Received: 28 March 2020 Revised: 9 August 2020 Accepted: 24 November 2020

DOI: 10.1111/1477-8947.12214

ARTICLE

Indian dye yielding plants: Efforts

and opportunities

Shilpi Aggarwal

Division of Plant Pathology, Indian Agriculture

Research Institute, New Delhi, India
Correspondence
Shilpi Aggarwal, Division of Plant Pathology,
Indian Agriculture Research Institute, New
Delhi 110012, India.
Email: shilpi.aggarwal03@gmail.com
Abstract
The present review article deals with the information on the
dye-yielding plants of India. Dyes are intensively coloured
compounds that are applied to a substrate such as fibre,
paper, cosmetics, hair, etc. to give colours and can be
extracted from the roots, fruits/berries, bark, leaves, flowers,
and stem/wood, fungi, and lichens by various processes of
extractions. In addition to their dye-yielding characteristics,
many of these plants possess medicinal values and can be
used for multiple other purposes. Plant derived-colours have
an important role in human life because of their safe and
eco-friendly nature. But due to the availability of economi-
cally cheaper synthetic dyes, the indigenous knowledge of
extraction, processing, and proper utilisation has been dimin-
ished. Nowadays, the demand for natural dyes has been
increased worldwide due to awareness about their beneficial
properties. It has been essential that proper documentation
and measure of conservation should be undertaken to pre-
serve these natural dye-yielding plants. This review article is
an aid to a collective inquiry into Indian dye plants.

KEYWORDS
classification of dyes, dye-yielding plants, extraction techniques,
indigenous uses, natural dyes, synthetic dyes

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N

Plants are not the only source for the basic needs of human life, such as food, fibre, fuel, and shelter, but they can
also be used as natural colourants. These natural colours are exhibited due to the absorption of light in the visible
region of 400–800 nm by various organic and inorganic molecules and their mixture in plants (Chengaiah, Rao,

Nat Resour Forum. 2021;45:63–86. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/narf © 2021 United Nations 63

64 AGGARWAL

Kumar, Alagusundaram, & Chetty, et al., 2010). India has a rich wealth of genetic plant resources, of which more than
500 species produce natural colours, obtained from leaves, fruits, seeds, flowers, barks and roots of these plant spe-
cies. This abundant natural resource gives scope to explore new opportunities for commercialisation in several indus-
tries, such as, textiles, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and paper industries in India.
Dye textiles found during archaeological excavation at different global locations, provide evidence of the prac-
tice of dying in ancient civilisations. From historical records, it is understood that natural colourants were available
during Greco-Roman periods. The dyeing process was also practised during the Indus river valley civilization at
Mohenjodaro and Harappa (3500 BC), former Egyptian, and China period (Siva, 2007). Moldenke (I.C) reports that
an orange or yellow impermanent dye is made from corolla-tubes of Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn, for Buddhist
robes in Sri Lanka (Panigrahi & Murti, 1989). In Indian Vedas (the oldest written religious scriptures, originating
from ancient India and consists of four units namely, Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda), the
Atharva Veda also carries the description of natural dyes. The use of natural dyeing materials is also evident with
the wall paintings of Ajanta, Ellora and Sithannvasal and they still demonstrate the efficacy of dyeing craft that had
been inherited from ancient times in India (Upadhayay and Choudhery, 2012). In fact, it is evident that some
important dyes namely Madder, Indigo and Kermes, were used globally, introduced to worldwide by Indians during
early civilisations.
Natural dyes from plants (roots, stem bark and leaves), animals (insects, mollusks), lichens, rocks and soils were
quite commonly used throughout the world, but this method of dye production started to change about 160 years
ago (since 1856) with the introduction of a synthetic dye made from aniline by Sir William Henry Perkins in England
(Adrosko, 1971), because of non-availability of viable alternatives, the synthetic dyes were being manufactured and
used as a matter of necessity. Moreover, these man-made dyes were cheaper, more readily available, had greater col-
our fastness, and were more stable; this caused the downward spiral of natural dye use. However, during recent
years, the issue of natural dyes has to be taken seriously because synthetic dyes are polluting the environment and
the carcinogenicity of certain diazo dyes makes synthetic dyes highly unpopular and are poorly accepted. As a result,
there has recently been a global ban imposed, including the EU, USA and India on the use of some synthetic dyes. In
contrast, natural dyes are biodegradable and highly compatible with the environment and are also free from the
defects associated with synthetic dyes. These transitions have resulted in a need to investigate the natural, eco-
friendly dyes with the view to increase their commercialisation.
This study details natural dye information and also focuses on the usefulness of natural dyes found in the
Indian system. This vast treasure of indigenous knowledge developed by ethnic people for utilisation of various
plants for their day-to-day needs requires proper documentation; otherwise, this indigenous knowledge of dyes
and dying practices will be lost. So, it has become essential that appropriate documentation and conservation mea-
sures should be undertaken to preserve these natural dye-yielding plants. Information about natural dyes, including
their sources, application procedures, and various advantages and disadvantages of using them are discussed in
this review article.

2 | C LA S S I F I C A TI O N O F N A T U R A L D Y E

The earliest classification of these dyes was found according to the alphabetical order of their botanical names
(Gulrajani, Gupta, Agarwal, & Jain, 1992). Later, they were classified in various ways based on their origin, hues,
applications and chemical constitutions (Paul, Jayesh, & Naik, 1996; Teli, Paul, & Pardesi, 2000).

2.1 | Classification based on origin

There are primarily three sources from which natural dyes are extracted, namely, plants, minerals, and animals.
AGGARWAL 65

TABLE 1 Some common natural dyes obtained from different plant parts

Plant parts Dyestuffs

Root Turmeric, Madder (Manjistha), Onions, Beetroot
Bark/branches Purple bark, Sappanwood, Shillicorai, Khair, Red bark, Sandalwood
Leaves Indigo, Henna, Eucalyptus, Tea, Cardamon, Coral Jasmine, Lemon Grass
Flowers (petals) Marigold, Dahlia, Tesu, Kusum
Fruits/seeds Latkan, Pomegranate rind, Beetle nut, Myrobolan (Harda)

2.1.1 | Plants

According to Chandramouli (1995), various plant parts synthesised more than 2,000 colour pigments of which, only
about 150 have been commercially exploited. Various parts of many plants like root, bark, stem, seeds, and fruit are
found potentially rich in natural dye and can be used for colour extraction (Table 1). Some plants may yield more than
one colour depending upon which part of the plant is extracted (Sinha, Saha, & Datta, 2012).

2.1.2 | Minerals

These colourants are derived from natural mineral sources. Mineral colours are produced from purified natural
organic compounds. Some of the important mineral colourant is chrome yellow, iron buff, nankin yellow, prussian
blue, and manganese brown.

2.1.3 | Animals

Animals are also rich source of natural dyes. Dyes are usually extracted from the dried body of insects; common
examples are lac, cochineal and chemical structures. A brilliant red dye, ochineal is produced from insects living on
cactus plants. The bright red appearance of cherries is developed by the artificial colour “carmine,” obtained from
the cochineal insect.

