Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences

Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Shuanggen Jin

Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, China
Editorial Board Members
Sady Mazzioni, Brazil

Maria Barbara żygadlo, Poland
Sandra Ricart, Spain
Halil Ibrahim Uzun, Turkey
Arun Kumar Vishwakarma, India
Ramayah Thurasamy, Malaysia
Abdeltif Amrane, France
Gholam Khayati, Iran
Prakash Periakaruppan, India
Ifeanyichukwu Clinton Ezekwe, Nigeria
Bahram Malekmohammadi, Iran
Remember Samu, Australia
Mehdi Moazzami Goudarzi, Iran
Oihana Gordobil Goñi, Spain
Reza Mohebian, Iran
Dillip Kumar Swain, India
Junfeng Wang, China
Bing-Qi Zhu, China
Yanhong Gao, China
Yu Jiang, China
Sunday Ojochogwu Idakwo, Nigeria
Jinyan Tian, China
Suvendu Roy, India
Wei Ju, China
Sameh Abd El-Hamid Awwad, Egypt
Isidro A. Pérez, Spain
John Peter A, India
Gokhan OZDAMAR, Netherlands
Shaoyong Lu, China
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Xugang Dang, China
Professor Ehsan H. Feroz, United States
Mahmoud Taghavi, Iran
Meng Gao, China
Bing Xu, China
Shaoliang Zhang, China
Fan Yang, China
Mabrouk Sami Mohamed Hassan, Egypt
Corina Michaela Radulescu, Romania
Eugen Rusu, Romania
Volume 1 Issue 1 · April 2019 · ISSN 2661-3190 (Online)
Journal of
Environmental & Earth
Sciences
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Shuanggen Jin
Volume 1 | Issue 1 | April 2019 | Page 1-52
Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences
Contents
Article
1 Fractal Geometry: Axioms, Fractal Derivative and its Geometrical Meaning
V. K. Balkhanov
6 Heterogeneity of soil nutrients in ecosystems: a review of methodology, variability and
impact factors
Shaoliang Zhang
33 The bioconversion of municipal solid waste in the biodrying reactor
Maria Barbara żygadlo, Marlena Dębicka, Jolanta Latosińska
38 Seasonal effect on biomarkers of exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons in the coasts of north
western Suez Gulf, Egypt
Omayma Ahmed Mosa
49 The Content of Modern Landscape Architecture Discipline and Its Forming Process
Xi Chen, Dawei Xu, Safa Fadelelseed, Lianying Li
Review
29 To the Question of the Independence of the Surface Electromagnetic Wave Frequency
V. K. Balkhanov, Yu B. Bashkuev
Copyright
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Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences | Volume 01 | Issue 01 | April 2019

https://ojs.bilpublishing.com/index.php/jees
ARTICLE
Fractal Geometry: Axioms, Fractal Derivative and Its Geometrical
Meaning
V. K. Balkhanov*
Institute of Physical Materials Science of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulan-Ude City, Russia
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Article history: Physics success is largely determined by using mathematics. Physics often themselves create
Received: 10 January 2019 the necessary mathematical apparatus. This article shows how you can construct a fractal cal-
Accepted: 13 January 2019
Published Online: 22 February 2019
sense, fractal and similar." We show that fractal geometry is a strict mathematical theory, de-
Keywords:
Fractal geometry fractal integrals and differentials. Consistent application on your input below the axiom gives
Fractal dimension the opportunity to develop effective methods of measurement of fractal dimension, geometri-
Fractal calculus cal interpretation of fractal derivative gain and open dual symmetry.
Duality
1. Axioms of Fractal Geometry opening of new patterns that are validated experimentally.
A
s is often the case in science, after a long prepara-
tory period one person, Benoit Mendelbrot, about as an object, it's easier that there is nothing (no taste, no
50 years ago opened a new world - the world of color). Physics point gave mass, charge and spin (so you
fractal geometry [1-5]. Most natural scope new geometry is can try it to taste and see its beauty). Fractal geometry be-
physics. Fractal geometry application, however, is lagging gins with next in complexity from the object point - line.
behind demand. Description of the nature and variety of Development of science expands the concept of actually
its manifestations requires the corresponding mathemati- existing. In the real world there is no smooth Euclidean
cal apparatus. Without this, often it is not possible to for- lines they are crooked, cut and curves. These lines have a
mulate the initial concepts. Filling this gap with regard to remarkable property of similarity. If drawn square watch
fractal geometry and dedicated to this article. from afar, it will have a blurred point. Near see just any
More than 20 centuries ago Euclid built a system of side. But any increase is not looked at fractal line, then it
axioms known at that time, geometry, indicating thereby will be all the same rugged and curve.
how science should be built as such. It was realized that The main property lines that it has length, which can
the fairness of the axioms may be proved only by compar- be measured. Putting, for example, metre line to some
ison with experience – obtaining known results and the straight six times, we learn that the length of this line is
*Corresponding Author:
V. K. Balkhanov
E-mail: ballar@yandex.ru
Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v1i1.475 1

6 meters. In Euclidean geometry, the length of the line is ηL = C(ηχ)1-D (2)

not dependent on the rulers. If you use our direct centi- Formula (2) means that any plot a fractal line has the
meter scale, then its length does not change, although it same fractal dimensionality. Here brackets are opera-
is equal to 600 cm. For fractal lines, after numerous mea- tor-special mathematical validity, meaning that you must
surements, it was found that their length L depends on the first undertake scaling, and only then result in degree.
scale of measurement χ, and this dependence is exponen- Otherwise, say, the parentheses can be opened only after
tial. Such power dependence of the record in the form of you specify a scale multiplier η.
law the Mandelbrot set: Formula Mandelbrot -Richardson and similarity con-
L = C χ1-D (1) dition have linked two of the three units-the length and
The genius of the Mandelbrot set is reflected in guess, scale of the D fractal dimensionality of leaving arbitrary.
that describes D the new dimension of fractal geometry. A If the Euclidean geometry of space dimension is given
new geometry value C called uncertain factor. Usually D once and for all, the fractal geometry of its dimension for
> 1, so when χ → 0 length L → ∞ . Reducing the scale each object is determined only by experience, or, as a rare
of measurement, we increase the length of the curve. You exception, is calculated.
can clearly tell that when driving on rough terrain steps Euclidean geometry by David Hilbert is 20 axioms.
should be done as widely as possible. With long legs Way- Fractal geometry is based on two additional axioms, math-
farer road will seem shorter. If you're down, the path ematical formulation which provides a formula Mandel-
length to increase sharply. Historical justice demands say brot -Richardson (1) and the condition of similarity (2). It
that formula (1), borders, first installed the English scien- is impossible to prove through logical axioms, they cannot
tist Richardson about 100 years ago. So sometimes say justify themselves, their only practice fairness. Euclid in
about law - Mandelbrot of Richardson. his book "Beginning" as an application of the axioms of
geometry considered 500 tasks. Use only the fact of sim-
ilarity allows physics associate geometrical and physical
values sedate way. Using thermodynamics or quantum
field theory, many power-related indicators what is either
a physical process, able to express through two randomly
selected. One of the main tasks of fractal geometry, it is
mixing power indicators for the largest single indepen-
dent -fractal dimension. In our statement does not dwell
Figure 1. Length measurement compass. on how of the axioms (1) and (2) you can get all recently
known results related to sedate indicators [6]. This can be
Draw a curve sinus and using a compass with different
done as a mathematical exercise. However, let's consider a
solutions (scale), measure its length (fig. 1). All measured
simple ratio required in our statement.
values " scale χ - length L" on the graph with axes ln χ and
In space you can always select an arbitrary region lin-
ln L will direct. So you can ensure equity formula Man-
ear dimension R, inside will be a fractal curve. With the
delbrot-Richardson. Measuring progress in detail given
increase of a linear dimension will increase and the length
in[6]. The drawn curve in Fig. 1 try to take into account the
of the inside area of the fractal lines. To find the length de-
similarity property, although it is difficult to demonstrate
pendence of linear size, enough in the axiom of self-spec-
"by hand".
ify a scale multiplier η. Putting η = 1 / R, after cuts from
An important property of fractal curves, their likeness
the formula (2) have a simple result:
must be given mathematical form. This form you can give L ~ R D (3)
only a visceral, obvious way. Then stretched or going to Not to be distracted by an unspecified multiplier C with
compress the line curve in η again, so the new length will the typed character of proportionality.
L* = ηL. The amount of η called a factor. Since similarity
means that any portion of the curve is similar to the line, 2. Measurement of Fractal Dimension
then measuring the new length scale can be done, in η Direct and most robust way to measure the fractal di-
time is different from the original scale, that is χ* = ηχ. mension is to use formula Mandelbrot-Richardson. For
Specifically, fractal, izlomannaja and/or indented line, un- example, presented at fig. 2 and 3 topographic maps of the
der magnification η times will have long ηL, You can mea- Selenga River and Volga river deltas, and rice. Lightning 4,
sure the magnitude ηχ. Therefore, the following formula is zoom must be chosen to bypass all visible sleeves branch-
valid conditions of similarity: es. Less time-consuming method of measurement is to use
2 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v1i1.475

formula (3). When the measuring scale is fixed and varies

the size of the area. So, in Figure 2. 5 for strimer channels
area selected as a circle.
Figure 5. Electric discharges strimer channels

Presented in Figure 2-5 natural formation can be at-
tributed to a class of branched structures. They have a
distinctive feature-from some Center there are a growing
number of branches, branches. With the number of branch-
es N sedate manner depends on the size of the area R, i.e.
R ~ N 1/v (4)
Figure 2. Topographic map of the Selenga Delta Power indicator v called dimension of wandering. This
name stems from the fact that historically the first law (4)
indicator v = 2 в 1905 г. got a. Einstein to Brownian mo-
tion. Then, in 1938 year Kolmogorov turbulence for ad-
vanced fixed v = 2/3, and in 1948, P. Flory found v = 5/3
for polymer chains. While wandering along the particles,
for example, fractal dimension equal to wandering line
fractal dimension. Minimizing a polymer chain in a tangle
on the plane v2 =1+D2/2. Index 2 indicates that values
are defined for flat projection. Fractal derivative, as seen,
for Planar Projection branched structures establishes the
following communication dimension of wandering with
fractal dimension:
v2 = 2(D2-1) (5)
(4) and (5) allow you to develop the most simple meth-
Figure 3. Topographic map of the Delta of the Volga River od of measurement of fractal dimension. For this purpose
it is enough to only count the number of intersections of
the selection border with forks. For example, in Figure 5
the number N = 53. Changing linear dimensions, every
time we find a new value for the number of intersections.
The graph with axes ln R and ln N all the measured num-
ber will direct. For each object in Figures 2-5 used all
three of these measuring methods that gave consistent re-
sults. Thus, it is established that
D(Selenga River) = 1.38 ± 0.02;D(Volga River) = 1.72 ± 0.02;
D(strimer) = 1.53 ± 0.02; D(Lightning) = 1.73 ± 0.04.
Fractal line, located on the plane can have dimension
only smaller 2. In space its dimension may take the max-
imum value equal to 3. Presented in Figure 2 branched
structures are planning projections, so the dimensionality
Figure 4. Electric discharges branchy lightning of less 2. Fractal dimension of objects on a plane above

identified as D2. For spatial objects naturally enter fractal It is now easy to install fractal rules of derivation of el-
dimension D3. ementary functions. Dropping a simple calculation, write
an expression for the fractal derivative power function:
3. Fractal Calculus
Begin to build the mathematical apparatus of fractal ge-  d  n n+ D
  χ = C −1 χ (14)
ometry - is fractal calculation. This building can hold is  dχ  D
similar to traditional integro-differential calculus. Length
Laws of motion of material bodies are specified in
fractal lines, by definition, is the sum of all sizes: L = ∑ χ. the form of differential equations. It can be assumed that
Similarly, the traditional definition of integral, sum ∑ χ the movement in fractal medium should be described in
replace the following integral, which call fractal: the form of some fractal-differential equations. As such,
(6) might find application in a subsequent, we present below
∑ χ = ∫ χ dDχ
a simple equations and their solutions:
Note that the icon D, fractal, pointing at the bottom
write differential d. Since the length of the line is Cχ1-D, d 
  y = A, y = A C x −D ;
then come to the first rule of fractal calculus – rule inte-  dx  D
gration of linear functions:
(7)
∫ χ d D χ = C χ 1− D d 
  y=x
n,
y = C x n− D
;
 dx  D
Having the formula (7) large-scale conversion
χ → η χ , you can get the law of similarity to fractal
differential:
d  −D
  y+k y =0
dx
, (
y = exp k x (− 1)
1/ D
)
 D
(8)
d D ηχ = η − D d D χ 4. The Geometric Meaning of Fractal
In this expression, clearly visible difference fractal dif- Derivative
ferential of fractional order differentials, for the latest One of the properties of fractal lines, their broken at each
d D ηχ = η D d D χ [7]. point. This means that these curves are not ordinary de-
Calculation of square S surface fractal is similar to rivatives. If you draw a checkmark, it will have two break
equation (1), only with the obvious generalization: point tangents. And because the tangent and geometric
2− D (9) interpretation is derived, it turns out that check mark in
S =C χ point break has two derivatives. In essence, the check-
Similarity condition will have the following form: mark, there is one point in the place where it is unknown
η S = C (η χ ) 2− D (10) what it is necessary to take the derivative. It is clear that

fractal objects have irregular at each point, it is necessary
When D = 2 have a "true" smooth surface. Surface with to introduce a special – fractal derivative, and so it is a
fractal dimension D = 3 so its hinges and cut that densely natural generalization of the normal derivative as it is giv-
fills the entire volume. en by the formula (13).
Cut squares of size fractal χ × χ. Its total area will be ∑ χ2.
Replacing the sum by an integral fractal, and bearing in
mind (9), we have a rule of fractal integration of quadratic
functions:
(11)
∫ χ dDχ = C χ
2 2− D
Generalization to an arbitrary power function obviously

leads to the following rule:
(12) Figure 6. The geometric meaning of ordinary a) and frac-
∫ χ n d D χ = C χ n− D
tal b) derivatives
Here n is arbitrary, can and fractional number. Consider a circle of radius R. Taking the derivative of
As with the traditional calculation, we assume that the area of the circle, we get the circumference (Figure
fractal derivative - is inverse to the fractal integration op- 6a). See that actually cut out the inner part, leaving only
eration. Thus, we believe that the border of the circle. Similarly, we assume that the ef-
 d  (13) fect of fractal derivative comes to removal areas did not
  ∫ ϕ (χ ) d D χ = ϕ (χ )
 dχ  D come into contact with a circle radius R (Figure 6b).


The length of all branches within the linear dimension from (5) permanently D2 = 23/15 = 1.53, that is consistent
R is proportional to RD. Taking fractal derivative, we cut with the above measured value of fractal dimension of
out everything, leaving only the ground border area with Planar Projection strimer channels.
branches. Dividing the expression obtained in the area
6. Conclusion
get the number of intersections. Using the rule of taking
fractal derivative of power function (14), the number of Article pictures and formulas should help you understand
branches of planar projection will have and appreciate the beauty and complexity of fractal geom-
etry. Geometric interpretation of fractal derivative shown
1  d  D
D is not the pinnacle of fractal calculus. Rather, we are at the
2 D−2 (15)
N= 2   R =C⋅R beginning of the road. To date received values of fractal
R  dR 
integrals and differentials for some elementary functions,
Comparing the expression obtained with (4), come to but many features are still awaiting consideration. Fractal
the result (5). dimension, as seen, takes a non-integral values, so we
could talk about fractional-dimensional values. However,
In the three-dimensional case, to get the number of
this was not done deliberately. After opening Mandelbrot
branches, fractal derives from lengths of all branches must
new geometry of its mathematical apparatus was directly
be divided by volume R3, i.e. for spatial structure:
identified with fractional-dimensional integrals and differ-
D
1  d  D 2 D −3 entials. But this identification is incorrect, it can be seen
N= 3   R =C R (16)
from the fact that, in fractal geometry inherent is the pres-
R  dR 
ence of undetermined multiplier. And in the fractional-di-
It follows that for a spatial branching
mension calculus all values defined.
v3 = 2D3-3 (17)
For a variety of natural fractal objects must be installed Acknowledgments
separately, the relationship between D2 and D3 their rela- Article prepared for the budget draft Laboratory Electro-
tionship with dimensions respectively. Formula (5) and magnetic Diagnostics Institute of Physical Materials
(17) give an example of connection v and D for branched Science of the Siberian Branch RAS.
structures. Still, you need to install a dependency D2 and
References
D3 among themselves.
[1] Mandelbrot B.B, Les objets fractals: forme, hazard et di-
5. The dual symmetry mension, Paris: Flammarion, 1975.
For polymer chains v = 1 + D / 2, for branched struc- [2] Gabriele A. Losa, Dušan Ristanović, Dejan Ristanović,
tures v = 2(D-1). If you replace v↔D, both expressions Ivan Zaletel, Stefano Beltraminelli, From Fractal Geom-
will go at each other. It turns out that polymer chains and etry to Fractal Analysis, Applied Mathematics, 2016, 7,
branched structures have a remarkable symmetry-they are 346-354 Published Online March 2016 in SciRes.
duals of each other. Flory thermodynamic method found http://www.scirp.org/journal/am http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/
that polymer chains for their fractal dimension easily am.2016.74032.
expressed through the dimension of E Euclidean space, [3] Dr. Vyomesh Pant, Poonam Pant, FRACTAL GEOME-
where chains are attached [8]: TRY: AN INTRODUCTION, Journal of Indian Research,
E+2. v 1, no 2, 66-70, 2013.
DE =
3 [4] Kenneth Fakconer, Fractal geometry, matematical and ap-
1
Отсюда следует, что D3 = D2 + . According to the plications, second edition, (wiley).
3
[5] SOUMITRO BANERJEE, NATURE’S GEOMETRY,
dual symmetry, replacing D on v, we find that for the Breakthrough, Vol.13, No.4, January 2009.
1
branched structures must be ν 3 = ν 2 + . Using (5) and [6] Balkhanov V.K., Foundations of fractal geometry and
3
fractal calculus, (Buryat State University Publishing
1
(17), first get 2 D3 − 3 = 2 D2 − 2 + , from where House, Ulan-Ude, 2013). http://ipms.bscnet.ru/publica-
3 tions/src/2013/FractGeomet.pdf.
2
D3 = D2 + (18) [7] Samko C.G., Kilbas A.A. and Marichev O.I., Integrals
3 and derivatives of fractional order and some of their ap-
This is the original ratio of the connection D2 and D3 plications, (Nauka i Tekhnika, Minsk, 1987).
for branched structures. Samko, S., Kilbas, A., and Marichev, O. (1993). Fractional
Thermodynamic method for the spatial education stri- integrals and derivatives: theory and applications.
mer channels, you can install that N(R) ~ R7/5. This means [8] Grosberg A.Yu, Khokhlov A.P. Statistical Physics of mac-
that v3 = 7/5. Then from (17) first find D3 = 11/5, then romolecules, (Science, Moscow, 1989).


