Proceedingsof NECTHEPOLY2009

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/336825054
Building Quantum Computer by using Simulation Approach
Conference Paper · June 2009
CITATIONS READS
0 291
1 author:
Olutola Olaide Fagbolu

University of Sierra Leone
29 PUBLICATIONS 24 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Facebook Messenger Chatbot View project
RECOMMENDER SYSTEM FOR MODELLING SUBJECT COMBINATION IN UGANDAN SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Olutola Olaide Fagbolu on 26 October 2019.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Faculty of Engineering
The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Nigeria
Book of Proceedings
1st National Engineering Conference

9th to 11th June, 2009
Theme:
Appropriate Engineering Practices and Cultural Barriers

in Nigeria: Causes, Effects and Remedies
Book of Proceedings
Of the
1st National Engineering Conference Papers as

Reviewed and Accepted for Publication
Theme:
Appropriate Engineering Practices and Cultural
Barriers in Nigeria: Causes, Effects and Remedies
Date: 9th - 11th June, 2009
Venue:
Assembly Hall, South Campus
The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Oyo State, Nigeria.
The Book of Proceedings

1st National Engineering Conference of the Faculty of Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Nigeria. 9th to 11th June, 2009
i
Book of Proceedings
Faculty of Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Nigeria. 9th – 16th June, 2009
Local Organizing Committee (LOC)
Chairman Engr. A. Olaniyan Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. The Poly., Ibadan
Secretary Engr. A. O. Oyebode Dept. of Elect/Elect. Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan
Pub. Secretary Engr. K. A. Oladejo Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. O.A.U. Ile- Ife
Technical Team Dr. Y. Mijinyawa Dept of Agric.& Envir’tal Engr’g. University of Ib.
Dr. S. A. Odutayo Dept. of Elect/Elect. Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan
Dr. A. A. Dare Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. University of Ibadan
Dr S. O. Jekayinfa Dept. of Agric. Engr’g. LAUTECH Ogbomoso
Engr. A.A. Adegbola Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. The Poly., Ibadan
Engr. O.A. Adeaga Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. Eruwa Campus. The Poly., Ib.
Finance Team Engr. J. A. Akintayo Dept. of Elect/Elect. Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan

Babatunde, K. M. Dept .of Agric. Tech. Saki Campus. The Poly., Ibadan
Mr. F. O. Raji Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. The Poly., Ibadan
Welfare Team Engr. M. O. Ashim Dept. of Elect/Elect. Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan

Engr. A. Dare Dept. of Civil Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan
Ademola Adeniran Dept. of Civil Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan
Olaiya, K. A. Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. The Poly., Ibadan
Reviewers/Editorial Board
Prof. Layi Fagbenle Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. O.A.U Ile- Ife

Dr. K.A. Adebiyi Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. LAUTECH Ogbomoso
Dr. D.A Adetan Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. O.A.U Ile- Ife
Engr. A.B. Adesina Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. The Poly., Ibadan
Prof. A. O. Olorunisola Dept of Agric. Engr’g. University of Ibadan

Dr. L.A.O. Ogunjimi Dept of Agric. Engr’g. O.A.U. Ile-ife
Engr. B.O. Akinsete Dept. of Civil Engr’g. The Poly., Ibadan

Engr. M. Olajumoke Dept. of Civil Engr’g O.A.U. Ile-Ife
Engr (Mrs) Alli Dept. of Civil Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan
Engr. S.A. Oladejo Dept. of Elect/Elect. Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan

Engr. I.O. Oladejo Dept. of Elect/Elect. Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan
Dr. G.A. Aderounmu Director INTECU O.A.U. Ile-Ife

Engr. A. A. Akinola Computer and Engr’g OAU. Ile-Ife

ii
Acknowledgment
On behalf of the Dean and the entire staff of the Faculty of Engineering, The Polytechnic,
Ibadan, the Local Organising Committee (LOC) sincerely acknowledge the Rector of this
great Polytechnic, Professor M. L. Nassar for the way he has awakened academics and
researches in this Institution. Our profound gratitude goes to the Management of the
Continuing Education Centre (CEC), The Polytechnic, Ibadan, The Management of
Eruwa and Shaki Campuses for co-sponsoring this conference with our Faculty. We wish
to thank the guest speaker and individuals and cooperate bodies, who in one way or the
other made invaluable contributions to the successful holding of this National
Engineering Conference of the Faculty of Engineering, The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Our
special appreciation goes to the Rapporteurs that skipped their personal programmes to
attend to our call. Your contributions to the growth of the Faculty of Engineering will
always be remembered and blessed.
Engr. Abolade Olaniyan

For: Local Organizing Committee

iii
Background and Objectives of the Conference
Engr. (Rev.) T. I. Oyedemi
Dean of the Faculty
machines in our industries and in the resources

T he theme of the conference “Appropriate for teaching and researches in most of our
technological institutions across the country.
Engineering Practices and Cultural Barriers in
Nigeria: Causes, Effects and Remedies”, has There is no doubt whatsoever, that the objectives
been carefully chosen and has great relevance to of this conference, its several outcomes are such
the present economic challenges facing the that would benefit not only scholars and
nation. The development and growth of any professionals but also Nigeria communities in
nation depends on its level of engineering and need of relevant and applicable science and
technology awareness. It is the yardstick for technology for accelerated development.
classifying nations into either developed or
underdeveloped, less developed, first world, The conference will help to promote national
second world or the third world. goals concerning industrial and competitions
within the grim login of globalization. Indeed, it
Virtually every aspect of human needs today is is as a result of the need to keep the objective of
driven by technology. Therefore, Nigeria must the development of middle and high level
harness all its technology resources in order to manpower in sharp focus that the Faculty of
achieve the goal of self-sustenance, growth and Engineering, The Polytechnic, Ibadan had
development. The long standing energy decided to make this conference a yearly event.
problems Nigeria faces over the years has Each year, an aspect of our technology
continued to be a drag on the attainment of the requirements will come under focus and The
objective of accelerated development which is at Polytechnic will assemble experts in the areas
the heart of the economic policies and reform identified to lead discussions and generate ideas
programmes of the present administration. To that will provide effective solutions to identified
overcome these problems, Nigeria must develop problems.
and apply appropriate technologies. These
technologies become readily available and It will also provide a platform for sharing and
routinely applicable when they are home grown, transferring technologies among the participants
affordable and backed by enough executive with a view to adapting such technologies for
capacity. commercial purposes and productivity enhance-
ment.
The cultural barriers against technological
advancement are manifested in the closure of The conference in addition to its achievements
many industries and accredited centers such as
the African Regional Centre for Engineering 1. Has facilitated new ideas and creative
Design and Manufacture (ARCEDEM) Ibadan, thinking.
which used to be engaged in the design and
manufacturing of machines, engineering 2. Has produced a list of priority actions for
components and parts and also a centre for improving the engineering practice in
training of engineers from 26 African Nations Nigeria.
since early seventies.
3. Has been stepping forward to energize
Accordingly, eighteen of these countries have and increase collaboration and
been confirmed using the knowledge gained at commitment to take the selected actions
the centre to build their countries industrial forward.
setups. Oshogbo Steel Rolling Company and
Oshogbo Machine tools are other examples. All The contributed and presented papers have been
these have been negative indices in our road to subjected to peer assessment and the relevant
industrialization. This barrier is manifested in publishable papers were compiled and published
low replacement culture of equipment and in this proceeding.
iv
Communiqué
Introduction
The Faculty of Engineering of The Polytechnic, Ibadan organised and held a National Engineering
Conference at the South Campus of the institution between 9 th and 11th of June, 2009. The conference
which had the theme: “Appropriate Engineering Practices and Cultural Barriers in Nigeria: Causes, Effects
and Remedies” attracted participants from the academia, research institutes and the private sector.
Over 100 participants attended the conference and presented technical papers which cut across various
issues including engineering management and technology policy, engineering design, manufacturing and
maintenance engineering education, research, capacity building and many more. The presentations
stimulated a great deal of useful discussions about the causes, effects and steps to limit our cultural barriers
in professional engineering practices in Nigeria.
Participants brainstormed on the papers presented and made the following observations and
recommendations.
Observations
1. The conference recognised the perpetual and worsening phenomenon of under-development in

almost all spheres of national life in Nigeria.
2. The conference recognised the lack of self-reliance, efforts and motivation among Nigerian
engineers and industrialist.
3. The conference recognised the inadequacy of trainings, well rooted information, material and moral
incentives, formal and effective working interfaces between the research and development systems.
4. The conference recognised the laxity in the required linkages between all the science based
ministries, higher educational institutions, the research establishments and the organised private
sector.
5. The conference recognised the effect of leadership cooperation, although highly desirable, have been
difficult to achieve because leaders have different interests, mandates, policies, structures and areas
of operations.
Recommendations
The following recommendations were made.
A. General
1. Production and dissemination of innovation and context should be promoted on development

and/or adapting existing materials and methods to standardised levels.
2. Trainings and capacity building workshops should be promoted in all institutions and industries
on standards and standardisation.
3. Enhancing engineering education should be targeted towards industrialisation and

entrepreneurship at all levels of engineering education.
4. Reforming the academic curriculum should be done with the active participation of professionals
including foreign experts, so as to meet the need of the industries and be entrepreneurial in
nature.
5. Rejection of students posted to Industries on training should be discouraged while establishments
with good records of training programs should be encouraged with incentives from government.
6. The NSE and COREN should make advocacy visits to Institutions for counselling and to know
the needs of students.
7. There should be improved collaboration between the industries and academic institutions.
8. Lecturers and Technologists should embrace the integration of computer application tools and
numerical packages in the teaching of engineering courses, and also keep abreast of trends of
development in learning and research.
B. Specific
1. There should be a paradigm shift from the petroleum industry to the development and
consumption of iron and steel products in Nigeria.
2. New national policy on iron refinery and steel production is necessary to increase capacity
building.
3. Engineering students and professionals should be tailored to be very interestingly relevant to their
daily lives and concerns with latest technological development and concepts.
4. Standardisation is a driving factor to all engineering practices and should be taught at all levels of
engineering education and applied strictly in all engineering practices.
5. Government should involve communities in the decision making process on water supply
systems based on their demands and demand responsive approach.
6. With suitable conversion technology, Nigeria should take advantage of the abundant energy
resources available in this tropical region in form of solar and hydro power to develop the energy
systems.
7. There should be functional and well equipped workshop at all tractor hiring units, to ensure good
maintenance. Also the units should be run so as to be self-sustaining.
8. There should be proper documentation of electrical accidents in Nigeria, as studies on this will go
a long way in providing information to citizenry and prevent future occurrences.
9. Inventory model is recommended to firms so as to optimize use of raw materials.
10. Injector system is a better conserver of fuel than the carburettor system. Automobile mechanics
should be trained on the maintenance and services of electronic injectors.
11. Indigenous technology practitioners should be trained to enhance capabilities to produce other
aluminium products that are needed locally.
12. Surveillance and remote monitoring systems should be installed on ATM cubicles to reduce
incidence of fraud.
13. In solving the power problems in Nigeria, a holistic approach which addresses the economic,
environmental, social and political challenges with the integrated resource planning model is
recommended with adequate consideration of the prevailing conditions in Nigeria.
14. Geophysical survey and analysis must be adequately carried out before a borehole is drilled to
avoid wastage.
15. Monitoring of sachet/Table water producers should be improved.