2.2 | Classification based on colours

Based on hue in the Colour Index, the dyes are classified according to the chemical constitution and major applica-
tion classes. Some dyes produce more than one colour. The hue of natural dyes is assigned with the number of dyes,
by Colour Index International, which started in 1924 with the number of dye. A total of 92 natural dyes are listed in
the Colour Index (Kokubun, Edmunds, & John, 1998). The number of dyes in each colour is given in Table 2. Based
on the colour that they impart to the fibre dyes are categorised as follows (Paul et al., 1996).

2.2.1 | Red

The colour index lists 32 natural red dyes. Most of the red colourants are found in the barks or roots of the
plants. A few prominent examples of red dye are: madder (Rubia tinctorum), Manjistha (Rubia cordifolia), Brazil
wood/sappan wood (Caesal pinasappan), Al or morinda (Morinda citrifolia) Cochineal (Coccus cacti L.) and Lac dye
66 AGGARWAL

T A B L E 2 The number of dyes in each

C.I. natural No. of dyes Percentage
hue as per the colour index
Yellow 28 30.4
Red 32 34.8
Brown 12 13.0
Black 6 6.5
Orange 6 6.5
Green 5 5.5
Blue 3 3.3

(Coccus laccae) (Vankar, 2000). All these dyes are based on anthraquinone structure, except Brazil/Sappon
wood-based dyes (Table 3).

2.2.2 | Blue

The Colour Index lists only four blue natural dyes, namely, natural indigo, sulphonated natural indigo, Kumbh
(Manipur) and the flowers of Japanese “Tsuykusa” (used mainly for making awobana paper) (Hao, Wu, Huang, & Lin,
2006). The only viable choice among the natural blue dyes is indigo.

2.2.3 | Yellow

Yellow is the most common and abundant colour in the natural dye class. The Colour Index lists 28 yellow dyes.
About 90% of the yellow colour dyes are flavonoids. Some of these important dyes are obtained from barberry
(Berberis aristata), tesu flowers (Butea monosperma) (Gulrajani et al., 1992; Paul et al., 1996). The sources of natural
yellow colour include turmeric, kamela, tesu, marigold, larkspur, harshingar, annatto, berberis, and dolu (Table 3).

2.2.4 | Green

Plants that yield green dyes are rare. Both woad (Isatis tinctoria) and indigo have been used since ancient times in
combination with yellow dyes to produce green shades. Soft olive greens are also obtained when textiles dyed
yellow are treated with iron mordant.

2.2.5 | Brown

There is virtually no limit to the natural sources for brown colour. Cutch is an ancient brown dye obtained from the
wood of acacia trees; particularly Acacia catechu is used for dyeing of cotton in a brown hue.

2.2.6 | Black

Black shades, generally obtained from tannin-rich plants and appreciably substantive towards cellulosic and protein
fibrefibre, impart excellent fastness properties. Examples – logwood, harda, custard apple, etc. (Hao et al., 2006) (Table 3).
AGGARWAL 67

TABLE 3 Sources of different coloured dyes

Colour Botanical name Parts used

Red dyes
Safflower Carthamus tinctorious Flower
Caesalpina Caesal piniasappan Wood chips
Madder Rubia tinctorium Wood
Lac Coccus lacca (insect) Twigs inhabited by these insects
Yellow dyes
Bougainvillea Bougainvillea glabra Flower
Golden rod Solidago grandis Flower
Teak Tectona grandis Leaves
Marigold Tagetes species Flower
Parijata Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Flower
Blue dyes
Indigo Indigofera tinctorial Leaves
Woad Isatis tinctorial Leaves
Suntbery Acacia nilotica Seedpods
Pivet Ligustrum vulgare Mature berries after frost
Water lily Nymphaea alba Rhizomes
Black dyes
Lac Coccus lacca (insect) Twigs inhabited by these insects
Alder Alnus glutinosa Bark
Rofblamala Loranthus pentapetalus Leaves
Custard apple Anona reticulate Fruit
Harda Terminalia chebula Fruit
Brown dyes
Caesalpina Caesal piniasappan Woodchips
Balsam Impatiens balsamina Flower
Bougainvillea Bougainvillea glabra Flower
Marigold Tagetes species Flower
Black berries Rubus fructicosus Berries
Green dyes
Tulsi Ocimum sanctum Leaves
Bougainvillea Bougainvillea glabra Flower
Canna Flower
Lily Convallaria majalis Leaves and stalk
Nettles Urtica diocia Leaves
Orange/peach dyes
Bougainvillea Bougainvillea glabra Flower
Balsam Impatiens balsamina Flower
Dahlia Dahlia species Flower
Annatto Bixa orellana Seeds
68 AGGARWAL

2.2.7 | Orange

Red and yellow dyes can also yield orange. The sources for a natural orange dye are barberry, annatto, sweet pepper
blood roots, etc. (Tayade & Adivarekar, 2013).

2.3 | Classification based on applications

2.3.1 | Mordant dyes

Some protein fabrics such as silk and wool can be coloured simply by being dipped in dye. In contrast,
cellulosic material such as cotton requires a mordant, which improves the fastness of the dye against
water, light and perspiration. If the dye needs no mordants, they are called substantive dyes, such as
lichens and walnut hulls. If they require a mordant, they are called adjective dyes. Mordants can be used
to enhance the colour characteristics and fastness of natural dyes on a textile substrate (Vankar &
Shankar, 2008). The choice of mordant is crucial because these dyes form complexes with the mordant
and different mordants can change the final colour significantly. Three types of mordants are used:

1. Metallic mordants – some of the important mordants used are alum, potassium dichromate, ferrous sulphate,
copper sulphate, zinc sulphate, tannin, and tannic acid (Maulik & Pradhan, 2005; Nalankilli, 1997). Although these
metal mordants contribute to developing a wide range of hues after complexing with the natural colouring
compounds. Most of these metals are toxic and due to increased environmental awareness, the use of certain
metallic mordants has been restricted.
2. Bio mordants – in the recent past, bio mordants have been used as another alternative to chemical mordants to
solve the fastness problem of natural dyes. Bio mordants are those substances that can obtain from natural
sources (i.e., plants, animals, etc.) such as myrobolan (Terminalia chebula), tannin, tannic acid, guava, and banana
leaves ash. The use of bio mordant also is a possible eco-friendly approach to improve dye uptake and colour fast-
ness (Paul, Solans, & Eerra, 2005; Vankar & Shankar, 2008; Vankar, Shanker, & Verma, 2007). However, bio mor-
dant showed a better result than alum for light, wash and perspiration fastness properties. The most common
non-metallic mordants are tannins and tannic acid, but metal hyper-accumulating plants and chlorophylls have
also been applied (Guesmi, Ladhari, Ben Hamadi, & Sakli, 2012; Moiteiro, Gaspar, Rodrigues, Lopes, &
Carnide, 2008). Some effective bio mordants were reported by many workers such as oxalic acid and citric acid
(Lohtander, Arola, & Laaksonen, 2020); Acacia catechu (Yusuf, Mohammad, Shabbir, & Khan, 2016) and Eurya
acuminate (Vankar & Shankar, 2008).
3. Oil mordants – oil mordants make a complex with the alum used in mordanting treatment. Metal atom
combined with carboxylic groups of oil and bound metal then makes a bond with the dye molecules to get
superior wash fastness (Mansour, 2018). Oil mordants are used in the dyeing of madder. Previously, castor
and til (sesame) oils were used as oil mordants, but later they were replaced by a sulponated castor oil, that
is, Turkey Red Oil (TRO).