REVIEW
Heterogeneity of Soil Nutrients: A Review of Methodology, Variability
and Impact Factors
Shaoliang Zhang*
Northeast Agricultural University, 59 MuCai Street, 150030, Harbin, P. R. China
Article history: Soil nutrient heterogeneity highly correlates to plant growth and development of environmen-
Received: 11 February 2019 tal quality. In order to better understand nutrient cycling, heterogeneity of soil nutrients and
Accepted: 21 February 2019 their driving mechanism in different land use types were summarized from 1945 to 2016. By
Published: 22 March 2019 grouping keywords indexed in the titles of articles from the data base of Web of Science, two
hundred and thirty one publications related to our topics were used for analysis. Soil sampling
Keywords: and statistical method were compared, and spatial dependence and the impact factors for soil
Soil Nitrogen organic matter (SOM), Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). The results showed
Soil Phosphorus -
Soil Potassium tial dependence of SOM, N and P were mainly at the moderate level (48.9-59.0%) and strong
Soil Organic Matter level (33.3-42.2%), while for K was at strong level (63.6-84.6%) and moderate level (15.4-
Spatial distribution -
al, soil type, soil texture, land use, human activities, soil moisture, mineral element, soil struc-
factors at different spatiotemporal scales was discussed. At the end of the review, the ideas for
further research were postulated.
1. Introduction ground water eutrophication, and policy decision in agro-
E
cological flow, e.g. energy flow, material flow, ecosystems [7-9]. This determined the method of nutrient
- management which are a threat to the development of
ly driven by the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of sustainable agricultural ecosystem and natural ecosystem
[10-13]
related factors [1, 2]. Soil nutrients are important environ- .Therefore, in order to better understand nutrient cy-
mental factors, especially, nutrient availability as one cling, it is very important to clarify the heterogeneity of
of the three major drivers of the ongoing global change soil nutrient in different types of the environment, and to
impacting terrestrial ecosystems worldwide [3, 4]. Nutrient ascertain their driving mechanisms.
heterogeneity is common in soil at various scales, which With the development of the new theories and technol-
highly relates to plant growth, biomass, plant diversity [5, -
6]
, and especially influences fertilization, nutrients loss, ests, grassland and wetland has been changing, which has
Shaoliang Zhang
Northeast Agricultural University, 59 MuCai Street, 150030, Harbin, P. R. China
Email: shaoliang.zhang@neau.edu.cn

strongly influenced the environment, even at the global Therefore, the heterogeneity of SOM, N, P and K has been
scale[14-16]. Chemical fertilizers effectively increase crop the major focus by previous research work. In this present
yield, and reduce the pressure of food supply in the study, the focus was only on the distribution of SOM, N, P
world [17]. However, excessive fertilization can waste and K and their driving mechanisms in soils under differ-
resources, decrease food quality, and increase environ- ent types of ecosystems.
mental pollution, while insufficient fertilization decreases Table 1. Keywords used to search publication titles
crop yield [18,19]. Both excess and insufficient fertilization
Numbers of
increase the heterogeneity of nutrients in fields, and en- First word Second word Third word
occurrences
hanced the difficulty of fertilization[13, 20]. Therefore, nu-
Organic matter 15
trient heterogeneity at different scales in different kinds
of land uses and soil types were studied [21,22], and the Nitrogen 20
techniques of precision fertilization were developed[23]. Soil Heterogeneity Phosphorus 6
Accuracy of prediction with a high precision is necessary
Potassium 1
for the precision fertilization and the study of soil nutrient
heterogeneity, which was mainly determined by sampling Nutrient 33
methods and statistical analysis methods[24-26]. In order to Organic matter 17
improve the precision of prediction, both sampling meth-
Nitrogen 21
ods and statistical analysis method were developed in past Spatial
years, but the advantage and disadvantage between these Soil Phosphorus 17
distribution
sampling, statistical analysis methods is still not clear[25-28]. Potassium 5
Fertilizer was used not only for agricultural fields, but also Nutrient 22
for pasture since livestock farming has developed very
Organic matter 3
quickly and can provide more protein for human con-
sumption[29, 30]. Furthermore, nutrient heterogeneity was Nitrogen 14
not only influenced by the sources of the nutrients, but Soil Spatial pattern Phosphorus 3
also influenced by nutrient movement, which was driven
Potassium 2
by many factors, e.g.by air flow and water flow [31-35]. A
great amount of N, P and K released by human activities Nutrient 11
has been carried by water and wind, which redistributed Organic matter 32
the nutrients across the farmland, forestland and wetland Nitrogen 70
over a large area [36,37]. Many publications discuss what
Soil Variability Phosphorus 46
factors influenced the heterogeneity of nutrients in various
kinds of ecosystem, and the mechanisms [12, 26, 31, 32, 38, 39]. Potassium 9
However, it is not clear if the heterogeneity and drivers Nutrient 53
were common between the research areas, and it was Total
even difficult to know the number of factors and their in- 400
numbers
fluence [31, 33, 36, 40-44]. Furthermore, it is not clear whether Note: It was difficult to analyse the data when key words in-
the main factors and driving mechanism are common in the dexed in the topic were used, since over a thousand publications
same areas under different spatiotemporal scales [13, 33, 40]. were found in one group of words, e.g. 1222 publications were
In this review, sampling methods and statistical anal- harvested from the group using the topic words soil-heterogene-
ysis methods were summarized. The spatial dependence
ity-organic matter.
and variability of SOM, N, P and K were discussed, and
First, keywords were indexed from topics used to
the manner of operation of how key driver factors were
search publications from 1945 to 2016 based on the Web
ascertained in various kinds of ecosystems. At the end of
of Science data base (Thomson Reuters). There were 1224
summary, ideas for further research were suggested.
publications found when "soil-heterogeneity-organic mat-
2. Scope of Review ter" was used to define the search, and many of them were
N, P and K are three key elements which nourish crop not related to heterogeneity of SOM. Therefore, keywords
growth, and relate strongly to the environment [4]. SOM indexed in titles were used to search publications. Hetero-
releases nutrients after decomposition, and nutrients can geneity, spatial distribution, spatial pattern and variability
be converted into SOM by biological processes [4, 45]. as the most popular key words, combed with Organic mat-

Figure 1. Distribution of research locations under various kinds of land uses from 1945 to 2016 in the global mainland
based on the Web of science. Mixed land use means the number of land uses was greater than two. Most of the research
locations were concentrated in China, European counties and United States.
Figure 2. Distribution of publication numbers based on topics, land uses and countries from 1980 to 2016

ter, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium and Nutrient were ability information than the grid centre method [53]. When
used to search publications from the Web of Science data heterogeneity changes with scale, the nested grid design
base. Four hundred publications were harvested when was always adopted so as to capture more information in
twenty groups of keywords (three consecutive keywords short-range spatial variability and to estimate the vario-
in each group) were used to search the articles (Table 1), gram at short lags [50, 51, 54, 55]. Furthermore, soil sampling
and only two hundred and thirty one publications related methods should be separated when the region includes
to our topics were suitable to be used for analysis. several soil types and land uses, as this is beneficial for
Most of the research locations of the published articles capturing more information for better spatial analysis.
were in China, Americas and European countries (Fig- The determination of soil sampling depths is very im-
ure 1). For both USA and European countries, most of portant in detecting heterogeneity and its driving mecha-
the studies were published from 1995 to 2010, while for nisms of SOM and soil nutrients, and should be confirmed
China the number of publications increased since 2005. before collecting the soil samples. Generally, soil layers
Furthermore, there has been a rapid increase in recent were clustered into several consecutive layer-groups ac-
years in the themes of heterogeneity and its driving mech- cording to the vertical distribution and the driving mech-
anisms, and land use focusing on farmland, forestland and anism of the soil physio-chemical properties, and then the
wetland. classification of layer-groups can be used as a guide for
soil sampling. For farmland, 0-30 cm, especially in 0-20
3. Sampling Methods and Statistical Analyses
cm, were typically focused on due to the plough pan at the
3.1 Soil Sampling Methods 20-30 cm depth (Table 2), since crop growth highly relates
Soil sampling methods are crucial to clarify soil nutrient to plough layers [33, 56, 57]. Furthermore, the sampling depths
heterogeneity in space [25-28]. Location, depth and number could be shallower than 20 cm when a relatively small
were typically considered in the sampling methodology. spatio-temporal scale is the focus [58], and could be deeper
Generally, the design method of sampling locations are than 30 cm soil when vertical heterogeneity, the storage
one-dimensional (belt sampling) [46], two-dimensional of SOM and nutrients, hydro-logical process, soil erosion,
(sampling one soil depth in a whole area or region)[33], and and land degradation were considered [12, 40, 59]. For both
three-dimension (many soil depths in an area)[40]. Two-di- forestland and grassland, soil layers in the 0-10 cm depth
mensional sampling typically includes random sam- were mainly focused on since the deep layers were typi-
pling[36, 47], grid sampling space [43, 48, 49], grid sampling cally not disturbed and were relative stable compared with
with a nested design space [50, 51], and an irregular de- farmland [60-63]. For wetland, soil sampling was typically
sign [52]. The belt sampling method was recommend when designed to study nutrient movement and the hydro-log-
the study area was large, a relative simple landscape, or ical process in the deep soil layers [64,65]. Soil sampling
in a complicated environment which is not easy to access. depths were influenced by the investigation method, e.g.
The two-dimension method was recommended if cost, upper soil layers were always investigated when Gamma
labour and time allowed, especially in a complicated land- ray spectrometry was used to monitor soil properties in
scape where much more information can be captured. The a large area [66]. From the view of the publications, soil
random sampling method was economical, easily con- sampling depths were not obviously different in different
trolled and often adopted in a large area, especially for an years or special periods from 1945 to 2016, and were
area with the complicated landscapes and land uses, but mainly determined by the aim of the studies and were lim-
the disadvantage is that some important information might ited by labors and cost [13, 31, 33, 67-69]. However, soil nutrient
be lost when the samples distribute unevenly [36, 40, 47]. Grid distribution and the driving mechanisms in different soil
sampling with a reasonable resolution can capture more profiles, especially in deep layers were still not clear. This
information to accuracy estimate the distribution of soil should be studied more in the further research work be-
nutrients, especially for a small area, but the disadvantage cause soil physio-chemical properties were consecutive in
is that it is expensive and is labour intensive to find the horizontal and vertical and influenced each others [4].
positions of soil sampling points in a large area [33, 43, 48, 49]. Root mean square error (RMSE) can be used to de-
Grid sampling can be done in a number of ways: grid cell termine the quantity of sampling points for selected soil
method means soil properties are calculated for each grid properties by correcting the data to fitting a normal distri-
cell using all the soil samples contained within the grid; bution [70]. Comparison with the mean value and variation
grid centre method means soil properties for the soil sam- between various scales can be used to decide the sam-
ple points nearest the centre of the grid are used [53]. Grid pling number and area [71]. Not only the sample numbers,
cell sampling consistently captures more soil nutrient vari- but also the soil sampling density influences the accuracy

Table 2. Sample number size of land use in publications from1945 to 2016

N Sample size of publication by soil depth (cm)
≤5 ≤10 ≤15 ≤20 ≤30 ≤40 ≤70 ≤100 >100
Farmland 72 4 4 8 17 9 5 6 4 1
Forestland 62 5 13 5 5 4 4 4 1 5
Grassland 58 14 11 7 6 3 2 3 1 2
Wetland 15 0 2 0 1 3 1 3 3 1
Coal land 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
Multiplicity 25 1 1 2 8 1 1 1 2 0
Sum 235 24 31 22 38 21 12 18 12 9
Notes: N sample size, parts of publications
of the prediction, and should be adjusted to suit the spatio- sill ratio (NSR) is used to define distinct classes of spatial
temporal scale [55]. dependence. NSR <25%, 25%-75% and >75%, repre-
Each soil sample can be mixed with three horizon- sented strong, moderate, and weak spatial dependence,
tal cores taken at the same depth (deep soil layers were respectively [70, 78, 79]. The spatial correlation distance (A,
focused on) [28, 72], five cores (four cores at the ends and effective range) indicated that properties were auto-re-
one at the centre of the square)[31, 40], or many cores (in a lated each other in space (spatial dependence) when the
large area, a systematic sampling strategy is better than a distance between sampling points was less than A, and
random one) [43, 55, 73]. Furthermore, sampling using mixed A typically increases as the research area increases [57, 80].
soil cores could be used to at densities of 1 m2 [28], 10 m2 Moran’s I analysis can be used to quantify the spatial au-
[33]
, and 100 m2 or several hectares [25, 26]. Generally, several tocorrelation. The variable is considered to have negative
soil sampling methods were used to predict the heteroge- or positive spatial autocorrelation if Moran's I is less than
neity of nutrients in an area, and the method was deter- or greater than 0, respectively, while the variable is not
mined by the landscape[28], land use[25, 74], soil type[57, 74], spatially correlated if the value is equal to 0. Positive spa-
scale and so on[27]. tial autocorrelation means that similar values (either high
or low) of the variables are spatially clustered. Negative
3.2 Statistical Analysis and Software
spatial autocorrelation means that neighbouring values are
Traditional descriptive statistics (TS) [59], or both tradition- dissimilar [43, 81, 82]. Anisotropic analysis (single-direction)
al statistics and geostatistics (GS) were used to clarify the should be done before prediction if the data was collected
heterogeneity of soil nutrients in different ecosystems[13,75]. from a complicated landscape, because isotropic (all-di-
Coefficient of variation (CV) was always used to reflect rection) analysis may hide much of the autocorrelation
the spatial variance of soil nutrient distribution[40, 75], and that in fact is present [76]. However, very few publications
a high CV value represents high spatial variability[40]. carried the anisotropic analysis [33, 74].
However, CV can’t quantitatively describe the spatial Geostatistical methods primarily include Ordinary
variance of soil nutrients, and only can be used to clarify Kriging (OK), Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW),
the character of a special area or region when the sample Cokriging (CK), Conditional sequential Gaussian simu-
size is sufficient. Soil nutrient data should fit a normal lation (CSGS), Simple Kriging (SK), Universal Kriging
distribution before geostatistical analysis, and log-normal (UK), Regression Kriging (RK), Multiple Linear Stepwise
transformation, square-root transformation, scale to 0-1 Regression (MLSR), Geographically weighted regression
or box-transformation can be used to adjust the data [76, 77]. (GWR), and so on [25, 83-86]. TS with a belt sampling meth-
r2 (square of the correlation coefficient) and RSS (Resid- od could be used in preliminary analysis due to the ease of
ual Sums of Squares) can be used to reflect how well the calculation, relative small data requirements, acceptable
model fits the variogram data. The higher r2 and lower the accuracy and precision [46, 68, 87]. TS combed with GS were
RSS, the better the model fits. RSS is more sensitive than always used to clarify nutrient heterogeneity. From the
r2 and should be used first to judge the suitability of the statistics of 231 publications, studies with the OK+TS
models [76]. Spatial dependence, or spatial autocorrelation, method accounted for 88.2% of total GS methods, fol-
is typically used to reflect the spatial heterogeneity influ- lowed by CK+TS, SK+TS, UK+TS, RK+TS, GWR+TS
enced by structural and random factors, and the nugget to and IDW+TS (Table 3). The spatial heterogeneity or pat-

tern of soil nutrients by OK prediction could be similar ent distribution in a large area was lost [12, 31, 40, 91]. Furthermore,
to other methods, especially for IDW, but the content and remote sensing using three dimensional fluorescence
gradient could be relative exaggerated or minimized[86,88]. spectra, Micro-X-ray fluorescence (μ-XRF), near-infrared
Owing to the influence of the complicated natural of envi- reflectance spectroscopy (NiRS) and so on can improve
ronment factors, the OK method is relatively limited, and the accuracy of prediction, but only the surface soil layer
the vegetation index, terrain attributes and other factors and limited area could be studied [27, 66, 92-94].
were always used as the co-variate to predict SOM and Many types of software can be used to analyse nutrient
nutrient distribution [25, 84]. CK can be used to predict the spatial distribution, e.g. GS+, ArcGIS, Super map, Surfer
distribution of soil nutrients when the number of co-vari- v.6, Matlab, Origen, Sigmaplot, gstat package, geoRpack-
ate data is greater than the main-variate data, and the age, VESPER and so on [95-100]. GS+ was widely used for
co-variate significantly correlates to the main-variate [83]. spatial analysis, and ArcGIS was tend to be used for map
For example, compared with OK, CK with pH can better interpolation[12, 26, 31, 40, 42, 95].
evaluate nitrate (NO3-N), and reduced sampling numbers
3.3 Indicators Used to Evaluate the Prediction
and curtailed the analytical cost [83]. CK with elevation can
Accuracy
better predict SOM distribution, and had a lower RMSE
(root mean square error) than SK. Elevation data (DEM) The validation method of spatial interpolation was not
can be used to reduce the spatial uncertainty of SOM by consistence among the studies[42,75,101,102]. It is uncertain
sequential Gaussian co-simulation compared with the se- whether all the validation methods can be accepted,
quential Gaussian simulation algorithm [89]. In order to im- and the theory should be tested. Root mean square error
prove the accuracy and precision, new methods of GS, es- (RMSE), mean error (ME), coefficient of determination
pecially UK, RK, GWR have been developed since from (R2), standard deviation (STD), mean sum error (MSE,
2010 (Table 3). RK and GWR were recognized as the 0-1), reduced kriging variance (RKV, 0-1, values close to
most accurate methods to predict soil nutrient distribution 1), mean sum square error (MSSE), mean kriging vari-
compared with OK [84], and the accuracy of a map interpo- ance (MKV), correlation between estimated data and er-
lated by GWR can be higher than that using RK [85]. DEM ror(CEE c), correlation between estimated and measured
and NDVI as common covariables were always grouped data (CEM ) can be used to evaluate the performance of
with RK and GWR, and can significantly improve the prediction accuracy [25, 70, 89, 94, 103]. Jackknife analyses [12, 75],
accuracy for soil nutrient prediction [89, 90]. However, the Cross-validation [22, 101, 104, 105], cross-validation combined
analysis process were complicated and the co-variate was with RMSE and ME[42, 84, 102], ME and R2 were usually
difficult to find, and thus this method is not generally used used to estimate the prediction accuracy [51, 83, 84, 88]. Inter-
now [85]. In a sloping area, soil erosion was the major causal polation is hypothesized to be the most accurate when the
factor of nutrient depletion, but high accuracy of soil erosion RMSE is at a minimum and stable [70, 106]. RMSE was also
was difficult to simulate and the ability to better predict nutri- used to determine the number of sampling points for soil
Table 3. Statistical methods in publications from1945 to 2016

Percent of publications during the period to total publications
N <2000 2000≤yr<2005 2005≤yr<2010 2010≤yr<2015 2015≤yr≤2016
TS 110 18.2% 13.6% 20.0% 25.5% 14.5%
OK+ TS 105 5.7% 3.8% 28.6% 45.7% 16.2%
CK+ TS 5 40.0% 0.0% 40.0% 0.0% 20.0%
SK+ TS 2 0.0% 0.0% 33.3% 0.0% 66.7%
UK+ TS 2 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 50.0% 50.0%
RK+ TS 2 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 0.0%
GWR+ TS 2 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0% 0.0%
IDW+ TS 1 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 100.0%
Notes: N: sample size; TS represents that only "Traditional analysis" was uses. GS methods always are combining with TS to analyse
nutrient heterogeneity. OK, IDW, SK, UK, CK, RK and GWR represent Ordinary kriging, Inverse Distance Weighting, Simple krig-
ing, Universal kriging, Cokriging, Regression kriging, and Geographically weighted regression, respectively.