vi
16. Government should name and construct standard bus stops along major roads, with adequate long
term planning.
17. Case-Hardening treatments offer a means of enhancing the strength and wear properties of parts
made from relatively – inexpensive easily worked materials. There is the need to add local
content to our technology. It is hoped that PK can be a substitute for the usual carburizer that has
long been in the market.

vii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement iii
Conference Background and Objectives

Oyedemi, T. I. iv
Communiqué v-xvii
Table of Contents xviii-xx
Section [A] Energy and Power Sector
1. Cultural and institutional Barriers under developing Nigeria’s Energy Sector

Prof. R. ‘Layi Fagbenle 1-7
2. Power Sector Reforms in Nigeria: The Challenges of Integrated Energy Resource Planning
Diji, C. J. 8-16
3. Electrical Safety Techniques in Industrial Installations

Akintayo, J. A and Sadiq, M.O. 17-24
4. Fire Resistance Potentials of Structural Timber

Adeniji, S. O, Okeniyi, A. G.and A. A. Adeniran 25-34
5. An Assessment of Vehicle Fuel Distribution Systems in Nigeria and the Impact on Energy
Demand
Dare, A. A., Odunfa, K. M. and O. A. Adeaga 35-36
6. Failure Analysis of Fired Corrugated Brass Connectors

Adegbenjo, A.O., Adeaga, O. A and A. A. Adegbola 37-42
Section [B] Agricultural and Manufacturing
1. Assessment of the Kwara State Tractor Hiring Unit

Mijinyawa, Y. and Adebayo, S 43-47
2. Design and Construction of Sheanut Cracker

Lawal, B.M. and Ibrahim, S. O. 48-56
3. Skill Acquisition Methodology in Indigenous Aluminium Industries in Nigeria

Isola, O. O., Siyanbola, W. O. and O. O. Olamade 57-65
4. Comparative Analysis of Carburizing Atmospheres on 1030 Steel Components

Adegbola, A. A. Olowonisi A. M.and F.O. Raji 66-73
5. The Effect of Calibration on the Performance of Farm Machinery: Case Study of

Planter and Boom Sprayer
Morakinyo, T. A. and Bamgboye, A.I. 74-83
6. An Assessment of Capacity Utilization of Iron and Steel Industries in Nigeria

Ghazali, A., Yusuff, K. A. and B. Kareem 84-89

viii
7. A Study on Inventory Control System of a Typical Steel Construction Firm
Oriolowo, K. T., Oladejo, K. A. and A. A. Lateef 90-99
8. Effective Line -Balancing Activities in Coca Cola Production

Okunlola, G.S and Adeniyi, E.K. 100-105
9. Application of Fluidization Technique in Designing Batch Dryer for Agricultural Products

Adeaga, O.A., Adesina, A. B. and J. O. Oyetoso 106-116
Section [C] Curriculum Development and Human Capacity Building
1. The Roles of Universities of Technology and the Polytechnics in the National System of
Innovation (NIS) in Nigeria
Falade, J. O. 117-123
2. Inadequacies in Engineering Professional Activities in Nigeria

Olaniyan A. and Adegbola A. A. and S. U. Okene 124-132
3. Cooperative Education as a Tool in Producing Good Engineering Personnel

Onyeocha, E.I.E. 133-136
4. Factors Affecting the Low Performance of Engineering Students in Citizenship Education.

Muyiwa, S. A. 137-141
5. Cultural Barriers to Engineering Education and Practices in Nigeria

Onyeocha, E.I.E. 142-145
Section [D] Computer Modeling, Information and Communication Technology
1. Application of a Model Process in Solving Engineering Computational Problems

Olaniyan, A. and Oyedemi, T. I. 146-155
2. Predictive Model for Regulating Flow of Water in Open Channels

Agbede, O. A. and Okeniyi, A. G. 156-163
3. Embracing Integration of Numerical Packages to the Teaching of Engineering Courses

Oladejo, K. A., Abu, R., Olaniyan, A. and M. D. Adewale 164-173
4. Building Quantum Computer by using Simulation Approach

Fagbolu, O. O. 174-180
5. Application of Digital Circuit in computer Mathematical Operation

Akande, A. and Adeniran, A. 181-186
Section [E] Quality Assurance, Maintenance and Management
1. Assessing Airlines Performance using DEA Approach

Adegbola, A., Adeaga, O. A. and A. O. Adegbenjo 187-195
2. Bore Hole Development and Maintenance

Sangotola, T. M. and Olagoke, B. E 196-199

ix
3. A Study of Water Supply System in Ilorin Metropolis
Ibikunle, O. A. and Fawole, T. G. 200-213
4. Evaluation of Quality Characteristics of Commercially Available Brands of Sachet-Water:

Using Refractive-Index
Sangotola, T. M. and Egbetade, S. A. 214-217
5. The Menace of Urban bus Stops and the Way out: a Case of Federal Roads Ibadan
Fasanmade, P.A. 218-222
6. Improvement on the Development of Melon Shelling Machine for Small-Scale Outfits

Adesokan, S. G., Oriolowo, K. T., and Oke, D. B. 223-225

x
Cultural and Institutional Barriers Underdeveloping Nigeria's
Energy Sector
Lead Paper Presented
Prof. R. ‘Layi Fagbenle, FNSE, FSESN

Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University, lle-lfe, Osun State, and
Retired Professor and Former Head of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Oyo State.
Protocol
The Chief Host and Rector of The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Professor M, L. Nassar, Chairman of the occasion, our Host
and Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, Engr. (Rev.) T. I. Oyedemi, Heads of Departments of the Faculty of
Engineering, Deans of other Faculties and Heads of other Departments, Staff and students of the Faculty of
Engineering and other Faculties of The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Other Lead Paper and conference technical paper
presenters, invited Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen, it is a rare privilege and an honour for me to be invited
here today to present a Lead Paper on a topic within the general theme of this 1" National Engineering
Conference of the Faculty of Engineering of The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Let me say why it is both a rare privilege and an honour for me to be so invited here today. Almost 35 years
ago to the month I resumed duty as a Lecturer in the Mechanical Engineering Department of this great
institution, The Polytechnic, Ibadan, fresh from a decade away in the USA with an additional year detour via
Ghana. I transferred my services from The Polytechnic, Ibadan to the University of Ibadan in 1989 after
serving in various positions including the founding Director of the then Iree Satellite Campus of The
Polytechnic, now Osun State Polytechnic, Iree. It is indeed a homecoming. Greate Polytes!
Mr. Chairman, the topic of my presentation was crafted within the overall theme of this Conference, as I
was graciously given the freedom to choose my topic by the organizers: 'Cultural and Institutional Barriers
under-developing Nigeria's Energy Sector'', I do not think anyone in Nigeria doubts that our energy sector is
underdeveloped, nor that Nigeria herself is barely struggling to keep abreast with other developing countries.
Anyone in doubt should take a look at the various international Human Development Report and indices to
see Nigeria's ranking in the committee of nations. That Nigeria is classified with other developing countries
is merely because the underdeveloped classification has mercifully been dropped from international
classification of nations out of polite respect for national feelings.
Introduction rank of 154th out of 179 countries with data

(Table 1)”. In this HDI ranking, Iceland was first
According to the UNDP, the Human with HDI of 0.968.
Development Index (HDI) provides a
composite measure of three dimensions of In the 2005 UNDP HDR (Human Gender Index
human development, living a long and healthy Modified), the HDI for Nigeria was 0.470 which
life (measured by life expectancy), being ranked Nigeria at 158th position out of 177
educated (measured by adult literacy and countries, heading the last 19 countries in the
enrolment at the primary, secondary and world, all of them sub-Saharan. Ahead of Nigeria
tertiary level) and having a decent standard of are several other African countries such as
living (measured by purchasing power parity, Eritrea (157). Senegal (156), Gambia (155),
PPP, income). The index is not in any sense a Uganda (154), Togo (152), Zimbabwe (151),
comprehensive measure of human development, Djibouti (149), Kenya (148), Sudan (147),
it does not, for example, include important Cameroon (144). Madagascar (143), Swaziland
indicators such as gender or income inequality (141), Congo (139), Lesotho (138), Mauritania
and more difficult to measure indicators like (137), Ghana (135), Comoros (134),
respect for human rights and political Equatorial Guinea (127), Morocco (126),
freedoms. What it does provide is a broadened Namibia (125), Botswana (124). South Africa
prism for viewing human progress and the (121), Egypt (112), Algeria (104, Tunisia (91) and
complex relationship between income and Libya (56). Some others are Israel (23), UK (16),
well-being". USA (12), Japan (8), Norway (2), Iceland (1), etc.
In the 2008 update of the 2005 rankings, the HDI In the 2008 Update of the 2005 HDR, Nigeria
for Nigeria was 0.499, which gave the country a heads the list of the countries classified under
Prof. R. „Layi Fagbenle. “Cultural and Institutional Barriers Underdeveloping Nigeria's Energy Sector”. (Lead Paper Presentation)
"Low Human Development" category, starting This implies a disproportionate usage of

out with Nigeria at No. 154 (with an HDI of biomass resources such as fuel wood, foliage,
0.499) and ending with Sierra Leone at No, animal wastes, etc. for energy production
179, all countries in this category being sub- relative to other primary energy sources such
Saharan African countries. as fossil fuels - natural gas, petroleum
resources, hydro, and other renewable energy
Mauritius at No. 74 was the only African country sources besides biomass. The ecological
which made the "High Human Development'' implications of this on desertification and
category consisting of 75 countries, in the global warming are apparent.
''Medium Human Development" category are
some African countries such as Tunisia (95), Nigeria's electricity consumption in 2004
Algeria (100), Gabon (107), Equatorial Guinea was 157 kW-hr/capital (116 kW-hr/capital in
(115), Egypt (116), South Africa (125), Botswana 2006 IEA database) while South Africa's
(126), Morocco (127), Namibia (129), Congo consumption was 4,818 kW-hr/capita (7079
(130), Mauritania (140), Swaziland (141), Ghana kW-hr/capital in 2006 I E A database).
(142), Madagascar (143), Kenya (144), etc. Comparative data on other countries appears in
Table 1 below indicating Nigeria's precarious
The UNDP defines another measure called energy situation. The data for 2009 will be
the Human Poverty index (HPI) as follows: even much lower than the 116 kWh/cap for
"The Human Poverty index for developing 2006, due to myriad of problems, the Niger
countries (HPI-1), focuses on the proportion Delta question being a grave and most vexing
of people below a threshold level in the one among them. It should be clear now that the
some dimensions of human development as category "Low Human Development” is really a
the human development index - living a long euphemism for the underdeveloped countries of
and healthy life, having access to education, the world. This, alas, is headed by “Africa’s
and a decent standard of living. By looking giant”, Nigeria.
beyond income deprivation, the HPI-1
represents a multi-dimensional alternative to What are the cultural and institutional barriers
the $1.25 a day (PPP US$) poverty measure”. responsible for this perpetual and worsening
On this measure, the Human Poverty index phenomenon of under-development in almost all
HPI-1 value of 37.0% for Nigeria, ranks her spheres of national life, but especially in the
111th among 135 developing countries for subject of this Lead Presentation, Nigeria's
which the index has been calculated. energy sector? I must admit that we will need the
expert analysis of social scientists, historians
Under the classification "Biomass and Waste", and culture expert analysts to do justice to the
Nigeria ranked No. 158 (out of 179) on theme of the conference and to the cultural part
Biomass and waste energy utilization as a of my topic. Hence, I will scout around this
percentage of Total Primary Energy Supply aspect and concentrate more on the institutional
(TPES) with 79.8% in 1990 and 78% in 2005. barriers in this presentation.
Table 1: Comparative Per Capita Electricity Consumption of Nigeria with some other Countries
Per Capita Electricity Consumption 2006 Population from

