FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

Aim:
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v.

Apparatus required:
Convex lens, lens holder, a meter scale, source box.

Formula:
uv
F= where f is focal length in cm, u is object distance from the mirror in cm, v is
u+v
image distance from the mirror in cm.

Diagram:
To find focal length :

Procedure :

Distant object method:

1. Mount the convex lens vertically on a stand.
2. Focus a distant object on white screen by the convex lens
3. Obtain a clear image of the distant object on the screen, placed behind the lens.
4. The distance between the lens and screen gives the approximate focal length of the convex lens.
u – v method:
5. Place a white paper screen on the other side of the lens.
6. The distance of the object from the lens is initially taken as 2 times of approximate focal length (f)
found by distant object method.
7. Adjust the screen to get a clear image and in this case the distance between the image and lens will be
found nearly to be 2f, indicating the size of the image is nearly equal to the size of the object.
8. Repeat the experiment for different values of u and in each case measure the distance between the
image and lens.
9. Record the readings and calculate the focal length of convex lens using the formula.
Observation:
Rough focal length: ………… cm

S.No u in cm v in cm uv
F= in
u+v
cm

Calculations:

Graph Description :

Plot a graph between object distance u and image distance v by taking u along X – axis and v along Y – axis.
The graph comes to be a parabola. From graph, focal length can be calculated.

Result:
Focal length of the given concave mirror:
(i) By u-v method :…………………cm (ii) By graph method: …………………cm

Precautions:
(i) Lens should be clean
 (i) Lens should kept vertically on the stand
GLASS PRISM – DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION
Aim:
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence
and angle of deviation

Apparatus required:
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale office pins and a
protractor.

Diagram:

Procedure :

1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins.
2. Draw a straight line XX’ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of the paper.
3. Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3…… on the straight line XX’ at suitable distances of about 5cm.
4. Draw normals N1Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3…… on points Q1, Q2, Q3…… as shown in fig.
5. Draw straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3 ….. making angles of 35ο ,40ο ,…..60ο (write value of the angles on
the paper) respectively with the normals.
6. Mark one corner of the prism as A and take it as a the edge of the prism for all the observations.
7. Put the prism with its refracting face AB in the XX’ and point Q1 in the middle of AB.
8. Mark the boundary of the prism.
9. Fix two or more office pin P1 and P2 vertically on the line R1Q1. The distance between the pins should
be 10mm or more.
10. Look the images of point P1 and P2 through face AC.
11. Close your left eye and bring open right eye in line with the two images.
12. Fix two office pins P3 and P4 vertically, and 10 cm apart such that the open right eye sees pins P4 and P3
and images of P2 and P1 in one straight line.
13. Remove pins P3 and P4 and encircle their pricks on the paper.
14. Repeat the steps 7 to 13 with points Q2, Q3…… for i = 40ο ,…..60ο .
 15. Draw straight lines through points P4 and P3 to obtain emergent ray S1T1, S2T2, S3T3,…..
16. Produce T1S1, T2S2, T3S3….. inward in the boundary of the prism to meet produced incident rays R1Q1,
R2Q2, R3Q3,…. At points F1,F2, F3,….
17. Measure angles K1F1S1, K2F2S2, K3F3S3,..These give angle of deviation D1, D2,D3..
18. Write values of these angles on the paper.
19. Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism. This gives angle A.
20. Record your observations.

Observation:

S.N Angle of Angle of

o incidence deviation

Graph Description :
Model graph:
Plot a graph between angle of incidence(i) and angle of deviation (e) by taking i along X – axis and e along Y –
axis. The graph comes to be a parabola. From graph, the value of angle of minimum deviation D m
corresponding to the lowest point of the graph.
Result:
I – D graph is drawn. Angle of minimum deviation Dm =
Precautions:
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35o – 60o.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10mm.
 P- N JUNCTION DIODE – CHARACTERISTICS
Aim:
To draw the characteristic curve of a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias

Apparatus required:
A p-n junction diode, abattery, rheostat, voltmeter, ammeter, one way key and connecting wires.

Diagram:
Forward bias characteristics

Reverse bias characteristics

Procedure :

Forward bias characteristics:

1. Connect the components according to the circuit diagram.
2. Note least count and zero error of voltmeters and milli ammeter(micro ammeter)
3. Adjust the potentiometer to increase the voltage across the diode in steps of 0.1V
4. Note the current in the milliammeter in each case and record it.
Reverse bias characteristics:
5. Connect the components according to the circuit diagram.
6. Adjust the potentiometer to increase the voltage across the diode in steps of 1 V.
7. Note the current in the microammeter in each case and record it.
Observation:

Forward bias Reverse bias

S.No
voltage voltage
Current (I) Current (I)
(v) (v)
in mA in mA
in volts in volts

Graph Description:
Plot a graph between voltage (v) and current (I) by taking (v) along X axis and (I)along Y axis.
From graph, reverse breakdown voltage can be found.

Result:
The forward and reverse bias characteristics of the given p-n junction diode are drawn

Precautions:
1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Forward and reverse bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
 TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

Aim
To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

Materials Required
1. Glass slab of different thickness but the same material
2. A travelling microscope
3. Lycopodium powder

Theory

The principle behind glass slab

When a glass slab is placed on a horizontal surface, and its bottom surface is viewed from the top, due to
refraction, it appears to be elevated. The apparent thickness of the slab is determined from the distance
between the apparent bottom and the top of the glass slab. The refractive index with respect to the medium
and air is given as:

Procedure :
 1. To get a sufficient amount of light, place the travelling microscope (M) near the window.

2. To make the base of the microscope horizontal, adjust the levelling screw.

3. For clear visibility of the cross wire, adjust the position of the eyepiece.

4. For the vertical scale of the microscope, determine the vernier constant.

5. Mark point P on the base of the microscope using black ink.

6. To avoid the parallax between the cross-wires and the mark P, make the microscope vertical and focus
on P.

7. Let R1 be the vernier scale and main scale reading on the vertical scale.

8. Place the glass slab with least thickness over the mark P.

9. Let P1 be the image of the cross mark. Move the microscope upwards and focus on P 1.

10. For reading, R2 on the vertical scale repeat step 7.

11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of the slab.

12. To focus the particle near S, raise the microscope further upward.

13. For reading, R3 on the verticle scale repeat step 7.

14. Repeat the above steps for different thickness glass slabs.

15. Record the observations.

Observations And Calculations

Vernier constant for the vertical scale of microscope = ……..cm

Result :
The ratio R3−R1/R3−R2 is constant and gives the refractive index of the glass slab.

Precautions :

1. The parallax in a microscope should be removed properly.

2. To avoid backlash error, the microscope should be moved upward.