properties [70, 101], but the assessment of the best geosta-

tistical methods could be different depending on whether
RMSE or ME is used [84].
4. Spatial Dependence and Variability of Soil
Nutrients
Spatial dependency or spatial autocorrelation is the indi-
cator reflecting the degree of heterogeneity influenced by
structural factors and random factors. Generally, strongly
spatial dependent properties were controlled by intrinsic
variations or structural factors (e.g. soil parent material,
soil texture, mineralogy, climate, landform and so on), Figure 3. Proportion of spatial dependence degree for
while extrinsic variations or random factors (e.g. fertilizer SOM/SOC, TN, AN, TP, AP, TK and AK in the studies
application, tillage, crop planting, and other soil manage- from 1945 to 2016
ments) may be weakly the spatially dependent [38, 78, 107]. types and land use, and this should be quantificationally
Both structural factors and random factors changed the estimated in further research work [40, 114, 115]. Furthermore,
variance of SOM and soil nutrients in soil depths, which SOM was not consistently correlated to TN in soils, which
was mainly decided by the scale of the study area, soil resulted in a different spatial pattern and variance of SOM
sampling depth, land uses, and the physiochemical prop- and N in different regions, or different in soil depths in the
erties of the soils [33, 40, 108]. same region [40, 45, 116].
4.1 Spatial Autocorrelation and Variability of Soil 4.2 Spatial Autocorrelation and Variability of Soil
Nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P)
N typically strongly correlates to SOM (Soil organic mat-
P is not easily moved in the soil and most P is adsorbed
ter, soil organic matter was typically 1.724 times of soil
by soil particles [4]. P distribution is dominated by a
organic carbon) in the surface soil layers [40, 109], especially
low-concentration diffuse background with a minor con-
at 0-20 cm [33, 40, 108, 110]. Because SOM was mainly accu-
tribution from minute hot spots, and no modification of
mulated in surface soils and N is the main component of
P distribution and speciation is observed close to roots at
SOM [111], N and SOM were summarized and discussed
a microscale in agricultural soil [27]. Spatial dependence
together in this study [33, 40, 108, 112]. Spatial dependence of
was similar between TP and AP, which were typical at
TN and SOM varied [74, 88] and was typical at the moderate
the strong (TP 42.2%, AP 59.0%) and moderate level (TP
level (52.1%), followed by strong level (38.1%) in many
48.9%, AP 33.3%) in depths of different regions (Figure
kinds of ecosystem (Figure 3), but was not consistence at
3). TP differed from AP, and typically correlates to SOM
various soil depths, soil types, scales, and land use. For
soil depth, the spatial dependence generally increase with in surface soil layers [12, 65, 117], and mainly shows moder-
soil depth, and different between soil types [40, 107]. On the ate spatial dependency, followed by strong dependence
other hand, at a small spatial scale, the spatial dependence under different land use types, while AP typically has a
of soil nutrient was lower, while it became strong at big moderate spatial dependency in the surface layer which
spatial scales in surface soils [33]. The spatial dependence became stronger in deep soil depths, and was changed
of TN showed a moderate level for various land uses[43,113], with scales [12, 38, 42]. TP at a relatively small scale had
and decreased in this order: farmland >grassland > shrub a strong spatial dependence, but was at moderate at a
land [43], while TN was at a strong level in sandy soil large scale [12, 33]. For land use, the nugget ratios of TP de-
(mainly shrub land)[113]. For the available nutrients (AN), creased in the order: farmland> grassland> shrub land,
the spatial dependence was 36.7%, 33.3% and 30.0% at and showed a strong, moderate, and weak spatial depen-
the strong, moderate and weak level respectively. This dence, respectively [43, 113]. The spatial dependence of AP
was mainly influenced by land use, soil types, soil mois- could be at the strong, medium, or weak level in cropped
ture-temperature (typically determined by latitudes and alti- fields [74, 118], and was at the medium level in wetland [115].
tude), and differed according to plant growth stages [13, 113]. The spatial variance of TP typically increased with soil
The spatial variability (usually represented by CV) of depth, while AP in the surface layer was at the moderate
N and SOM was typically at strong levels in farmland, level, and typically increased with depth in the upper soil
was at the moderate level in forests and wetland, and var- layers and then decreased in deeper soil layers in both ag-
ied by soil depths. This could be mainly influenced by soil ricultural field and forestland [12].

4.3 Spatial Autocorrelation and Variability of Soil 5. Factors Related to the Heterogeneity of Soil
Potassium (K) Nutrients
Soil K mainly originated from soil minerals and fertil- It is well known that soil nutrients were influenced by
ization [4, 31]. Very few publications focused on the spatial many factors, but the influence of these key factors on soil
heterogeneity of TK and particularly for AK. The spatial nutrient distribution was different, and may be different
dependency of TK and AK were typically at the strong in varying land use types. From the 231 publications, the
level (TK 84.6%, AK 63.4%), followed by the medium factors can be concluded as topography, soil loss, parent
level (TK 15.4%, AK 36.4%) in both farmland and for- material, soil type, soil texture, weather condition, land
estland (Figure 3). This was mainly enhanced by soil use, human activities, soil moisture, mineral element, soil
parent materials, especially influenced by being released structure, and animal and plant, which deeply influence
from clay mineralogy (Non-exchangeable K+ is highly the nutrient distribution in the soil. In this study, N, P and
correlated to the proportions of 2:1 layer silicates present K influenced by these factors were summarized individu-
in the clay fraction), and weaken by fertilization, plant ally.
absorption, and leaching in areas of intensive farming and 5.1 Influence of Topography and Soil Loss
irrigation [31, 74, 118, 119]. However, it was reported that high
In the fertile sloping field, the content of TN, AN, TP, AP and
quantities of AK were coincident with the size of the tree
SOM were typically high in the surface layers [38, 45, 65, 112, 122-124].
canopy and had a lower spatial dependence in a forest of
Furthermore, the surface layers with high nutrients were
Mediterranean Dehesa, which may be attribute to stem
easily eroded from steep and long slopes, especially on
flow and residue return [120].
the back slope [28, 125]. Slope steepness and slope length
From the review results, the spatial dependence of
typically positive correlated to soil loss, and changed the
SOM, TN, TP and AP were mainly at the moderate level distribution of soil nutrients, especially in regions with
(48.9-59.0%), followed by strong level (33.3-42.2%) and complicated landscapes, high amounts of precipitation,
weak level (7.7-14.3%), while for TK and AK were main- high rainfall intensity, strong winds and a long period of
ly at the strong level (63.6-84.6%) and weak level (15.4- freeze-thaw cycles [126-128].
36.4%)(Figure 3). The difference may be caused by the Slope steepness and slope length were the key factors
sampling area, resolution, sampling time, plants, or human influencing soil loss, and both slope position and altitude
activities, and these results should be validated more in can coarsely reflect slope length [127, 128]. Thus, slope steep-
future research work [12, 13, 108, 121]. Furthermore, the degree ness, slope position, and altitude were always considered
of spatial dependence judged by NSR can only be used to as the crucial factors changing the process of soil and wa-
coarsely describe the proportion of influence by structure ter loss, and resulted in changing the spatial heterogeneity
factors and random factors, and can’t be adapted to clarify of soil nutrients in a sloped area [33-35]. TP, AP and AK
what factors and how much these factors influence nutri- typically negatively correlated to slope steepness in many
ent distribution [31, 33, 40, 41]. TS was typically used to quan- kind of soil types and soil depths [31, 32, 129]. However, there
tify the influence of these factors [43,74], e.g. principal com- reported that steepness did not significantly correlated to
ponent analysis (PCA), classification and regression tree TP, and may be influenced by fertilization [38, 43]. For slope
analysis (CART), and regression analysis (RS). However, altitude and slope positions, in agricultural fields, TN, TP
the new methodologies, indicators or parameters should and SOM typically decreased with deceasing altitude, or
be developed in future research work to more exactly de- decreased to back slope position and then increased ( got
scribe their influence. Furthermore, since most previous lowest on the back slope), which was mainly determined
research on nutrient heterogeneity was carried out only by soil loss and deposition [12, 130]. However, the correlation
once, it was difficult to accuracy reflect the heterogeneity was not consistent throughout nutrient types, soil depths,
and driving mechanisms. Long-term monitoring of the or in land uses [40, 130]. In the dune land of the subtropical
spatial distribution of nutrients necessary, and the influ- region, where TN and SOC decreased from the crest to the
ence of impact factors should be quantitatively estimated. bottom slope, which was associated closely with geomor-
Most previous studies mainly focused on the whole re- phic positions [131]. In pasture, P accumulation significantly
search area, and neglected the special positions located in positively correlated to slope positions (top to middle
the research region (e.g. gully, mini-forest, windbreak in slope) [132], while TP concentration increased with decreas-
the field). The details of nutrient heterogeneity can’t be ing altitude [32, 38, 129]. For available nutrients, in agricultural
accuracy reflected, and they were the key intersections in- field, AP and AK deceased with altitude, and were lower
fluencing nutrient movement. at the bottom of the slope [31, 40]; NO3-N dynamics shows

a consistent trends related to slope position, and was cused on nutrients influenced by slope position, elevation,
typically opposite to NH 4-N [13]. However, in pasture, slope steepness, and soil loss, and neglected the influence
AP increased with decreasing altitude [32, 38, 129]. It is of slope aspect, thus many results were different for the
reported that the dynamics of nutrient content and nu- same land use type, even in the same region. Furthermore,
trient types were not always consistence on the various the influence of topography and soil loss on soil nutrient
slope positions or the altitudes due to the complicated distribution on the slope could change with the time, and
factors [8, 13, 43, 46, 133]. the results could be different between two periods. There-
Slope steepness, elevation and slope position highly fore, nutrient spatial heterogeneity should be monitored in
correlated to nutrient content in a region [45, 134, 135], and a long-term study.
were always used in models to predict soil nutrient dis-
5.2 Influence of the Weather Condition
tribution, particularly, elevation was widely used as the
co-variance or regression-variance in a region with a large The heterogeneity of SOM and soil nutrients was influ-
scale [33, 40, 45]. Generally, slope steepness could be used to enced by weather conditions. Higher precipitation and
build the model only when the number of soil samples temperatures tended to increase P values in agricultural
was sufficient [33, 40]. Despite the fact that the variability of field[42]. This may be due to climate change, which influ-
soil nutrients was mainly influenced by soil loss and depo- enced the water and heat balances, plant growth, land use
sition, which highly correlated to topographical factors, it policy, and soil management, especially P fertilization.
was nearly impossible to accurately predict the distribu- Also, P can be more readily weathered and released from
tion of SOM, TN and TP when only the soil loss by water rocks under high precipitation and temperature condi-
was considered [40, 45]. Because soil loss includes wind ero- tions [41, 42]. High temperature and precipitation tended
sion, water erosion, freezing-thawing erosion and tillage to decrease the SOC due to SOM mineralization and
erosion, it was difficult to be accurately simulated by most lose, and low temperature and high soil moisture
models. tended to decease SOM decomposition and increase
Slope aspects influence the distribution of solar ra- SOC storage [33, 112]. However, the effects of precipitation
diation, precipitation and soil moisture, and changed and temperature on TN and TP were not consistent under
the process of crop growth, soil erosion and deposition, different land use types, and it was important to take land
and thus changed the spatial heterogeneity of soil nu- use type into account when considering the effects of
trients [33, 38, 123, 134, 136]. In farmland, SOM and TN were climate change on TN and TP [42]. Wind can homogenize
higher in north facing slopes, while the available nutrients the distribution of soil components without the presence
were higher in south facing slopes [12, 31, 33, 40, 75]. This was of grasses, while it increased the heterogeneity of soil
mainly due to the high soil moisture content and the low variables in various kinds of vegetation and landscapes
soil temperature in north facing slopes, which was not after erosion and deposition [106]. Furthermore, enhanced
beneficial to the release of available nutrient, while they wind erosion appears to increase the spatial autocorrela-
were helpful to the accumulation of nutrients and SOM. tion distance and decrease the spatial dependence of these
In forested land, SOC and soil nutrients had higher val- variables[106]. In desert grassland ecosystems, wind blow
ues on northern facing slopes than southern facing slopes reduced both mean soil nutrient concentrations and coef-
due to the higher input and lower decomposition rate of ficients of variation over a two-year period (2004–2006),
organic matter, and the lower temperature and the higher and soil particles deposited in the downwind area may-
moisture on the northern slopes [137, 138]. In restoring sand be form a "nutrient-imbalance"[139]. Despite reports that
dune ecosystems, due to the influence of wind erosion nutrients heterogeneity was influenced by precipitation,
and deposition, soil moisture and plant species, SOC, temperature and wind, still some issues need to be better
TN and TP were typically higher on the windward slope, understood. For example, freezing-thawing at high lati-
while TK was higher on the leeward slopes [123]. In the tude and altitude [140, 141], and the influence of individual
alpine sandy land, more soil nutrients were distributed on precipitation events and other casual weather changes on
windward slopes [124]. However, it was reported that TP nutrient cycling [142-144]. It was well known that climate
was high on leeward slope perhaps due to soil particles change influences the global biogeochemical cycle and
enriched in P being carried by the wind, and relatively changes nutrient heterogeneity over at a large scale [108].
fewer coarse particles being deposited on the windward Only limited study disclosed nutrient heterogeneity influ-
slopes. Coarse soil particles typically had less P firmly enced global climate change in grass land [145], and it was
bonded, while more fine particles were deposited on the still not clear that the nutrient heterogeneity influenced
leeward slopes [129]. Due to most previous reports just fo- climate change in farmland, wetland, forestland at differ-

ent scales, although there many reports indicated that (1) typically higher in both grassland and forestland. Thus,
spatiotemporal variance of nutrient and soil erosion influ- in order to reasonably analyse the spatiotemporal distri-
enced each other [12, 40], and soil erosion highly correlates bution of SOM, TN and AN in the forest, soil sampling
to global warming[146]; (2) soil nutrient heterogeneity mod- numbers should be relatively large compared with other
ulates plant responses to elevated atmospheric CO2 and N land use type. The value range of TP was high in farm-
enrichment[147]. land, while AP was high in wetland. The median value of
TP was high in grassland, while AP was high in farmland.
5.3 Influence of Parent Material and Soil Texture
The value range of TK and AK were higher in farmland
Spatial variation of SOC, N, P and K was typically and grassland respectively, while median value of AK was
influenced by parent material and soil texture at the higher in the forestland. Similarly, in order to better clar-
large-range scale [26, 31, 34, 40, 44, 95, 115]. Parent material was ify the spatiotemporal distribution of TP, TK and AK in
enriched with mineral elements which resulted in in- the farmland, soil sampling numbers should be relatively
creasing the nutrient content in an area [31, 39, 43, 44]. Soil large compared with other land use type. Generally, soil
texture differed between soil types and influenced the samples from dry farming had significantly higher SOM,
movement and availability of nutrients. Clay content TN and AK than soil from paddy fields, while the oppo-
was typically markedly positively co-relate to nutrients site trend was found for AP [95]. Forestland converted from
sorption in many kinds of land uses [21, 148], particularly, farmland can effectively hold P, especially in surface soil
clay combined with SOM recontributed to N, P and K layers, as the loss of P dissolved in water was not a prima-
retention in wetlands [43, 44, 64, 65, 148, 149]. Irrespective of hy- ry process [12, 38]. In contrast, conversions from cropland
dromorphic gradient, type and age of forest stands (broad- to forest or grassland could reduce AP due to the fertil-
leaved or coniferous) in the hydromorphic zones, nutrient ization being reduced [32], or increase AK due the parent
stocks(P, K) in the humus were only influenced by soil material releasing K continuously and crops harvesting
type, which may be due to the sorption differing between removing K from the farmland[31]. Although soil nutrients
soil types [150]. Furthermore, the heterogeneity of soil nutri- were determined by the intrinsic character of nutrients,
ents influenced by soil type could be weakened by human and were changed by ecological flow [1, 2, 4], it is still not
activities such as fertilization, especially for AP [36]. It was clear that the land use influences soil nutrients at different
reported that poor soil permeability with high water tables scales, and the heterogeneity of soil nutrients in deep soil
decreased the mineralization process of organic matter layers, especially in farmland, forest and grassland.
and influenced soil nutrient distribution [26]. Furthermore, Not only farmland, grassland and forestland influenced
soil texture was changed by plants and environmental gra- soil nutrient distribution, but also residential land, roads
dients, and was highly correlated with nutrient heteroge- and hydrology system can indirectly influence soil nutri-
neity, especially SOC and TN in the surface soil [7]. From ent distribution. SOM, N and P typically increased when
the summary above, despite of the fact that soil texture close to industrial land and residential land [37], and AP
influenced nutrient, heterogeneity was widely reported. was more concentrated on the plots closest to the home-
However there still some issues are not clear, and needed steads on wealthy farms, compared with plots farther from
to be validated, especially quantitative estimates of the homesteads and all plots on poor farms [36]. Furthermore,
influence of soil texture on soil nutrient distribution. some hay fields contained large areas with elevated P
5.4 Influence of Land Use relative to the rest of the field. The high-P areas occurred
mostly near the gate and road, and the area where was
Farmland, grassland and forestland were the main land
most accessible to manure application [151]. Nutrient het-
use types focused on by previous studies (Table 2). SOM/,
erogeneity was influenced by rivers. SOC, TC, TN and
TN, TP, AN and AP were typically higher in farmland, TP accumulated more in cropland and woodland in those
followed by grassland and forestland or shrub land in the areas farther from the rivers bank than in those near the
same or nearby areas [7, 32, 38, 52, 59]. However, from the sta- river banks [7, 117]. However, soil microbial biomass C,
tistics in all of the publications, the value range of SOM basal soil respiration, and net potential N mineralization
content was typically higher in forestland, followed by were greater nearer shade or water than farther away in
grassland, farmland and wetland, while the median value the grassland [152]. Thus, in order to better clarify the nutri-
of SOM was highest in wetland, followed by forestland, ent heterogeneity influenced by land use types, residential
farmland and grassland (Table 4). The value range and land, road and river system should be fully considered.
median value of TN and AN were typically higher in
forestland, followed by farmland, grassland and wetland, 5.5 Influence of Human Activities
but the value range of NO3-N and NH4-N content were One of the biggest human influences on soil nutrients

