M

m= = _______Kg/m
L

Result:

The frequency of ac mains by using the sonometer is =_______Hz.

Precautions:

1) Sonometer wire should be horizontal and free of kinks.

2) Magnet should remain in the middle of vibrating segment and close to wire.
3) Resonance position should be noted when wire has maximum amplitude of
oscillation
Sources of Error:

1) Slotted weights may not have fixed value.

2) Pulley may not be frictionless.
3) Sonometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section

07. Focal length of concave mirror

Aim: To find the value of ‘v’ for different values of ‘u’ in case of the concave mirror.

Requirements: Concave mirror, mirror holder, metre scale, lamp with object

Theory: When a beam of light parallel to the principal axis falls on concave mirror, it
reflects the beam which passes through the focus. The nature and size of the image depends
on where the object is placed in front of the concave mirror.
1 1 1
The focal length formula is   where f is focal length of mirror in cm,
f v u
u is object distance in cm and v is image distance in cm.

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Observation:

Rough focal length of the given concave mirror = cm

S.No Mirror Object Image Focal length,f

position distance, u distance, v
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1. 2f-4
2. 2f-2
3. 2f
4. 2f+2
5. 2f+4
Procedure: mean, f= cm

Obtain the rough focal length value by focusing the image of a distant object on the
wall.
a) Mount the mirror in the mirror holder.
b) Ensure that the object and the mirror is on the straight line.
c) Keep the mirror from the object at a distance of twice the focal length of the mirror.
d) Adjust the position of the white screen till the image is obtained.
e) Measure the distance between the pole of the mirror and the object. This is the object
distance, u.
f) Measure the distance between mirror and screen.
This is the image distance, v.

h). Repeat the steps with mirror at (2f-2), (2f -4), (2f+2) and (2f+4) positions from object.

Result:The focal length of the concave mirror is

1) By calculation, f=______ cm
2) By u-v graph, f=______ cm

Precautions:

a) The object and mirror must be in a straight line. Do not keep the object closer to the
rough focal length of the mirror. This will produce a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and image should be at same height and should be in level with
centre of mirror.
c) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from the image to view the image clearly.

Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.

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 08. Focal length of convex lens

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v

Requirements: Convex lens, lens holder, metre scale, white screen, lamp with object.

Theory:When a ray of light, parallel to principal axis is incident on a convex lens, after
refraction, it passes through focus. Another ray which passes through optical centre goes
straight and these refracted rays meet and produce real inverted images. The nature and size
of image depends on position of object.

Focal length formula is 1  1  1 where u is object distance in cm, v is image distance

f v u
in cm and focal length of lens in cm.

Observation:

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = cm

Object Image Focal length, f

𝑢𝑣
S.No Lens position distance, u distance, v f=
(𝑢−𝑣)
(cm) (cm)
(cm)
1. 2f-4
2. 2f-2
3. 2f
4. 2f+2
5. 2f+4
Mean (f) = cm.

Procedure:

a) Obtain rough focal length of given convex lens by focusing the image of a distant
object on the wall.
b) Mount the given lens on the lens holder and place at 2f distance from the object.
c) Place white screen behind the lens.
d) Move the screen forward and backward so that the image of the object is obtained.
e) Note the position of the object, image and the lens.

16
 f) The distance between the object and the lens is u and the distance between the image
and the lens is v.
g) Repeat the above steps with lens at (2f-4),(2f-2), (2f+2) and (2f+4) positions from the
object.

Result:

The focal length (f) of given convex lens is,

1) By calculation, f=_____
2) By u-v graph, f=_____

Precautions:

a) Do not place the object closer than the rough focal length of the lens. This will produce
a virtual image.
b) Tips of the object and the image should be at same height and should correspond with
centre of curvature.
c) Keep your eye atleast 30cm away from image to view the image clearly.

Sources of error:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. The parallax may not be removed properly.
3. Personal error.
4. Sign convention not applied correctly.

09. Refractive index of a glass prism

Aim: To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph
between the angle of incidence and angle of deviation.

Requirements: Prism, drawing board, pins, white paper.

Theory: A prism is a refracting medium bounded by intersecting plane surfaces that both
disperse and deviate light. The two plane surfaces meet along an edge at a certain angle.
These planes are called the refracting edge and the angle is called the angle of prism or
refracting angle. A prism may be bound by any number of surfaces but the surface on which
light is incident and the surface from which light emerges must be plane and non-parallel.

r1  r2  QOS  2rtS ……….(1)

A  QOS  2rtS ……………(2)

17
 From (1) and (2),

A  r1  r2 . i.e., A = r1+r2 and D = i + e – A

sin i
Refractive index , n  ……….(3)
sin r1

When incident light ray suffers minimum deviation,

i = e , r1 = r2 =r………..(4)

A = 2r , r = A/2………..(5)

i = (A+Dm) / 2………..(6)
A  Dm
sin( )
Substitute (6) and (5) in (3), we get n  2
A
sin( )
2

Angle of minimum deviation: It is the minimum value of angle of deviation at which the
light ray after refraction from the first refracting face goes parallel to the base of the prism,
before it emerges from the second refracting face.