Country (KWh/cap) 2008 IEA Key Energy
Year 2004 Year 2006 Statistics
Nigeria 157 116 144.72
Mauritius 1,775 - -
Algeria 889 870 33.55
Egypt 1,465 1,382 74.17
Gabon 1,128 1,083 1.31
Ghana 289 304 23.01
Botswana - 1,419 1.86
South Africa 4,818 4,810 47.39
Iceland 29,430 31,306 0.30
Norway 26,657 24,295 4.66
New Zealand 10,240 9,746 16.34
United kingdom 6,756 6,192 60.53
USA 14,240 13,515 299.83

Page 2
to patiently wait in a long queue to pay their bills

Ingrained Non-Commercial or Non- at the end of a month. It is also only then that
Business Orientation of Public Services the need for utility staff chasing bins will not
arise and let alone having utility staff making
It is not clear where the attitude crept into the shady deals with consumers.
Nigerian mentality that public services could or
should not be run on commercial or strict Maintenance Planning, Budgeting,
business principles. A look at the public sector Implementation, Monitoring, Control,
of several other African countries that were Evaluation and Oversight
similarly colonized show efficiently run public
service sectors such as the water, telecom and The above issue is at the root of most of the
power sectors. As some of you know, I have other problems to be discussed in this
had the good fortune to be intimately involved presentation as we shall presently see in entities
with the power sector of the Republic of run on commercial principles, maintenance is
Botswana and indeed that of Southern African given pride of place, as they know very well that
Development Community (SADC). The Annual operation is in jeopardy if not well backed by
Reports of the power, water and telecom sectors effective and timely maintenance, and they also
of many SADC member countries (about 32 of know that failed operation implies loss of
them) can be easily downloaded from the revenue and the doom of the enterprise if
internet where it can be confirmed that they are immediate corrective action is not taken. But
run strictly on commercial or business what do we have in Nigerian public sector
principles. To be able to get to this point, it is utilities?
clear that a certain degree of societal discipline
has been successfully inculcated in the Although we all know the story quite well, I
consumers, whereby they do not treat their will like to tell right from the inside as quoted
public sector utility consumer bills differently in a recent newspaper publication, in the
from bills coming from private sector entities. At Energy section, page 22 of the Nation
the end of every month, long lines of consumers Newspaper of Tuesday, March 31, 2009, there is
can be seen at all the public utilities waiting a piece titled “Egbin Chief lists impediments to
their turns patiently to pay their bills. operation - plant generates at N14.91/kWh". Of
course the piece is on Egbin Thermal Power Plant,
With decades of individual and corporate with six units of 6 x 220 MW steam turbines
indiscipline, and ingrained in Nigerian public giving a total 1,320 MW installed capacity at the
sector entities, the idea of an Annual Report on station. Permit me to quote copiously from this
the performance of public sector unities still newspaper article for it elucidates my thesis
sounds very strange. Yet, it is a key requirement above:
to successful and sustainable service delivery.
This is indeed a major reason why none of the "The management of Egbin Power Station
public sector companies slated for sale by the has named lack of gas supply, a ged
Bureau of Public Enterprises (BPE) since 2005 equipment, tack of maintenance and
have found any buyers to date in the unending inadequate skilled manpower as some of the
Privatization process - whether it is NITBL problems hindering desired output from the
(whose so-called sale was reversed by the Yar' plant,
Adua government only last week), or the 18
PHCN generation, transmission and generation Besides, the cost of power generation from the
companies, or the four refineries. They would plant, the company said is N14.9/kWh while
only be sold at give-away prices unless they power according to the minister of power,
can show in their Annual Reports their track Rilwan Babalola, is sold at an average of
record performance to make them "beautiful N6/kWh by the PHCN, reflecting a shortfall of
brides". N8.91/kWh, which the government
pays………………"
It is only with such a mindset of utility run on
commercial principles that the public sector The last statement of course implies government
companies can strive to deliver on their subsidy, which could be as a result of a poorly
mandate, it is only with effective delivery on run public sector utility or a result of
their mandate that the consumers can ever wish improper pricing strategy or policy, in the
Page 3
Botswana example I gave earlier, all salaries wall has just been completed but it cannot be
and overhead are paid from the income operated because the generator and the BFP
generated by Botswana Power Corporation (boiler feed pump) motor rotors were used for
(BPC), which was under the direct supervision overhaul of Unit 2, however, he said the
of the Energy Affairs Division (which I headed contact for repairs has been awarded to
as the Director for two years before becoming Marubeni adding that the rotor would be
the Energy Advisor to the government) in the shipped to Japan this month. The boiler
Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water reheat tubes will have to be worked on before
Affairs (MMEWA) and profits are generated it can be returned to service. Processing of the
annually which revert to the government. The contract is in progress, he said”.
same story goes for ESKOM in South Africa,
ZESCO in Zambia, NAMPOWER in Namibia, "Speaking on common service plants and
etc. My earlier point has been clearly equipment, he said that some of the station
demonstrated by the above quote that there is auxiliaries hove received partial overhaul, while
absolutely no resemblance to operation on some have been left out completely, for
commercial principles in our public sector instance, he said that hydrogen plant has been
power utility. Why should there be such a scrapped although but there is plan to put a
shortfall and why is government covering up new one in place by September. The
for such shortfall? The answer lies with both demineralization plant, he added, was
the government and the public utility. overhauled in 1995, and currently, only one
Where the enabling instrument does not train is available and operates at 30%
require the utility to at least cover its costs reliability while the water treatment plant has
or get booted, and where the government not been overhauled since installation in
has not sufficiently empowered the utility to 1984 and also has 30% reliability.
deliver on such a mandate, the result will be
that kind of statement coming from a Minister Ogbonna enumerated the implications of the
in charge of the utility. Similarly, the long neglect of the aforementioned problems,
management of a utility cannot list those which include low plant reliability index,
problems if adequate provision has been frequent unit trips during operation leading to
made by government for it, i.e. if it had been grid system instability, reduction in available
earlier adequately empowered to provide plant capacity over time and poor efficiency".
those things listed. Let us listen to some
The above quotes buttress my initial assertion on
more Quotes from the above newspaper:
the high value and importance placed on
maintenance in the private sector which alas, is
"The Chief Executive Officer of Egbin Power treated with levity in Nigeria's public sector
Plc., Jonathan Ogbonna, an engineer, said utilities. It is highly unimaginable that the
that……….. by design, Egbin units are maintenance of a power plant with an average
expected to be overhauled every 5-6 years. cost of US$ 3 million/MW would be treated
Unit 3 was due for overhaul in 1990. At the with such levity, with some of them never
moment, only Units 2, 4 and 6 have been overhauled since host installation in 1984! Only
overhauled. By May this year (i.e. last in Nigeria's public sector is this possible in the
month!), Unit 3 would have operated for 24 whole world.
years without the statutory overhaul while
Unit 1 would have operated for 23 years This section is titled maintenance planning,
without overhaul”. budgeting, implementation, monitoring, control,
evaluation and oversight. What Engineer
"Standard practice in power utility Ogbonna said above should properly belong
management is to upgrade or replace under planned maintenance with adequate budget
boiler/turbine control equipment every 10-12 provisions planned up to one year ahead at least,
years due to obsolescence and advances m with control and oversight functions built in.
technology. Units 1 and 3 have never been The possibility of all this having been done
upgraded since installation (in 1984) while exists only for higher level management to
units 4-6 are overdue for upgrades because the frustrate the best laid plans of engineers and
technology is more than 15 years old”. technocrats. Budgets might be well prepared and
successfully defended with government turning
"The Egbin Power Chief noted that the around to slash it mercilessly or, as in General
rehabilitation work of Unit 6 boiler water Abacha time, refuse to release even a single kobo
Page 4
for maintenance functions. All this is possible in the Presidential mandate of achieving
a system with fuzzy, illogical or deficient roles generation capacities of 1050 MW by end of 2009
allocated to the utility by government. and 1250 MW by 2012, Ogbonna said that Unit 6
has to come on stream to recover the lost 220
The best way out if the utility is to remain a MW capacity, plant reliability and efficiency
public one, is for it to be run strictly on have to be improved, plant technology has to be
commercial principles. Government may find updated to check obsolescence, existing
other ways to support some segments of workforce has to embark on training and
society through direct or indirect intervention retraining, Eqbin has to be institutionalized as
or specially designed schemes. This was done business outfit and there should be adequate
effectively in Botswana during the accelerated supply of fuel”.
electrification of remote villages while I was the
Director of Energy Affairs. In the Nigerian "He said if Egbin will continue to play its
public utility system, who in the Ministry of significant role in the power sector, improved
Power has the evaluation and oversight maintenance and retooling must be made now,
responsibility on maintenance schedules and funding made available to upgrade and
operations for the power sector? When does rehabilitate failed plant items and retool the
the Minister get to know about the state of the boiler/turbine instruments, address problems
power plants as described by Engr. Ogbonna for of gas supply, prompt attention and approval
Egbin Station? (This, by the way, is the story for all projects requiring Ministerial approval,
common to all our power plants including the incorporate training as part of major contract
hydro stations at Kainji, jebba and Shiroro). job and conduct in-house training to develop
skills and encourage multi skills and talents
In-Service Education, Further Education among other.".
and Advanced Training (E&T),
Retraining and Industry Knowledge Engineer Ogbonna has touched on the highest
level of supervision in the ministry which also
Updating
happens to be the approval level for certain
levels of projects of the caliber of power
It is imperative that avenues be provided for plant repairs and maintenance. Undue delays
training, advanced training, further education at this level could easily run into decade of
and continuing education of artisans and unmet overhaul deadlines. He also touched on
craftsmen, technicians and technologists, institutionalizing Egbin power station as a
engineers and engineering managers in the business outfit, as well as highlighting the
power sector for effective service delivery. crucial role of training and retraining, in-
Failure to do this has been partly responsible for house, Locally and internationally. Alas, all
the underdeveloped state of Nigeria's power these appear to be absent from our power
utility. Let's listen again to Engineer Ogbonna on utility as to cause low morale.
this aspect:
''On availability of manpower, he said that skills