Table 4. SOM and nutrient content in four land uses at 0-30 cm depth, in publications from1945 to 2016
Farmland Forestland Grassland Wetland
N N R M N R M N R M N R M
-1
SOM(g kg ) 152 56 0.1-86.6 14.3 32 0.8-168.9 23.0 51 0.02-116.3 2.16 21 3.6-77.2 32.1
-1
TC(g kg ) 54 - - - 24 17-512 - 9 17.5-98.2 29.9 21 11.9-472 -
-1
TN(g kg ) 202 53 0-10.3 0.8 62 0.1-14.3 5 64 0.01-10 0.32 22 0.1-31.3 -
AN(mg kg-1) 63 8 6.9-81 20.0 9 6.5-114.6 62.4 39 1.1-41.8 17.2 - - -
-1
NO3-N(mg kg ) 18 7 0.2-5.4 - 7 1.0-8.5 - 4 12.4-26.0 - - - -
NH4-N(mg kg ) -1
33 7 0.1-5.4 1.46 5 0.5-29.8 - 6 0.1-25.1 11 1.29-5.4 2.2
-1
TP (g kg ) 115 28 0.001-11.8 0.45 36 0.003-0.8 0.3 34 0.02-3.6 0.7 17 0.1-3.7- 0.5
AP (mg kg-1) 133 30 0.5-410 21.6 20 0.2-81.8 20.2 68 0.04-586 14.5 15 4.3-429 67
-1
TK (g kg ) 43 8 2.9-262 - 11 0.06-31.0 - 21 0.3-2.4 2.3 3 0.3-0.3 -
-1
AK (mg kg ) 129 18 45-1300 84.2 39 3.9-545 121.7 69 0.1-988 102 3 0.25-0.31 -
Notes: N sample size. SOM=SOC×1.724. AN was alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen. N=sample number size, R=range, M=median value.
The median value was calculated when fitting the data for a normal distribution.
was farming. In farmland, soil nutrient heterogeneity was orchard [122]. Also, both no-till cultivation in the surface
mainly determined by fertilization, residue amendment, soil layer and sub soiling in deep layers increased the
irrigation and tillage methods [7, 8, 26, 42, 153]. Long-term fer- content of TN, while rotary-tillage reduces N in the whole
tilization and residue return significantly increased the profile [67].
contents of SOM, TN, NO3-N, NH4-N, TP, AP, TK and Mining activities didn’t significantly influence the
AK in both surface and deep soil layers [40, 48, 101, 114, 154]. SOM distribution [157], but the drastic disturbance during
Nutrient heterogeneity was changed in a short time after reclamation of mine soils increased the concentration
fertilization, especially for the available nutrients. Howev- and stocks of SOM. Reclamation by initially seeding to
er, it was not clear that the heterogeneity of soil nutrients grasses followed by planting trees was considered as the
change in various kinds of landscapes and spatiotemporal best management option for speedy accretion of soil C
scales after fertilization or straw return, a situation which and soil quality enhancement in mine soils [158]. In grazed
should be monitored continuously in future work at var- dairy farms, generic management practices can exacerbate
ious soil depths [58, 155]. Irrigation significant increased elevated soil nutrient concentrations (P and K), and direct-
P and K in fields when the water with the high nutrient ly influence the decisions of soil managers [159]. Fire can
levels was used [80]. As well, irrigation could decrease nu- obviously change N and SOM distribution. High intensity
trient content compared with similar areas, possibly if the fire can decrease both soil N mineralization and TIN (Soil
content of nutrients in the water was low, and if leaching solution total inorganic N), while low intensely fire can
of soil nutrients by high frequency irrigation rates occurs [39]. increase TIN in the soils under more xeric landscapes and
Soil tillage method and crop rotation obviously changed SOM in intermediate soil moisture areas [160]. In contrast,
the content and distribution of N and SOM in agricultural it was reported that an area with an intense fire 7 years in
fields, especially for the surface soil layers [67, 104, 114, 156]. In the past didn’t change the C and N contents, but aromatic-
paddy fields, long term-cultivation increased SOC, and ity was elevated in the soils with the longer fire history[161].
cultivation practices most likely maintained a rather high
random spatial variability of approx. 45% [110]. In dry land, 5.6 Influence of Soil Moisture, Mineral Element,
the sink and source function of N and SOM were different Microbiology, and Soil Structure
among the tillage methods; conversation tillage methods The spatial distribution of SOM, N and P, and especial-
effectively increased nutrients and SOM. In Northeast ly SOM, were associated with soil moisture, which was
China, cross-slope tillage effectively increased SOM, TN mainly driven by landform, such that the spatial heteroge-
and TP by 33.8, 23.3 and 22.4%, respectively compared neous in dry sites was stronger than that in the wet sites
to down-slope tillage [33]. Sod cultivation increased SOM, on the farmland and grassland [107, 162, 163]. Because water-
STN and TK by 12.8, 12.7 and 7.3% compared to clean ing heterogeneity and nutrients affected plant growth in an
cultivation (bare soil) in the 0-20 cm soil layer in a pear interactive manner, watering heterogeneity should be ex-

amined along with nutrients [164]. SOC and N distribution heterogeneity in an area, the special contribution from
were influenced by the C:N ratio, pH, temperature, bulk animals should be also considered, especially in the forest,
density [38, 42, 65, 152, 165-169], and significantly correlated grassland, wetland, and the farmland where animals, e.g.
with exchangeable ions, e.g. K+,Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ content rabbit, wild duck and pheasant reside.
[100, 167, 170]
. In wetland, pH values influenced the heteroge-
5.8 Influence of Plant
neity of SOM, TN, TP and AP [65, 171], and increasing soil
moisture may be the most important agent determining P Plant species, population structure, and biomass influ-
release rate and biological availability [149]. Parts of a study enced the content and spatial distribution of N, P and
carried out in a wetland indicated that soil moisture was SOM [5, 7, 45, 120, 131, 164, 177-181]. In forestland, farmland, grass
not significantly correlated with N, P and C among all soil land and wetland, the spatial variation of soil nutrients
samples, and the correlation was not consistence between was highly correlated with the distribution and abun-
N, P, SOC and pH [65, 168, 169, 171]. This may be due to wetland dance of the dominant plants and soil surface micro-to-
being rich in soil moisture and water was not a limiting pography, because the N, P, C:N, C:P and N:P of residue
factor in the influence nutrient cycling and movement. Nu- returning to the soils were mainly determined by the
trient heterogeneity was not consistently influenced by soil dominant plants [7, 123, 131, 162, 182-184]. Furthermore, N content
bulk density in farmland [38], while TP typically correlated to can also be influenced by species richness, evenness,
soil bulk density in the wetland [168, 169, 171]. N, P and K dis- and land cover, due to nutrient concentrations and types
tribution were influenced by SOM, especially combined in both above-ground and below-ground biomass differ-
with soil structure and soil texture which influenced the ing between plant species [68, 100, 120, 185], and the residues
heterogeneity of soil nutrients. This was attributed mainly from plants changing the heterogeneity of N, P and C in
to the function of sorption [12, 64, 65, 149, 150]. Furthermore, the ecosystems. Communities of grasses and herbs typically
heterogeneity of N, P and SOM were influenced by mi- had a lower C/N ratio than communities dominated by
crobiology, e.g. nitrification, denitrification, nitrogen fix- heather species, and thus TN was higher in the communi-
ation, denitrification, and so on [4, 65], and were influenced ties with grasses and herbs than in the heather dominated
by the volatilization (NH3, N2O and CO2) [65]. Despite the communities[5]. Spatial variation of leaf litter C:N inputs
fact that the influence of trends from soil physiochemical was the major factor associated with heterogeneity of
properties was not consistence, but these factors in the soil C:N ratios relative to soil physical characteristics,
special areas could be adopted as covariables to improve while the spatial variation soil N:P was more strongly
the quality of prediction [89, 90]. associated with spatial variation in topography than het-
erogeneity in leaf litter inputs [68]. Strong negative cor-
5.7 Influence of Animal relations between the soil nutrients and altitudes were
Clumped defecation and animal carcass strongly influ- explained by replacement of vascular plants by low-
enced the spatial distribution of N, P and SOM in farm- ash lichens at higher elevations [180]. Similarly in forests,
land and the natural environment [151, 172]. Generally, graz- shifting species composition towards red maple and away
ing processes homogenized the spatial patterns of P, net from pines may alter nutrient cycling by increasing sur-
N mineralization and net nitrification, irrespective of the face soil cation availability and increased TN (not NO3-N
fact that their original spatial patterns were determined by or NH4-N), although the low lignin concentration in red
the differences in the vegetation structure in grasslands maple litter and low lignin/N ratio, and the lowest N min-
[63]
. P ‘‘hot spots’’ may be caused by manure deposited by eralization rates were found in red maple microsites [186].
grazing animals [151]. Livestock grazing combined with The presence of an isolated tree in a herbaceous matrix
other anthropogenic activities to remove vegetation also deferentially affects the spatial distribution of the various
changed the distribution of AN in desert grassland [139]. nutrients (NH4, NO3, SOM and K) which coincided with
Furthermore, howler monkey latrines [87, 173], clustered the tree canopy, depending on their biogeochemical char-
prey carcasses left by wolves [174], seabird breeding sites [175] acteristics [120].
also increased the N, P concentration in the area. Earth- Furthermore, plants can capture nutrients from air
worms mediated plant biomass and responses to nutrient flow, water flow and soil loss, and can influence the dis-
patchiness by affecting N capture [176]. Termite activities tribution of soil nutrition. Leaves and tree tillers can trap
also significantly influenced soil properties at the local windblown particles with nutrients, and subsequently
scale in tropical savannas, and termites movement typi- deposit them in the litter under the canopy, especially for
cally changed the P and C distribution in the micro-envi- N deposition [40,106]. Spruce-fir plots received the most
ronment [102]. Thus, in order to reasonably clarify nutrient atmospheric N deposition, and the N deposition rate can

explain most of the variation of C and N in the organic on final above-ground plant biomass for either species
horizon in these high-elevation soils [21]. In wetlands, sites when grown with neighbors, even though roots were still
were closest to the nutrient inflow areas and typically had concentrated in high nutrient patches [194]. In a temperate
the highest soil nutrient concentrations [116]. Regardless of grassland, patch N treatments increased plant produc-
their above- and below-ground biomass, legumes can also tion but decreased biomass produced per gram nitrogen
increase the distribution of N (TN and AN) in soils and (a proxy of N use efficiency) compared with uniform N
change the spatial heterogeneity of soil nutrients by fixing treatments [6]. However, there was a different result from
nitrogen from soils [45, 178]. an experiment with no herbivores present, where plant
Soil nutrient distribution was influenced by the position biomass was smaller in the heterogeneous nutrient treat-
of plants. SOM, TN, TP, AP, K, NH4-N and soil micro- ment than in the homogeneous treatment in P. lanceolata (a
bial biomass under shrubs were higher than those in the less precise root foraging species), but not in L. perenne (a
inter-space between shrubs. Micro-environmental factors more precise root foraging species) [198]. Furthermore, ad-
(slope, soil depth and microsite) significantly influenced ditional nutrients can consistently reduce local diversity of
the spatial distribution of soil nutrients and microbiolog- grassland through light limitation, and herbivory rescued
ical properties [123, 181, 187, 188]. Some publications indicated diversity at sites where it alleviated light limitation [199].
that SOC, N, P, and K contents decreased with increasing SRLagg (Community-aggregated specific root length) was
distance from the main stems of the shrub, and this "fer- negatively and significantly associated P and N availabil-
tile island" effect was most pronounced in the surface soil ity rates in a high nutrient availability and heterogeneous
in shrub-dominated communities, was also dependent on distribution scenario [179]. In wetlands, more effective root
canopy size and spatial direction [165, 189]. However, there foraging behaviour confers a higher competitive ability
also reported that P was often greater in the interspace in heterogeneous environments, and a higher physiolog-
than under the plants, and that soil microbial biomass ical (rather than morphological) plasticity was critical in
was always greater under the plant compared to the obtaining a long-term competitive advantage [200]. Com-
interspace [120, 188]. The potential variability of P found petitive interactions were size-symmetric in homogeneous
between rooting zones of different individual plants was soil and size-asymmetric in the heterogeneous treatments,
greater than that likely to be encountered within the area but in the long term, competition became more size-sym-
exploited by any one individual root system in a grazed metric in the heterogeneous soils, consistent with the in-
pasture [190]. Angst et al.(2016) also reported that the dis- creasing importance of physiological plasticity [200]. How-
tance from the individual trees had no influence on the ever, Blair (2001) reported that soil nutrient heterogeneity
SOC contents and stocks or the chemical composition of does not influence the size-symmetry of below-ground
the SOM fraction in the forest[191]. The different results competition [20]. The different results should be validated
may be mainly caused by spatial direction from focal by more publications in the future. N form was limited to
plants, species structure and other unknown factors and change the plant production, plant responses to patchy N
process, and this should be studied in the future research inputs occurred over a larger spatial area than soil microbe
work [184, 189]. responses, consistent with optimal foraging by plant roots
irrespective of N form [6].
5.9 Plant Influenced by the Heterogeneity of Soil Soil nutrient heterogeneity influenced the biodiversity
Nutrients and SOM in many kinds of ecosystems. Soil nutrient heterogeneity
Soil nutrient heterogeneity influenced the biomass in (N/P/K) influenced whether particular individuals were
many kinds of ecosystems. In heterogeneous environ- destined to be dominant or subordinate within the pop-
ments, plants produced more roots in the nutrient-rich ulation, but had little effect on overall population struc-
patches and to accumulate more C, N, P and K in plant ture [201]. In the forest, tree communities were ranked
tissues, which was associated with higher yield of their along a soil fertility gradient: communities dominated
above- and below- ground biomass [3, 124, 178, 185, 192-197]. by heather species, mosses and lichens, represent poorer
Soil nutrients heterogeneity does not affect intraspecific sites than the communities dominated by grasses and
competition in the absence of genotypic differences in herbs [5]. Spatial distributions of 36–51% of tree species
plasticity [194, 195]. Single patch fertilization increased the show a strong associations to soil nutrient distribution,
above-ground biomass of individually grown plants com- and below-ground resource availability plays an important
pared with same amount of fertilizer (manure) distributed role in the assembly of tropical tree communities [202]. My-
evenly throughout the soil. In contrast to individually corrhizal symbiosis has the potential to strongly influence
grown plants, and soil nutrient distribution had no effect plant population structure when soil nutrient distribution

was heterogeneous because it promotes pre-emption of the micro-scale, e.g. single plant, rhizosphere environ-
limiting resources [203]. In a burned area, surviving plants ment, was scarce reported [67], especially for crop systems
or new individuals would find the higher soil resources in the field, and which was very important to fertilization
(AN and AP), and higher heterogeneity of nutrients at the design in the field. Furthermore, soil nutrient analysis
small-scale may have a major impact on the performance should be improved for the high precision detection of
of individual plants and on the forest structure and dy- soil nutrients using micro-weight soil samples because
namics [50]. Furthermore, in the nutrient-enriched patches many mineral elements could be measured with limited
(N), the influence of N and P on the grass species and size soil sample at the micro-scale.
combinations was amplified [197], and the role of soil nutri- Parent material, climate, landscape typically changed
ent heterogeneity as a modulator of ecosystem responses nutrients heterogeneity over a long time scale, while fertil-
to the change in functional diversity reached beyond the ization, tillage, residue return, and other human activities
species level [178]. In most of the above studies, the focus mainly dominated at short time scales [22, 44, 101, 154]. Spatial
was mainly on the distribution of soil nutrients in wet- variation of SOC, N and P at different time periods were
lands and forests, while few reports disclosed that the spa- mainly determined by the length of time a factor had been
tiotemporal heterogeneity of soil nutrients influenced the acting on the soil; N and P, especially for AN and AP, were
biodiversity in agricultural fields. In agricultural ecosys- influenced by factors at different temporal scales [13, 105, 169].
tems, isolation strips composed of grass and forest, small Long-term cultivation with fertilization increased the N
area of grassland and wetland were mainly distributed in and P, and deceased the spatial dependence, while the ef-
the cropped fields. Soil nutrients was filtered and depos- fects of soil type and soil texture were weakened [49, 59, 154].
ited in the strip, grassland and wetland and influenced the Long-term human activity has increased the mean soil P
biomass and biodiversity when the flow of soil and water and variance of soil P, and shifted the scale of variance
carrying nutrients from filed pass through it. This highly to larger spatial extents [52]. Long-term vegetation res-
correlates to the development of agroecosystems, and may toration results in a more homogeneous distribution of
deeply influence the development of sustainable agricul- SOC, and TN in sand dunes [131]. Over a short time scale,
ture, especially for disease and pest control [204], which the spatial heterogeneity of NO3-N, NH4-N and AN was
should be clarified in the future research work. changed during plant growth stages, and differed be-
tween farmland and wetland [13, 117, 169, 171]. However, most
5.10 Heterogeneity and Change of Mapping Scale
studies of soil nutrient distribution over the short time
Geology, soil parent material, and climate typically scale were mainly focused on the available nutrients in
changed the spatial distribution of nutrients in a big wetlands [64, 84, 109, 149, 171, 183, 206], while few studies focused
area [33, 40, 44, 80, 108] , while fertilization, tillage, plant on cropped fields [13, 58], especially the spatiotemporal
growth, plant species were the main factors causing heterogeneity of available nutrients in the rhizosphere of
the spatial heterogeneity of nutrients in a relative small crops ecosystem.
areas [5, 13, 80, 180, 205]. The influence from topography/terrain
attributes was determined by the landscape scale, while 6. Conclusions and Research Needs
soil texture was determined by soil parent material, land The heterogeneity of soil nutrients highly relate to plant
cover and land management in many scales [4, 5, 22, 205]. growth and plant diversity, and directly influence the de-
However, it was difficult to define the limits of scale, and velopment of environmental quality. Improving the preci-
the influence of structure factors and random factors were sion of predictive models, accurately clarifying the driving
always intermixed [22, 44, 80]. Because the landscape scale mechanisms, and quantitatively evaluating the influence
can’t be defined reasonably in most previous studies, or of these factors are important and are long-term research
because the studies were only carried out in a single area, work. Despite the fact that these issues were focused on
sub-area or sub-sub-area, it was very difficult to accurate- by many previous research works, there are still some
ly reflect the real influence of scale change [22, 33, 75]. From aspects of study which need to be improved according the
a review of these publications, the regional scale (size dif- summary above: (1) simplify the methods of spatial inter-
ference of areas) could be considered as the standard for polation and validation, and increase the accuracy of pre-
classification in plains, while in the hydrological catch- diction; (2) clarify the heterogeneity and the main driving
ments, sub-watershed, watershed, sub-basin and basin, mechanism of soil nutrients in deep soil layers (3) focus
could be used to classify the spatial. In most of the studies on both anisotropy and isotropy in complicated land-
above, the focus was mainly on soil nutrient heterogeneity scapes; (4) clarify the heterogeneity and the main driving
at the regional or median scale, and the heterogeneity at mechanisms at the microscale, e.g. single plant, rhizo-