2.3.2 | Vat dyes

These are water insoluble and first reduced with sodium hydrosulphide followed by solubilisation with sodium
hydroxide; in this state they show affinity for natural fibres. After application on the fibre, dye converts into a parent
insoluble form by oxidation to develop the true colour, for example, indigo.
AGGARWAL 69

2.3.3 | Direct dyes

Direct dyes possess affinity for cellulosic fibre without any pre-treatment to dye or the fibre. Many natural dyes
belong to this class and the most common examples are turmeric and annatto.

2.3.4 | Acid dyes

These possess either sulphonic or carboxylic groups in structure and are most suitable for dyeing of wool and silk
from acidic medium, for example, saffron.

2.3.5 | Basic dyes

Basic dyes on ionisation develop coloured cations and form electrovalent bond with the –COOH groups of wool and
silk. These are applied from neutral to mildly acidic pH and shows poor light fastness, for example, berberine.

2.3.6 | Azoic dyes

These dyes are used for colouring cotton fabric and contain azo component ( N N ). In the dyeing process, fibre is first
treated with coupler, followed by the application of azo dye. This type of dye is considered extremely fast to light.

2.3.7 | Disperse dyes

These dyes have relatively low molecular weight, low aqueous solubility and no strong solubilising groups. These
dyes can be applied on synthetic fibre at neutral to mild acidic pH. They can also be applied to silk and wool.

2.4 | Classification based on chemical constitution

Natural dyes have a complex chemical constitution. Unlike synthetic dyes, natural dyes are usually not single entities
but cover a wide range of chemical classes with specific colours. Based on their chemical constitution; dyes can also
be classified (Dedhia, 1998; Vankar, 2000) (Table 4).

TABLE 4 Chemical constitutes of dyes of different colours

Colours Chemical classification Common names

Yellow and Brown Flavone dyes Quercitron, Tesu
Yellow Iso-quinoline dyes Barberry
Orange-yellow Chromene dyes Kamala
Brown Naphthoquinone dyes Henna, Alknet
Black Benzophyrone dyes Cochineal, Madder
Blue Indigoid dyes Logwood
Red Anthraquinone dyes Indigo
Neutrals Tannins Pomegranate, Eucalyptus
70 AGGARWAL

FIGURE 1 Chemical structure of Anthraquinone dye

2.4.1 | Anthraquinone dyes

Red dyes are based mostly on anthraquinone structure and can be obtained from plants, animals or insects. These
dyes are characterised due to good fastness to light and washing. Examples are madder (alizarin), lac dye (animal
dye), kermes and cochineal (insect dye). The most famous natural dye is alizarin obtained from European madder
(Rubia tinctorum) (Figure 1).

2.4.2 | Naphthoquinone

Some of the natural dyes belonging to this category are henna, walnut shells etc., Which produce orange, red, or red-
dish-brown shades like anthraquinone dyes. The colouring matter of henna is lawsone which is 2-hydroxy
naphthoquinone and walnut shells contain juglone which is 5-hydroxy naphthoquinone.

2.4.3 | Indigoid dyes

Two very important natural dyes possess indigoid structure, namely indigo and tyrian purple. Indigo is perhaps the
oldest natural dye and used pre-historically in India, where it probably originated. The word Indigo is also derived
from “Indican”. It occurs as the glucoside indicant in the plant Indigofera tinctoria and it's Indian heritage can be
traced back some 4,000 years (Yusuf & Mohammad, 2017) (Figure 2).

2.4.4 | Carotenoid dyes

The class name is derived from the orange pigment due to the presence of a long conjugated double bond.
Carotenoids absorb the dangerous UV radiation and thereby protect the plant's tissues. They have yellow, orange
and red colours and are divided into carotenes and xanthophylls. The typical representative of carotenes is the
orange beta-carotene in carrots or the red lycopene in tomatoes. Some common examples are annatto and saffron.
(Figure 3).

2.4.5 | Flavonoid dyes

Flavonoid is the dominant structural class of the natural dyes. It has been further divided into seven classes, such as
flavones, flavanones (e.g., citrus fruit), isoflavones (e.g., pulses), anthocyanins, anthocyanidins, and proanthocyanidins
(e.g., black tea, green tea, apple, and blackberry). Flavonoids yield yellow, and most natural yellows are derivatives of
hydroxyl and methoxy substituted flavones and isoflavones. Weld (Reseda luteola) and woad waxen (Genista tinctoria)
are examples of flavonoids group (Figure 4).
AGGARWAL 71

FIGURE 2 Chemical structure of

Indigo dye

F I G U R E 3 Chemical structure of
Carotenoid dye

FIGURE 4 Chemical structure of Flavones

2.4.6 | Dihydropyran dyes

Dihydropyrans are closely related to the flavonoid structure. Haematin and its leuco form haematoxylin are the main col-
ouring substances present in logwood (heartwood of Haematoxylon campechianum, CI natural black). These are impor-
tant natural dyes for dark shades on silk, wool, and cotton. e.g., Logwood, Brazil wood and sappan-wood (Figure 5).

2.4.7 | Anthocyanins dyes

These are the most important flavonoid colourants in plants and mostly occur in floral tissues. The six main anthocyanin
chromophores and their glycosides are pelargonidin, cyanidin, delphinidin, peonidin, petunidin, and malvidin (Stintzing &
Carle, 2004). Anthocyanins play a very important role in the food industry (dairy products, beverages, confectionery, etc.)
due to their brilliant hues, strong dyeing ability and are relatively safer from a health perspective. (Figure 6).

2.4.8 | Tannin based dyes

Tannins are polyphenolic compounds that are present in many plants commonly used for dyeing purposes of fabrics.
Tannin based dyes generally require mordants for fixing onto the fabric. This class of dyes also change colour with
72 AGGARWAL

FIGURE 5 Chemical structure of Dihydropyran dye

FIGURE 6 Chemical structure of Anthocyanin dye

the change in mordant depending upon the dye-mordant complex. The dye obtained from the bark of Acacia nilotica
(Babool; Brown) and wood of Acacia catechu (Cutch) has a polyphenolic structure.

2.5 | Preparation of dyes

In preparation of dye generally, crushed dye powder is boiled with water, but sometimes it is left to steep in cold
water. The obtained solution is then typically used to dye coarse cotton fabrics. Alum is generally used as a mor-
dant. For colouring, the material is steeped in a hot or cold decoction of the flowers. Permanent colours are pro-
duced either by first treating the cloth with alum and wood ash or by adding these substances to the dye-bath.
The indigo dye is produced by fermentation and then followed by oxidation of the solution with air in a separate
vessel. To prepare annatto dye, nearly ripen fruits are collected from Bixa orellena L. The seeds and pulp are of
these mature fruits, which are then macerated with water. After that, they are either ground up into an “annatto
paste” or dried and marketed as annatto seeds. Sometimes, macerated seeds and pulp products are strained
through a sieve and the colouring matter that settles out is collected and partially evaporated and finally dried in
the sun (Krishnamurthy, 1993).

