Experiments assigned for Term I

The record to be submitted by the students at the time of second term examination has to include a record of at
least 4 Experiments and 3 Activities to be demonstrated by teacher.

1. To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and1/v.
2. To find the focal length of a convex mirror, using a convex lens.
OR
To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens.
3. To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence and
angle of deviation.
4. To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
5. To find refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror.
6. To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.
 Term2 - Experiment 1
Aim:
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.
Apparatus:
An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral movement), a convex lens
with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle and a half metre scale.
Precautions:
1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of it is formed.
4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.
Source of Error:
1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
Result:
Focal length from table is = 20.51 cm
Focal length from graph is = 20.5 cm
Ray Diagram:

Observation Table:
S.No. Position of Observed Distance Focal
( ) ( )
Object Lens Image Object Image length
needle O (cm) needle distance distance
A (cm) C (cm) u v
1 108 66 27 42 39 0.024 0.027 20.22
2 104 66 22.5 38 43 0.026 0.023 20.17
3 101 66 20 35 45 0.029 0.022 22.5
4 98 66 14 32 52 0.031 0.019 19.81
5 97 66 11 31 55 0.032 0.018 19.83
Mean value of Focal length from table
Value of Focal length from Graph = 20.5 cm
 Term 2 - Experiment 2
Aim: To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
Apparatus: An optical bench having meter scale, 4 uprights, two optical needle, knitting needles, one convex lens
with a lens holder, one convex mirror with a mirror holder
Theory:
The image formed by a convex mirror is virtual and erect. Therefore its focal length cannot be determined directly.
However, it can be determined by introducing a convex lens in between the object and the convex mirror. Focal length
of convex mirror f = R /2 where R is radius of curvature of the mirror.
Precautions:
1. The uprights supporting the needle lens and mirror must be rigid and mounted vertically.
2. Eye should be placed at a distance of about 25 cm or more from the image needle.
3. The parallax should be removed from tip to tip of the needle.
4. The lens of large focal length should be used.
5. The apertures of the given convex lens and convex mirror should be small, otherwise the image formed will be
distorted.
Sources of Error:
1. Focal length of lens may not be small.
2. The upright may not be vertical.
3. Personal eye defects may make removal of parallax tedious.
Results: The focal lengths of the given convex mirror = 15.1 cm.
Ray Diagram:

Observation table:
S.No. Position of mirror Position of image Radius of Focal length f =
(cm) (cm) curvature R (cm) R/2 (cm)
1 36 4 32 16
2 42 13 29 14.5
3 45 18 27 13.5
4 43 10 33 16.5
 Term 2 - Experiment 3
Aim: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence and
angle of deviation.
Apparatus: Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins, graph
paper and a protractor.
Observation:
Angle of Prism =
The value of minimum deviation is = 32°
Refractive index of prism
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
Precautions:
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm
4. Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.
Source of Error:
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
Result:
Angle of minimum deviation is = 32°
Refractive index of prism =
Observation Table:
S.No. Angle of Incidence Angle of deviation
(i) ( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
Graph:
 Term 2 - Experiment 4
Aim: To draw the IV characteristics curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias.
Apparatus: A p-n junction diode, 5V battery and 40V battery, milli-ammeter and micro-ammeter, 2 V voltmeter and
40V voltmeter, high resistance rheostat, one way key, connecting wires and sand paper
Theory:
1. Forward biasing: When the p side of p-n junction is connected to the positive terminal of the source, it is said to be
forward biased.
2. Reverse biasing: When the p side of p-n junction is connected to the negative terminals of the source, it is said to be
reverse biased.
Observations:
1. Forward biasing 2. Reverse biasing:
(i) Range of the voltmeter = 0 V to 2 V (i) Range of the voltmeter = 0 V to 40 V
(ii) Least count of the voltmeter = 0.05 V (ii) Least count of the voltmeter = 1 V
(iii) Zero error of the voltmeter = 0 V (iii) Zero error of the voltmeter = 0 V
(iv) Range of the ammeter = 0A to 10 mA (iv) Range of the microammeter = to
(v) Least count of the milliammeter = 0.2 mA (v) Least count of the microammeter =
(vi) Zero error of the milliammeter = 0 mA (vi) Zero error of the microammeter =

Precautions
1. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
2. Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
3. Voltmeter and milli-ammeter of appropriate range is selected.
4. Zero error of the instruments is corrected at the onset of the experiment.
5. Battery connections are checked carefully while taking reading for forward-bias and reverse-bias.
Source of Error
1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose.
2. Each time the pointer of ammeter may not be on a scale mark.
3. Zero error of the meters may not be accurately eliminated.
4. Personal errors
Result:
1. The I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction. It does not obey ohm’s law since the curve is not a straight line.
2. The graph shows the p-n junction has directional characteristic when forward biased and does not conduct when
reverse biased.

Circuit Diagram:
Observations table:
S. No Forward Forward S. No Reverse Reverse
Bias voltage Bias Current Bias voltage Bias Current
(V) (mA) (V) ( )
1 0 0 1 0 0
2 0.1 0 2 2 2
3 0.2 0 3 4 4
4 0.3 0 4 6 5
5 0.4 0 5 8 6
6 0.5 0.5 6 10 9
7 0.6 1.6 7 12 12
8 0.7 4 8 14 13
9 0.8 8 9 16 22

Graph:

Forward Current (mA)

8
6
4
Reverse Voltage (V) 2
20 15 10 5

0.5 1.0 1.5

10 Forward Voltage (V)
20
30
Reverse Current (𝜇A)

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