sphere environment; (5) clarify the heterogeneity and the 104, 1 (Jan 2011), 63-74.
main driving mechanisms at consecutive spatial scales; [10] Hessen, D. O., Faerovig, P. J. and Andersen, T. Light, nu-
(6) develop long-term monitoring of the heterogeneity of trients, and P : C ratios in algae: Grazer performance relat-
soil nutrients at the regional scale with various kind of ed to food quality and quantity. Ecology, 83, 7 (Jul 2002),
landscapes and land uses; (7) quantitatively estimate the 1886-1898.
influence of driving factors on nutrient distribution; (8) [11] Bennett, E. M., Carpenter, S. R. and Caraco, N. F. Human
clarify how nutrient heterogeneity and dynamics influence impact on erodable phosphorus and eutrophication: A glob-
biodiversity in agricultural fields, and influence on climate al perspective. Bioscience, 51, 3 (Mar 2001), 227-234.
change; (9) improve equipment and techniques to increase [12] Zhang, S. L., Huffman, T., Zhang, X. Y., Liu, W. and Liu,
the precision of soil nutrient detection using micro-weight Z. H. Spatial distribution of soil nutrient at depth in black
soil samples. soil of Northeast China: a case study of soil available
phosphorus and total phosphorus. Journal of Soils and
Acknowledgement
Sediments, 14, 11 (Nov 2014), 1775-1789.
We give thanks to Valerie Kirkwood (retired) from East- [13] Zhang, S. L., Huang, J., Wang, Y., Shen, Q. S., Mu, L.
ern Cereal and Oilseed Research Center, Agriculture Agri- L. and Liu, Z. H. Spatiotemporal Heterogeneity of Soil
Food Canada, for carefully editing the manuscript. The
Available Nitrogen During Crop Growth Stages on Mol-
paper is sponsored by the project of National Natural
lisol Slopes of Northeast China. Land Degradation & De-
Science Foundation of China (41471228, 41771313) and
velopment, 28, 3 (2017), 856-869.
China Scholarship Council (201606615020).
[14] Bhatta, G. D., Ojha, H. R., Aggarwal, P. K., Sulaiman, V.
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REVIEW
To the Question of the Independence of the Surface Electromagnetic
Wave Frequency
V.K. Balkhanov*　Yu.B. Bashkuev
Article history Earth's the surface is often strongly inductive, consisting of a dielectric
Received: 16 January 2019 layer thickness endpoint, lying on an unlimited conductor basis. Electro-
magnetic wave, spreading along the surface, it appears captured dielectric
Accepted: 22 March 2019 layer, spreading it as in the waveguide channel. Waveguide theory it is
Published Online: 30 April 2019 known that the spread in the waveguide can only electromagnetic waves
with a discrete set of frequencies. And experience shows that the captured
Keywords: waveguide channel electromagnetic waves can be any frequency. The
Impedance article found that this behavior is due to the fact that electromagnetic
waves in free space border - dielectric layer damped height in several
Waveguide channel wavelengths. Thus the thickness of the dielectric layer becomes more
Continuous transmission of electromagnetic effectively, and this leads to a reduction of the minimum frequency of
waves the waveguide. A discrete set of frequencies is blurred so that cover each
other. Thus, a discrete set of frequencies becomes solid, and captured
Strongly inductive media
waveguide channel electromagnetic waves are independent of frequency.
　
1. Introduction are also waveguide, different channels, such as wave-
S
guides, implemented by the different density and salinity
urface electromagnetic waves (SEMW) started ex- layers of water in the seas and oceans [11]. Sound like
ploring Sommerfeld and his disciples [1-6]. Installed acoustic oscillations are distributed between two layers of
set many properties SEMW. Open regions of the water, when almost no. This allows them to spread very
Earth's surface, where possible SEMW [7-9]. However, one far, which is important for submersibles and other techni-
question remains open. Why the existence of possible cal devices.
SEMW do not depend on frequency? Addressing this is- For the EM waves in nature there are also waveguide
sue is the subject of this article. channels. The fact of the matter is that most of media are
often either dielectric in which EM waves travel freely
2. Waveguide Channel for SEMW
without loss, as in free space. Either conductivity, from
Waveguide created artificially, consists of a well-con- where EM waves bounce, as the light from the mirror, and
structed walls. In fact, the walls are metal [10]. Electro- practically do not penetrate the conductivity. Earth media
magnetic (EM) waves between the walls form a standing can simultaneously possess and dielectric properties, and
wave, this allows them to virtually lossless distributed conductivity. They can be called semi conductivity (not to
over the whole length of the waveguide. In nature there be confused with semiconductors!). It turns out this classi-
V.K. Balkhanov,
Institute of Physical Materials Science of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulan-Ude City, Russia;
E-mail: ballar@yandex.ru

fication on dielectrics and limited substantially depends on ple.

the frequency of EM waves. At low frequencies the Earth On one of the salt lakes of Southern Siberia at
media mostly conductivity (or inductive), and on high - a frequency of 10 MHz have been measured valid
dielectric (or capacitive). At intermediate frequencies of Re δ = 0.063 and imaginary Im δ = −0.139 part of the
the Earth media is a semi conductivity [12]. impedance [9]. Hence the module δ = 0.185 and phase
The Earth media near the surface can often take com- φδ = −82.50 impedance. See that the ratio of (1) really
posed of homogeneous layers. Each layer is either limited run. When this δ noticeably smaller units that anticipat-
or dielectric, or conductivity. And these properties change ed with the introduction of the impedance.
with frequency change EM. Many of the Earth's land sur- For the only nonzero a vertical axis z components of
face have a peculiar structure. At certain frequencies, the the vector potential in free space have [13]:
( ) (2)
first, the topmost layer of a certain thickness turns dielec- K0
tric. Following the second layer, which is the first layer, it Az 0 ( R=
, z) exp −iωt + ik0 1 − δ 2 R − ik0 z
R
turns out conductivity. Then they say that the Earth media
is double layered. This two-layer waveguide turns media Here R is the radial coordinate on the Earth's surface.
channel for EM waves that allows EM the waves propa- Next, consider that the δ  1 .
gate along the Earth's surface over long distances. Such Consider how changes in free space with SEMW height
EM waves received a special name - surface electromag- above the Earth's surface. To do this, we can rewrite the
netic waves. formula (2)
SEMW spreading freely in the dielectric layer, are cap- K0
Az 0 ( Z )
= exp ( −ik0δ z )
tured in this layer quickly when in a conductivity basis R (3)
and more slowly in free space. Border top and bottom lay-
ers are the walls of the cavity, thus filtering out everything
δ Re δ − i Im δ . Then
Substitute=
except the frequency of resonance. Only in such resonant K0
frequencies SEMW captured dielectric layer and, there-
Az 0 ( Z ) = exp ( −ik0 Re δ z ) exp ( − k0 Im δ z )
R (4)
fore, freely available at far distances in this layer. Howev-
er, the border above between the dielectric layer and free As expected, the wave with height decreases. Up
space is not sharply defined. SEMW, loose in a dielectric SEMW could spread only on the height of
layer, though damped in free space, but rather slowly, pen- 1
etrating into the air. This allows you to measure SEMW H=
k0 Im δ ,(5)
above the Earth's surface, and use them to solve a variety
of technical tasks. Due to the finite attenuation in free or, order of magnitude,
space, the resonance frequency is not strictly defined and λ0
blurred. This blurring is proving so large that live up to the H~
δ (6)
following resonance frequency. Thus, the existence of the
two-ply SEMW surfaces it is possible at all frequencies. In here λ0 is the length of the waves in free space.
Speaking differently, spreading SEMW along the Earth's If δ=0.1, then H ~ 10λ 0 . I.e. SEMW exist on the
surface over long distances is not dependent on frequency Earth's surface at an altitude not more than an order
EM fields. of magnitude longer wavelength λ0. For example EM,
it is 100 Mhz frequency wave has a wavelength 3 m.
3. Attenuation Length SEMW in Free Space SEMW with such frequency is removed from the surface
no more than 30 m. SEMW literally dances along the
As above said SEMW may extend only if the underlying
Earth's surface. Therefore it is called SEMW. Of course,
media consists of a dielectric layer thickness h lying on
this is not a wave SEMW exists only above the Earth's
the long-term basis. When the impedance has the follow-
surface. She simultaneously exist in free space and in
ing form:
underlying media.
δ Re δ − i Im δ , with Im δ ＞Re δ .(1)
=
4. SEMW Propagator Frequency
Media with the same impedance are called strongly in-
SEMW distribution occurs in dielectric layer thickness h
ductive.
height, and unlimited in two horizontal directions. Fourier
The introduction of the impedance is useful at least of
image vector potential in this layer is described by the ex-
what this value is directly measurable. To take one exam-
pression [13]:

Ax1 D exp ( µ1 z ) + E exp ( − µ1 z ) (7)

= 5. Justification Iindependence SEMW from
2 2 2 Frequency
In here µ1 = −i k1 − χ , χ = k1 k 2 / k1 + k 2 .
2
SEMW differ from other waves that outside of the dielec- In conductivity EM wave fairly quickly fades. It is there-
tric layer it exponentially, i.e. quite quickly fades. You can fore possible to accept that the boundary between the di-
take that at the borders z=0 and z=-h Fourier image vector electric layer and conductivity basis is strong as a mirror to
potential becomes zero. Thus, we believe that the world. The boundary between a dielectric layer and free
space more blurred. Wave in free space at a distance of only
Ax1 ( z =0) =0, Ax1 ( z =−h ) =0 (8)
fades in multiple wavelengths λ0. For definiteness, we as-
Then from (6) that E=-D, and sume that the attenuation length H equal 10 wavelengths, i.e.
H=10λ0. Therefore resonance cavity wavelength has a width
cos h k1 − χ 2  = 0
2 not h, and H+h. For a typical wavelength with metal walls
  (9) increase the size reduces the resonant frequency at which
wavelength freely ignores EM wave. The same pattern will
To satisfy the last equality, should be for our two-layer media, lying on conductivity basis. New
resonance frequency, as it is easy to see, will always meet
π
h k12 − χ 2 = + π n n =0,1, 2,... the approximation ε0ωρ2 1.
2 (10)
Let's take for example. For the Arctic Ocean can take
It can be shown that use of magnetic field instead of ε=4 (dielectric permittivity of ice), ρ=20 m (resistivity of
vector potential for boundary conditions will not change salty ocean water), h=2 m (thickness of pack ice). Under
ratio (10). these conditions, f0=25.2 MHz. At a frequency of f0 the
It is convenient to deal with such frequency that the ra- wavelength is 12 m. Means height wave fade away in the
tio ε0ωρ2  1, when this k1  k2. Next, use a known ratio distance 120 m. You can say that the effective thickness of
=k12 ω=
2
ε1 / c 2 , k2 ω i / ε 0ωρ 2 / c , where is ε0 - di- the resonator will 120 + 2 = 122 m. Will meet the lowest
resonance frequency f0=1.6 MHz. Because for us the fol-
electric permittivity of vacuum, ε1 - dielectric permittivity
lowing resonance frequency f1=3.4 MHz, the difference
of the dielectric layer, ρ2 - resistivity of conductive base.
f0 - f1 = 1.8 MHz. And this difference is greater than f0.
Then (10) takes the form
That is, it covers the entire frequency range from 0 to
2 f0, and so far extends to the next frequency f1. The result
k1 h π
= +π n means that in fact our two-ply media skips waves with all
k2 2 (11) frequencies from 0 to 2f0. And so it will be for all reso-
Highlighting the real part (imaginary part frequency nance frequencies. All these intervals frequencies overlap
has no physical meaning), we get with each other. Means the existence of SEMW perhaps
at all achievable technically frequencies to media was
ω ε ωρ π strongly inductive.
ε1h 0 2= +πn
c 2 2 (12) Let's look at another example. For the area of perma-
frost areas is aware that ε=5, ρ=5000m, h=500m [14]. Next,
Hence for frequency find we find the first f0 =1.6 MHz. This frequency wavelength
1
is responsible λ0=187m. Where the effective height of the
  c (1 + 2n ) 
2
3 resonant cavity H+h=500+1870=2370m. From this height
1  1   
fn = the lowest resonance frequency will f0=1.6 kГц. So, in this
2π  2ε 0 ρ 2  ε1 h  
    (13) region to use distant radio you should use EM waves at
frequencies of 1.6 kHz and above.
We got a range of frequencies, which should happen
SEMW distribution. The lowest frequency is two values 6. Conclusion
n=0 and n=-1. This difference channel waveguide double
layered media from the ordinary waveguide, whose lowest Examples of clear frequencies should use EM waves
frequency corresponds to one value of a number n. For all for the region with highly inductive impedance. Such
other values of numbers n resonance frequency is increas- waves can be used to establish long-distance radio
ing. However, it is known that measurements of SEMW communication, over-the-horizon radar and other tech-
exist at all frequencies. Let's try to explain this puzzle. nical tasks.

Acknowledgments G. // Tech. Phys. Lett. 2010, 36: 136.

[9] Bashkuev Yu. B., Dembelov M. G., Khaptanov and
Article prepared for the budget draft Laboratory Elec- Mel’shinov V.P. Journal der Radioelectronic. Elec-
tromagnetic Diagnostics Institute of Physical Materials tronics Journal, 2018, 11.
Science of the Siberian Branch RAS budget project “Radio Access mode: http://jre.cplire.ru/jre/nov18/5/text.pdf,
wave propagation in inhomogeneous impedance chan- DOI: 10.30898/1684-1719.2018.11.5
nels”. [10] Feynman Lectures on Physics. Mainly electromag-
netism and matter, 1964, 2.
References [11] Brekhovskikh L.M., Godin O.A., Acoustics of Lay-
[1] Sommerfeld A. // Math. Ann., 1896, 317. ered Media 1: Plane and Quasy-Plane Waver , 1998,
[2] Makarov G.I., Novikov V.V. and Rybachek S.T., 2.
Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves above the [12]. Balkhanov V.K and Bashkuev Yu.B., Basic Theory
Surface of the Earth, 1991. of the Surface Impedance Method, 2005.
[3] Feynberg E.L., Propagation Radio Waves along [13] Balkhanov V.K. and Bashkuev Yu.B., Global Journal
Earth's Surface, 1999. of Science Frontier Research: A Physics and Space
[4] Wait J.R. Electromagnetic waves in stratified media. Science, 2018, 18, (11) GJSFR-A Classification:
1962. FOR Code: 020399,
[5] Kotov L.N., Kuraev A.A. and Tikhomirov N.P., Basic DOI: 10.17406/GJSFR,
theory of Propagation Radio Waves over the Earth's https://globaljournals.org/GJSFR_Volume18/3-Vec-
Surface, 2004. tor-Potential-of-a-Strongly.pdf.
[6] Kuraev A.A., Popkova T.L. and Sinitsyn A.K. Elec- [14] Balkhanov V.K., Bashkuev Yu.B., Angarkhaeva
trodynamics and radiowave propagation, 2004. L.Kh., Surface Impedance of a Highly Inductive
[7] Tsydypov Sh.Ts., Tsydenov Sh.Ts. and Bashkyev Two-layer Medium, Technical Physics, 2018, 63 (1):
Yu.B. Study on the electrical properties of the un- 107-109.
derlying media, 1979. DOI: 10.1134/S1063784218010061.
[8] Bashkuev Yu. B., Khaptanov V. B. and Dembelov M.


ARTICLE
The Bioconversion of Municipal Solid Waste in the Biodrying Reac-
tor
Maria Żygadło*　Marlena Dębicka　Jolanta Latosińska
Kielce University of Technology, Faculty of Environmental, Geomatic and Energy Engineering, Department of Waste
Management, al. Tysiąclecia PP 7, 25-314 Kielce, Poland
Article history The bioconversion process of municipal solid waste was assessed on
Received: 5 March 2019 the basis of the results obtained from the biodrying reactor working at a
full industrial scale. The bio- reactor is a part of mechanical-biological
Accepted: 18 April 2019 installation following mechanical stage. The bio-reactor was equipped
Published Online: 30 April 2019 with measuring devices allowing the analysis of the parameters like:
temperature both inside the waste and also air above the waste and also
Keywords: the humidity of waste during the 14 days of the biodrying process. The
Biodrying of waste kinetics of bioconversion was assessed basing on measured the loss of
ignition (LOI) parameter detected during the biodrying process.
Mechanical -biological treatment (MBT) The LOI value of the samples varied from 17.03% d.m. to 30.34% d.m.
Kinetics of waste bioconversion depending on the location inside the reactor. The estimated kinetic rate
constant kT of the bioconversion of biomass in the industrial reactor was
kT = 0.3141.
In analyzed case study the calorific value of product leaving the full-scale
bio-reactor is too low to use this product as an alternative fuel. As was
stated, the reason of this is too low a share of the carbon-rich fraction in
the feedstock.
　
1. Introduction drying prior to incineration to produce a refused derived
T
fuel (RDF) of higher calorific value to raw MSW [2]. The
he landfill directive (EC, 1999) indicates a well es- biodrying process, when the water removal, supported
tablished hierarchy in waste management, i.e. pre- both by the heat produced by the microorganisms in the
vention, reduction , reuse and recycling, recovery biodegradation processes and air ventilation, is regarded
in the form energy and finally landfilling [1]. In this area as a good solution to quickly reduce the water content of
incineration of municipal solid waste can be either consid- the MSW [3].
ered an energy recovery or disposal technology depending The degradation rate of organic waste is determined by
on the requirements set by the EU directive 2008/98/EC biomass characteristics i.e. organic matter content, mois-
and according to the calculation of the given formula for ture content, pH and C/N ratio. Also the way of prepara-
R1 included in the aforementioned legislation. tion of waste before the processing (composting) play the
Municipal solid waste (MSW) can be pretreated by bio- important role, like particle size of waste allowing to pen-
Maria Żygadło,
Kielce, University of Technology, Faculty of Environmental, Geomatic and Energy Engineering, Department of Waste Management,
al. Tysiąclecia PP 7, 25-314 Kielce, Poland;
Email: zygadlo@tu.kielce.pl