Non-Development of Local
development is inadequate. Manpower technical Manufacturing Capacity for Systems,
training with CEGB of UK stopped in 19S1 white Sub-Systems, Equipment, Parts, and
local technical training at in-house training Spares Production to Reduce Over-
school was disrupted since the commencement Dependence on Foreign Manufacturers
of unbundling of the former National Electric while Creating Local Employment for
Power Authority (NEPA) in 2005. Most of our our People
well trained members of staff are either
retire/retiring or are poached by other This is the so-called "Local Content" in the oil
industries”. industry parlance. Contract document developers
need to be steeped deeply in nationalism and
''There is need for exchange/utility partnership the need for local employment generation
and attachments to improve skill and through negotiating local manufacturing content
productivity, besides, members of staff ore to all large contracts as obtain in the power
restive, their morale low due to poor condition industry. This could be for pumps, fans, motors,
of service”. compressors, valves, seals, gears, shafts,
housings etc. it could even be for sub-
“For Egbin to contribute to the realization of
systems such as turbine blade or
Page 5
condensers, evaporators, boilers, etc. This is Zealand were 64.5% and 72.1%, 48.5% and
the way it is done in countries that have passed 36.6%, 13.1% and 12.7%, 30.7 and 23.8%
from underdeveloped stage to the developed respectively.
stage, especially the Asian countries. A doze of
nationalism needs to be instilled in those Vandalism, Pilfering and Willful
technocrats and ministry managers to see the Destruction of Public Property
importance of this crucial point. Engineer
Ogbonna made a similar remark above when he The individual and corporate indiscipline
said that training should be incorporated as part mentioned earlier rears its ugly head in
of major contract jobs. vandalism, willful destruction and pilfering of
newer utility property. In Nigeria it is not
Absence of Local R&D Patronage due to uncommon for 300 to 500 kVA of
Patent Lack of Nationalism - A Self- transformers to be successfully pilfered right
Defeatist Stand Nurtured over Many in broad daylight. Ditto for low-tension (IT)
Decades which is now Responsible for our and high tension (HT) power lines, power
Lack of Employment Creation meters, etc. illegal connections occur to such
Opportunities for our Children and extent as to make the level of unaccounted
for losses (unmetered power at the
Generations yet Unborn
distribution end) to be closed to 40%.
These societal ills will need to be checked
This is related to the issue discussed above and an acceptable level of behavior and
Research and Development is the fuel for discipline restored if we are ever to leave the
industrial development and a nation ignores role of "king of the under-developed nations"
development of her knowledge base through of this word.
R&D to her own peril, for it implies loss of job
creation opportunities for its citizens who
Corruption
would then have to seek the ever elusive
"greener pastures" and "eldoradoes" in foreign
countries. Engr. Ogbonna mentions giving I have left this big one for the last. I hope
contracts to Marubeni of Japan without any everyone has read what our ex-EFCC boss
social content to such muiti-billion naira Ribadu said in his testimony before the US
contracts! What a shame! That would never House of Representatives recently on the evils
have happened in South Africa or even small of corruption in Nigeria. We all know about
Botswana. this and we continue to see it become
cancerous by the day in the society.
Slow Development of Local Renewable Corruption has devastated Nigeria's power
sector as we see the daily news of the report
Energy Sources for Power Generation in
of the House Committee on the Power Sector
Large Grid-Tied and Small Decentralized and its fallouts. Lord have mercy on us.
Systems
The Renewable Energy (RE) master plan for Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, I believe
Nigeria has target contributions to the we have touched on the major issues that are
electricity supply mix from Renewable Energy impeding Nigeria’s power sector from
sources (solar, wind, small hydro and biomass) performing up to even 50% of the world
of 56 MW, 701 MW and 3,060 MW in the Short standard. There are dozens of indices that I
Term (2009), Medium Term (2015) and Long can give to support this claim, and we all
Term (2025) respectively. We are half-way into know what we suffer from the PHCN daily.
the short term and we are yet to have re- Some solutions have been proffered in this
contribute up to 1 MW out of the target 56 MW presentation which could help to bring a
to the nation's electricity mix. responsive utility into being. It is the
responsibility of all of us to seek ways of
According to International Energy Agency getting PHCN out of the rot; for our sakes
(IEA), the contribution of hydro, solar wind and and for generations yet unborn who will not
geothermal power in Nigeria as % of Total Primary forgive us for bequeathing such rubbish to
Energy Supply (TPES) in 1990 and 2005 was 0.5% them.
and 0.7% respectively. Corresponding values
for Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and New
Page 6
In closing, I would like to leave you all with

this amusing piece from NEPA leaflets on Recommendation
Afam Power Station. On the third sheet on
station performance and achievement, it
My presentation today then recommends
claims as follow; "Through a combination
that:
of good machine design, non -corrosive
fuel/natural gas quality, most of the units
1. Further education and continuing
(18 Units in total at Afam) have exceeded the
education of artisans and craftsmen,
number of operating hours. The excess
technicians and technologists, engineers
operating hours is approximately 8,000 hours,
and engineering managers in the power
which is seen as a major technical
sector for effective service delivery,
achievement, since the recommended running
should be re-addressed and put back to
hours between overhaul is 16,000 hours, it is
life especially the local technical
widely believed in the Engineering world that
training at in-house training which was
no ABB Unit in the world has achieved such a
disrupted since the commencement of
feat".
unbundling of the former National
Electric Power Authority (NEPA) in
Not surprisingly, afam power station 2005.
maximum demand for most of 2008 was near
zero MW and most of the units have broken 2. Contract document developers should
down completely. be steeped deeply in nationalism and
the need for local employment
Conclusion generation through local manufacturing
content to all large contracts.
Once again, the Chief Host and Rector of The
Polytechnic, Ibadan, our Host and Dean of the 3. The societal ills especially pilfering of
Faculty of Engineering, Heads of Departments of transformers, LT and HT power lines,
the Faculty of Engineering, Deans of other power meters, etc., illegal connections
Faculties and Heads of other Departments, Staff should be checked to make the level of
and students of the Faculty of Engineering and unaccounted losses to be closed to 40%
other Faculties of The Polytechnic, Ibadan, invited and to achieve an acceptable level of
Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen, I would want to behavior and discipline.
be permitted at this point to conclude as that:
1. It is only on mindset of utility run on

commercial principle that the public
sector companies can strive to deliver
on their mandate and it is only with
effective delivery on their mandate that
the consumers can ever wish to
patiently wait in a long queue to pay
their bills at the end of the month and
stopping the utility staff in chasing bills
and making shady deals with
consumers.
2. For Egbin to contribute to the

realization of the Presidential mandate
of achieving generation capacity of the
1050MW by the end of 2009 and
1250MW by 2010, the plant technology
should be updated to check
obsolescence, the existing workforce
has to embark on training and retraining
and Egbin has to be institutionalized as
business outfit.
Page 7
Power Sector Reforms in Nigeria: The Challenges of Integrated
Energy Resource Planning
Diji, C.J
dijichuks@yahoo.com
Department of Mechanical Engineering. University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Nigeria
Abstract
The Electricity Industry in Nigeria is currently under reforms. This reform is primarily as a result of
inadequate electricity supply, incessant power outages, low generating plant availability and high
technical and non – technical losses that have characterized the industry.
This paper proposes the Integrated Energy Resource Planning (IERP) as a holistic planning model for
the effective accomplishment of the reform objectives. The IERP model involves the integration of
technological options into the mix of potential resources and integrates a broader range of cost
components including environmental and other social costs, into the evaluation and selection of
potential technical resources. The model involves the use of IRP methodology as a tool for the
systematic analysis of future energy alternatives and associated energetic, environmental and economic
costs and benefits.
Keywords: Energy, Energy Planning, economic costs, environmental
Introduction Electricity production in Nigeria dates back to

Energy, the ability to accomplish work or to 1896 when electricity was first produced in
produce heat is an input for economic and Lagos, fifteen years after its introduction in
industrial processes. It is a strategic England (Niger Power Review, 1985). In the
commodity which promotes economic growth last 40yrs in Nigeria, its production has varied
through industrialization and exportation of from gas – fired, oil –fired, hydroelectric
manufactured goods. power stations to coal – fired stations with
hydroelectric power systems and gas – fired
Electricity is the flow of electric power or systems taking precedence. Table 1 shows the
charge. It is a secondary source of energy installed and available generating capacity of
derived from the conversion of other sources the electricity supply industry in Nigeria.
of energy such as coal, natural gas, nuclear
power and other natural sources, which are From table 1 it can be seen that currently in
called fossil fuels and are primary sources of Nigeria, the installed and available electrical
energy. It is a basic part of nature and is one of capacity is 5924.7MW, and 4586MW
the most widely used forms of energy. respectively. Thus 22% of the installed
capacity is unavailable due to operational
Globally, electricity production accounts for inadequacies, and inability to operate at full
32% of total global fossil fuel use or 132 EJ of capacities of the generating stations and their
primary energy (1EJ = 109GJ), and 41% or respective percentage contribution to the total
10.9 Gt (1Gt =109tonnes) of total energy – energy production. Even operating at installed
related CO2 emissions (Taylor et al, 2008). capacity the power sector in Nigeria lacks the
Thus improvement in the efficiency of supply capability to meet rapidly growing
electricity production is one major way of electricity demand in the country.
reducing the world‟s dependence on fossil
fuels, thus helping both to combat climate
change and improve energy security.
Diji, C.J Power Sector Reforms in Nigeria: The Challenges of Integrated Energy Resource Planning
Table 1: Generating Plants and Grid Stations
Installed Available
No.
S/N Site Type Capacity Capacity
of Units
(Mw) (Mw)
1. Afam Thermal 700 488 18

2. Delta Thermal 812 540 20
3. Egbin Thermal 1320 1100 6
4. Ijora Thermal 66.7 40 3
5. Sapele Thermal 1020 790 10
6. Jebba Hydro 540 450 6
7. Kainji Hydro 760 560 12
8. Shiroro Hydro 600 600 6
9. Others Diesel 46 18 -
Total (Mw) 5924.7 4524

Source: Okoro & Madueme (2004)
The Electricity Industry in Nigeria is currently There are four basic challenges of the current
under reforms. The reforms is primarily as a power sector reform. These are economic and
result of inadequate electricity supply, social, technical, political and environmental.
incessant power outages, low generating plant
The economic and social challenge is the
availability and high technical and non –
provision of affordable and available
technical losses that have characterized the
electricity, which will require the construction
industry.
of new power plants and reactivating the
The Federal government of Nigeria in 2000 „dead‟ units in the nation‟s power sector.
adopted a holistic approach of restructuring the
The technical challenge is the enhancement of
power sector and privatization of business
the transmission line capabilities as well as
units unbundled from NEPA (Oyeneye, 2004).
how the power could be used for the overall
By this development NEPA will be unbundled
interest of PHCN and the consumers. The
into seven generating companies (GenCos),
former emphasises the need for construction of
one transmission company (TransCo) and
additional transmission lines and sub – station
eleven distribution companies (DisCos). This
re – enforcement in order to ease evacuation of
arrangement is expected to encourage private
energy especially in areas where IPPs cluster
sector investment particularly in generation
as a result of proximity to energy sources
and distribution.
(Inugonum, 2005). The latter calls for
This reform policy is expected to break NEPA establishment of the Demand Side
monopoly and pave way for the entry of Management (DSM) by PHCN.
Independent Power Plants (IPPs). The
The political challenge is the need to create
structure came into effect in January 2004 and
and ensure level playing field for all sectors in
is called the Power Holding Company of
the emerging power sector and a favourable
Nigeria (PHCN). The structure was expected
environment for investment; while the
to be test – run for 2yrs with a down – pruned
environmental challenge is the management of
management team at headquarters while the
the environmental degradation that will result
individual managers of the unbundled
from the operations of new power plants due to
segments are expected to enjoy some measure
high Carbon Monoxide (CO) emission and the
of autonomy (Okafor, 2005).
degradation of the host community were the
power plants are located; hence there must be
an environmental regulatory agency to monitor
Page 9
and regulate the extent of damage caused by

