points B and D, measures the
Hall voltage and also provides nulling feature that eliminates any offset potential
between contacts that exist in zero magnetic field. Circuit (2) in figure 3 is for the
wiring of the electromagnet.
2. Switch on the setup and adjust the electromagnet current knob to 0.5 A (This
remains constant throughout this plot; this is the current flowing through the
electromagnet). Now, changing in Hall probe current in small steps note down the
corresponding Hall voltage readings. Take 10 to 15 readings.
3. Repeat for two more values of magnet current.

Observation and Calculation

1. Magnet calibration
S. No I [current through B [Magnetic Field] (kilo
magnet coil](A) gauss)
1 0.5
2 1
3 2

36
 2. (I vs Vh): The plot of this table (10 to 15 readings ranges from 0-4 mA) gives
the carrier density using equation (6).

I (Hall Setup) (mA) Vh (mV)

Figure 4: Graph showing Vh and I to obtain the Hall coefficient (RH) by slope.

Calculation
a. From the graph Vh vs I, calculate carrier density n using thickness (t) = 0.63 mm.

b. Determine the type of majority charge carriers, i.e. whether the crystal is n type
or p type.
c. Calculate Hall Coefficient R=1/nq

Results
The Charge carrier density (n) is _______________________ m-3
The sign of the charge carriers is ____________________
The Hall coefficient RH is ________________ m3/coulomb

37
10. Magnetic Field along the Axis of a Current
Carrying Coil by Stewart and Gee’s Method

Aim of the experiment

To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coil
carrying current.

Apparatus
Stewart and Gees type tangent galvanometer, rheostat, ammeter, battery eliminator, single
plug key, two-way commutator with four plugs.

Formula
The magnetic field (B) at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current I is given
by the expression

B = ___μ0 n I a2___
2 (x2 + a2)3/2

Where n is the number of turns in the coil, a is the mean radius of the coil, and x is the
distance of the point from the center of the coil along the axis.

Circuit Diagram:

Description
The apparatus consists of a circular frame “C” made up of non-magnetic substance. An
insulated Copper wire is wounded on the frame. The ends of the wire are connected to a
pair of terminals. By selecting a pair of terminals, the number of turns used can be changed.

38
The frame is fixed to a long base B at the middle in a vertical plane along the breadth side.
The base has leveling screws. A rectangular non-magnetic metal frame is supported on the
uprights. The plane of the frame contains the axis of the coil and this frame passes through
the circular coil. A magnetic compass like that one used in deflection magnetometer is
supported on a movable platform. This platform can be moved on the frame along the axis
of the coil. The compass is so arranged that the center of the magnetic needle always lies
on the axis of the coil.

The apparatus is arranged so that the plane of coil is in the magnetic meridian.
The frame with the compass is kept at the center of the coil and the base is rotated so that
the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic needle in the compass. The compass is
rotated so that the aluminum pointer reads zero-zero. Now the rectangular frame is along
the East-West direction. When a current I flows through the coil, the magnetic field
produced is in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The magnetic needle in the
compass is under the influence of two magnetic fields: B due to the coil carrying current
and the earth’s magnetic field Be which are mutually perpendicular. The needle deflects
through an angle θ satisfying the tangent law
B
 tanθ
Be

The magnetic field of the current carrying coil obtained experimentally is

B=Be tan θ (1)

The theoretical value of B is given by B = ___μ0 n I a2

2 (x2 + a2)3/2 (2)
Eq.(2) is obtained by using Biot-Savart law to find magnetic fields due to all tiny elements
of the coil at distance x from the centre of the coil and adding them vectorially. It
decreases with the distance from the centre of the coil.