etrate the oxygen, free air space, O2/CO2 ratio and am- share in the feedstock, about 32 %, was the contamination
monia concentration [4]. The degree of waste drying can be by glass and minerals.
varied by the correct regulation of the process parameters
in the bio-reactor [1]. Thus the kinetics of the biodrying Table 1. The average annual morphological composition
process in the bio-reactor for specific biomass depends on of the waste directed to the biodrying reactor [18]
the air flow and temperature control along with the natural Component Contribution, σ*
biodegradable process [5-6]. The most important are the air-
Glass 18.02±1.19
flow rate, temperature and moisture content. A feature of
Fraction < 10 mm 15.70±0.68
the biodrying together with the moisture lowering is the
Kitchen waste 16.63±3.69
partial degradation of the organic matter [7].
Mineral fraction 14.02±4.82
2. Materials and Methods Paper 11.08±1.62
Multi-material materials 5.83±0.22
The analysed MBT plant consists of the mechanical stage
Plastic 5.08±0.19
- the 80 mm sieve - followed by the biological reactor (the
Ceramic 4.94±0.30
biological stage). The biological stage of the industrial in-
stallation was represented by a rectangular-shaped, galva- Foils 4.68±0.018
nized steel reactor equipped with a module for active aer- Metals 2.41±0.022
ation connected with a heater (working only in the winter Fabrics 1.61±0.03
time) and a bio-filter for removing odours. The feedstock Note: σ- standard deviation
directed into the reactor is the fraction 0-80 mm of waste The initial moisture content in the waste introduced
(post sieve) undergoing a drying process for 14 days. The into the full-scale reactor was 56.5% (Figure 1). The rel-
supply fan (air flow 4500 m3 h-1) and the exhaust ventila- atively low content of organic matter in the wastes is the
tor (moisture removal 3000 m3 h -1) work continuously. result of the implementation of green waste segregation in
The investigations of the waste humidity were conduct- the given commune. The average initial value of the loss
ed by the loss of the mass of the dried 1000 g sample at on ignition (LOI) of the feedstock directed into the bio-
105° C , according to [8]. The measurement of the loss on reactor was about 70%.
ignition LOI was determined in a muffle furnace at 550
°C for 6 hours using 5 g samples according to the Polish 3.2 Moisture and Temperature
Standard [9] . The total organic carbon TOC was mea-
sured according to the [10]. The calorific value and heat of The variability of the moisture in the examined material in
combustion were measured in accordance with the Polish the process of biodrying in a 14-day cycle is presented in
Standard and ISO 1928 procedures [11, 12]. The determina- Figure 1. Changes in the humidity of the waste were test-
tion was made on 1 g mass samples placed in a bomb cal- ed in parallel with the changes in temperature (Figure 2).
orimeter in the form of compressed pellet. Ignition of the
sample was made using a 0.1 mm diameter kanthal wire
embedded into a pellet. The calorific value was calculated
by a computer program controlling the operation of the
calorimeter. The amount of mercury was determined by
PN-EN 12457, chlorine by PN-EN 15408 and lead by ISO
11885 [13-15]. Qualitative tests of waste taken into the MBT
installation were made according to Standards [16] and [17].
3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Waste Characteristics Figure 1. The variability of moisture registered in the
different parts of the drying reactor.
The contribution of the biodegradable waste (taking into
account the sum of kitchen waste, paper, half of fraction Water vaporization is caused by a forced aeration sys-
< 10 mm) was about 36%. The share of the typical com- tem and the increasing temperature resulting from the
bustible waste (taking into account the sum of multi-ma- activity of microorganisms which consequently leads to
terials, plastic, foils, fabrics) was about 17%. A significant a gradually decreasing water content in the raw material.
After the 14-day retention time in the bio-reactor, the

moisture content in the waste was reduced from 56.5 to

31.5%, that means by 25 %. This result is similar to that
obtained in the study presented in [19] (they confirmed
about 20 %). The continuous decrease in the total mass of
the charge of the reactor is the result of, both the release
of the water content, and the partial breakdown of the or-
ganic matter [20].
Since the temperature inside the waste was the main
supporting mechanism of both the water evaporation and
the organic matter decaying, the temperature probes was
Figure 3. The loss on ignition changes during the 14 days
put in different parts of the reactor and in the air above the
of the biodrying process registered in the different parts of
waste, in the front, middle, back (Figure 2).
the drying reactor.
It can be seen that in the middle part of the full-scale
reactor, the degradation of the organic matter was faster
than in the others part. It was connected with the tempera-
ture profiles (figure 2) and reflects the microbial activity.
As a result of the biodrying process, about 17% to 34%
of the initial dry solid mass in the samples had been trans-
formed and evaporated as CO2 and H2O during the 14-day
cycle, depending on the place in the bio-reactor. Similar
results were obtained by authors in papers [21, 23].
The results obtained for the LOI parameter of the
Figure 2. Temperature changes during the 14 days of the waste differed depending on the sampling place in the full-
biodrying process registered in the different parts of the scale bio-reactor. The LOI values decreased by 17.03%
drying reactor. d.m. for the samples taken from the front of the reactor;
The feedstock and inside air temperature was mon- 30.34% d.m. in the middle reactor part and 20.97% d.m.
itored 5 times per day. The highest temperatures were in the back of the reactor. Our results of the biomass loss-
recorded inside the waste in the middle part of the reactor, es are comparable to the results given by those presented
it was about 70º C and the average values were 43.45º C. by work [24], where the authors assessed these losses at
The lowest temperatures were registered in the front part levels 25-30%.
of the reactor. The decline in the temperature was similar After the 14 days of retention in the bioreactor, the re-
to the investigations presented in the work [21]. sidual biomass measured by the LOI was in the range of
The temperature in the middle part of the reactor was 36- 53% depending on the place of sampling. According
optimal for the biodrying process (about 45 °C), which to the Regulation of the Polish Minister of Economy of
was as confirmed in work of others authors [1] . As was ob- 16 July 2015 on the admission of waste for landfill [25] the
served in our experiment, the degradation process after 7 LOI should be not more than 8%. This result confirms,
days slows down due to the decreasing microbial activity that after the biodrying process, the waste should be still
that is caused by the lowering water content [21]. stabilized before landfilling.
3.3 Biomass Conversion in the Biodrying Process 3.4 The Assessment of the Kinetics of the Biomass
Conversion
The rate of decomposition of the organic matter in the
waste depends on many factors [22]. These include: the In our research, the loss on ignition (LOI) was taken for
humidity, temperature, C/N ratio and particle size of the the determination of the kinetics of the biomass decompo-
waste. The content of the organic matter (OM) in the sition during the 14-day biodrying process (figure 3).
waste can be estimated approximately basing on the loss The kinetics of the composting process is a reflection
on ignition (LOI) (figure 3). of the rate of the decomposition of the organic matter
(OM), therefore assuming a first order kinetic to describe
it, a simple formula can be used, according to [22, 26]:
d (OM) / dt = - kT (OM) (1)

Where OM is the mass in kg of the biodegradable vol- 4. Conclusions

atile solids in a composting process, t is the time in days
and kT is the rate constant of the reaction in d-1 . The efficiency of the biodrying of the waste in the full-
The estimated kinetic rate constant kT of the bioconver- scale reactor was analyzed by changes in the temperature,
sion organic waste in the biodrying process in the indus- humidity and LOI. During the bioconversion in the bio-
trial reactor basing on the formula (1) is equal to 0.3141. drying process, about 17% to 34% of the initial dry solid
In Hamoda's work [22] the value of a constant kT - taking mass in the samples had been transformed and evaporated
into account the conditions that were met in our exper- as CO2 and H2O during the 14-day cycle,
iment - may change in a wide range: from 0.18 to 0.33. The heat generation by the biochemical processes
Thus, the results obtained on the basis of the changes in caused a moisture content decline in the waste from 56.5
the LOI in our study are within this range determined by to 31.5 % which is a 25 % reduction. The most stable
Hamoda [22]. temperature conditions were noted for the air tempera-
ture in the drying reactor and for the waste located in the
3.5 The Calorific Value of the Product Post central part of the reactor. The middle part of the reactor
Bio-reactor is the most isolated from the external environment, which
allows it to stabilize the process conditions in the shortest
The calorific value and contamination by Cl, Hg , Pb of
time. It can be assumed that the test samples taken from
the product was determined relative to the requirements
the middle part of the reactor are the most representative
for RDF. The comparison of obtained results of biodried
for the description of the waste bioconversion kinetics.
waste was made versus the EURITS criteria [27] and the
The average temperature recorded in the middle part of
standard PN -EN 15 359 for RDF [28]. Results are present-
reactor was 43.45º C.
ed in table 2.
The estimated kinetic rate constant kT of the waste bio-
conversion in the industrial reactor was equal to 0.3141.
Table 2. The comparison of main parameters of post-bio-
reactor product according to criteria for RDF In analyzed case study the calorific value of product
leaving the full-scale bio-reactor is too low to use this
PN -EN 15 359 by grading into classes product as an alternative fuel. In conclusion, it should be
Parame- Biodried EURITS*
ter
Unit
fraction criteria stated that in the context of the suitability of the biodried
1 2 3 4 5
waste as RDF there is too low a share of the carbon-rich
Calorific fraction in the feedstock. The justified option for this
MJ/kg 8.48 15.00 ≥25 ≥20 ≥15 ≥10 ≥3
value
product is to subject it to further stabilization in order to
Cl % 0,36 0.50 ≤ 0.2 ≤0.6 ≤1.0 ≤1.5 ≤3.0 achieve the requirements for waste sent to landfills, in ac-
Hg
mg/kg
1.76 2.00 ≤0.02 ≤0.03 ≤0.08 ≤0.15 ≤0.50 cordance with the regulation of the Minister [25].
d.m.
The presented results were obtained on the basis of the
mg/kg
Pb
d.m.
35.3 200.00 Not controlled full-scale of the reactor and may be helpful in the design
of biodrying reactors for municipal waste in MBT plants.
Note: *European Union for Responsible Incineration and Treatment of
Special Waste
Acknowledgments
Data contained in Table 2 prove that after the biodrying
process, the product does not meet the requirements spec- Investigations were led using: OXYMAX respirometer
ified for RDF, because too low of calorific value. It can ER-10 (Columbus Instruments). Equipment was founded
be qualified because of low calorific value, up to the fifth by MOLAB Project in Kielce University of Technology:
class according to PN -EN 15359 standard [28], what is not POIG 02.02.00-26-023/08-00; and project supported by
satisfactory. The mercury contamination in the light of Ministry of High Education.05.0.09.00/2.01.01.01.0004
this norm is too high, although it meets the requirements MNSP.IKIO.14.001
of the EURITS standard [27]. Therefore, it is necessary to
continue the process of waste bio-drying in order to drain References
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ARTICLE
Seasonal Effect on Biomarkers of Exposure to Petroleum Hydrocar-
bons in the Coasts of North Western Suez Gulf, Egypt
Omayma E. Ahmed1*　Mustafa M. Emara2　Nazik A. Farid1　Enas A. El-Sabagh3　Eman M.
Kamal3
1. Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Egypt
2. Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science (boys) Al-Azhar University*Chemistry Department, Egypt
3. Faculty of Science (girls) Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
Article history Petroleum hydrocarbons of surface water were collected from eight loca-
Received: 5 March 2019 tions of from the coasts of north western Suez Gulf, Egypt. The extracted
petroleum hydrocarbons were determined by gas chromatography–flame
Accepted: 16 April 2019 ionization detector and quantified by integrating the areas of both the
Published Online: 30 April 2019 resolved and unresolved components. The results confirm that the con-
centration is relatively higher than the recommended in the regulations of
Keywords: the Egyptian low of Environment of No.4/1994 of petroleum products.
Egypt At various locations, The dissolved petroleum hydrocarbons ranged from
5.639 to 74.8 and 1.868 to 65.698 mg/ml for summer and winter sea-
Oil hydrocarbon sons, respectively. This indicates that chronic oil pollution, in addition
Physicochemical to hydrocarbon concentrations, the diagnostic indices used shows that
Diagnostic the hydrocarbons in the area were comes from biogenic, petrogenic and
anthropogenic sources. FT-IR spectrometric analysis confirms the petro-
Gas chromatography
genic nature of pollutants.
Suez canal
　
1. Introduction Bay. The pollutant varies from raw sewage, oil spills,
T
and industrial effluents to garbage which has tremen-
he Suez Canal is located in the northeast of Egypt dous impacts on the marine environment [1]. The marine
(Figure 1) extended from port Tewfik in South environment of the bays in Suez Gulf is subjected to
with overall length 162 kms and 22.5 m water mixed sources of pollution (industrial, agricultural and
depth, the Suez Canal passes through an area of consid- domestic sewage) through the direct discharge of El-Ka-
erable agricultural, industrial and tourist activity. So the banon drain, which is considered as the main industrial
relation between human activities and environmental and sanitary drain. Research was carried out on heavy
changes in Suez Canal require knowledge of trends in metal pollution in the region, where the bay is subjected
water quality and understanding of the management of to industrial run-off from oil refineries, fertilizer plants,
aquatic habitats. This is related to sewage and/or in- and power station in addition to sewage and garbage [2].
dustrial waste discharges along the western coast of the Various physical and chemical properties that influence
Omayma E. Ahmed,
Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Egypt;
Email: dr.omaymamosa@yahoo.com

the survival of aquatic organisms in water and sediment 2.2. Physico- Chemical Properties:
include but not limited to the following; temperature,
pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, salinity, turbidity, Multi‐parameter probe was used for the in situ measure-
chlorophyll, total suspended solids, total dissolved sol- ment of pH values, Electrical conductivity, salinity, total
ids, sediment moisture, organic carbon and matter [3]. dissolved salts (T.D.S), total solid salts (T.S.S), total salts
These qualities are highly instrumental to the assessment (T.S), dissolved oxygen (D.O.), biological oxygen demand
of the level of damage done to the waterways and their (BOD), carbon oxygen demand (COD), chloride ion (Cl-
deviation from natural levels can result in ecosystem de- ), sulphate ion (SO4-2), nitrates (NO-3), phosphates (PO-34)
terioration [4]. Inflow of municipal effluents, storm waters and total alkalinity for the Seawater.
and industrial discharges into the rivers, lakes, estuary,
Table 1. Studied sites, their locations, activities and dis-
bay and oceans as a result of global increase in urban-
tances from Suez harbor
ization and industrialization are channels for serious en-
vironmental pollution with relatively high consequences Distance
Site from Suez
on human health, aquatic ecosystem balance, as well as No.
Locations Activities for each site
Harb.
social and economic development [5]. The monitoring (Km)
Loading and discharge, marine
them in water resources is highly paramount for the pro- 1 Suez Harbor. transportation, including tanker 2(Km)
tection of human and aquatic lives [6]. The aims of this operations
study are therefore to investigate the pollution status of 2
Al-Nasr oil Com-
petroleum refinery of the crude oil 5(Km)
pany
Suez Gulf determining the physicochemical properties of
Inlet of Suez oil
the water, concentrations of the aliphatic and total petro- 3 petroleum refinery of the crude oil 7(Km)
company
leum hydrocarbons in both the water and also to identify Outlet of Suez oil
4 petroleum refinery of the crude oil 9(Km)
the possible sources of contaminants using various ratios company.
Outlet of Electrical Industrial treatment- Unit for do-
and indexes on the n‐alkanes. 5
station company. mestic sewage treatment
10(Km)
6 Fertilizer Factory Unit for domestic sewage treatment 18(Km)

7 Al-Osra beach Oil residue and solid wastes 20(Km)
8 Al-Melaha beach Oil residue and solid wastes 21(Km)
2.3. Extraction of Petroleum Oil

100 ml of the seawater sample was shaken with 100ml of
carbon tetrachloride in a separating funnel for 15 minutes.
The process was repeated until all of seawater sample
has been extracted. The obtained extract was dried using
anhydrous sodium sulphate (30g). The extract was then
transferred to a weighted beaker and finally evaporated by
Figure 1. Map of Suez Bay showing position sources of
pollution. electrical furnace at 60 0C till constant weight [7]. The oil
content was calculated using the following equation:
Notes: A: Al-Nasr oil Company; B&C: inlet and outlet of Suez oil com-
pany; D: Outlet of Electrical station company; E: Fertilizer Factory & mg of oil/l = (A-B) x1000 / ml of water sample
F: AL-Osra & Al-Melaha beaches. Where: A & B are the weight of flask after and before
action.
2. Materials and Methods
2.4. Gas Chromatography Analysis
2.1. Chemicals and Sample Collection
All the oils-extracted from the studied water samples
Surface water (0-2 cm) samples were collected from Suez were analyzed using capillary column according to the
Gulf. The area under consideration includes industrial standard test method IP318/75[7]. Agilent 6890 plus, Gas
zones and beaches. Table 1 shows locations which extend chromatograph attached to computerized system with
from Suez Harbor to Fertilizer factory and from Al-Osra chemstation software condition of operation [8] column:
to Al-Melaha beaches along Suez Gulf with a maximum HP-5,30m0.25m mid, 0.25 µm film thickness. Carrier gas:
distances about 21 km along Suez Gulf. Each location Hellium at flow rat of 2ml/min, injection: Split (1:30) 0.1
has an area of 1x3m. µI, oven temperature: Initial temperature 80◦C 3◦C/min up

to 300 ◦C. The injector temperature 320 ◦C and detector In general pH of Suez Gulf is slightly alkaline vary from
temperature: 320 ◦C. region to another depending upon the location of sampling
and independent on the season.
2.5. Fourier Transforms Infrared Spectral Analy- The highest values of alkalinity in outlet of Suez Oil
sis (FT-IR) Company in winter, the lowest values of alkalinity in Fer-
The samples was dissolved in carbon tetrachloride (A.R.) tilizer factor in summer (Table 2).
and introduced into quartz cell for analysis. ATI Mattson Table 3 shows that values of suspended solids (SS)
infinity series FT-IR model 960 Moog, USA infrared is higher in the outflow effluent than those in the inflow
spectrophotometer was used in the range 4000-400 nm, water and also, the values in winter is higher, 46851 mg/
number of scans 32 with resolution 4.0 [9]. L ,than the values in summer (36502 mg/l). This is due to
the presence of the oil globules and the discharge of huge
3. Results and Discussion amounts of suspended solids from the dew-axing and coke
distillation department as well as hydrodesulphurization
3.1. Physicochemical Properties unit into the drain.
TDS includes inorganic salts as calcium, magnesium,
The physicochemical properties of water samples are
potassium, sodium, bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates
summarized in Table 2. The pH of most natural waters is
besides small amount of organic matter that are dissolved
in the range of 6.0–8.5. The higher pH values could be
in water. Table 3. Shows that the highest values of TDS
obtained from eutrophic and salty water while lower val-
at Suez Harbor attained in summer. TDS values ranged
ues are usually from dilute water containing high levels of
between 34965 mg/L to 36330 mg/L in summer and
organic materials [10, 11]. PH values: ranged from 7.23 up
34860 mg/L to 36260 mg/L in winter with average values
to 8.20 in summer and 7.33 to 8.30 in winter with average
356447.7 mg/L and 35525 mg/L, respectively. TDS values
values 7.62 and 7.65 respectively (Table 2). Normal pH
increase than the maximum permissible limit according to
value in seawater is between 8.0-8.2 at the surface, de-
the low 4\94 that TDS 2000 mg/L.
creasing to 7.7-7.8 with increasing depths [11]. In the Suez
The content of dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical ox-
Gulf, pH values were found to increase southwards, where
ygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand
the maximum pH of 8.20 & 8.30 was recorded at Inlet
(BOD) is ranged from 2.13 to 3.97 mgO2 /L in summer
and outlet of Suez Oil Company for summer and winter,
and 1.49-2.24 mgO2/L in winter (Table 3). This decrease
respectively while, a minimum pH values was recorded
in the content of dissolved oxygen may be due to the pres-
at Al-Osra beach and Suez Harbor for summer and winter
ence of mercaptans compounds in the oil participate in
respectively. The pH values are affected by the disposal
consuming the dissolved oxygen or due to the presence of
of mainly acidic sewage and industrial effluents as well
layer of oil on the surface of the water in the outlet efflu-
as the oil refineries effluents distributed in the Suez Bay.
ent which prevent the oxygen to be dissolved. The content
Table 2. PH, EC and Salinity values for the surface seawater samples from Suez Gulf.
E.C: µs/cm, Alkalinity: mg (CaCO3/L), Alkalinity, (mg (CaCO3/L)
Season Summer Winter
S.No Alkalinity (mg) E.C Alkalinity
PH E.C µs/cm Salinity PH Salinity
Location (CaCO3/L) µs/cm (mg)(CaCO3/L)
1 Suez Harbor. 7.45 51.90 33.9 110 7.33 51.60 33.4 135
2 Al-Nasr oil Company 7.38 51.59 33.9 120 7.58 51.80 33.6 145
3 Inlet of Suez oil company 8.20 49.95 56.1 140 8.0 49.80 51.4 150
4 Outlet of Suez oil company. 8.03 50.80 54.3 180 8.30 50.50 51.6 200
Outlet of Electrical station
5
company.
7.80 50.42 32.7 90 7.88 50.10 32.4 150
6 Fertilizer Factory 7.50 51.60 51.8 80 7.42 51.50 51.5 115
7 Al-Osra beach 7.23 50.70 32.9 145 7.35 50.60 32.8 170
8 Al-Melaha beach 7.40 50.40 50.6 160 7.35 50.10 50.1 185
49.80-
Range 7.23-8.20 49.95-51.90 32.7-56.1 80-180 7.33-8.30 32.4-51.6 115-200
51.80
Average 7.62 50.92 43.27 128.12 7.65 50.75 42.1 156.25