2.6 | Extraction techniques of dyes from plants

Natural dyes cannot be used directly from their renewable sources. Natural dye-bearing plant materials contain only
a small percentage of colouring matter with many other constituents such as water-insoluble fibres, carbohydrates,
protein, chlorophyll, and tannins. The extraction of colouring component should be safe and should avoid any con-
tamination in various extraction procedures. Moreover, standardisation of extraction process with the optimisation
of the extraction variables for a particular natural dye has technical and commercial importance on colour yield and
cost of the extraction process and dyeing (Mansour, 2018). Nature and solubility characteristics of the colouring
materials need to be ascertained before employing an extraction process. The different methods for extraction of
colouring materials from different plants are as follows,
AGGARWAL 73

2.7 | Aqueous extraction

The aqueous extraction is a traditional process that is used to extract dyes from plants. In this process, the dye-
containing material is broken into very small pieces to form a powder, which is then sieved. Next, it is soaked with
water in earthen, wooden, or metal vessels (preferably copper or stainless steel) overnight to loosen the cell structure
and then boiled to get the dye solution, which is filtered to remove non-dye plant remnants. This process of boiling
and filtering is repeated to get maximum dye matter.

2.8 | Acid and alkali extraction process

Many dyes are present in the form of glycosides in the plants and can be extracted under the dilute acidic or alkaline
actions. Acid or alkali accelerates the hydrolysis of glycosides resulting in better extraction with a higher yield of col-
ouring content. The acid hydrolysis process is applied for the extraction of dye from tesu (Butea monosperma)
flowers. Acidified water is also used for extracting many flavones dyes to prevent oxidative degradation. Alkaline
extraction is used for dyes having phenolic groups because they are soluble in alkali and improves the dye yield. Dyes
can be later precipitated by the use of acids. This technique can be used to extract dyes from annatto seeds, lac dye
and safflower.

2.9 | Fermentation

This method of extraction uses the enzymes produced by the microorganisms present in the atmosphere or those
present in the natural resources for assisting the extraction process. Indigo extraction is the most common example
for this type of extraction. Extraction of indigo from other indigo-containing plants such as woad. Extraction from
annatto is also carried out by fermentation. The microorganisms disintegrate the colouring matter binding the sub-
stances in natural way.

2.10 | Enzymatic extraction

Plant tissues contain many binding materials such as cellulose, starches, and pectins. Then commercially available
enzymes such as cellulase, amylase, and pectinase have been used to loosen the surrounding material, leading to the
extraction of dye molecules. This process is considered beneficial in the extraction of dye from hard plant parts such
as bark, roots, and the like.

2.11 | Solvent extraction

Natural colouring matters depending upon their biochemical nature, can also be extracted by using organic sol-
vents such as acetone, petroleum ether, chloroform, ethanol, methanol, or a mixture of solvents such as mixture
of ethanol and methanol, a mixture of water with alcohol, and so on. The water/alcohol extraction method is
able to extract both water-soluble and water-insoluble substances from the plant resources. The extraction yield
is thus higher, compared to the aqueous method, as larger number of chemicals and colouring materials are
extracted. Acid or alkali can also be added to alcoholic solvents to facilitate hydrolysis of glycosides and the
release of colouring matter.
74 AGGARWAL

2.12 | Supercritical fluid extraction

A gas function such as supercritical fluid can extract above critical values of temperature and pressure, which can dis-
solve many substances like a liquid, as the solubility of a substance is higher at higher pressure and temperature.
Such conditions are needed to maintain the gas in the supercritical state. Supercritical fluid extraction using carbon
dioxide (CO2) is an excellent alternative to solvent extraction as it is non-toxic, affordable, readily available, and does
not leave residues. Hence the process has gained popularity in the extraction of purified natural products for food
and pharmaceutical applications. Vankar, Tiwari, and Ghorpade (2001) reported the extraction and purification of
natural colourant from eucalyptus bark using the SCF process. Attempts have also been made to standardise
colourants derived from arjun bark, babool bark and pomegranate rind (Patel & Agarwal, 2001).

2.13 | Ultrasonic and microwave extraction

These are actually microwave and ultrasound waves-assisted extraction processes where extraction efficiency is
increased by reducing the quantity of required solvent, time, and temperature. So these are considered as green pro-
cess. Extraction of heat-sensitive dye molecules is better by ultrasonic methods. In microwave extraction, the natural
sources are treated with a minimum amount of solvent in the presence of microwave energy sources. Microwave
increases the rate of the processes so the extraction can be completed in a shorter time, resulting in a better yield.
Sinha et al. (2012) have reported extraction of annatto colourant with microwave energy. As the exploration of new
dye sources and attempts to optimise the dye extraction process is continuing, an increase use of this extraction
technique has been recently reported by many researchers.

2.14 | Uses of dyes in India

The global number of dye yielding plant families is reportedly between 402 and 457. However, only 1,100 plant taxa
are used for dying (Dogan, Baslar, Ozturk, & Mert, 2008) and more than 500 species are used in India
(Anonymous, 2003; Dogan et al., 2008). In India, the extraction of natural dyes and their use for dyeing of fabrics
and other purposes has been known from time immemorial. In most cases, the extraction and application process
has been localised in the areas in abundance of the dye bearing plants. It is mainly oriented to the needs of local
importance. A large number of plant sources have been identified for the extraction of colour and their diversified
use in textile dyeing, food colouration, cosmetics (Dweck, 2002), medicinal, histological staining (Tousson & Al-
Behbehani, 2011), and several other application disciplines (Shahid & Mohammad, 2013). Some valuable dye yielding
plants and their uses have been given in Table 5.

2.15 | Textile industries

The earliest evidence of textile dying comes from an over 5,000-year-old piece of cloth dyed with madder, which
was discovered at Mohenjoadro, Pakistan (Marshell, 1973). The use of suitable and compatible binary/ternary mix-
tures of natural dyes for colouring textiles in a variety of shades with eco-friendly mordants and finishing agents is
the most desirable product for customers. The non-reproducibility and poor colour fastness, etc., have been partly
solved by many researchers with continuous efforts in this endeavour. A large number of plants are used in textile
industries for colouring, in which very few natural ones by their unique quality have retained a significant position in
the textile sector.
AGGARWAL 75

TABLE 5 Important dye yielding plants of India with their local name, primary colour and uses