pollution to the environment and the ii. Powers of NERC in relation to anti
inhabitants. competitive behaviour, including mergers
and acquisitions licensed electricity
For the power sector reform to succeed it must
companies.
be backed by adequate and holistic planning,
which takes into cognisance all the expected
iii. Institutional and enforcement
challenges that will arise from the expansion of
requirement of the regulatory regime.
the power sector.
The complex nature of modern electricity iv. Requirement for licensing by the NERC
planning, which must satisfy multiple of the Generation companies system
economic, social and environmental objectives, operator, Transmission services,
requires the application of a planning process Distribution companies and Trading
that integrates these often – conflicting Companies that will be created from the
objectives and considers the widest possible restructuring and unbundled of NEPA.
range of traditional and alternative energy
resources. v. Legislative Authority to include special
condition in licenses.
This paper examines the traditional electricity
planning approach of the government to the
vi. Provision relating to public policy
reformation of the power sector and proposes
interest in relation to fuel supply
the Integrated Energy Resource planning environmental laws, energy conservation,
(IERP) as a holistic planning model for the management of scarce natural resources,
effective accomplishment of the reform
promotion of efficient energy, promotion
objectives.
of renewable and publication of reports
This paper is divided into five sections; the and statistics.
first section is the introduction while the
second section discusses the power sector vii. Providing a legal basis with necessary
reforms in Nigeria highlighting the enabling provisions for establishing,
opportunities and benefits derivable from changing, enforcing, and regulating
successful implementation of the policy. technical rules, market rules, and
Section three discusses the factors that drive standards.
power sector in the developing world and
section four discusses the traditional model of In November 2005, the Nigerian Electricity
energy planning and integrated energy Regulatory Commission (NERC) was
resource planning model. Section five inaugurated and charged with the
concludes. responsibility of tariffs regulation and
monitoring of the quality of services of the
Power Sector Reforms in Nigeria PHCN.
The Electric power reform act was signed into Opportunities
law in March 2005. The act set in motion the
necessary legal framework for the unbundling The opportunities derivable from a successful
of NEPA into 18 autonomous companies – 11 power sector reform include efficiency and
distribution companies, one generation reliability of services, investment
company, and one transmission company; the opportunities, employment opportunities,
establishment of the Nigerian Electricity transfer of technical manpower and
Regulatory Commission (NERC) and the encouragement of research.
creation of the Power Holding Company of
Nigeria (PHCN) which came into effect in Efficiency and reliability of services
June 2005. The reform act is also expected to Proper implementation of the reform
establish power consumer assistance fund and programme will promote efficiency and
a rural electrification agency and fund. growth in the power sector. The reform will
Other key components of the electric power lead to improved electricity services as it will
sector reform act include: encourage private sector participation and
investment in the electricity industry.
i. Powers of the Nigerian Electricity The evidence can be seen in the form of better
Regulatory Commission (NERC) to telecommunication services in the country
regulate tariffs and quality service and brought about by private sector participation in
powers to oversee the industry the provision of GSM services (NEPA, 2004).
effectively.

Page 10
Investment opportunities foreign companies, have to come with their

Power sector reform has the ability to expatriates. These companies in a bid to set up
massively expand personal share ownership in their operational structure will impact
Nigeria. It is believed that over 800 000 knowledge and skill in areas of demand side
shareholders can be created after privatisation management, power system protection and
of NEPA. This is a welcome development planning, voltage collapse and stability,
which enables capital formation and economic cogeneration, etc to Nigerians through their
growth (Wikipedia, 2004). It can reduce the foreign expatriates. This area of technology
reliance of public enterprises on the transfer, if well tapped by Nigerians, will go
government for finance. along way in breaching the gap between the
Unbundling of NEPA will make the successive developed and developing nations in terms of
companies easily raise funds through the technology advancement.
capital market once the necessary investor
confidence has been developed; thus changing Encouragement of research
their growth and expansion of their business Privatisation brings about competition and
outfit. Also, new power facilities by the private allows management of privatised companies‟
sector will provide new capital injection into full freedom to realize their optimum
the economy. potentials. In order for any company to take a
lead over the other, its products must be
The Federal government power sector reform second to none. Such excellence in quality of
will create an enabling environment for products could only be achieved through
investment and a healthy co-operative research. With emerging power sector reform,
industrial outfit. Indeed, what is currently other sources of renewable energy such as
happening in the communication sector is wind, solar and biomass are expected to be
clear-cut evidence of what privatisation can do. explored. For instance in the UK, prior to
Before now, Nigerians have been suffering privatisation of the electricity sector, coal and
from continued exploitation by the Nigerian gas turbines were widely used. With
Telecommunication Limited (NITEL) as a privatisation, research was conducted in
result of monopoly. But since the privatisation combined heat and power plants. With the
of the Telecommunication sector which gave eventual success in research, generation
birth to the influx of privately owned companies rose from 10 to 32 while supply
telecommunication companies like MTN, companies rose from 16 to 34 in 1990 because
ZAIN, GlobalCom, RELTEL, RAINBONNET of new innovations in the field (Wikipedia,
etc, the prices of servicing a 2004). Definitely, the new owners of the
telecommunication line has reduced privatised NEPA will embark on research,
drastically, as a result of competition among motivated by a different set of imperatives as
these companies (Ige,2004). new rules, more professional standards, new
In the same vein, a well structured and performance criteria and better training
judiciously implemented NEPA privatisation emerge.
will bring about investment opportunities
which will invariably attract both local and Benefits
international Independent Power Producers The power sector reforms in Nigeria will bring
(IPPs). about the same competition in the sector as
being witnessed in the Telecommunication
Employment opportunities sector, which in turn, will positively affect the
The power sector reform will in the long run masses in the following areas:
create reasonable employment opportunities
for Nigerians. This is because the companies Increase in employment
that are expected to participate will look for When a good number of electricity companies
both skilled and unskilled labour in the task of crop up, invariably they will need human
executing their businesses (Benbow, 2003). It labour to operate and maintain the companies,
is expected that when the reform is fully which means creation of employment
implemented, many graduate engineers and opportunities for the vast majority of Nigerians
technologists roaming the streets in search of that are jobless.
unavailable jobs, will finally heave a sign of
relief as most of them will be absorbed by the
emerging independent power producers. Reduction in crime rate
Currently, most of the Niger Delta areas –
Transfer of technical manpower which produce the Nation‟s crude oil, have
Subsidiary companies that will compete in the become war torn zones and unsafe for
power sector, which some of them must be business. The Youths engage themselves in
Page 11
one form of unlawful behaviours ranging from many developing countries are encountering
pipeline vandalization to kidnapping of both difficulties in financing required expansion of
local and international oil workers. If greater power capacity. While, historically, developing
numbers of these restive youths are gainfully country governments had financed their largely
employed and receive a substantial amount of state-owned power utilities and supplemented
money at the end of every month, the crime their capital requirements with multilateral
rate will definitely be reduced if not eliminated development bank (MDB) loans, it was
completely. recognized that these two sources would be
entirely inadequate to finance power sector
Improved services investment in the decades to come.
One of the major reasons why the services of The private sector was seen as the only
NEPA have remained poor is essentially additional source of capital that could close the
because of monopoly. The company has been power sector‟s financing gap. It was
the sole producer and distributor of electricity recognized the private sector required higher
to the entire nation. This means that consumers financial returns than those needed by MDBs
of electricity are left to the mercy of the utility or governments; it was expected that the
company – whose efficiency over the past 35 efficiency gains from private sector
years of its existence is nothing to write home involvement would more than offset the higher
about. About 60% of Nigerians cannot afford a cost of capital such involvement would entail.
generating set as alternative means of power The challenge is reforming the power sector to
supply. Therefore, the power sector reform attract the needed private investment.
programme which must give rise to
competition in the market will definitely result Economic Inefficiencies
in improving services because every IPP will In most developing countries, the power sector
strive to improve its services in order that has been troubled by high technical losses, a
consumers will be willing to patronize it. lack of cost recovery pricing, poor
There will also be greater responsiveness to maintenance, low equipment reliability, high
consumer needs. staff levels, low productivity, corruption, a
crippling non-payments problem, and
Reduced tariffs mounting debt. These factors have resulted in
Privatisation of the power industry can allow the commercial unsustainability of many
the management of privatised enterprises full developing countries‟ power sectors, which are
freedom to realize their optimum potential. unable to attract the needed private investment.
This has led to more productive employment If the power sector is unable to charge the
and economic growth (Akpan, 2002). consumer for the full cost of power, the public
Therefore, an electricity industry would must then make up the difference in one form
become more cost-effective when it is opened or another through direct or indirect taxes that
up to competition and accountable to market support subsidies. These state subsidies
criteria (Obadan, 2003; Ayo, 2002). necessary for financing the power sector‟s
A competitive electricity market is therefore financial shortfalls have become a mounting
capable of bringing about reduction in the burden that is no longer sustainable for many
tariff paid by consumers. In as much as every developing countries.
consumer needs efficient and effective
services, it must be at an affordable rate. Persistent Poverty
Consequently, with many IPPs in place, the The lack of reliable power and other
strategy of tariff reduction to a level that is infrastructure (particularly water,
quite affordable to everyone will be a re- telecommunications, and transportation) has
occurring phenomenon among competing had a notably adverse impact on growth and
companies. has contributed to perpetuating poverty. The
shortage of capital means power is rationed
Power Sector reform drivers and and that only those regions, major industrial or
models commercial consumers, or residential
consumer blocks that can pay, have a chance
Power sector reform in emerging markets has of receiving reliable power. While this process
four major drivers. These drivers are capital reflects a natural market response, it condemns
scarcity, Economic inefficiencies, persistent regions, neighborhoods, and populations to
poverty and debts and deficits. poor power availability and economic
hardship, even though not all of those in these
Capital Scarcity. underserved groups are the source of non-
Capital scarcity is recognized as a major payment problems. Mismanagement also
constraint in the power sector development, as means misallocation of resources, which
Page 12
further worsens the availability and quality of 2015) implies the need for expanded electricity
power service. The net effect is that economic coverage.
growth is constrained and poverty is not A cornerstone of the responses to these drivers
alleviated. The links between unreliable power has been promotion of various power sector
and reduced economic growth have been reform models in developing countries over the
established and reinforce the imperative to past 20 years. These models have involved a
reform the power sector. major restructuring of the traditional vertically
integrated, state-owned power utility
Debt and Deficits monopoly that has dominated the power sector
The power sector in many developing of most developing countries.
countries is saddled with large debts The four basic models that have existed in the
accumulated from years of not charging cost power sector worldwide are the single buyer,
recovery tariffs, not collecting from all wholesale competition, and retail competition
consumers, not disconnecting consumers who models have been promoted over the past 20
do not pay, and using the utility as a vehicle years in developing countries.
for subsidies and political patronage for jobs
and other favors. These power sector debts Monopoly Model
have led to non-payment to the central The power sector is dominated by vertically
government and to governments having to integrated utilities with full monopoly power
channel sizeable shares of their budgets into in their service territory and that either engages
subsidizing the power sector. These subsidies, in self regulation of tariffs or is regulated by
along with other expenditures, have led to some outside entity.
serious budget deficits that concern the
international financial community and the Single Buyer Model
International Monetary Fund (IMF) in The utility is still vertically integrated, but it
particular. For these reasons, power sector enters into power purchase agreements (PPAs)
reform and privatization have been seen as with independent power producers. A variation
attractive solutions to the problems of debt and is where an unbundled power sector has
deficits by transferring the power utilities to separate generation companies (“gencos”),
private companies that then assume the transmission companies, and distribution
responsibility for eliminating the losses. companies (“discos”), and where the central
These four drivers have been the most transmission dispatch company purchases all
important basis for power-sector reform policy wholesale power.
in developing countries including Nigeria for
the past few decades. Wholesale Competition Model
The power sector has undergone unbundling of
generation, transmission, and distribution and
Market Models of Reforms
is establishing a regulatory authority to set up a
In response to these drivers of reform, the multi-buyer, multi-seller competitive power
international development community has market. Competition only takes place at the
implemented programs to overcome barriers. wholesale power market level through bilateral
The policy, legal, regulatory, and institutional contracts and the spot market.
development assistance that the bilateral and
multilateral development institutions have Retail Competition Model
offered focus on all four drivers. Identical to the wholesale competition model
The need to attract capital and for increased in that the power sector has undergone
economic efficiency has been addressed by unbundling of generation, transmission, and
bilateral development agencies through distribution and is establishing a regulatory
technical assistance, and has been re-enforced authority to set up a multi-buyer, multi-seller
by the IMF, World Bank, and other competitive power market. However, this
multilateral donors through loans and model has competition taking place not only at
conditionalities. Technical assistance and loans the wholesale power market level but also at
with conditionalities have promoted power- the retail level through competition in the
sector reform models and the technical supply of power. The Energy reform policy in
processes that are discussed below. Regarding Nigeria is structured after the Retail
poverty alleviation, to meet the ambitious competition Model.
targets of the Millennium Development Goals
These power market reforms have had
set by the United Nations in 2000 (for instance,
different objectives in the developed versus
to cut in half the number of people living on
developing world. While the power sector in
less than one dollar a day between 1990 and
industrialized countries has generally been
commercially viable and has provided reliable
Page 13
and quality service to the entire population, the countries are worth noting. This makes energy
power sector in many developing countries has planning a necessary and important tool in the
not been commercially viable without major achievement of the overall goals of the power
state subsidies and has provided power, often reform act.
unreliably, to only a fraction of the population.
Given these two different sets of The Integrated Resource Planning
circumstances, it is hard to expect that the Model (IRPM)
same market reform approaches can be The complex nature of modern electricity
implemented in the same way. While the long- planning, which must satisfy multiple
term objectives – to create commercial and economic, social and environmental objectives,
competitive power markets – might well requires the application of a planning process
converge, the near-term strategies will not be that integrates these often – conflicting
the same. objectives and considers the widest possible
The different objectives of power market range of traditional and alternative energy
reforms between industrialized and developing resources.
Cost of Supply
Alternatives
Load Supply Production Costs Rate of Return