Table 3. Seasonal variation of T.S, T.D.S &T.S.S: mg\L, BOD and COD (mg / L).
S.No. T.S T.D.S T.S.S DO BOD COD T.S T.D.S T.S.S DO BOD COD
Location mg\l mg\l mg/l mgO2/l mgO2/l mgO2/l mg\l mg\l mg\l mgO2/l mgO2/l mgO2/l
1 Suez Harbor. 38904 36330 11021 3.42 270 36.8 48058 36120 12038 2.24 140 128
Al-Nasr oil
2
Company
38300 36113 15219 2.98 232 276 48002 36260 17042 2.13 144 296
Inlet of Suez oil
3
company
36432 34965 1466 2.46 172 202.4 46542 34860 16641 1.92 86 264
Outlet of Suez
4
oil company.
38024 35566 15054 3.97 272 231.2 44675 35350 16036 2.13 146 240
Outlet of Elec-
5 trical station 37040 35294 16640 2.13 362 55.2 47196 35070 16726 2.02 180 160
company.
Fertilizer Facto-
6
ry
32709 36120 17728 3.55 242 92 46102 36050 20052 1.77 212 160
7 Al-Osra beach 34890 35490 11238 2.20 240 66 47830 35420 12018 1.49 120 128
8 Al-Melaha beach 35721 35280 17675 2.23 210 94 46404 35070 23334 1.81 180 150
32709- 34965- 1466- 2.13- 172- 36.8- 44675- 34860- 12018- 1.49- 86- 128-
Range
38904 36330 17728 3.97 362 276 48058 36260 23334 2.24 212 296
190.7
Average 36502 35644 13255 2.867 250 131.7 46851 35525 35610 1.938 151
Note: NT.S, T.D.S &T.S.S: mg\L,BOD & COD (mg / l).
of BOD and COD in the outlet effluent exceeded than the during summer could be attributed to the nitrification of
recorded values in the inflow water (Table 3). ammonia to nitrite and nitrate produced by the biochemical
The increment of BOD and COD is mainly attributed decomposition of dead planktons. The nitrate values were
to the increase in the total petroleum hydrocarbons and found to be low in two seasons and within the permissible
mercaptans compounds in the drain, or may reflect the im- maximum limits of 40 ppm. Table 4 shows the average
portance of active mixing and gas exchange in this area [11]. values of phosphate concentrations in summer is 0.034
Furthermore, the presence of high amount of organic com- mg/L and 0.020 mg/L in winter. The highest concentra-
pounds in the effluents could enhance the growth of mi- tion of orthophosphate and total phosphate are found to
croorganisms in wastewater [12]. Comparing the obtained be higher in summer due to the decay of planktons which
results of BOD (Table 3) with the tolerable level for pure contain phosphate in its body [11]. The comparison study
water, higher level was particularly reported at the north- of the present data of nutrients with the previous records
ern part of the Gulf, indicating the presence of detectable in the Suez Gulf and other regions indicates that they
load of domestic wastes discharging into this region. are equivalent to other reports (Table 5). At the area of
Table 4 shows the decrease of nitrite values in the study, the concentrations of nitrite, nitrate and phosphate
inflow water this may be due to the reduction of nitrite were 0.0-0.188, 0.01-8.02 and 15-61ug/L, respectively.
to ammonia by the action of bacteria [1] or may be due The high concentrations are indicators for the presence of
to the oxidation of it to nitrate. On the other hand, the pollutants of high activity viz. sewage discharge, industri-
presence of petroleum compounds increases the values of al effluents and oil refineries concentrated at the northern
nitrite as confirmed in Table 4. Al-Nasr oil company and part of the Gulf (Suez Bay). It is also evident that the area
Fertilizer Factory have highest values of 0.188 and 0.180 of investigation can be divided into two regions; Suez Bay
ppm for summer and winter seasons, respectively. Nitrate region as an eutrophic Water (high productivity) and the
considered as the final stage in the oxidation of nitrogen part of the Gulf as going southward to Safaga which is
compounds and measure the quantity of organic matter. considered as oligotrophic water (low productivity). The
Seasonal variation of nitrate ( Table 4) indicates that ni- mean concentrations of sulphate are shown in Table 4 .
trate ranged between 0.01 ppm and 8.02 ppm in summer The increase of sulphate values may be due to the petro-
with average value of 2.39 ppm, while the concentration leum wastes containing sulphure which ranged from 0.1
in winter ranged from zero ppm to 7.65ppm with average to 3.4% (by weight) where sulphure compounds detected
value of 2.15 ppm.As shown from the achieved results, as sulphate, sulphid and mercaptans. The reduction of sul-
the nitrate content decreased during winter for both inflow phate in petroleum wastes depends on several factors nec-
and outflow effluent this may be attributed to its uptake essary to sustain the life of bacteria; the most important of
by microorganisms and phytoplankton while the increase these are the concentration of sulphate, organic matter, and

Table 4. Seasonal variation of nitrite, nitrate, phosphate, sulphate, chloride and fluoride.
S.No Nitrite Nitrate Phos. Sulph Chlor. Flou. nitrite nitrate Phos. Sulph Chlor. Flou.
Location ppm ppm mg\l ppm. mg\l ppm ppm ppm mg\l ppm. mg\l ppm
366.79 0.27 55.0 362.54
1 Suez Harbor. 0.0 6.98 0.037 55.6 0.0 6.0 0.025 0.24
0.075 129.00
2 Al-Nasr oil Company 0.188 1.31 0.057 127.03 288.21 0.165 1.00 0.047 386.79 0.007
Inlet of Suez oil com- 982.79 1.13
3
pany
0.183 8.02 0.020 559.63 0.180 7.65 0.015 987.02 554.01 1.11
Outlet of Suez oil 265.74 100.57 0.054
4
company.
0.185 1.17 0.015 0.175 1.10 0.011 264.70 98.68 0.052
Outlet of Electrical 0.045 638.00
5
station company.
0.0 0.19 0.028 638.002 289.72 0.0 0.10 0.020 280.71 0.040
0.060 145.02
6 Fertilizer Factory 0.184 1.45 0.027 148.2 270.43 0.180 1.40 0.013 265.24 0.050
0.024 20.0
7 Al-Osra beach 0.0 0.01 0.061 20.0 264.82 0.0 0.0 0.012 264.00 0.022
18.6 0.020
8 Al-Melaha beach 0.0 0.01 0.028 265.33 0.0 0.0 0.022 16.4 260.30 0.020
0.0- 0.01- 0.015- 18.6- 100.57- 0.020- 0.0- 0.0- 0.011- 16.4- 98.68- 0.007-
Range
0.188 8.02 0.061 982.79 559.63 1.13 0.180 7.65 0.047 987.02 386.79 1.11
Average 0.0925 2.39 0.034 282.99 300.68 0.209 0.0875 2.15 0.020 281.89 309.03 0.192
Note: Nitrite (ppm ), Nitrate (ppm ), phosphate( mg\L), sulphate (ppm),chloride (mg\L )and fluoride( ppm)
Table 5. Nutrient salts concentrations (ug/L) of seawater in the present study compared with other region
Parameter
NH3-N NO2-N NO3-N PO4-P References
Area
Gulf of Suez 0.18- 4.14 0.07- 0.45 0.48- 4.6 0.8-1.04 [26]
AL Khor, Suez 3.54 0.38 2.06 0.62 [27]
Gulf of Suez 1.54 0.20 0.52 0.47 [28]
Suez Canal 2.44 0.59 2.03 0.81 [28]
Suez Bay 3.25 0.49 1.48 0.85 [29]
Suez Bay 8.86 0.33 3.42 0.45 [30]
Jeddah ----- 0.28 9.69 ----- [26]
Dongonab Bay ----- ----- 4.9-7.2 0.3-1.5 [31]
Abu Qir Bay 1.23 0.07 0.88 0.58 [32]
Eastern harbor of Alexandria 3.16 0.95 6.79 0.56 [33]
EL Max Bay 20.38 o.48 1.87 1.62 [34]
Suez Gulf ------- ------ 0.17 ------ [24]
Suez Gulf ------ 0.0-0.188 0.01-8.02 15-61 This work
Oligotrophic level 0.5 ---- 0.5 0.05
Eutrophic level
[35, 36]
2.02 ---- 4.0 ----
both of nutrient and dissolved oxygen [13]. The data re- igneous rocks (granite) [14] The seasonal variation in flu-
corded in Table 4 display the highest values of 982.79 and oride concentration show highest values of 1.13 and 1.11
987.02 ppm of sulphate at Inlet of Suez Oil Company For ppm at Inlet of Suez Oil Company in summer and winter
summer and winter, respectively. Chlorides concentrations seasons respectively. This is due to the decay of living
recorded in Table 4 showed that values in summer high- organisms and the presence of the crust earth, rocks and
er than in winter. The values in summer ranged between ground water containing fluoride during the drilling.
100.57 to 559.63 mg/L with average values of 300.68 mg/
L, while in winter values ranged between 98.68 to 386.79 3.2. Seasonal Concentration of Oil Content
mg/L with average 309.03mg/L. Flouride are present as Results obtained for the quantitative determinations of oil
fluorspar in rocks (limestone, sandstone) and as cryolite in

content in the seasonal study for the water samples (Fig- weathering waxes [15].
ure2). Close values were observed between Suez Harbor
and El-Melaha beach have rates of 6.222 to 6.543 mg/ml,
respectively. The winter season samples also represented
close values between Suez harbor , El-Nasr oil company
and Suez fertilizer company have values of 5.25, 5.37 and
5.04 mg/ml, respectively. On the other hand, oil content
concentration ranged between 1.868 to 65.69 mg/ml for
winter samples. The main source for hydrocarbon con-
tamination of El-Suez harbor is mainly by ballast water
from oil tankers crossing all the studied locations beside Figure 3. Gas Chromatograms of extracted oil from sum-
sewages effluents and drains. Generally, concentration of mer water samples no. 1 as example of GC analysis
oil content are highly in summer than winter season could
be attributed to some petroleum related activities present.
Figure 4. Gas Chromatograms of extracted oil from win-

ter water samples no. 5 as example of GC analysis.
Figure 2. Histogram representing seasonal concentration

3.2.2. Parameter Detecting Vaporization and Dis-
(mg/ml) of oil content extracted from surface water sam- solution
ples
In the short term after a spill, evaporation is the single
most important and dominate weathering process, in par-
3.2.1. GC–for Oil Extracted from Seasonal Water ticular for the light petroleum products. The loss can be up
Samples 70% and 40% of the volume of light crude and petroleum
Summer and winter Seasonal studied samples show products, in the first few days following a spil. The rate at
chromatogram similar to those for petroleum weathered which oil evaporates depends primarily on the oil compo-
profiles which consist of a number of peaks over a wide sition. The more volatile components in oil or fuel con-
number of n- alkenes range starting from nC14 up to nC40 tains the greater the extend and rate of its evaporations.
(Figures 3, 4). These Figures show an example of GC (1) ≤ nC14/T.n.alkanes ratio, data obtained and present-
analysis for selected samples. The ontained chromato- ed in Table 6 show values ranged between 0.128 to 0.817
grams show that compounds lighter than n-C11 lost during for winter samples, whereas, in summer the values is not
the evaporation and extraction. These n–paraffin's are detected in most samples except for the outlet of Suez
standing out at equal distance above well defined un-re- oil company is 0.042. The low values probably due to the
solved compounds (UCM). The presence of two UCM loss of a major part of low molecular weight paraffin's by
in the majority of the samples indicate that the pollutants dissolution, evaporation and or photo-Oxidation [2].
originate either from mixed crude oils and or the region (2) ≤n C17/T. n. alkane, data obtained for this ratio Table
was subjected to more than one spill which gave the 6 exhibit variable values ≤ 1 indicating severe weathering
primary feature of the GC chromatogram. The resulted process through evaporation and or photo-Oxidation, dis-
patterns for the locations are the bimodal n-alkane distri- solution and biodegradation. The oil in the marine greatly
bution diagnostics of tanker ballast washing and Biogenic affect by different environmental factors [16]. Seasonal
sources for hydrocarbons are indicated by the dominance summer samples exhibit values between 0.017 to 0.351
of the odd n-alkanes (nC17, nC19, nC25, nC29) which are while, in winter the values ranged between 0.054 to 1.00
synthesized by marine algae and higher terrestrial plant. which considered to be less weathered than summer sam-
The paraffinic hydrocarbons are shown to be decrease ples.
regularly to different extents indicating various degree of (3) n. alkane > n C17, the n.alkanes range > n C17 is

relatively more resistant to different weathering processes between 0.0562 to 4.724 indicates high weathering effect
than lower n-alkanes [17]. Seasonal samples (Table 6) as (Table 6). This can be confirmed by the presence of low
expected shows higher values ranging between 45.64 to concentrations of low molecular weight, hydrocarbon.
88.79 for summer samples and 0.546 to 41.22 for winter
due to the loss of low molecular weight alkanes in the first 3.2.3. Biodegradation
part. (1) nC17/ pristane ratio, the ratio nC17/pr and nC18 /ph
(4) nC14- n C18/ Isoprenoids [18], the ratio of n –alkanes / usually used as indicators of for hydrocarbons revealed
Isoprenoids is defined as the ratio of the sum of n C14- n for most samples and degraded material of biogenic inputs
C18 over the sum of farnesane , trimethyl C 13, norpris- [11]
. However, most samples show high values of nC17/pr
tane, pristine and phytane, [17]. Table 6 show that summer ratio which could be related to the relatively high contents
samples have high values ranged from 0.378 to 14.468 of nC17 in several stations. Most of summer and winter
indicates that they were freshly spilled in these sites and water samples (Table 7) exhibits very high weathering
accordingly less weathered oils, while winter exhibited effect on the n-alkanes <n C20 which lead to the absence
low values from 0.097 to 4.196.This is due to intensive of niether pristane nor phytane ratios. Generally nC17/pr
weathering on the studied stations. ratio considered as an additional index of contamination
(5) nC12–nC25/nC17-nC25, the ratio is used to indicate which showed less values of 0.901 for El-Nasr oil compa-
the addition of algal biosynthesized and/or degree of ny indicates high weathered effect, whereas each of outlet
weathering [19]. Data obtained for summer and winter of Suez oil company and El-Melaha beach display higher
season samples (Table (6) exhibited close values ranged values of 10.519 and 4.884, for summer samples, respec-
between (1.000- 1.024) and (1.000-1.078), respectively. tively. On other hand, El-Osra and El-Melaha beaches ex-
This means no seasonal significant variations in degree hibit values 0.714 and 0.896 but, Outlet of Suez company
of weathering and indicates petrogenic origin. On the and El-Nasr oil company have 4.312 and 12.192 values
contrary, the rest of samples had slightly higher values for winter samples indicates the biogenic addition. The
ranging from 1.045 to 2.073 and 1.350 to 4.283 for sum- rates of biodegradation weathering i increases by decreas-
mer and winter samples, respectively. This is due to being ing the values, the rate are in the following sequences:
exposed to less weathering degree and reveal biogenic Summer water site 4 < site 8 <site 2 winter site 2 < site 4
origin. < site 8 and site 7.
(7) Weathering ratio, the weathering ratio WR = (n C (2) n-C 18 /phytane ratio, the obtained data Table 7
[11]
23-nC 34) / (n C 11-n C22) which varies from 1.175 to 9.195 show values ranged between 0.397 to 20.3455 for summer
for summer sample. while, winter samples show values samples whereas, winter samples exhibit values ranged
Table 6. GC Parameter for seasonal vaporization and dissolution of water samples
Oil con- C14-C18/ Oil con- <C17/ C14-C18/ nC12-

