224 5.

PARAMETRISATION OF CURVES AND LINE INTEGRALS

5.2.3 Velocity vector

The vector tangent to the path of motion, with magnitude equal to the speed is the
velocity vector. If r(t) is the position vector, then

r = r(t + t) r(t)

is approximately tangent to the curve traced out by r(t). The approximation gets
better as t ! 0.

r(t)
0 r

r(t + t)

The velocity vector v is given by

r(t + t) r(t)
v(t) = lim
t!0 t
r
= lim
t!0 t
dr
= .
dt

In component-form, if r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k, then the velocity is

dr dx dy dz
v(t) = = i+ j+ k.
dt dt dt dt

Speed is the magnitude of velocity:

s✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
dx dy dz
v(t) = kv(t)k = + + .
dt dt dt

Note that if an object moves with constant velocity, this means that it has constant
speed and direction, i.e., it travels in a straight line.
5.2. POSITION VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 225

5.2.4 Acceleration

The acceleration vector is defined as

dv d2 x d2 y d2 z
a(t) = = 2 i + 2 j + 2 k,
dt dt dt dt

with magnitude

s
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
d2 x d2 y d2 z
a(t) = kak = + + .
dt2 dt2 dt2
226 5. PARAMETRISATION OF CURVES AND LINE INTEGRALS

Example: The velocity of an object is v = 2i + 3j + 4k and at t = 0 the object

passes through ( 2, 1, 0). Find the position vector.

Example: Find the velocity vector of a car moving along the helical path (e.g.,
the Indooroopilly Shopping Centre carpark)

x = cos 5t, y = sin 5t, z = t.

5.2. POSITION VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 227

Example: The position vector of an object undergoing uniform circular motion

with radius A and angular frequency ! is

r(t) = A cos(!t)i + A sin(!t)j.

Show that its acceleration, speed, and distance from the origin are related by

v2
a= .
r

We calculate the derivatives of position and associated magnitudes;

v= A! sin(!t)i + A! cos(!t)j
a=A! 2 cos(!t)i A! 2 sin(!t)j
q
r(t)= A2 cos2 (!t) + A2 sin2 (!t) = A
q
v(t)= A2 ! 2 sin2 (!t) + A2 ! 2 cos2 (!t) = A!
q
a(t)= A2 ! 4 cos2 (!t) + A2 ! 4 sin2 (!t) = A! 2
Therefore,
2
v A2 ! 2
= =a
r A
mv 2 mA2 ! 2
= = f.
r A

The force which changes the direction of an object’s motion is called the Centripetal
force.

5.2.5 Extra reading: stone on a string

Imagine you spin a stone on a string above your head so that it moves in a circle
of radius 1m at a height of 2m above the ground at a constant speed with period ⇡
seconds. Suppose the string breaks when t = 0.
Find the position, velocity and acceleration vectors of the stone both before and
after the string breaks.
228 5. PARAMETRISATION OF CURVES AND LINE INTEGRALS

Before the string breaks

r(t) = cos 2ti + sin 2tj + 2k

v(t) = 2 sin 2ti + 2 cos 2tj

a(t) = 4 cos 2ti 4 sin 2tj,

so that r(0) = i + 2k and v(0) = 2j.
After the string breaks the stone moves under gravity
dv
ma(t) = mgk ) a(t) = gk ) = gk.
dt
Hence
v= gtk + v(0) = 2j gtk.
dr
Since = v this in turn implies that
dt
1 2
r(t) = 2tj gt k + r(0)
2
so that ⇣ 1 2⌘
r(t) = i + 2tj + 2 gt k.
2

5.2.6 Quiz

Can you match each position vector with one of the curves? Then locate the points
corresponding to t = 0.

(a) r(t) = ( t, 3/2 t)

(b) r(t) = (1, t 1)

1
(c) r(t) = ( sin t, cos t)
2
(d) r(t) = 2(cos 3t, sin 3t).
y y
1
2

x 1
x
1 2

1
5.2. POSITION VECTORS, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 229

y y

2 3
2

x 3
x
2 2
230 5. PARAMETRISATION OF CURVES AND LINE INTEGRALS

5.2.7 Main points

• You should understand the relationship between a position vector and the
parametric equations of a curve.

• You should understand the relationship between position, velocity and accel-
eration vectors.

• You should be able to parametrise lines and piecewise linear paths.

5.3. POLAR CURVES 231

5.3 Polar curves

This material is covered in Stewart, Section 10.4-10.6.

So far, we have mostly discussed curves of the form y = f (x). A polar curve on the
other hand, is the set of points whose polar coordinates satisfy an equation of the
form

r = f (✓).

Here r is the distance from the origin, and ✓ is the angular displacement from the
positive x-axis.

r = f (✓)

✓=
✓=↵

Any polar curve can be parameterised by;

232 5. PARAMETRISATION OF CURVES AND LINE INTEGRALS

x(✓)= r cos(✓) = f (✓) cos(✓).

y(✓)= r sin(✓) = f (✓) sin(✓)
r(✓)= f (✓) cos(✓)i + f (✓) sin(✓)j.

l
Example: Express the polar curve r = in cartesian form.
1 + e cos ✓

l= r + er cos ✓
l er cos ✓= r
p
l ex= x2 + y 2

On page 116, we saw that a conic section could be formed by the intersection of a
plane z = l ex dy, and the double cone, z 2 = x2 + y 2 , resulting in the formula

(l ex dy)2 = x2 + y 2 .

l
Question: What kind of a curve is r = ?
1 + e cos ✓
5.3. POLAR CURVES 233

p
l ex= x2 + y 2
is the intersection of a plane z= l ex
that slopes in the x direction
p
and a single cone z= x2 + y 2 .
If e= 0 we have a circle
If 0< e < 1 we have an ellipse
If 1= e we have a parabola
If 1< e we have one branch of a hyperbola
(The other branch is missing since there is no inverted cone
for the plane to slice through).
All curves are symmetric about the x-axis.
See tutorial sheet on conics for more details.

5.3.1 Main points

• You should understand polar curves, and their uses.

• You should be able to identify conic sections expressed in their polar form.