Plant name Family Distribution Plant part Dye colour and other uses
Abies spectabilis (D. Don.) Pinaceae East Himalayan Cone Purple or violet dye
Spach silver fir
Acacia catechu Willd. Mimosaceae Cutch tree Ht-wd Marketed in the form of Katha-edible
Acacia chundra Willd. Mimosaceae Cutch tree Ht-wd Katha
Acanthopanax trifoliatum Araliaceae Pak-Pom Fruit Yields black dye-edible
(L.) Voss.
Adina cordifolia Benth. & Rubiaceae Asm- Kelikadam Ht-wood Blackish brown
Hook.f.
Aegle marmelos Correa ex Rutaceae Asm-Bel Fruit Yellow to dye cotton
Roxb.
Aesculus hippocastanum L. Sapindaceae Horse-chesnut Wood Yellow dye for leather, used in the
treatment of haemorrhoids,
varicose veins, diarrhoea, and
enlarged prostate.
Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Simaroubaceae Guggul Dhup Leaves Black dye
Alston
Albizia odoratissima Benth. Mimosaceae Asm- Jatikoroi Bark Brick red
Aloe barbadensis Mill. Liliaceae Barbados aloe Plant Red dye
Althaea rosea Cav. Malvaceae Holly-hock Flower Medicinal red dye
Anthemis nobilis L. Asteraceae Roman chamomile Flower Yellow dye
Aporusa aurea Hk. F. Euphorbiaceae Gargo-Khuta Leaves Yellow dye
Aporusa dioica Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae Aporosa Leaves Black dye
Ardisia solanacea Roxb. Myrsinaceae Bisi, duck eye Flower Yellow dye
Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex Boraginaceae Himalayan amber Root Purple dye
G. Don)
Arnebia euchroma (Royle) Boraginaceae Pink arnebea Root Red dye
Johnston
Arnebia guttata Bunge Boraginaceae Spotted arneba Root Red dye, used for cough
Arnebia hispidissima DC. Boraginaceae Arabian primrose Root As a crystalline red, purple
dye(shikalkin)
Arnebia nobilism Reichb. f. Boraginaceae Ratanjot Root Red dye
Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. Moraceae Ingtatarong (Karbi) Ht-wd Yellow dye for cotton
Artocarpus heterophyllus L. Moraceae Jackfruit Wood Yellow colouring matter
Azanza lampas (Cav.) Alef. Malvaceae Bankapas Flower Red dye
Basella alba L. Basellaceae Asm-Rongapuroi Flower Maroon tore dye silk and cotton
Bauhinia purpurea L. Caesalpiniaceae Kurial (Deori) St-bk Yellow dye cotton and silk
Bauhinia tomentosa L. Caesalpiniaceae Kachnar Leaves Yellow dye
Berberis aristate DC Berberidaceae Indian barberry, Wood & Yellow dye- cotton, silk, woollen
Chitra root
Bidens triparti Bl. Asteraceae 3-lobed begger Plant Black dye
Bischofiaj avanica Bl. Euphorbiaceae Paniala Bark Red dye employed to dye rattan
baskets
Bixa Orellana L. Bixaceae Annatto tree Seeds Edible, medicinal orange dye to silk
and cotton

(Continues)
76 AGGARWAL

TABLE 5 (Continued)

Plant name Family Distribution Plant part Dye colour and other uses
Bridelia stipularis Blume Phyllanthaceae Climbing bridelis Flower Yield a colouring matter
Buddleja Scrophularaiaceae Smoke bush Flower A yellow dye, used in cough and
madagascariensis L. bronchitis
Butea monosperma (L.) Fabaceae Palash Flower Yield brilliant fugitive yellow colour to
Kuntze dye silk, cotton and woollen
Caesal piniasappan L. Caesalpiniaceae Asm.-Bakam St-bk, Ht- Red black to dye silk cotton and
wd woollen
Carthamus tinctorius L. Asteraceae Safflower; Kusum Flower Red & yellow dyes for colouring
liqueurs, candles, cosmetics.
Cassytha filiformis L. Lauraceae Amarbel Stem St mashed in water yield a brown dye
Cedrela toona Roxb. Meliaceae Red cedar Flower Yield a yellow/red dye, “Gunari.”
Coscinium fenestratum Menispermaceae False Calumba; Stem A yellow dye resembling turmeric-
Colebr. Daru Haridra medicinal
Cosmos sulphurous L. Asteraceae Sulpher cosmos Flower Yellow/orange dye, inhibit bacteria,
virus and fungi
Crescentia cujete L. Bignoniaceae Bilayati bel Sap Sap used for dyeing silk black
Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae Saffron Flower Red dye, edible and medicinal
Crotalaria mucronate Desv. Fabaceae San Plant Black dye
Curcuma domestica Valeton Zingiberaceae Turmeric Rhizome Edible, medicinal, yellow to cotton
and silk
Daemonorops draco Blume Arecaceae Dragon's blood, Flower Red resin-varnishes-lacquers,
medicinal
Daemonorops kurzianus Hk. Arecaceae Hradukhi Flower Red dye
f.
Daemonorops propinquus Arecaceae Dragon's blood, Flower Red dye
Becc.
Datisca cannabina L. Datiscaceae Akalbir Leaves, Yellow dye/medicinal for rheumatism
root
Delonix regia Raf. Caesalpiniaceae Asm.-Radha sura Gum Yellow-cotton
Desmos chinensis Lour. Annonaceae Dwafy langylang Flower Yellow dye, used in dysentery
Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f. Aspergeraceae Socotra dragon Bark Exudes a red resin used in cosmetics
Dracaena schizantha Baker Aspergeraceae Female dragon Bark Red resin called Arabian Dragon's
blood
Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. Asteraceae Bhangra Plant Source of a black stain, used in the
preparations for darkening hair
Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Euphorbiaceae Asm.-Rong goch Leaves To dye cotton black
Ervatamia divaricate (L.) Apocynaceae Indian rosebay; Fruit pulp Red pulp surrounded the seeds is
Alston Chandni employed for dyeing fabrics silk
Euonymus tingens Wall. Celastraceae Kungku Bark Yellow dye
Fagopyrum esculentum Polygonaceae Kotu Hulls Brown dye
Moench
Fibraurea trotter Watt Menispermaceae Manipur-Napu Roots Yellow dye
Galium aparine L. Rubiaceae Goosegrass Roots Purple dye
Galium verum L. Rubiaceae Cheese rennet Root Yellow dye, used for colouring butter
and cheese; roots yield red dye
used for dyeing woollens
AGGARWAL 77

TABLE 5 (Continued)

Plant name Family Distribution Plant part Dye colour and other uses
Garcinia cowa Roxb. Clusiaceae Kowaganboji Bark A yellow dye
Garcinia dulcis (Roxb.) Kurz Clusiaceae Mundee Bark Green/yellow dye for silk
Garcinia Morella Desr. Clusiaceae Asm.-Kujithkera Gum from To dye silk yellow
ripe
fruit
Garcinia xanthochymus Clusiaceae Asm.-Teportenga St-bk, Yellow colour to dye silk
Hk. f. fruit,
gum
Geranium nepalense Sweet Rubiaceae Nepal geranium Roots Roots contain a red colour are used
Bhanda for colouring medicinal oils
Gossypium herbaceum L. Malvaceae Cotton Flower Fresh flower paste yields a yellow
colour to dye silk and cotton
Gymnema tingens Spreng. Asclepiadaceae Stem Blue dye
Haematoxylon Mimosaceae Blackwood Ht-wd/ A red dye called hematoxylin, used in
campechianum L. Logwd wool industry & microscopical
staining.
Hedyotis umbellate L Rubiaceae Cheyroot Root Root dye for imparting red colour to
calico, wool and silk fabrics
Helianthus annuus L. Asteraceae Sunflower Flower A yellow dye.
heads
Heliotropium indicum L. Boraginaceae Hattajuri, Leaves A black dye, medicinal for rheumatism
Indianturnsol
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Malvaceae Shoe flower Flower Yield a dye formerly employed for
blackening shoes, hair and
eyebrows.
Hydrocera triflora W. & A. Balsaminaceae Beng.-Domuti Flower Used in the same way as henna
Impatience balsamina L. Balsaminaceae Garden balsam Flower, Substitute for henna; Orange and red
leaves to dye silk wool and cotton
Indigofera hirsute L. Fabaceae Hairy indigo Leaves Source of Indigo dye in West African
countries.
Indigofera cordifolia Heyne Fabaceae Gokhero Leaves Yellow dye
Indigofera tinctorial L. Fabaceae True indigo Leaves Yield blue colour to dye silk and
cotton
Iphigenia indica Kunth Liliaceae Indian grass lily Flower A red dye
Iresine herbstii P. Br. Amaranthaceae Blood leaves Leaves Red, obtained by squeezing leaves in
water, used for colouring agar-agar
jelly
Isatis tinctoria L. Brassicaceae Dyer's Woad Leaves Yield a blue dye called woad
Jasminum humile L. Oleaceae Yellow Jasmine; Roots A yellow dye extracted from the roots
Peelichameli
Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait. Oleaceae Arabian Jasmine; Flower Yield a yellow pigment used as a
Moghra substitute for saffron
Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Physic Nut Bark, A dark blue dye used for dyeing cloth,
Leaves fishing-nets and lines.
Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae Walnut, Akhrot Green Brown dye, Used for dyeing
hulls