Projection Expansion Plan And finance And Pricing
Revenues
and Profits
Fig. 1: The traditional „least – cost‟ electric planning model
Traditional electricity planning which drives has led in many cases to reduction of
our current power sector reforms has sought to employees, and power losses as measures to
expand supply resources to meet anticipated cut – down costs and make the sector attractive
demand growth with very high reliability, and to the private sector; leading to higher tariffs
to minimize the economic cost of this justified on the basis of cost – reflectiveness.
expansion. This traditional model of electricity These measures have had negative social
planning is shown in Figure 1. These criteria, consequences and neglects social and
with the aid of improving economies of scale environmental concerns and so compromise
in electric generation, led to a nearly – sustainable development.
universal strategy of rapid capacity expansion
and promotion of demand growth, with little Thus there is a challenge to shift reform in the
consideration of the necessity or efficiency of power sector towards a more socially and
energy use (Swisher, J.N et al, 1997). environmentally responsible path. It is because
of this realization that the concept of „least –
The overall direction of reforms in the cost‟ utility planning has begun to be redefined
traditional electricity planning model is in some countries and rather than least – cost
oriented towards commercialization, supply expansion, modern utility planning is
privatization, deregulation and competition as evolving towards Integrated Resource
key elements of the reform initiatives, often Planning (IRP). Figure 2 shows the IRP least –
nested within broader economic restructuring. cost supply expansion and modern utility
planning.
This market – oriented framework, even
though justified on the basis of its efficiency

Page 14
Demand – Side Costs of Supply

alternatives Environment and
Energy Saving
(including non – utility Social Impacts
alternatives
options)
Expansion Production Costs

Rate of Return,
Load Plan including
Pricing, and
projections Alternatives
social
costs estimate incentives
for utility and
consumers
Revenue Depends on
Performance
Fig. 2: An Integrated „least – cost‟ electric production cost and load model.
The IRP process involves integrating a broader 5. Design of an integrated supply and
range of technological options, including demand – side plan that satisfies the least
technologies for energy efficiency and load – cost criteria in terms of economic costs
control on the „demand – side‟, as well as and environmental impacts, and
decentralized and non – utility generating Implementation of the least – cost
sources, into the mix of potential resources. It strategy.
also means integrating a broader range of cost
components, including environmental and
other social costs, into the evaluation and Conclusion
selection of potential technical resources. This paper has appraised the energy reform
programme of the Nigerian government. The
The Integrated Energy Resource Planning paper highlighted the challenges, opportunities
(IERP) involves analytical concepts and tools and prospects of the process particularly
necessary to approach the problem of planning highlighting the model and framework of retail
an adequate energy supply and demand competition model as the major driving policy
balance across an economy, at the local, thrust. The paper also highlighted the power
national or regional levels. It also involves the reform drivers of the process. The paper
use of IRP methodology as a tool for the concludes by presenting the IERP model as a
systematic analysis of future energy holistic planning model for the success of the
alternatives and the associated energetic, reform in the power sector.
environmental and economic costs/benefits.
The implementation of the IERP process

References
generally requires: Akpan, I.(2002): Independent Power Producers
and Power Sector Reforms, The Guide,
1. Collection of reliable data on electricity January. pp 12 - 16
end – use demand patterns and technical
alternatives for improving their energy – Ayo, D.A.(2002): NEPA Efficiency through
efficiency or load profiles (treating Privatisation‟, The Pioneer, 15th July, pp.15-
demand in terms of energy services, rather 19.
than strictly kWh), Benbow, A.(2003): West Australia Electricity
Reform Privatisation Disguised, Green Left
2. Definition and projection of future energy
Weekly, October, pp 1-16.
– service scenarios,
3. Calculation of the costs and electric – load Ige, O.(2004): Deregulation of the Power and
impacts of the demand – side alternatives, Telecommunications Industry and Market
Operations reform in Nigeria, Proc 20th
4. Comparison of their costs with the National conference of the Nigerian Society of
economic costs and environmental Engineers (Electrical Division), October 6 – 7,
impacts of conventional and alternative pp 1 - 4
electricity supply options,

Page 15
Inuogonum, T. (2005) Challenges facing the

development of Independent Power Producers
in a deregulated power sector in Nigeria
(NEPA as a case study) 6th international
conference on power system operations and
planning (ICPSOP), May 22 – 26, Cape Verde
pp 33 – 37.
NEPA Profile (2004) www.nepanigeria.org
Niger Power Review (1985): Development of

the Electricity industry in Nigeria (1960 –
1985) pp 1 – 6.
Okafor, F.N. (2005) modelling the ancillary

services in deregulated power networks of
developing economies, 6 th international
conference on power systems Operations and
planning (ICPSOP), May 22 – 26, Cape Verde
pp 222 – 227.
Okoro, O.I and Madueme, T.C (2004) Solar

Energy Investments in a developing Economy,
Renewable Energy, vol. 29, pp 1599 – 1610.
Oyeneye, O.O (2004) Socio – economic

influences on policies of power deregulation
Proc. 20th National Conference of Nigerian
Society of Engineers (Electrical Division)
October 6th – 7th, pp 1 – 15.
Privatisation(2004) www.wikipedia,org
Swisher, J.N; Jannuzzi, G.M and Redlinger,
R.Y (1997) Tools and Methods for Integrated
Resource Planning, UNEP Collaborating
centre on Energy and Environment. RISO
National Laboratory, November.
Taylor, P; Lavagne d‟ortigue, O; Trudeau, N

and Francouer, M (2008) Energy Efficiency
indicators for public electricity production
from fossil fuels, IEA information paper,
France, July.
World Bank/USAID(2004) Sustainable power

sector reform in emerging markets – Financial
Issues and options, policy paper, June 18th.

Page 16
Electrical Safety Techniques in Industrial Installations
Akintayo, J. A. and Sadiq, M. O.

Department of Electrical Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Abstract
This paper highlights the usually overlooked or played down issues of safety in many industrial and
governmental electrical installations. Safety problems are usually resolved in the same way that
management overcomes production problems, namely by establishing a safety organization involving
informed persons, finding and naming hazards and selecting and applying a remedy. These findings are
relevant to industrial safety. Accident prevention can be achieved at any one of three distinct time
stages (a) at the start of any project, (b) before an accident, (c) after an accident has occurred, by
investigating the accident. Accident sequence, accident prevention programme, and the importance of
investigating/reporting accidents are discussed. The procedure for planning accident prevention, emergency
procedures, fire emergency, first aid policy are also highlighted. The hazards of daily radiations doses from
the conveniences of computers and GSM phones and base stations are discussed to sensitize us all of the
accompanying dangers. Industrial safety laws, and general rules of safety that though are in place but not
felt or enforced fully in the Nigerian environment are also reviewed. Risks and hazards and their
management process in electrical installations are fully expatiated. The implications of all the above for
engineers, employers and educational institutions with their electrical engineering laboratories are
discussed.
Key words: Accident, Hazards, Prevention, Risks, Safety and Implication
Introduction equipment, and ignite combustible materials. We

need be concerned about electrical safety
because, deaths, electrocutions and electrical
Modern safety concepts are founded in the
injuries rank FOURTH (9%) in causes of
revolutionary approach proposed in
industrial FATALITIES (behind traffic, violence
1930,by Heinrich. He focused attention
and construction) around the world. World
on the need to recognize „unsafe acts‟ of persons
estimates records that about 3000 people die
as s first step in accident prevention. A further
every year of electrical causes. Most of these
advance came with the recognition that poor
accidents involve low voltage (600 volts or less)
training and poor supervision of personnel were
i.e. voltages in industrial and residential settings
the underlying causes of industrial accidents.
(EHS, n. d ).
Safety problems are now resolved in the
same way that management overcomes
production problems, namely by establishing a The Importance of
safety organization involving informed persons, Investigating/Reporting Accidents
finding and naming hazards and selecting and
applying a remedy. These findings are relevant The major advances/which have taken place in
to industrial safety. Accident prevention can be accident prevention were the outcome of
achieved at any one of three distinct time stages investigations of accidents in which a person or
(a) at the start of any project, by involving persons had been injured. These investigations
persons in discussions at the planning stage; (b) must be done by skilled investigators who seek
before an accident, by undertaking formal and, to establish the courses of accidents so that
more importantly, informal safety inspection; (c) measures can be taken to prevent a reoccurrence
after an accident has occurred, by investigating of the accident. In countries where the legal
the accident. All these apply to electrical system awards compensation to victims of
installations. accidents, accident investigation often becomes
an inquisition, to hunt out the person responsible
Electricity is an integral part of today's modern for the accident. Those being questioned become
world, and sometimes it is easy to forget just defensive and the real cause of the accidents
how dangerous it can be. Given the correct seldom discovered. The investigator has to
circumstances, it can kill. But it can also cause collect and check the evidence; analyse the
an electric shock painfully, damage sensitive evidence to find the causes of the accident; and
record and report his findings to preventive
Akintayo, J. A. and Sadiq, M. O. Electrical Safety Techniques in Industrial Installations
measures must be established at a later date Accident Sequence and Accident