Range of <C14/ <C17/ nC12nC25 Range of <C14/
tent >C17 Iso- WR tent T.n >C17 Iso- nC25/ WR
S.NO n-alkane T.n alk. T.n alk. /nC17nC25 n-alkane T.n alk.
mg/L prenoids mg/L alk prenoids nC17-nC25
1 C18-C40 6.222 N.D N.D 75.88 N.D 1.000 4.471 C11-C24 5.250 0.128 0.128 39.11 0.097 1.078 0.056
2 C15-C38 5.638 N.D 0.0226 74.14 0.378 1.009 8.081 C11-C19 5.366 0.246 0.222 21.27 0.662 1.350 N.D
3 C18-C37 74.8 N.D 1.0 40.21 7.900 1.000 5.394 C17-C34 4.878 N.D 0.053 41.22 4.196 1.0 1.294
4 C14-C37 45.027 0.0416 0.3512 45.64 14.468 2.073 1.175 C11-C18 5.677 0.153 0.450 21.27 3.317 1.197 N.D
5 C16-C33 26.262 N.D 0.0478 62.50 1.445 1.045 1.430 C20-C33 28.972 N.D N.D 30.53 N.D N.D 4.723
6 C15-C36 70.888 N.D 0.0517 88.79 N.D 1.024 2.464 C11-C18 5.040 0.508 0.936 1.109 1.249 2.838 N.D
7 C17-C35 40.297 N.D 0.0464 61.74 N.D 1.000 9.195 C11-C18 1.868 0.418 0.973 0.546 0.667 4.914 N.D
8 C16-C40 6.5428 N.D 0.0170 82.79 2.308 1.019 4.399 C11-C17 65.698 0.817 1.000 N.D 0.895 4.283 N.D
Note: N.D: not determine

between 0.279 up to 26.353 which are significant for hibit close values between site 2 (0.770), site 3 (0.772),
petrogenic inputs and these values are consistent with the site 6 (0.212), site 7 (0.26). The results obtained show
fact that phytane cannot occur biogenic ally [8]. The rate of the following sequences for increasing biodegradation
biodegradation weathering for each of summer and winter weathering, for seasoal samples, Summer samples site 6
samples are: Summer samples site 2 <site 5 <site 8 site 4, <site 8 < site 1 <site 2 <site 4 <site 5 < site 7 <site 3. The
winter site 1 <site 4 < site 3 and site 6. winter samples Site 1 <site 2 < site 1 <site 3 <site 4 <site
(3) Total n-alkanes/pristane, Table 7 shows great 5 < site 7 <site 6 <site 8. The relatively higher differences
variation of the detected values (387.97) for site 8 and between this sequences and that of the other parameters is
(52.505) for site 2, summer samples. In addition, (4.037) due to the differences in the added biogenic hydrocarbons
site 7 and (43.801) site 2, in winter samples may reflect especially that of n-C25.
the difference in the weathering degree due to different
exposure times to the environmental conditions or due to 3.2.4. Distinguish between Biogenic and Petrogen-
the different origins from which the pollutants had been ic Origin
derived. Also, the lowest values for summer and winter (1) Pristane /Phytane ratio, it is clear that the ratio ~1.0
samples shows the highest weathering degree and has the [20]
, predicating mainly a petrogenic contamination. Table
sequences: Summer samples site 8 <site 4 < site 2, winter 8 show low values for sites 4, 8 in summer and site 4 in
site 2 <site 4 < site 8 and site 7. winter samples as pristane /phytane ratio is not detected
(4) Total n –alkanes /phytane, the observed ratios are for the rest samples due to extensive weathering on the
listed in Table7. It is clear that there are a variation be- studied location. On the contrary, El-Nasr oil company ex-
tween values of different sites as; 59.737 for site 4 and hibit high value 2.397, it must be noted that the station is
1213.55 for site 2 in summer, whereas 4.402 for site 6 dominated by algae which are responsible for biosynthesis
and 180.5 site for winter samples, according to following of pristine suffer from different degree of biodegradation
sequences: Summer samples site 2 <site 5 < site 8 <site 4, and indicat a biogenic contamination.
and winter site 1 <site 3 < site 4 < site 6. (2) Carbon preference Index (CPI), biogenic hydro-
(5) Total n–alkanes /Total Iso-alkanes, normal alkanes carbons are characterized by a distribution pattern of n-al-
are usually degraded more rapidly than isoprenoid alkanes showing odd carbon numbered alkanes being much
kanes, so this ratio is used as an index for the degree of more abundant than even carbon numbered alkanes main-
weathering (mainly biodegradation). The ratio decreas- ly in the range of (n-C21 to n-C33). This indicates high
es with weathering [7]. Summer samples (Table 7) show CPI values, which is defined as the sum of the odd carbon
close values between sites 1 (3.147), site 2 (3.142), site numbered alkanes to the sum of even carbon numbered
5(1.910) and site 7 (1.837), whereas winter samples ex-
Table 7. Seasonal effect of weathering "Biodegradation" on surface water samples
S.NO. n.alk/ n.alk/

nC17/ pr nC18/ ph n.alk /pr n.alk./ph nC17/pr nC18/ph n.alk/pr n.alk./ph
iso.alk iso.alk
1 N.D N.D N.D N.D 3.147 N.D 26.353 N.D 186.5 0.814
2 0.901 20.355 52.505 1213.55 3.142 12.192 N.D 43.801 N.D 0.770
3 N.D N.D N.D N.D 0.468 N.D 1.605 N.D 48.218 0.771
4 10.519 0.397 125.079 59.737 2.373 4.342 7.615 16.969 13.870 0.632
5 N.D 6.140 N.D 108.70 1.911 N.D N.D N.D N.D 0.439
6 N.D N.D N.D N.D 14.78 N.D 0.279 N.D 4.402 0.212
7 N.D N.D N.D N.D 1.837 0.714 N.D 4.034 N.D 0.261
8 4.884 1.6423 387.97 60.202 5.341 0.896 N.D 5.479 N.D 0.108

Table 8. Seasonal prediction of biogenic and petrogenic contamination for surface water samples.
S.NO Pr/ph CPI CPI* U/R UCM% Pr/ph CPI CPI* U/R UCM%
1 N.D 1.043 0.912 4.670 82.30 N.D 0.104 0.104 1.559 30.31
2 2.311 2.659 2.396 1.780 64.07 N.D 6.091 6.091 0.714 74.88
3 N.D 1.230 1.010 0.431 61.88 N.D 0.515 0.479 0.452 35.33
4 0.477 0.906 0.773 5.880 86.32 0.8173 0.602 0.602 1.170 60.89
5 N.D 1.044 0.863 12.67 92.68 N.D 1.021 0.795 1.642 51.0
6 N.D 0.696 0.546 19.91 95.21 N.D 1.176 1.176 1.081 52.50
7 N.D 8.565 3.718 2.470 71.20 N.D 1.366 1.366 0.438 40.34
8 0.155 0.498 0.428 0.975 49.37 N.D 1.196 1.196 0.991 70.35
alkanes. On the other hand, petroleum oils are charac- gin and the extent of weathering and biodegradation [20].
terized by CPI values around 1.0 [20]. Thus CPI data from The ratio of un-resolved to resolved components U/R has
summer samples ranged from 0.498 to 8.565; , whereas been calculated for most samples and was found to be
winter samples represented values between 0.104 to 6.091 >4. This value is a criterion for the presence of important
as shown in Table 8. But this assumption cannot be ac- petroleum residue [2]. Winter water samples show values
cepted by discussing the profiles of the chromatograms between 0.438 to 1.642 (Table 8) which means that the
obtained which are shown to be typically petrogenic ori- presence of dispersed oil from recent oil inputs. On the
gins [14]. Thus the CPI values were calculated again with- contrary, summer samples display values ranged between
out taking in consideration the value of (n-C25) peak areas. 0.975 to 19.91 due to high concentration of aromatic and
The results show that the CPI corrected values are ranging naphthenic compounds.
from 0.428 to 3.718. This indicates that petrogenic origin
is mainly predominating, while little biogenic contamina- 3.3. FT-IR Technique
tions can be detected especially that of (n-C25), for sum- The IR spectra for the oils extracted from seasonal water
mer samples. Table 8 also, show that CPI correct values samples are presented in Figure. 5. The characteristic
for sites 3, 5 are 0.480 and 0.795 respectively, while the bands for aliphatic hydrocarbons appear as a strong band
rest samples have CPI corrected values not differ from the at 2923 and 2853cm-1 due to stretching vibration of meth-
CPI values this due to weathering effect on the range ≥24 ylene groups (Vas CH2) and (Vs CH2) stretching vibra-
n-alkanes , on winter season samples. tion, respectively[21]. Strong bands at 1462 cm-1 due to (δas
(3) Un-resolved complex mixture (UCM), un-resolved CH3) bending vibration of CH3 group and medium band
complex mixture (UCM)hump is a measure of the extend at 1374 cm-1 due to (δsCH3) bending of CH3 group [16].
of weathering .The values of UCM percent (Table 8) re- Medium band at 730 cm-1 due to out of plane bending of
veals that all samples are highly sensitive to weather for =C-H group in mono and poly-nuclear aromatics. Indeed
summer and winter seasons which indicate that the gov- strong band at 1732 cm-1 due to carboxylic esters [3]. Final-
ernmental regulation succeeded to minimize new hydro- ly, a medium band at 810 cm-1 is significant for naphthenic
carbons inputs specially in the touristic studied sites. The aromatics compounds[8].
presence of high concentrations of n-alkane (n-C25) causes
this confusion is an indication of biogenic origin [2].
(4) Un-resolved complex mixture /Resolved (U/R ra-
tio), UCM or hump of un-resolved hydrocarbons is one
of the more convincing indication of the petrogenic ori-

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ARTICLE
The Content of Modern Landscape Architecture Discipline and Its
Forming Process
Xi Chen Dawei Xu*　Safa Fadelelseed Lianying Li
Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150040, China
Article history Modern landscape architecture discipline is not an emerging discipline. It

Received: 5 March 2019 has a very long history. After a long period of multidisciplinary integra-
tion, it has formed a modern landscape architecture. In recent years, with
Accepted: 16 April 2019
the development of society, the problems of environmental problems and
Published Online: 30 April 2019 economic structural imbalances have become more and more prominent
and serious. Therefore, modern landscape architecture is also facing
Keywords: tremendous changes and is at the crossroads of discipline development.
Landscape architecture This paper analyzes and discusses the content and formation of modern
landscape architecture, and points out the characteristics and importance
Landscape architecture discipline of landscape architecture.
Discipline development
History
Characteristics
Era
Chinese style
21st century
1. Introduction wards interdisciplinary and diversified, and has gradually
T
become a very important first-level discipline.
he formation of landscape architecture is a very
long historical process. Existing research shows 2. Disciplinary Concept and Its Evolution
that modern landscape architecture has evolved
from the early days of gardening and craftsmanship. The Landscape architecture is a combination of agricultural
content of the research mainly includes the following four technology and architecture, which contains the spiri-
characteristics: the popularization of the service object, tual connotation of the cosmology, is the crystallization
the ecologicalization of the value interest, the network- of aesthetic consciousness and agricultural science. For
ing of the spatial layout, and the scientization of research China’s modern landscape architecture, its earliest origins
methods. Under the new era background, the development can be traced back to the ancient princes and nobles in
of garden science has become more and more oriented to- the sacrifice of the gods are the layout and finishing of the
Dawei Xu,
Northeast Forestry University, No. 26 Hexing Road, Xiangfang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150040, China;
E-mail: xudw@nefu.edu.cn.

venue. Although the ritual venue is dedicated to offering can be summarized into the following four characteristics:
sacrifices and hunting for the nobles of the princes, it has the popularization of service objects, the ecologicalization
also changed the environment through the cultivation and of value interest, the networking of spatial layout, and the
modification of the greening of the site, greatly improving scientization of research methods. It is precisely because
the living environment of the local residents. For example, of these characteristics of landscape architecture that the
in the ruins of the ancient Greek temple of BC, there were main service of the early gardening is the upper class of
cases of planting holy forests; in ancient Chinese royal the society. This situation changed in the 19th century,
ceremonies and hunting places, large-scale gardens were making gardening gradually move toward the public to
planned nearby, and plants such as fruits and vegetables serve the people. It is this change that makes landscape
were planted. These early gardens gradually developed science truly a discipline, and the discipline has since
into plants with ornamental value, and later some build- taken the path of benefiting mankind, natural systems, so-
ings appeared, echoing each other, forming the prototype ciety, cities and villages, and is known as the pride of the
of the early gardens. entire landscape architecture.
The modern landscape architecture really evolved The main value orientation of modern landscape ar-
from a simple gardening to a landscape architecture. It chitecture is “lifestyle”, whose feature is mainly caused
was a western European country that began in the early by the pursuit of exquisite life by the elites of the society,
19th century. This huge transformation is called the “Great and is constantly committed to creating a beautiful garden
Revolutionary Century” of landscape architecture. In this conception. The main content is to study the aesthetic el-
century of change, star-studded, energetic, creative and ements of garden objects such as style, composition, pro-
imaginative, an industrial revolution that has changed the portion, sequence, color, texture, rhythm and axis. Modern
course of human development has taken place, which has landscape architecture has long surpassed the limitations
enabled the rapid transition of human society from an ag- of life, and gradually began to promote and pursue the
ricultural society to an industrial society. In this century, ecological characteristics of the garden. While pursuing
with the series of development and reforms such as the aesthetics, more attention is paid to the coordination and
Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Scientific Revolu- integrity of the garden and the surrounding ecological en-
tion, the agricultural gardening technology has been great- vironment, and the sustainable development of the garden.
ly developed, and the landscape garden thought has made Modern landscape architecture breaks the traditional
a substantial leap. gardening center with a point, a single point distribution
Through the above discussion, we can find that the ori- and an island-like spatial distribution of gardens. Modern
gin and foundation of modern garden science is traditional scales on the earth’s scale are scattered, fragmented, and
agricultural technology. Therefore, the research Contents discontinuous. Different from the garden studies that used
of modern landscape architecture include the cultivation to be independent of architecture and gardens, the re-
of various woody and herbaceous plants in traditional search and practice objects of modern gardening are more
agriculture, irrigation and other technologies, as well as diverse and diverse, and actively construct a network of
modern forestry planting, optimization, and asexual graft- landscapes with points, lines and surfaces, which makes
ing techniques to plant and improve the garden plants, buildings and plants more harmonious and constitute a
which makes the early aspect of landscape architecture a continuous whole. From the perspective of the practical
secondary discipline of the agricultural discipline. With methods of modern landscape architecture, the main prac-
the development of the times and society, in the early tice of modern landscape architecture is to adopt the “art”
21 st century, modern landscape architecture gradually approach. This “art” method is a multi-angle, multi-di-
developed into a first-level discipline. Today, the content mensional approach to common practice, and is the result
and research direction of modern landscape architecture of the combination of “science” and “art”. This is also
should be greatly developed. The main subject content doomed to the modern landscape garden semester is no
and the main direction of scientific research are shown in longer simply a discipline of art, but it also has a very
Table1[6]. important scientific foundation, making modern landscape
architecture also have enough intellectual power”[8]. In
3. Characteristics and Contents of Modern summary, the main content of modern landscape architec-
Landscape Architecture Discipline ture includes the basic content of natural sciences such as
ecology, hydrology and geosciences, and humanities such
Modern landscape architecture should develop into a
as sociology and economics. It is also these content and
complete discipline. The characteristics of its discipline
disciplines that give the scientific mission and nutrient

Table 1. Table of contents of modern landscape architecture and related discipline theories
Professional Branch Discipline Contents Related Disciplines and Theories
Gardening, Chinese gardening history, world gardening history, Chinese general history, world history, Chinese
garden civil architecture, surveying, garden aesthetics, environmental architecture history, world architecture history,
① The aspects of Planning,
psychology, “Laozi” and “Zhuangzi” analysis, “Yuanye” and poems, aesthetics, psychology, history of Chinese philos-
design, and construction
words, articles, reading, landscape painting appreciation and painting ophy, history of western philosophy, geology and
theory, and natural landscape appreciation geological history
Botany, plant physiology, plant ecology, plant
Ornamental tree science, flower gardening, plant cultivation, garden
Common parts of ① & ② taxonomy, plant geography, meteorology, ento-
soil science, fertilizer science, garden plant protection
mology, phytopathology, forestry
② The aspects of plant
cultivation, reproducing, Garden nursery, genetics, garden breeding Farmland water conservancy, bioengineering
introduction, and breeding
sources of modern landscape architecture[7,8]. op, understand and discriminate to determine the source,
function and value of landscape architecture. Through the
4. The Value and Status of Landscape Archi- above analysis, it is pointed out that the modern landscape
tecture and Its Disciplines architecture originated from the ancient garden art, and its
development goal is derived from the transformation of
The modern landscape architecture discipline has played a
the human settlement environment Therefore, the devel-
very important role and status since its establishment. The
opment foundation and platform of the modern landscape
so-called disciplinary thinking, professional skills, industry
architecture discipline is the subject of human settle-
applications, modern landscape architecture is a discipline
ments[1-5]. After a long period of 3,000 years of historical
that is a trinity from theory to practice. The discipline of
evolution, China’s modern landscape gradually formed the
modern landscape architecture is mainly to provide people
disciplinary spirit and intrinsic value with Chinese char-
with a comfortable outdoor garden environment through
acteristics. For example, China’s landscape architecture
theoretical research combined with artistic practice. The
studies more closely with the harmonious coexistence be-
content of the discipline mainly includes professional re-
tween man and nature, forming the artistic conception of
search on landscape garden protection, planning, design,
the philosophy of “the harmony between man and nature”.
construction and maintenance.
Modern landscape architecture has gradually developed
As everyone knows, landscape architecture is a rel-
into an indispensable part of people’s lives. The current
atively weak subject in the early development process,
development of landscape architecture needs to use peo-
and has never been valued by the outside world, nor has
ple’s daily life as a carrier to meet people’s spiritual and
it recognized the value and significance of its own ex-
material pursuit through appropriate design. Existing re-
istence. The root cause of this situation is because the
search shows that the development of modern landscape
previous landscape architecture ignored the development
architecture needs to follow the following three aspects of
of theory and lacked its own theoretical science. Since
the core value of the discipline[10].
China set modern landscape architecture as a first-level
discipline, modern gardening has developed qualitatively. 4.1 The Spokesperson, Guardian, Creator of Na-
At present, China is the only country in the world that has ture
set landscape architecture as a first-level discipline. Com-
pared with the construction of other disciplines, modern Since the formation of human society, all human pro-
landscape architecture is still in the initial exploration duction and management activities, such as basic agri-
stage, and is actively exploring and establishing scientific culture, water conservancy, cities, construction, industry,
and professional scientific guidance standards. Under the transportation, sanitation, tourism, etc., are based on the
background of the new era, it is of great practical signifi- destruction and consumption of natural resources and the
cance and imminent to vigorously construct and develop natural environment. Landscape architecture is one of the
scientific theories, enhance the scientific connotation of few disciplines that live in harmony with nature. For mod-
modern garden science, and get rid of the status and draw- ern landscape architecture, its greatest disciplinary value
backs of the “discipline deficiency” of modern garden is to pursue the maximal “humanized nature” value. The
science. most natural spokesperson, guardian and creator are the
To develop modern landscape architecture, the first step bottom line and core value of the development of modern
is to analyze the source of the subject and find out the role landscape architecture.
and value of the discipline. First of all, we must devel-

4.2 The Weaver, General Director, Dreamer of 5. Conclusion

Ecological Concept
After a long history of development and evolution, mod-
In the long history of the development of modern land- ern landscape architecture discipline has formed a com-
scape architecture, it always represents the pursuit of prehensive first-level discipline of multi-study and mutual
human nature and humanistic conception. Has a very long communication, which has important social and historical
time to practice the long-term and wide-ranging space. It work and status. This paper has carried out preliminary
is the compiler, general director and dreamer of the con- research and analysis on the formation history and content
cept of human ecological civilization, and also the disci- of modern landscape architecture, and put forward some
pline of landscape architecture. personal views on the future development direction of the
discipline and the inner bottom line and core value of the
4.3 The Coordinator, Leader, Pioneer of Ideal Hu- discipline.
man Settlements Development
References
Modern landscape architecture discipline is the forerunner
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[10] Philip H L Jr. Tomorrow by Design: A regional de-
Figure 1. Multidisciplinary intersection forms the core
sign process for sustainability [M]. New York: John
field of landscape architecture
Wiley & Sons, Inc,1996.

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Aims and Scope
Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences is a peer-reviewed, open-access academic journal specializing in
the research of environmental geoscience. The journal is dedicated to promoting the latest discoveries in the
field of environmental & earth sciences.
The scope of the Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences includes, but is not limited to:
● Geological and hydrogeological resources

● Geomorphology
● Edaphology
● Geochemical, geological, geophysical principles
● Environmental problems
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Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences - Vol.1, Iss.1

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Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Shuanggen Jin

Editorial Board Members

Sady Mazzioni, Brazil

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v1i1.475 1

6 meters. In Euclidean geometry, the length of the line is ηL = C(ηχ)1-D (2)

2 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v1i1.475

formula (3). When the measuring scale is fixed and varies

Figure 5. Electric discharges strimer channels

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v1i1.475 3

η S = C (η χ ) 2− D  (10) what it is necessary to take the derivative. It is clear that

Generalization to an arbitrary power function obviously

4 Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v1i1.475

Distributed under creative commons license 4.0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v1i1.475 5