(Continues)
78 AGGARWAL

TABLE 5 (Continued)

Plant name Family Distribution Plant part Dye colour and other uses
Juniperus communis L. Cupressaceae Common Juniper, Leaves, Yield green dyes, used in skin diseases
Ardic root
Kaempferia rotunda L. Zingiberaceae Bhuichampo Rhizome Used in cosmetics and as a dye
Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Euphorbiaceae Pancoli/Karineli Bark Yields a red dye
Baill.
Knema angustifolia (Roxb.) Myristicaceae Tree Yields a red fluid and used as a
Warb. varnish
Lannea coromandelica Anacardiaceae Jhingan Bark Bark extract used for dyeing and
(Houtt.) Merrill textile printing
Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Henna, Mehndi Leaves Used for colouring palms of hands,
soles and hair, also used for
colouring leather, silk, cotton and
wool.
Lithospermum arvense L. Boraginaceae Corn Gromwell Root, A red dye
Bark
Lonicera periclymenum L. Caprifoliaceae Woodbine Flower Red dye, used in respiratory diseases
Honeysuckle
Lotus corniculatus L. Fabaceae Birdsfoo trefoil Flower, Yield orange/yellow colouring matter
Leaves
Luculia gratissima Sweet Rubiaceae Pink swan Leaves Yield a red dye
Lychnis chalcedonica L. Caryophyllaceae Rose campion Flower Yield a red dye
Lychnis viscaria L. Caryophyllaceae Tar grass Flower Yield a pink dye
Maharanga emodi (Wall.) Boraginaceae Vringi Root For hair dye, used in eye diseases
DC.
Mahoniaborealis Takeda Berberidaceae Oregon grape Sap Sap yields yellow colouring matter
Mahonia napaulensis DC. Berberidaceae Kasmal Root Yield yellow dye
Mahonia sikkimensis Takeda Berberidaceae Kasmal Root Yellow dye
Mallotus philippensis Euphorbiaceae Kamala tree Glandular Red colour on silk- boiled in water to
Muell.-Arg. hair give the orange colour
from
fruit
Mammea longifolia Planch. Caryophyllaceae Lal hagkesar Flower, Reddish-brown dye, Antioxidant
&Triana Bud,
bark
Manilkara littoralis Dubard Sapotaceae Andaman Bullet Bark Yields red dye
wood mee
Marsdenia tinctorial R. Br Apocynaceae Broad leaves indigo Leaves Yield dye similar to indigo
Melastoma malabathricum Melastomataceae Malabar Fruit, Fruit yield black or purple dye; Leaf
L. melastome Leaves and roots yield a pink dye; Ashes
Root used as a dye mordant
Memecylon umbellatumn Melastomataceae Iron Wood tree Leaves Yellow dye and used as a mordant
Burm. f
Mentha aquatic L. Lamiaceae Water mint, Flower Medicinal but yield green dye
Michelia champaca L. Magnoliaceae Champak Flower Yield yellow dye
Mirabilis jalapa L. Nyctaginaceae Godhuligopal Flower Red to dye cotton
AGGARWAL 79

TABLE 5 (Continued)

Plant name Family Distribution Plant part Dye colour and other uses
Moghania grahamiana Fabaceae Satin pod Leaves A principal source of a resinous
Kuntze powder known as Warrus dye.
Morinda angustifolia Roxb. Rubiaceae Asm.-Achu Stem, Red and yellow dye to cotton and silk
Root
Morinda bracteate Roxb. Rubiaceae Chessefruit Root Yield yellow dye
Morinda citrifolia L. Rubiaceae Mone Root Yield dye is known as Al dye
Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham. Rubiaceae Indian mullberry Root Yield a red/yellow dye
Morinda tomentosa Heyne Rubiaceae Maddimara Root Yield dye is known as Al dye
ex Roth
Morinda umbellate L. Rubiaceae Kundalchurenkki Root Morindone and morindin are the
colouring principles
Myrica esculenta Buch.- Myricaceae Asm.-Nogatenga St-bk Yellow on cotton and silk
Ham.
Myristic amagnifica Bedd. Myristicaceae Magnificantnutmug Arils Red arils yield a dye
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Nyctanthaceae Night Jasmine Flower Dyeing orange on silk and cotton
Onosma hispidum Wall. ex Boraginaceae Ratanjot Root Red dye for foodstuffs, oils –
D. Don Medicinal
Onosma hookeri C. B. Boraginaceae Ratanjot Root Red dye, Medicinal
Clarke
Papaver rhoeas L. Papaveraceae Corn Poppy Petals Yellow Edible, Medicinal
Piper betle L. Piperaceae Pan Leaves, Blue on Silk
Root
Pterospermum Sterculiaceae Asm.-bonbogori St-bk, Orange on silk
lanceaefolium Roxb. leaves
Quercus infectoria Olivier Fagaceae Oak, Majuphal Galls For dyeing and used in inks
Randia exaltata Griff. Rubiaceae Indigo berry Fruit Yields a black dye
Randia spinosa Poir. Rubiaceae Common Emetic Fruit Fruits used as a colour intensifier in
nut, Mainphal calico-printing; also yield a yellow
dye
Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. Apocynaceae Barachandrica Fruit Yield a black dye on cotton and silk
Reseda luteola L. Resedaceae Dyer's rocket Seeds Used for colouring silk and wool
Rhamnus pentapomica Rhamnaceae Chirla Bark Yields a red dye
Parker
Rheum moorcroftianum Polygonaceae Dholu Roots Used for dyeing woollens
Royle
Rivina humilis L. Phytolaccaceae Bloodberry Berry Berries yield a red dye
Rubia cordifolia L. Rubiaceae Indian Madder, Root- Red, employed for dyeing coarse
Manjit stocks cotton fabrics, blankets and carpet,
and for colouring medicinal oil,
roots
Rubia sikkimensis Kurz Rubiaceae Naga-madder, Roots Dye of eastern India. Used for dyeing
Man.-Moyum woollen, ornaments, cane and
bamboo
Rubia tinctorum L. Rubiaceae European madder Roots Used in calico-printing and dyeing red
for food products and cosmetics

(Continues)
80 AGGARWAL

TABLE 5 (Continued)