Procedure
With the help of the deflection magnetometer and a chalk, a long line of about one meter
is drawn on the working table, to represent the magnetic meridian. Another line
perpendicular to the line is also drawn. The Stewart and Gees galvanometer is set with its
coil in the magnetic meridian as shown in the figure. The external circuit is connected as
shown in the figure, keeping the ammeter, rheostat away from the deflection
magnetometer. This precaution is very much required because, the magnetic field produced
by the current passing through the rheostat and the permanent magnetic field due to the
magnet inside the ammeter affects the magnetometer reading, if they are close to it. The
magnetometer is set at the center of the coil and rotated to make the aluminum pointer read
(0,0). The key K is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so as the deflection in the
magnetometer is about 60°. The current in the commutator is reversed and the deflection
in the magnetometer is observed. The deflection in the magnetometer before and after
reversal of current should not differ much. In case of difference say above 2° or 3°,
necessary adjustments are to be made. For x=0, the deflections before and after reversal of
current are noted in the table-1. The magnetometer is moved towards East along the axis
of the coil in steps of 2 cm at a time. At each position, the key is closed and the deflections
before and after reversal of current are noted. Let the mean deflection be denoted as θ E.
39
The magnetometer is further moved towards east in steps of 2 cm and the deflections noted,
until the deflection falls to 20°. The experiment is repeated by shifting the magnetometer
towards West from the center of the coil in steps of 2 cm, and deflections noted before and
after the reversal of current. The mean deflection is denoted as θW. It will be found that for
each distance x, the value in the last two columns of table-2 are found to be equal verifying
equations (1) & (2).

A graph is drawn between x [the distance of the deflection magnetometer from

the center of the coil] along X-axis and the corresponding tanθE and tanθW along the Y-
axis. The shape of the curve is as shown in the figure. The point A and B marked on the
curve lie at a distance equal to
half of radius of the coil (a/2) on either
side of the coil.

Model Graph

Precautions
1. The plane of the coil should be in the magnetic meridian.
2. The ammeter and the rheostat should be kept far away from the magnetometer by
using long leads.

Exercise
1. What is the direction of the magnetic field at the centre of the coil?
2. In the experiment, where do we expect the field to be maximum?
3. Give some applications where the magnetic field produced by a circular coil has
been employed.

Observation
Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field Be = 3.5 X 10-5 T
Radius of coil a = __________m
Current carrying in the ammeter = _________A
μ0 = 4π X 10-7 Tm/A

40
Distance Deflection in East Mean Deflection in Mean tanθE tanθW
from the direction (deg) deflection West direction deflection
center of coil θE (deg) (deg) θW (deg)
x (cm) θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4

Table-1

Distance Theoretical B (T) Experimental B (T)

from the B=Be tan θ*
center of coil B = __μ0 n I a2__
x (cm) 2 (x2 + a2)3/2

Table-2
θE θW
θ
* 2

Result: the variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current
has been studied experimentally and theoretically verified.

41
11. Resonance in LCR Circuits
Aim of the experiment
To study resonance effects in series LCR circuits.

Apparatus
Variable inductor, variable capacitor, resistance box, oscillator (1 to 50 kHz range).

Formula
1
Resonance frequency, f r  , where L and C are inductance and capacitance,
2 LC
respectively.

Basic Methodology
In series LCR circuit, an inductor L, a capacitor C and a resistor R are connected in series
with a variable frequency AC supply, whose emf varies sinusoidally with time. As the
frequency of the AC supply varies, the current (and hence the voltage across R) in the
circuit changes and it becomes a maximum when the frequency of the applied emf is equal
1
to the natural frequency, f 0  of the circuit. This frequency is also called the
2 LC
resonance frequency. At this frequency, the impedance Z (the effective resistance offered
by all the components) of the series LCR circuit is a minimum (i.e.,
Z  R 2   X L  X C  ) is minimum (where XL and XC are reactance of the inductor and
2

capacitor). Reactance is the resistance offered by an active component like capacitor or

inductor. In the parallel LCR circuit, at resonance frequency, the impedance of the circuit
is maximum and hence the current is a minimum.

Theory
Consider a circuit consisting of an inductor L, a capacitor C, and a resistor R. Electric
charge, current and potential difference in the circuit vary sinusoidally with time with some
angular frequency ω. Moreover, energy transfers back and forth between the magnetic field
of the inductor and the electric filed of the capacitor, while it is being gradually dissipated
as thermal energy in the resistor. Thus the resulting oscillations of the capacitor’s electric
field and the inductor’s magnetic field are said to form electromagnetic oscillations and
such a circuit is said to oscillate.

42
 This electrical oscillating system is analogous to mechanical oscillating system like
a driven spring-mass system. In mechanical oscillating system also, the energy transfers
back and forth between the kinetic energy of the oscillating mass and the potential energy
of the spring, being gradually dissipated as thermal energy. Thus the differential equations
describing the two systems (electrical and mechanical) are similar.