S.No Angle of incidence, i Angle of deviation, D

1. 30º
2. 35º
3. 40º
4. 45º
5. 50º
6. 55º
7. 60º

Procedure:

18
 a) Fix white paper on a drawing board with the help of thumb pins.
b) Draw a line through the centre of paper longitudinally.
c) Keep the triangular face of the prism with one of the edge on the line and draw the
boundary of the prism with the help of a sharp pencil.
d) Draw normal N on the sides AB at Q1.
e) Draw straight lines R1Q1 making an angle of 30 ̊ with the normal.
f) Fix two paper pins P1 and P2 on line R1Q1. Keep the pins at maximum distance away
from each other (atleast 5cm).
g) Place the prism back on the mark ABC. Look for the image of the pins P 1 and P2
through the face AC.
h) Take the third pin P3, close your left eye and fix the pin P3 at such a position that the
image of pins P1, P2 and P3 be on the same line.
i) Now take the fourth pin P4, again close your left eye and fix them at such a position
such that pins P1, P2 , P3and P4 are on the same line. Remove the pins from their
positions and encircle the points. Draw lines through P1, P2 , P3and P4.
j) Produce the emergent ray backward and incident ray forward to meet at E. Measure
the angle of deviation at D.
k) Repeat all the above steps for angles 35 ,̊ 40 ,̊ 45 ,̊ 50̊, 55̊ and 60̊. Do not take i < 30 ̊ to
avoid TIR.
l) Plot the graph i versus D with D on Y-axis and i on the X-axis.
Calculation:

Draw the graph between i and D with D on Y-axis and i on the X-axis. Find the
minimum angle of deviation by drawing a straight perpendicular line from the point of
the graph to the Y-axis called the angle Dm. Then, refractive index of prism is found
A  Dm
sin( )
from n  2 .
A
sin( )
2
Result:

1). The i-d graph is U-shaped indicating that as the angle of incidence increases,
angle of deviation first decreases and then increases.

2). Angle of minimum deviation Dm = _____

3). Refractive index of prism, n = ______

Precaution:

1) Angle of deviation should not be less than 30 ̊ or more than 60̊.

2) The pins fixed should be well apart (atleast 8cm away) and should be vertical.
3) The prism should not be changed while doing the experiment.
Sources of error:
19
 Sources of error:

1. The ink dot may not be sharply focused.

2. There may be calibration error.
3. Microscope tube may not be exactly vertical
4. Levelling of microscope should not be done properly.
5. Personal error..
11. PN Junction diode

Aim: To study the I-V characteristics curve of a pn junction diode in forward bias and
reverse bias.
Requirements: A pn junction diode, a battery, a high resistance rheostat, voltmeter,
milliammeter, one way key and connecting wires.
Theory: A pn junction is a semiconductort device obtained by putting in contact a p-type
semiconductor with an n-type semiconductor. The one piece device so obtained is also
called a junction diode. A junction diode is based on two different ways.
Forward biasing: In forward biasing, the p-type of ccrystal is connectged to the +ve of the
bias battery and n-type to the –ve of the battery. In forward biasing, current increases as
the forward bias is increased. The current increases slowly in the beginning and then
sharply. The forward current flows only if the initial forward voltage is greater than a
certain minimum voltage. This is represented by the knee voltage or cut-in voltage.
Reverse biasing: A p-n junction is said to reverse biasing if the p-type crystal is connected
to –ve terminal and n-type is connected to +ve terminal of the bias battery.
Now a very small current (µA) flows due to minority carriers. This current is called
saturation current because it is found to be independent off reverse bias. At a certain
reverse voltage the current suddenly increases the breaking of the covalent bonds. This
reverse voltage is called the reverse breakdown voltage.

Procedure:

Forward characteristics:

1). Make the connections as shown.

2). Keep the moving contact of the rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter
and milliammeter will show a zero reading.

3). Move the contact towards the positive of the battery to apply the forward bias voltage.
VF = 0.1V. The current remains zero.

4). Increase the forward bias voltage in steps. The current will still be zero. This is due to
junction potential barrier.

5). Increase VF in steps and note the corresponding milliammeter and voltmeter readings.

22
6) At VF = 0.4V, the current increases suddenly. This represents the forward bias cut-in
voltage.

7) Draw a graph between I and V, by taking V along X-axis and I along Y-axis.

Reverse biasing:

For plotting reverse I-V characteristics the circuit is modified as shown. The voltmeter as
before is connected across the p-n junction. The milliammeter is replaced by microammeter
as shown.

Observations:

Least count of Voltmeter = V

Least count of milliammeter = mA

Least count of microammeter = µA

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 (i)Forward bias:

S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Milli ammeter

Reading (mA)

(i) Reverse bias:

S.No Voltmeter Reading (V) Micro ammeter

Reading (µA)

Procedure: Same as in forward bias. The microammeter readings are noted corresponding
to different voltmeter readings. A graph between V and I is plotted by taking V along –X
axis and I along –Y axis.

Precautions:

1). Measuring instruments must be of proper range.

2) Make all connections neat , clean and tight.
3) Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not in use.
4) Avoid applying forward bias voltage beyond breakdown.
Sources of error:

1. There may be contact resistance particularly if any connection remains loose.

2. Each time the pointer of ammeter ( milli or micro)may not be on a scale mark.
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