Plant name Family Distribution Plant part Dye colour and other uses
Rubus fruticosus L. var Rosaceae Kanachi Fruit Red, for colouring liqueur.
discolour
Rumex dentatus L. Polygonaceae Ambavah Roots Yield a dye
Sapindus trifoliates L. Sapindaceae Soapnut tree; Shell of The hard shell of seed yields a black
Reetha seed dye
Sapium indicum Willd. Euphorbiaceae Hurna Leaves Orange red
Schinopsis balansae Engl. Anacardiaceae Willow leaves Stem The extract is used for dyeing red
printing of fabrics
Schinopsis lorentzii Engl. Anacardiaceae Axe-breaking tree Stem The extract used for dyeing yellow
and printing of fabrics
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Sapindaceae Lac tree; Kusum Flower Flowers yield a dye
Oken.
Securinega virosa (Roxb. ex Euphorbiaceae Dalme Bark Used for dyeing matting black
Willd.)
Sophora japonica L. Fabaceae Umbrella tree Buds, Yield a yellow dye used in batik work
pods
Symplocosco chinensis Symplocaceae Asm.- Leaves, Yellow on cotton
Moore Nogabhomloti St-bk
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Jamun St-bk Black on cotton and silk
Tagetes erecta L. Asteraceae African Marigold Flower Yellow dye
Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae Tamarind; Imli Flower, The red-yellow dye used in dyeing
Leaves cotton silk and wool
Tectona grandis L. f. Verbenaceae Teak Leaves, The yellow colour on silk, cotton
Root,
St-bk
Tephrosia maxima Pers. Fabaceae Fish poison Plant Yield a blue dye
Tephrosia tinctorial Pers. Fabaceae Honry pea Plant Yields a blue dye similar to indigo
Terminalia alata Heyne ex Combretaceae Asan, sain Bark Yellow dye for woollen
Roth
Terminalia catappa L. Combretaceae Indian Almond; Leaves, Yield dyes- Black on Silk and cotton
Deshi-badam bark,
Fruit
Terminalia citrine Roxb. Combretaceae Abhaya Bark Yields a dark blue dye
Terminalia procera Roxb. Combretaceae White Bombway; Fruit Used for dyeing
Badam
Thalictrum minus L. Ranunculaceae Lesser meadow Plant Herb yields a dye
Thespesia populnea Soland. Malvaceae Umbrella tree; Flower& Black dye
ex Correa Paras-pipal Fruit
Trema orientalis Bl. Ulmaceae Asm.-Machmai St-bk Brown colour on cotton and silk
Trifolium pretense L. Fabaceae Asm-Rongalong Flower The yellow colour on silk, cotton
Turraea virens L. Meliaceae Trakkal Fruit Juice used as are dish purple dye
Ulex europaeus L. Fabaceae Gorse Plant Plant yields a yellow dye
Urceola esculenta Benth. Apocynaceae Henriette's herbal Leaves Source of Indigo dye
Ventilago madraspatana Rhamnaceae Red creeper Root Yields reddish dye-ventilagin
Gaertn.
AGGARWAL 81

TABLE 5 (Continued)

Plant name Family Distribution Plant part Dye colour and other uses
Wedelia chinensis Merrill Asteraceae Manjalkarisadai Leaves For dyeing hair and promoting growth
Woodfordia fruticose Kurz Lythraceae Fire-Flame Bush, Flower, The reddish yellow colour on silk
Shiranjitea Leaf,
Stem
Wrightia tinctorial R. Br. Apocynaceae Pala Indigo-Plant Leaves Blue-indigo dye called Mysore Pala
Indigo
Wrightia tomentosa Roem Apocynaceae Chinese weilea Latex Latex yields a yellow dye
& Schult.

Note: Ht-wd, Heart wood; St-bk, Stem bark.

2.16 | Food colourant

There is a general belief that all the food colours available today are harmless. The imposition of limits in the amount
of food colour indicates that these compounds interfere with our metabolism if taken in large amounts. The large
amount of jams, jellies, etc., considered junk food, ensures that a person is deposited with a fairly good amount of
these chemical compounds. The free radicals of synthetic food colours are now believed to be responsible for diabe-
tes, cardiac failure, brain damage, many types of cancer, etc. On the contrary, natural colours impart a number of
benefits for the food they colour.
A variety of natural food colourants are available such as anthocyanins, betalains (Azeredo, 2009) chlorophylls
(Humphrey, 2004), carotenoids (Mortensen, 2006), tannins (Khanbabaee & Ree, 2001), Monascus (Dufossé
et al., 2005), quinines, safflower (Cho, Paik, & Hahn, 2000), turmeric (Ferreira, Nogueira, Souza, & Batista, 2004) etc.
These different chemical compounds produce different colours ranging from green through yellow, orange, red, blue,
and violet. Most of the colours like saffron and turmeric are good preservatives too. Most of them are
proanthocyanidins and effective antioxidants. The antioxidants added to food will be protective in nature and will
add years to the life of a consumer and will also increase the shelf life of foods. Further, a large number of edible col-
ours can be extracted from bark and leaves.

2.17 | Pharmaceutical colours

The bright colours of medicinal syrups and tablets, by which manufacturers attract customers, ensure that the
patient consumes a good amount of synthetic dyes. Natural dyes, if used for medicinal purposes a separate
licence is required (because of the addition of another plant product in to the food), may impart additional bene-
fits to the medicine Hussein, Barakat, Merfort, & Nawwar, 1997). The use of manjishta, rakthachandan, sappan
wood, etc., will provide the pharmaceutical preparations with a large number of antioxidants. These antioxidants
will, not only benefit the person, but will increase the shelf life of the active components, and may provide a
congenial environment (free from microbes because most of the phenolics are antimicrobial) and also protect
the lipids and membrane systems at the site of activity of the drug for a better drug action. An extract of arjuna
or sariva if used as a colour, will thin the blood, reduce the agglutination of RBC and purify the blood. Flavonoids
as dyes will reduce the incidence of vascular purpurea and strengthen the capillary walls. All these compounds
reduce the aging process because of their antioxidant properties. Similarly, anthocyanins as dyes will help aid
vision and reduce the incidence of cataract.
82 AGGARWAL

2.18 | Therapeutical uses

In India, a number of plants can be used to yield different dyes. Natural dyes are not only have dyeing properties but
also have a wide range of medicinal use. Fortunately, there is increasing awareness publicly towards natural dyes,
due to non-toxic properties, fewer side effects, and more medicinal values. It is a fact that 80% of the world popula-
tion is using plant-based medicine. Plant pigments such as anthocyanins and carotenoids have scientifically validated
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits.
The use of natural products together with their therapeutic properties is as ancient as human civilisation and for
a long time, mineral, plant and animal products were the main sources of drugs (Hernandez-Ceruelos, Madrigal-
Bujaidar, & Lacruz, 2002). The current preference for naturally derived colourants is due to their health benefits and
excellent performance because several synthetic colourants have been banned because they cause allergy-like symp-
toms or are carcinogens.
Dyes from pomegranate, lawsone from henna and juglone from walnut possess antibacterial and antifungal
properties (Hoessel et al., 1999; Manjunatha, 2006; Omkar, Jeeja, & Chhaya, 2006; Siddiqui & Kardar, 2001; Siddiqui,
Kardar, Ali, & Khan, 2003). The taxa like Acacia catechu, Kerria lacca, Quercus infectoria, Rubia cordifolia and Rumex
maritimus are used to evaluate their bactericidal properties against some common microbes (Singh, Jai, Panwan,
Gupta, & Khare, 2005). Punica granatum L. and many other common natural dyes are reported as potent antimicrobial
agents owing to the presence of a large amount of tannins. Some important dye yielding plants with pigments and
their medicinal importance are given in Table 5.