In a series LCR circuit, with a resistance R present, the total electromagnetic energy
(the sum of the electric energy in capacitor and magnetic energy in inductor) is not constant
but decreases with time as energy is lost to thermal energy in the resistance. Because of
this loss of energy, the oscillations of charge, current and potential difference in the circuit
continuously decrease in amplitude, and the oscillations are said to be damped oscillations.
This is similar to oscillations of a damped harmonic oscillator of a mass-spring system.

At any instant of time, the total electromagnetic energy is given by

U = UB + UE = L(i 2)/2 + (q2)/2C (1)

Since U decreases with time due to the presence of resistance R, the rate of decrease in
electromagnetic energy is

dU/dt = -i2 R

dU di q dq
 Li   i2R
dt dt C dt

dq di d 2 q
But i  and 
dt dt dt 2

d 2q dq q
L 2
R  0
dt dt C

This is the differential equation for damped oscillations in LCR, series circuit.

43
 Once started, the charge, the potential difference and the current in the LCR circuit
1
oscillate at angular frequency,  0  . This angular frequency ωo is said to be the
LC
circuit’s natural angular frequency.

Now, suppose an external driving force of alternating emf (from oscillator), E =

Emsin(ωdt) is connected to the LCR circuit, then oscillations of charge, potential difference
and current are said to be driven oscillations or forced oscillations. These oscillations
always occur at the driving angular frequency ωd. Whatever be the natural angular
frequency ωo of the circuit, forced oscillations in the circuit always occur at the driving
angular frequency ωd. When the two angular frequencies ωd and ωo match, a condition
known as resonance occurs and the amplitude of the current at this frequency is maximum.

Now the differential equation for driven oscillations of the circuit is

d 2q
  E m sin  d t 
dq q
L 2
R
dt dt C

The Series LCR Circuit

The alternating emf E = Em sin(ωt) is applied to the LCR circuit. Since R, L and C are in
series, same current is driven in all the three of them, i.e., i = I sin(ωdt-φ), where φ is the
phase constant.

The phase relations for currents and voltages in L, C, R components are:

Resistor: Current and Voltage are in phase.

Inductor: Current lags Voltage by 900.
Capacitor: Current leads Voltage by 900.

At any instant of time, the sum of voltages across R, C, and L is equal to the applied emf
E.

E = VR + VC + VL

and its amplitude, Em = [VR2 + (VL - VC)2]1/2

The amplitude of the current is

Em Em
I 
R 2  X L  X C  Z
2

Where Z is the impedance Z of the circuit for the driving frequency ωd.

44
 Em
I
2
 1 
R    d L 
2

 d C 
1
The value of I depends on difference between the terms ωdL and , As we increase the
d C
driving frequency ωd, how the reactances (XL & XC) change can be studied from the graphs
(for different R values). For ωd much less than the natural frequency of the circuit, inductive
reactance XL is small and capacitive reactance XC is large i.e., XC > XL and the circuit is
capacitive and in this region, current leads the voltage by 90o. As we increase ωd, XC
decreases but XL increases and at a frequency ωo =1/(LC)1/2, XL = XC, the current is a
maximum. This is called as resonance.

When ωd > ωo, XL increases and XC decreases, so XL > XC. In this region, the circuit is
inductive and current lags voltage by 90o.

To summarize
XC > XL : The circuit is more capacitive, current leads voltage by 900
(low frequencies)

XC = XL : The circuit is resistive, current (is maximum) is in phase with voltage.

(Resonant frequency)

XC < XL : The circuit is inductive, current lags voltage by 900.

(high frequencies)

Quality factor of a circuit

The quality factor Q is a measure of energy stored in an inductor or a capacitor when an
alternating signal is applied. Quality factor of resonance is a dimensionless parameter that
describes how underdamped an oscillator or resonator is, and characterizes a resonator
bandwidth relative to its center frequency.
Quality factor may also be defined as the ratio of reactance of either capacitor or inductor
1 𝐿
to the resistance at resonant frequency. 𝑄 = √
𝑅 𝐶

Procedure
1. Connect the series LCR circuit as shown in figure selecting minimum resistance
value. Select the inductance and capacitor values so that the resonant frequency
1
fr  is of the order of kHz.
2 LC
2. Select the appropriate frequency range and also the input function (sinusoidal).
3. Set the signal amplification (by scanning the entire scale of set frequency range and
watching the corresponding current values) such that maximum current through the
milli-ammeter is within the analog scale but closer to the top of the scale. This is to
ensure that the expected resonance occurs closer to the top of the scale.
45
 4. Now vary the frequency of the oscillator in small steps and record the current.
Record at least 20 readings across the resonant frequency.
5. Repeat the experiment for three values of resistances without disturbing the Signal
amplification.
6. Plot a graph of frequency f versus current for the three sets of reading on the same
graph sheet for comparison.
7. Read resonant frequency from maxima and compare with the theoretical value,
1
fr  .
2 LC