(PUBH, n. d). Prevention Programme
Industrial Accidents Based on his research, Mr. Heinrich defined five

factors in the accident sequence which he
In a number of countries, the law requires identified as the "Domino Theory": ancestry and
industrial accidents which cause injury, to be social environment, fault of person, unsafe act
reported to a reported to a national body. and/or mechanical or physical hazard, accident
Analysis of this data has shown that 80-90% of and injury. If this series is interrupted by the
all industrial accidents fall into eight major elimination of one or more of these factors, the
categories with electrical and electrical power accident sequence is interrupted and the injury
driven machinery being the topmost on the list cannot occur. Mr. Heinrich developed the
Fig.1. These findings are used by safety officers "Foundation (Basic Philosophy) and the Five
to decide what emphasis should be placed on Steps in Accident Prevention." The five steps
overcoming different types of hazard (Heinrich, include (1) Efficient safety Organization know
1931). about Hazard, (2) Fact Finding, (3) Naming
Hazard Analysis, (4) Selection Remedy, and (5)
Application of Remedy (Heinrich, 1931).
The Eight Major Causative categories of Industrial Accidents

Machinery
Electricity
Hand tools
Handling objects
Handling objects
Stepping on or bumping into objects
Falls of persons
Falling Objects
NB. Chemicals may be added to this list
Fig. 1 The Eight Major Causative Categories of Industrial Accidents
INJURY APPLY THE REMEDY
ACCIDENT SELECT A REMEDY
UNSAFE ACT OR UNSAFE CONDITION FIND AND NAME THE HAZARD
FAULTY OF CONDITION KNOW ABOUT HAZARDS
ANCESTRY & ENVIRONMENT EFFICIENT SAFETY ORGANISATION
Fig.2 Heinrich Accident Sequence and accident Prevention Programme

Heinrich Accident Sequence Accident Prevention Programme
SseSequence
The Book of18Proceedings

Page 18
Hazards and Risks Accident Investigation Principles
Hazards and risks are not the same thing. A Accidents investigation principles demands that
hazard is something with the potential to cause all accidents that cause death or injury be
harm. This can include substances, plant, work investigated thoroughly. Investigation must also
processes or other aspects of the work be conducted as soon as possible for near miss
environment. Risk is the likelihood that death, incidents or minor accidents. Major accidents
injury or illness might result from the hazard. must be reported immediately to the supervisor.
For example, the energy in electricity-which has For all cases the supervisor assembles his team
the potential to cause an electric shock and result and begins investigative procedures. The team
in a serious or even fatal injury-forms a hazard. endeavors to finds facts and not faults probing:
The associated risk is the likelihood that a who was injured, location, causes and time of the
worker might be electrocuted when he or she accident to facilitate preventing future
comes into contact with exposed live electrical occurrence of a similar accident.
parts.
The relationship between hazard and risk is Accident Causes

sometimes represented simply as:
The basic (root) causes i.e. causes originating
Risk = Hazard * Exposure from the organization itself- include; Poor
management, personal or environmental factors.
The indirect causes include unsafe acts of the
In the above relationship, the terms:
worker and conditions of both the worker and the
organization itself. The direct causes are
Exposure would cover factors such as frequency concerned with unplanned release of energy and
of exposure to the hazard and probability of an exposure to hazardous materials. See Fig.2
incident caused by the hazard; and (RCA, n. d)
Hazard would include the possible

consequences of an incident due to such a hazard
eg death, severe injury or property damage or all
three (PUBH, 2005).
Accident causes
Basic causes Management Safety Policy & Decisions
Personal Factor
Environmental Factors
Indirect causes
(Symptoms) Unsafe Act Unsafe Condition
s
Unplanned Release of Energy

Direct causes
and/or Hazardous Materials
Accident
Personal Injury Property
Damage
Fig.2 The three causation levels of accidents

Causes of Electrical Accidents
1. Effects of electricity on human body: A passing through a 70kg pound body (note
small night-light with a 6-watt bulb that perception is only .5 to 1.5 milli amps):
draws .05 ampere, and even that small fig 5: Any current above 5mA is Hazardous
amount of current can be fatal. Here are to the human body.
some effects of current (in milli amps)
2. The Leading Causes of Electrical fire or explosion in areas where the
Accidents following are present:
Flammable vapors, liquids and gasses,
a. Unsafe Acts: -There are 2 reasons for combustible dusts, corrosive
unsafe acts: sometimes we know better but atmospheres, explosive environments
intentionally do something unsafe and a time poor housekeeping: blocked
we don't know better. (ES, n. d) electrical boxes, flammable materials
stored in equipment rooms, lack of
The following unsafe acts must always be proper hazard signs, excess clutter.
avoided: Special care is also needed in wet or
damp locations - water and electricity
are a bad combination. If the wire is
Failure to de-energize, lockout and tag out
frayed or damaged, a fatal electrical
hazards during maintenance, repairs or
shock can result. (ES, n. d)
inspections.
Use of defective and unsafe tools.
Use of tools or equipment too close to d. Most common wiring violations are:
energized parts.
Not draining off stored energy in capacitors. Flexible cords shall have strain relief to
Using 3-wire cord with a 2-wire plug. prevent pull from being directly
Removing the third prong (ground pin) to transmitted to joints or terminal
make a 3-prong plug fit a 2-prong outlet. screws: 60% of fires are caused by
Overloading outlets with too many poor connections and faulty outlets,
appliances. plugs and cords.
Using the attached electrical cord to raise or Conductors entering cabinets, etc. shall
lower equipment. be protected from abrasion.
Not verifying power is off when making
repair (drilling into a a.c. line can kill). Extinguishing Electrical Fires
Working in an elevated position near
overhead lines. On fire involving electrical equipment, we must
switch off the current supply and then direct the
b. Unsafe Equipment jet or horn straight at the fire. Where the
equipment is enclosed direct the jet or horn into
Some common causes of unsafe any opening with the object of penetrating the
equipment: interior. The following techniques are
recommended when using dry powder, carbon
Loose connections, Faulty insulation, dioxide and vapourising liquids extinguishers.
Improper grounding (removal of 3rd
prong), Use of "homemade" i. Dry powder Extinguisher can be used for
extension cords, Defective parts, any class of fire and consequently is used
Unguarded live parts--for example extensively on electrical fires. The way
(Bare conductors or exposed that it extinguishes fire is to eliminate any
terminals). oxygen from reaching the fire and
Metal parts of equipment may become subsequently the fire is put out. Its
energized when connected by cord or advantages are that it is Non-Toxic also it
plug. Capacitance may cause up to can be stored indefinitely. In addition it
55% of line voltage to be stored on does little or no damage to sensitive
the casing of metal tools. machinery or materials.
ii. Carbon Dioxide Extinguishers: This type
of extinguisher is very effective in
c. Hazardous Environments
extinguishing electrical fires. It puts the
Use special precautions when working fire out smothering it quickly. This will
in potentially hazardous exclude the oxygen required for the fire
environments and situations. Even an and will put it out. It is used extensively
accidental static discharge can cause a because it does not harm sensitive
equipment or materials. Also it is used
widely because it is fairly cheap and non- and dry powder i.e. by smothering the fire
toxic. with a cloud excluding the oxygen.
iii. Safety: This extinguisher must be used v. The extinguishing agents used in
only when the diffuser horn is attached. If vapourising liquid extinguishers, of which
it is not, a solid jet of carbon dioxide will there are many, are very effective and
come from the jet and as it is under great clean and can be used on delicate
pressure will come out at a great speed machinery and materials. It has one main
and causes a fire storm i.e. the fire will disadvantage and that is that most of the
splash all over the place and you will have extinguishing agents have a high toxicity,
more than one fire on your hands. however here is one exception, BCF
Consequently this extinguisher is very (BROMOCHLORODINE-FLUORO
dangerous without a diffuser horn to the METHANE) which is not as toxic as
inexperienced, on finding one without a others but probably not as effective in
diffuseit should be reported immediately extinguishing fires. Consequently,
and replaced. vapourising liquid extinguishers should
iv. Vapourising Liquid Extinguishers: not be used where there is a danger that
Extensively used on electrical fires, for fumes may be inhaled. Fig. 6 shows the
example, a fire in a computer. It puts out current fire extinguisher types, colour
the fire the same way as carbon dioxide codes and their unique applications
contracting for such a service. Contract
Extinguisher Maintenance Tips for annual maintenance with a qualified
service agency. Never attempt to make
Inspect extinguishers at least once a repairs to extinguishers. This is the chief
month. It is common to find units that are cause of dangerous shell ruptures.
missing, damaged, or used. Consider
control. Back-up should be provided
when first-aiders are absent.
First Aid Establishments which have a high
incidence of injury often employ a
qualified nurse.
When designing a policy associated with first-aid,
the following points should be considered. iii. Summoning medical assistance and
i. The provision and types of first aid publicizing the emergency procedure:
facilities: First-aid boxes are of prime hazards charts giving elementary
importance to the first-aider and the first-aid procedures could be posted in
high risk areas.
boxes must be located near high risk
areas, they must be marked to show
the location of first-aid equipment and
a competent person should be made GSM and Personal Computer Health
responsible for the regular checking Hazards
and replenishing of all the first-aid
boxes. In addition eye wash bottles,
resuscitation apparatus, a. Personal Computer Hazard
breathing equipment, wheel chairs and Computers long-term use can be harmful to
stretchers, might be required. human health. With so many computers
ii. The composition of the medical team: now in use throughout workplaces, homes
Trained first-aiders should be within and schools, we need to know that the way
easy reach of all high risk areas and we use computers, can have lasting effects
they should be familiar with the on our health.
hazards associated with the hazards
associated with the areas under their
Various repetitive stress conditions, such as posture that avoids continuous stress on any part
carpal tunnel syndrome or tendonitis, are among of their bodies.
the health dangers associated with computers
that are most frequently discussed. According to The standard guidelines include making sure to
the Cornell University Human Factors and keep wrists as straight as possible while typing;
Ergonometric Group, good posture is the placing the keyboard and mouse so that your
foundation of correct computer ergonometric. elbows stay close to your body, at about a 90
Computer users should arrange their furniture, degree angle; sitting back in your chair with
keyboard, mouse, and monitor to promote your head and neck straight up; and keeping
Page 21
your monitor directly in front of you at a height An Electrical technician was working
where your eyes naturally fall on a spot 2 or 3 on the HT line supplying Asejire Water
inches below the top of the screen. For the rest Dam. The team disengaged the wheel
of your body, get in habit of taking some kind fuse link before proceeding to the site of
of break from the routine every 30 to 60 Electrical HT line repair work site. The
minutes (Electrical Safety, n. d). lines man got a lethal electrical shock
suddenly and later died. Engineers of
b. Monitor Radiations Hazard the Electrical Engineering Department
were part of the accident investigation
Radiation permeates human existence. It team. It was discovered that an
comes from space, from underground, and “unknown staff” of the cooperation
even from our computer monitors. Like rolled the wheel fuse back on. The
many pieces of electrical equipment, question was how he gained entrance to
monitors emit several kinds of radiation. the HT fuse wheel room. There was no
Most of the radiation, such as ultraviolet meaningful action taken after the
radiation, infrared radiation, and investigation and the matter died the
microwaves, is produced in such small natural die down.
amounts that radiation levels around a
monitor are distinguishable from the An Unsafe Act
general background. Monitors, TVs, and
other devices using cathode-ray tubes also A senior Staff of NTA Abeokuta in the
produce x-rays, but shielding keeps this 1980‟s was working on a faulty TV
more harmful radiation from escaping. The transmitter RF unit. He got a lethal
type of emission that causes some concern shock from the RF unit of the faulty
among computer users is VLF (Very Low transmitter that came on white he used
Frequency) and ELF (Extremely low his two hands to probe the faulty
Frequency) radiation. Users concerned energiesed transmitter. The staff later
about radiation should look for monitors died when he could not have his heart
with lower emissions (e.g. flat screen) defibrillated on time.
The International Safety Act imposes an