2.19 | Beauty aids

The market for natural colourants in cosmetics continues to rise throughout the world on account of increased
awareness among consumers of the side effects associated with prolonged use of some synthetic colouring com-
pounds. Manufacturers seek natural colourants that offer additional multifunctional effects in foundations, lip care
products, hair colouring, and other colour cosmetics, including UV protection, and anti-ageing. Many natural colours
that meet these requirements evolved from traditional use in cosmetics. Historically, plant pigments such as cur-
cumin, beet anthocyanins, carotenoids from peppers and saffron, chlorophyll from green leaves, have been used to
colour food and cosmetics, for centuries. These extracts provide health benefits that go far beyond their colouring
properties alone. India has a rich legacy of such products as natural pigments, and are used in rituals that have con-
tinued for thousands of years.

2.20 | UV-protective finishing

Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) from the sun causes many skin problems like sunburn, skin tanning, premature skin aging,
wrinkles and overexposure can lead to skin cancer (Yusuf & Mohammad, 2017). The sun ray blocking properties of a
textile are enhanced when a dye, pigment, delustrants, or ultraviolet absorber finish is present that absorbs UVR and
blocks its transmission through a fabric to the skin; thus, dyed fabrics protect more than undyed ones and their pro-
tection levels rise with the increase in dye concentration.
Grifoni et al. (2009, 2011) studied the effect of colour on UVR transmission of cotton, flax, hemp,
and ramie fabrics with different construction parameters dyed with some common natural dyes by in vitro
and outdoor assessments. Textile industries have a promising future for UV-protective fabrics, with the
environmental and energy conservation benefits, in developing high performance materials for the world
market.
AGGARWAL 83

2.21 | Insect repellent finishing

Insects cause major damage to textile products such as carpets, garments, upholstered furniture, blankets, and
handlooms during storage. This can result in significant economic losses, especially when stored in warehouses and
showrooms. Eight among the 10 natural dyestuffs were found effective against A. verbasci and strength of their
repellent effect in feeding preference test was in the order of lac dye, gallnut, catechu, red cabbage, cochineal,
indigo, Amur cork tree extract. The anthraquinone dyes, such as cochineal and madder, were found to be very useful
to protect the wool fabric against black carpet beetles. The use of madder resulted in the lowest weight loss and the
best effect of insect deterrence against black carpet beetles.

2.22 | Dye-sensitised solar cells

Solar energy is one of the promising eco-friendly renewable energy sources for the cost-effective conversion of solar
energy to electricity. It is due to the use of inexpensive materials, simple fabrication process and low environmental
impact, especially those sensitised by natural dyes (Narayan, 2012). Dye-sensitised solar cells (DSSC) are innovatory solar
cells that impersonate the photosynthesis in plants. Unlike traditional solar cells, DSSC can effectively work in low light
conditions and are less susceptible to losing energy to heat. The efficiency of DSSC is determined mainly by the sensitiser
used. The dye as a sensitiser plays a crucial role in absorbing sunlight and transforming solar energy into electrical energy
(Zhou et al., 2011). DSSCs have been designed using ruthenium (Ru) based dyes. Still, the limited availability and high cost
of these dyes together with their unacceptable environmental impacts led to the search for other safer dyes (Campbell
et al., 2007). Several reports have emphasised on an exploration into natural dyes, such as cyanine, anthocyanins,
cyanidins, tannins, chlorophyll and their derivatives and many others as a cheaper, faster, low-energy intensity and
environmently friendly alternative for use in DSSCs (Chang et al., 2010; Chang & Lo, 2010; Fernando &
Senadeera, 2008).
In addition to the applications as mentioned above, there is a growing interest for using natural dyes to colour
leather (Sivakumar, Vijaeeswarri, & Anna, 2011) to stain wood (Goktas, Duru, Yeniocak, & Ozen, 2008), the pulp
(Savvidou & Economides, 2007), and some plastics (van Dam et al., 2006). Researchers have lately explored some his-
torical pigments such as indigo and madder in successfully designing novel organic electronics devices. Future large-
scale application of sustainable organic electronics based on biodegradable materials would positively impact the cur-
rent electronic waste problem. These exciting findings on newly discovered panoramas of natural dye applications
invoke high expectations for further research on the utilisation of natural dyes in various fields, focusing on future
industrial applications.

2.23 | Pros and cons

Nowadays, there has been an affinity to revive the art of natural dying because of some advantages over synthetic
dyes. Still, some limitations are also associated with the fullest utilisation of natural hues and responsible for the
decline of this ancient art of dying.
Some advantages of natural dyes are:

• natural dyes are eco-friendly, free from carcinogenic azo compounds and non-health hazardous;
• the shades are usually soft, lustrous and soothing to the human eye;
• the waste of the processing becomes an ideal fertiliser for use in agriculture; and
• it is a labour intensive industry, thereby providing employment opportunities for many workers, who are engaged
in cultivation, extraction and application of these dyes on textile/food/leather industries etc.
84 AGGARWAL

Limitations of natural dyes that are responsible for decline are:

• natural dyes, obtained from plants, are dependent on the growing season;
• some important fibres such as cotton cannot colour, usually without the addition of mordant;
• it is challenging to standardise the protocol for the use of natural dyes, as the natural dyeing process and its col-
our development depend not only on colour components but also on materials. Moreover, natural colours are also
not stable;
• only selected natural dyes and pigments (e.g., indigo, alizarin dyes, tannins, flavonoids) may compete with syn-
thetic dyes for quality and stability because land availability for growing natural colours is limited because of the
first preference to food and fodder crops; and
• the natural dying process is laborious and time-consuming and more expensive.

3 | CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

India is a storehouse of economically important dye-yielding plants, due to its diverse flora, but it is lagging far behind
in its potential. Looking at the growth of natural products globally, there is tremendous growth potential for India's
natural dye market, although the natural dyes have few disadvantages. With the recent interest in environmental
concerns, natural dyes might be an excellent way to produce unique products with a green slant. Many problems,
such as poor fastness properties (resistance of the fabric's colour to fading), banned metal salts and non-
reproducibility of shades, can be easily overcome by research and awareness. The availability of natural dye materials
needs to be increased sustainably by utilising the by-products and wastes from agriculture and agro-processing
industries. Some important dye plants like madder and indigo can be cultivated on marginal and wastelands to
enhance their land availability as an alternative cash crop. Extensive research and development in natural dyes are
carried out worldwide, but the implementation of these technologies in modern practice is a rather long-term per-
spective. The reality is that natural dyes and mordants are preferably used by local people only on a small scale (craft
industries, hobby associations, manufactures and home production). The advantages of research conducted on the
improved application techniques for better fastness and environmental compliance should reach the people so that
they can earn their livelihoods. The commercialisation of natural dyes may be successful with a systematic and scien-
tific approach for identifying resources, extraction, purification, chemical structure elucidation, and the promotion of
natural dyes. If the availability of natural dyes can be increased to very high levels by modern biotechnological inter-
ferences such as tissue culture or genetic engineering at low cost, then their usage can become sustainable for dye
processing. As a whole, systematic approaches with scientific attitude would help conserve these economically
important plant resources for the upcoming generation.

RE FE R ENC E S
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How to cite this article: Aggarwal S. Indian dye yielding plants: Efforts and opportunities. Nat Resour Forum.
2021;45:63–86. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.12214