Table

S. Frequency Current through the

No kHz circuit (mA)
R1 =

1
2
3
.
.
20

Graph

Result:
Exercise
a) Compare the phase relations in resistive, capacitive and inductive circuits.
b) What is meant by reactance, impedance and phase lag?
c) What do you mean by resonant frequency in LCR circuit?
d) Why a series resonant circuit is called an acceptor circuit?
e) Give some applications of electrical resonance.

46
 12. Measurement of e/m by Thomson’s Bar
Magnet Method
Aim of the experiment
To determine the specific charge (e/m) of an electron using Thomson’s bar magnet method.

Apparatus
Cathode ray tube (CRT), power supply, one pair of bar magnets, deflection magnetometer,
scale, connecting wires, high resistance voltmeter.

Formula
The specific charge of an electron,
e yV
  2 ,
 m  B daa / 2  L 
where,
a = Length of plates
L = Distance from the plate to the screen
d = Distance between the plates
V = Applied voltage
y = Displacement of the spot
B  Be tan , Magnetic field of bar magnets.
Be is the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field = 3.5 x 10-5 T.

Basic Methodology
Electrons in a CRT are deflected (in vertical direction) by means of electric field generated
by applying a potential difference between the vertical deflection plates of CRT. A
magnetic field perpendicular to the electric field is produced using a pair of bar magnets.

The magnetic field is adjusted so as to cancel the deflection by electric field. From
the knowledge of electric potential and the magnetic field, specific charge (e/m) of an
electron can be determined.

Theory
A simplified form of a CRT is shown in Fig.1. The electrons are emitted from the cathode
and narrowed on passing through fine slit of accelerating anode. This accelerated narrow
beam of electrons strikes the fluorescent screen at the other end of the tube and produces a
luminous spot at S after passing through two sets of pairs of deflecting plates.

This experiment can be divided into the following parts:

1. The electron finally strikes the screen at the point C (fig 2). The total vertical
deflection of the electron is

Y=CF+FO’=CF+BD (1)

47
 Fig.2

Now, using a Newton's kinematic equation with the information that the particle
enters the region between parallel plates vv' with vx=v and vy=0, where vx and vy denote
the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity vector, and due to the electric field
eE
the electron undergoes an acceleration in the vertical direction (Refer to Fig.(2)), BD
m
can be found.
eEa2
BD  (2)
2mv 2
vy
From fig. (2), CF=Ltanα. It is clear that tan   , now using one of the Newton's
v
kinematic equations it can be shown that

eEaL
CF  L tan   (3)
mv 2
Thus, from Eq.(1) and Eq.(2), we get

48
 y  CF  BD 
eEa
a / 2  L  (4)
mv 2

The electric field E is given by E = V/d, where V is the potential difference between the
plates and d the distance between the parallel plates. Thus Eq. (4) becomes

y
eVa
a / 2  L  (5)
mv 2 d

Eq. (5) gives displacement of the spot on the screen in terms of the known parameters.
2. A magnetic field B is simultaneously applied between the horizontal plates by
placing two bar magnets symmetrically on either side of CRT so that B is
perpendicular to E and the deflection produced by the electric field is exactly
counter-balanced by that produced by the magnetic field. As a result the spot made
by the electron on the fluorescent screen returns back to the central position. In
other words, the two fields (E and B) are adjusted so that the two deflecting forces
cancel. Hence
e v B = e E, (6)
E V
Therefore, v   (7)
B Bd

Thus, the crossed fields allow us to measure the speed of the electrons passing through
them. Putting eq. (7) in eq.(5), we get

 e B d
2
y   aa / 2  L  (8) or
m V
e yV
  2 (9)
 m  B daa / 2  L 
where
a = Length of plates
L = Distance from the plate to the screen
d = Distance between the plates
V = Applied voltage
y = Displacement of the spot
B=Betanθ, Magnetic field of bar magnets.
Be is the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field = 3.5 x 10-5 T.
By knowing all the quantities on RHS of equation (9), (e/m) can be calculated.

Procedure
Place the magnetometer on the wooden box. Rotate the wooden box such that its arms are
perpendicular to the needle of magnetometer. Rotate the dial so that 0 o-0o position is

49
aligned with the needle. In this position, CRT is aligned along the magnetic meridian while
the scales attached perpendicular to CRT are along the E-W direction. (Mark this position
of the wooden box on the table with a chalk). Remove the magnetometer and place the
CRT on the wooden box.

Switch on the power supply and adjust the intensity and focus controls to obtain a
fine spot on the CRT screen. Adjust the position of CRT so that the spot moves along
horizontal axis by x-shift knob of the power supply. Let the applied voltage be zero. Note
the initial position of the spot for zero deflection voltage. Now choose a value of the
deflection voltage and note the deflection of the spot (y).

Place identical bar magnets on either side of CRT on the length of the scales with
opposite poles facing each other and move the bar magnets symmetrically along the length
of the scales until the spot returns to its initial position. Note the value ‘d’, the distance of
magnet poles from the centre of CRT corresponding to null deflection.

Now remove CRT and the magnets and place the magnetometer carefully.
The pointer aligns along 0-0. Now place the magnets at their respective positions. Note θ1
and θ2. Find average θ= (θ1 + θ2)/2; Find tanθ for direct voltage and determine e/m.

Repeat the above procedure for reverse voltage and note θ3 and θ4 and determine e/m.
Repeat the experiment for three different voltages.

Precautions
(1) The cathode ray tube should be accurately placed with its longitude axis in the
magnetic meridian.
(2) The spot on the screen should be allowed at a given positions for a long time.
(3) There should not be any other disturbing field near the apparatus.

Exercise
1. What is the direction of force acting on an electron moving with a velocity through
a magnetic field?
2. What is the effect of a magnetic field on the speed of an electron?
3. What will happen to the spot if a sinusoidally time varying voltage is applied to the
deflecting plates vv′ and HH′?
4. What is the effect of the Earth’s magnetic field on the electron motion?
5. What would happen if the apparatus were rotated by 900 so that the CRT is along
the E-W direction?

Observations
Constant values
1. Length of plate a = 2.2 cm
2. Distance from the plate to the screen L = 11 cm
3. Distance between the plates d =0.6 cm
4. Horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field, BE = 3.5 X 10-5 T

50
 Spot Deflection Deflection of
B = Be tanθ
Applied Magnetometer tanθ e/m C/kg
S. T
Voltage Direct Reverse (θ) deg
No y (Di) y (Re)
(V)
cm cm Di Re Di Re Di Re Di Re
1
2
3

Results
Calculated value of specific charge of electron (e/m) =
Standard value of (e/m) =

51
Appendix
More on Error Analysis in Experiments
Why Error Analysis?
Physics is a quantitative science. This means that in the Physics laboratory we are concerned
with making measurements which are both accurate and precise. In order to be able to make a
meaningful interpretation of our results we have to have an idea of how reliable those results
are. This is where the notion of experimental error comes into the picture. It is an honest
expression of the uncertainty of the measurements, not an indication of mistake.

Types of Error

An uncertainty is a range, estimated by the experimenter that is likely to contain the true value
of whatever is being measured. For example, if you measure a distance with a meter stick you
usually assign an uncertainty of ± 1mm to the result. Uncertainties can be expressed in absolute
terms or relative terms, just as errors can. People often say “error” when they mean uncertainty,
just because it doesn’t take as long, but what is meant can usually be figured out from the
context.

Systematic error results reproducibly from faulty calibration of equipment or from bias on part
of the observer. These errors must be estimated from an analysis of the experimental conditions
and techniques. In some cases corrections can be made to the data to compensate for systematic
errors where the type and extent of error is known. In other cases, the uncertainties resulting
from these errors must be estimated and combined with uncertainties from statistical
fluctuations.

Random error is the fluctuations in observations which yield results that differ from
experiment to experiment and that requires repeated experimentation to yield precise results.
The problem of reducing random errors is essentially one of improving the experiment and
refining the techniques as well as simply repeating the experiment. If the random errors result
from instrumental uncertainties, they can be reduced by using more reliable and more precise
measuring instruments. If the random errors result from statistical fluctuations of counting
finite number of events, they can be reduced by counting more events.

Probable error is the magnitude of error which is estimated to have been made in determination
of results. This does not mean that we expect our results to be wrong by this amount. It means,
instead, that if our answer is wrong, it probably won’t be wrong by more than the probable
error. The probable error has another significance. If we repeat the experiment, making the
measurements in as nearly identical a manner as possible but not necessarily obtaining the
identical observations, we expect the new result to have the same probable error as the first.
Since we expect both determinations to be approximately within the probable error of the “true”
value, they will also probably be within some fraction of the probable error of each other. Thus,
the probable error for the result is also a measure of the probable discrepancy between two
results obtained under identical conditions.

52
The accuracy of a measurement is a way of talking about the total error in your final result. An
accurate measurement is very close to the true value. Just because a measurement is accurate
doesn’t mean it’s precise; an accurate value with a wide possible range isn’t very useful.

The precision of a measurement is the total amount of random error present. A very precise
measurement has small random errors, but just because a measurement is precise doesn’t mean
that it’s accurate (see above); undiscovered systematic errors might skew your results
drastically. The accuracy of an experiment is generally dependant on how well we can control
or compensate for systematic errors. The precision of an experiment is dependant on how well
we can overcome or analyze random errors.

Significant Figures and Round off

The precision of an experimental result is implied by the way in which the result is written,
though it should generally be quoted specifically as well. To indicate the precision, we write a
number with as many digits as are significant. The number of significant figures in a result is
defined as follows:
1. The leftmost nonzero digit is the most significant digit.
2. If there is no decimal point, the rightmost nonzero digit is the least significant digit.
3. If there is a decimal point, the rightmost digit is the least significant digit, even if it is a 0.
4. All digits between the least and most significant digits are counted as significant digits.
For example, the following numbers each have four significant digits: 1,234; 123,400;
123.4; 1,001, 1,000., 10.10, 0.0001010, 100.0. If there is no decimal point, there are
ambiguities when the rightmost digit is a 0. For example, the number 1,010 is considered to
have only three significant digits even though the last digit might be physically significant. To
avoid this ambiguity, it is better to supply decimal points or write such numbers in exponent
form as an argument in decimal notation times the appropriate power of 10. Thus, our example
of 1,010 would be written as 1,010. or 1.010 x 103 if all four digits are significant.

When quoting results of an experiment, the number of significant figures given should be
approximately one more than that dictated by the experimental precision. The reason for
including the extra digit is that in computation one significant figure is sometimes lost. Errors
introduced by insufficient precision in calculations are classified as illegitimate error. If an
extra digit is specified for all numbers used on the computation, the original precision will be
retained to a greater extent. For example, in the experiment if the absolute precision of the
result is 10 mm, the third figure is known with an uncertainty of ±1 and the fourth figure is not
really known at all. We would be barely justified in specifying four figures for computation. If
the precision is 2mm, the third digit is known quite well and the fourth figure is known
approximately. We are justified in quoting four figures, but probably not justified in quoting
five figures since we cannot even have much confidence in the value of the fourth figure. When
insignificant digits are dropped from a number, the last digit retained should be rounded off for
the best accuracy. To round off a number to a smaller number of significant digits than are
specified originally, truncate the number to the desired number of significant digits and treat
the excess digits as a decimal fraction.
Then
1. If the fraction is greater than ½ , increment the least significant digit.
2. If the fraction is less than ½, do not increment.
3. If the fraction equals ½, increment the least significant digit only if it is odd.

53
In this manner, the value of the final result is always within half the least significant digit of
the original number. The reason for rule (3) is that in many cases the fraction equals either 0
or ½ and consistently incrementing the least significant digit for a fraction of ½ would lead to
a systematic error. For example, 1.235 and 1.245 both become 1.24 when rounded off to three
significant figures, but 1.2451 becomes 1.25.

Statistical Error Analysis

A. Gaussian Distribution
As you’ve no doubt seen in
lab, every measurement is
subject to a certain amount
of random error. The roots of
this problem lie deep in
quantum mechanics, on
Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle. Random errors
can arise from minute
vibrations in the apparatus,
quantum uncertainties in the
system being studied, and
many other small but
uncontrolled effects.
Fortunately, almost all the
random errors you encounter
can be characterized by a Gaussian distribution, also known as a bell curve [Fig. 1]. This simple
mathematical form describes the probability of encountering any given error. The Gaussian
distribution has two free parameters: the mean and the standard deviation. The probability of
finding a measurement in the range [x, x+dx] is equal to the area under the curve in that range.
The curve is normalized to have a total area of 1, which is why its amplitude is not also a free
parameter. Notice also that the distribution is symmetric; an error is equally likely to occur in
either direction. The equation which describes this curve:

The standard deviation () describes the width of the bell; a higher standard deviation means
that you’re more likely to find large errors. The mean (xm) lies on the axis of symmetry of the
bell. These two parameters completely determine the shape of the curve and are used to
describe the results of your measurements. Another common way of describing the width of
the bell is by using the “full width at half maximum”, or FWHM, which is equal to 1.17and
is easier to figure out from a plot. By integrating all or part of the Gaussian curve, we can make
precise statements about how probable it is that our results are correct.

54
Cumulative Frequency distribution

In Biology, for statistical analysis, one more commonly use cumulative distribution function,
which gives the probability that a variate assume a value ≤ x, and is then the integral of the
Gaussian function integrating from minus infinity to x.

Cumulative distribution function is given by

erf (x) is the error function.

The cumulative distribution is basically the answer to the question, “What is the probability
that an instantaneous value of variate is less than x”. Basically the point of inflection of the
cumulative distribution corresponds to maximum probability.

B Mean value
Suppose an experiment were repeated many, say N, times to get,
x1,x2,…..xi,….,xn,

N measurements of the same quantity, x. If the errors were random, then the errors in these
results would differ in sign and magnitude. So if the average or mean value of our
measurements were calculated,

Some of the random variations could be expected to cancel out with others in the sum. This is
the best that can be done to deal with random errors: repeat the measurement many times,
varying as many “irrelevant” parameters as possible and use the average as the best estimate
of the true value of x. (It should be pointed out that this estimate for a given N will differ from
the limit as Nthe true mean value; though, of course, for larger N it will be closer to the
limit). Doing this should give a result with less error than any of the individual measurements.
But it is obviously expensive, time consuming and tedious. So, eventually one must
compromise and decide that the job is done. Nevertheless, repeating the experiment is the only

55
way to gain confidence in and knowledge of its accuracy. In the process an estimate of the
deviation of the measurements from the mean value can be obtained.

C Standard deviation
In terms of the mean, the standard deviation of any distribution is,

The quantity 2 is called the variance. The best estimate of the true standard deviation is,

D Rules of error propagation

Frequently, the result of an experiment will not be measured directly. Rather, it will be
calculated from several measured physical quantities (each of which has a mean value of an
error). What is the resulting error in the final result of such an experiment?
For instance, what is the error in Z=A+B where A and B are two measured quantities with
errors A and B respectively?
A first thought might be that the error in Z would be just the sum of the errors in A and B. After
all,

A ΔAB ΔBA BΔA ΔB

and

A ΔAB ΔBA BΔA ΔB

But this assumes that, when combined, the errors in A and B have the same sign and maximum
magnitude; that is that they always combine in the worst possible way. This could only happen
if the errors in the two variables were perfectly correlated, (i.e. if the two variables were not
really independent).
If the variables are independent then sometimes the error in one variable will happen to cancel
out some of the error in the other and so, on the average, the error in Z will be less than the sum
of the errors in its parts. A reasonable way to try to take this into account is to treat the
perturbations in Z produced by perturbations in its parts as if they were “perpendicular” and
added according to the Pythagorean theorem,
Z  (A)2  (B )2
(3)  (4)  5
2 2
That is, if A = (100 ± 3) and B = (6 ± 4), then Z = (106 ± 5) since

This idea can be used to derive a general rule. Suppose there are two measurements, A and B,
and the final result is Z = F(A,B) for some function F. If A is perturbed by A, then Z will be
perturbed by
 F 
  A
 A 

Similarly the perturbation in Z due to a perturbation in B is,

56
 F 
 B
 B 
Combining these by the Pythagorean theorem yields
F 2 F 2
Z  ( ) (A)  ( ) (B)
2 2

A B

In the example of Z = A+B considered above,

F F
 1 and 1
A B

so this gives the same result as before.

Similarly if Z = A-B then,
F F
 1 and  1
A B

which also gives the same result. Errors combine in the same way for both addition and
subtraction.
 F   F 
However, if Z = AB then,    B and    A
 A   B 
So, Z  B (A)  A (B)
2 2 2 2

Z Z A
2
B
2
Thus   ( ) ( )
Z AB A B

or the fractional error in Z is the square root of the sum of the squares of the fractional errors
in its parts. (You should be able to verify that the result is the same for division as it is for
multiplication.) For example,
2 2
0.3 0.4
(100  0.3)(6  0.4)  600  600 ( )  ( )  600  40
100 6

It should be noted that since the above applies only when the two measured quantities are
independent of each other it does not apply when, for example, one physical quantity is
measured and what is required is its square. If Z = A2 then the perturbation in Z due to a
perturbation in A is,
F
Z A  2 AA
A
Thus in this case,
A
( A A)  A2  2 AA  A2 1  2 A 
2

 A 
and not A2 1   as would be obtained by misapplying the rule for independent variables.
 A 
For example (100  1)  100  20 and not 100  14
2

57
If a variable Z depends on one or two variables A and B which have independent errors
ΔA and ΔB, then the rule for calculating the error in Z is tabulated in the following table
for a variety of simple relationships.

E Removing systematic errors

To hunt for systematic errors one should go through this mental process, while designing an
experiment:
1. What physical quantities (including environmental factors) is the measurement most
sensitive to?
2. Are there any other sources of error in the quantity that is being measured?
3. If so how we isolate the experiment from these effects?
4. If we can not get rid of the systematic error, can we measure it and account for it later?
Of course, there always remains the possibility that a systematic error is present which we
might not think of. To account for this one needs to calibrate the instruments used and if
possible, the experiment itself. Calibrating means that we use our instrument to measure some
known quantities and check whether the measured answer tallies with known results. One
should be cautious when using this method to correct results outside the domain which we have
calibrated. There is no way to know whether other effects would become important in the new
region. If we do not have any good way of producing known values, and think of a systematic
error which we are not able to remove from the experiment, then the only way to correct it is
by using Physics. We make and educated guess as to the exact nature of the error, and then use
an established theory to figure out what impact it will have on the experiment.

F To draw the ‘best’ straight line graph through the plotted points of y against x:
(vide General Instructions)

58
Questions
1. Consider a set of plates produced by the same mechanism, which look squarish but
might be rectangular because of minute differences in the lengths of the sides. We
would like to measure the sides of these plates and decide about the squareness. There
are two ways to decide about squareness--(i) find the values of (length)-(breadth) (ii)
find the values of (length)/(breadth). Which do you think is a better formula to use to
accurately determine the `squareness'? (Use error analysis to answer this question).

2. Suppose, in an experiment, you are measuring two lengths – one of the order of 1.0 m
and another of the order of 0.1 m. Both are being measured by an instrument of least
count 0.01 m? Which length is being measured more inaccurately (i.e. with larger
error)? (Note that you are using the same instrument to measure both the lengths).

3. Determine the number of significant digits of each of these numbers: (a)0.0002053 (b)
1.3456 (c) .010234 (d) 1001.23 (e) 100.00

4. If you are given a formula y=f(x1,x2,x3) say, a way to find the error is to take the
logarithm and evaluate (y)/y. Remove all minus signs in the resulting expression
involving (x1)/x1 etc., so that you get the maximum error. Try this method out for the
following formulae (a) y= ax2z3 (b) y= ax + bz2 (a and b are constants).

5. One of your friends measures a quantity five times and writes the data as 100.01,
100.002, 100.0, 100.01, 100.00. He shows it to the instructor and gets a thorough
lecture on `writing data properly'. What do you think the instructor said to your friend
or where did your careless friend mess up?

Reference
1. An Introduction to Error Analysis by J.R. Taylor, University Science Book, 1962
2. Statistical Treatment of Experimental Data by H.D. Young, McGraw- Hill 1962.
3. Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physical Sciences by P.R. Bevington and D. K.
Robinson, (third edition) McGraw-Hill 2003.

59
 Bibliography

1. Fundamentals of Physics , 6th Ed., D. Halliday, R. Resnick and J

Walker, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

2. Physics, M Alonso and E J Finn, Addison Wesley, New York

3. Fundamentals of Optics, Jenkins and H E White, McGraw-Hill Inc.,

New York

4. Optics, A Ghatak, Tata-McGraw Hill, New Delhi.

5. Electricity and Magnetism, A S Mahajan and A A Rangwalla, Tata Mc

Graw Hill, New Delhi.

6. Modern Physics, Arthur Beiser, McGraw Hill Inc. New York

60