c. Mobile Phone Radiations Hazard obligation on electricity entities or users
to ensure that their works:
In all mobile phones radiofrequency
radiation (RFR) is emitted by both the Are electrically safe; and
handset and the base station antenna. The Are operated in a way that is
most effective way to minimize exposure is electrically safe.
to increase the distance between the mobile
phone and the user. Users are advised not to
When safety is not put first electrical
wear mobile phones because it periodically
accident is imminent.
sends signal to the base station while on
standby. Mobile phones manufacturers
recognize RFR radiations effects from ii. Implications for Institutions of
mobile phones and welcome the use of anti- Higher Learning &
radiation shields. Limiting he duration of Research/Power Laboratories
calls made from a mobile phone and not
using it when a normal phone is available Voltage Hazards:
can also keep the radiations from the users
head to minimum (Akintayo, 2005). In the utility industry, there is the
danger of high voltage ac shock, but
d. Implications of Electrical Safety in in the research Institution laboratory
Installations most high voltage is in the form of
d.c. and KV ac supplies are rare.
i. Incidents of Electrical Shock/ (Fagbohun, 2004). For voltages less
Accidents than 50V, a lethal current may not
flow even with wet hands. Between
50-500V non-lethal shocks are
Exposure to risk
possible with dry hands and high
body resistance. For higher voltages
Page 22
these two important effects need be Lecturers and staff are

noted. forbidden to work alone when
a. The higher voltages drive a working with dangerous
higher current through any voltages, defined as an
given body resistance resulting alternating (AC) voltage greater
in greater danger/damage to the than 25 V (RMS) or a direct
nervous system stimulation. current (DC) voltage of 60 V in
b. Above 500V the breakdown dry environments. (Fagbohun,
strength of the skin is exceeded 2004).
and initial skin contact
resistance is no longer a factor. iii. Implications for Engineers
The path resistance always
immediately reduces to the
Each person is urged to exercise the
internal body resistance level utmost caution and discretion at all
(Fagbohun, 2004). times. Good order is a first step for
good safety. Those who work in the
Current Hazards: laboratories and workshops should be
aware of the risks involved and should
a. A current greater than 5mA (5 x thus work with caution in regard to their
10-3A) is a threat to the human own safety as well as that of others.
nervous system. This implies
that any current in the Electrical
Engineering Laboratory is at a iv. Implications for Employers
lethal level. Other sources of
induced currents that can cause All employers must establish or
dangerous voltages to develop adequately maintain a safety
need be handled with care organization involving informed
Capacitor, inductors and persons. All accidents and near
batteries all need be handled accidents ("near misses") should be
with care. Battery banks immediately reported to the person
present unique and severe responsible for the work environment,
hazards. laboratory, and engineering department.
b. They cannot be de-energised
quickly because of the chemical Conclusions
nature of the energy storage. In
the 100-1000V ranges a serious Specific hazards exist in most all electrical
electrical safety hazards is systems and components. In discussing electrical
presented. Very special safety for industrial facilities, we looked at
procedures must be employed to hazards associated with circuit breakers, fuses,
install and maintain such banks transformers, contactors, cables and batteries.
(Fagbohun, 2004). We also focus on electrical safety related work
practices as it applies to employee training and
Secondary Hazards qualification. (1) In order to ensure safety in
Electrical Installations workers must of necessity
a. These are hazards other than desist from: unsafe acts., avoid the use of unsafe
shock that result from or are equipment and use special precautions when
present in conjunction with the working in potentially hazardous environments
use of Electrical Energy. In the and situations. Employers of labour must
Electrical Energy or Research establish or adequately maintain a safety
Laboratory, stored energy is organization involving informed persons. (2)
used to produce intense larger Such that adequate trained and qualified
beams or other light sources, personnels will be allowed to work in high risk
such as X-rays, particle beams electrical environments.
and intense magnetic fields. It
is known that stored energy can
create chemical and mechanical
explosion.
b. Students are not allowed to
work alone in the laboratories.
Page 23
References 6. Akintayo, J. A. (2005): The effect of Radio

Frequency Radiations (RFR) of mobile
phones on Human Health – A review. The
1. EHS (n.d): Electrical Health and Safety,
Engineer; Journal of the faculty of
Shock hazard Prevention
Engineering, The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Vol.
www.jlab.org/ehs/manual/pdf
3, No 1 ISSN-1595-8086, pp. 22 – 26
2. Fagbohun, O. O. (2004); Electrical Hazard
7. RCA (n.d): Root Cause Analysis,
and effects on Human Body. NJISS vol. 3,
http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/codeq/rca/ro
No: 3 pp. 56 – 63
otca use ppt.pd
3. Bernstein, T (1991):Electric shock Hazards
8. PUBH (2005): Accident Investigation
and Safety standards IEE Transactions on
PUBH (2005) 3310 November 29, 2006
Education vol. 34 No. 4 pp. 223 – 239
9. Electrical Safety (n.d):
4. Gordon, L. B. (1991): Electrical Hazards in
http://www.pp.okstate.edu/ehs/module,
the High Energy Laboratory, IEE Trans on
downloaded 13/11/07
Education vol. 34 No. 4 pp. 230 – 243.
10. ECC (n.d): Fire Extinguisher Colour Codes
5. ES (n.d) – Electrical Safety:Queensland
http://www.gla.ac.uk/services/seps/fire
Government, Department of Employment
safety/extinguisher. pdf.
and Industrial Relations. http://www.deir;
qld.gov.au/electrical safety/law/codes/live
11. Heinrich, (1931): Industrial Accident
parts/ riskman.htm.
Prevention

Page 24
Fire Resistance Potentials of Structural Timber
Adeniji, S. O., Okeniyi, A.G. and A. A. Adeniran

okeniyiag@yahoo.com
Department of Civil Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Nigeria
Abstract
Fire resistance/endurance potential of structural timbers was investigated. The experiment was carried out as
what the case may be under natural burning flame at varying interval of time. From the result obtained and
analysed, structural timbers known as hard woods have varying fire resistance capacity under flexural and
compression loads. All the species tested submitted to ASTM Standard time-temperature control curve.
Charring behaviour of teak (tectona grandis) is more at 122ºC of 60 minutes fire exposure compared to others
thus it s rate of ignition is faster than other species. Iroko (milicia excelsa) demonstrated highest compressive
strength at moisture content up to 18%, while mahogany proved better in tension (bending) at same moisture
content.
Key words: Timber, moisture content, fire resistance, charring behavior and Ignition.
Introduction Obtained results were collected, collated, analyze

and compared with standard control fire test for a
Timbers are wood prepared for use in construction final comment.
activities. It is the most variable and adaptable raw
material available to man (H.L. Edlin, 1977). The activities of fire endurance methods and
Wood differs from most other structural materials requirements as applicable to load- bearing
in that it is made up of cells hollow tubes, many materials and constructions are in accordance to
times as long as they are wide. It is comparatively the; Code of practice for assessing the fire
easy to manufacture into useful sizes and shapes. resistance of flexural tension and compression
It’s high strength to weight ratio, resiliency, members of timber, BS 5268 of 2003, American
pleasing appearance, low heat conductivity. Society for Testing and Material (ASTM).
High ease of fabrication and fastening make wood Current Edition (2002). Standard methods of fire
the best and most economical material for many tests of building construction and material. ASTM
structural purposes. On this basis, the need for Standard E. 118, part 14. References were also
determining the fire resistance status of structural made to relevant texts and other allied codes for
timbers is discovered imperative. timber structures and properties.
Wood is naturally highly combustible but non-

inflammable and not readily ignited. Certain Literature Review
timbers are classified as fire resistant, having
withstood a standard flame test or resisting the According to Wood Committee on Wood of the
passage of flame during a definite arbitrary period. ASCE Structural Division, 1975, fire resistance
H.E. Desch, 1973. Surface condition of exposure investigation and treatment is one of the
of structural wood is another factor that determines preservative processes of wood. Since no timber is
rate of ignition. Unprotected/ untreated wood immune to deterioration and ultimate
heated to a minimal degree will easily decompose, disintegration if exposed for a sufficiently long
producing inflammable gases and charcoal. If the period to the ordinary atmospheric conditions. The
inflammable gases are produced in sufficient principal causes of deterioration of wood in
quantities and ignited, their combustion raises the service, as distinct from deterioration during
temperature of wood further inwardly, and the fire seasoning, are fungal infection, termite and others.
kept going until all the wood is ultimately The extent of which depends on the plant type and
completely consumed. Again the material species of the trees that produces the timber.
substances are keen interest for investigation
Classification of timber: Commercial timbers fall
The approach, purely investigatory; involving into two main groups, the softwoods and
material sampling of different available species of hardwoods. The tree that produces these two
hardwood, physical observation, specimen different classes of timber are themselves quite
preparation, testing and laboratory determination distinct (Desch H. E. 1973).
of stresses.
Adeniji, Okeniyi and Adeniran Fire Resistance Potentials of Structural Timber
Softwoods are gymnosperms, i.e. conifers or ii. Kiln – seasoning: it is very efficient and
cone- bearing plants with characteristics of needle- satisfactory
shaped leaves and naked seeds. It is relatively soft iii. Chemical/salt seasoning method: the system
and easily worked. The rays that run at right angles involves risk of corrosion on metallic contact
to the annual rings are narrow and scarcely visible and it’s depth of penetration not great.
even under lens. Again resin in only found in soft
wood and usually characterized with turpentine Strength Characteristics: The following were
smell. considered principal to this investigation while
others are not taken as unimportant for extensive
Hardwoods are dicotyledons, they are broad- analysis, Scofield W. F and O’Brien W.H. 1954.
leaved plants with seed enclosed in a seed case. In Modulus of Elasticity (E) – Is simply a measure of
most cases it is physically harder than softwood the stiffness or rigidity of a material.
and denser. Hardwood do not hold resin and the Compressive – the ability of the wood to resist
absence of turpentine smell is a prove of useful stresses on compression depending on the
characteristic over softwood, Herbert L.E, 1969. direction of the load.
Thus it is used for load bearing elements. Tensile – this describes the potential of material
Generally, all plants consists of three main parts; fibre to withstand bending stresses as to
the roots, stems and leaves. The characteristics that establishing the relationship;
separates trees from other woody plants is that f/y = E/R = M/I
they have a single main stem, the trunk or bole, ……………….. (i)
Desch H. E., 1973. However, timber users are where, f is stress in N/mm2, y = centroidal axis, E
interested primarily in the trunk or bole. = modulus of elasticity,
R= radius of curvature of the bending, M =
Tree Felling and Plank Production: Mechanical bending moment due to the loading and I =
large saw is normally used to fell standing trees, moment of inertia of the material, Ryder G. H.
cut into logs of wood and transported to saw mill. 1985.
In about 1781, Walter taylor of Southampton in
England was the first sawmiller to use circular
blades to saw up logs, using the power of water- Heat and Fire resistance: Dry wood is one of the
wheel on the River Itchen. poorest conductor of heat. This characteristic
However, industrial revolution in American and renders it eminently suitable for many of the uses
Europe had brought the present vast improvement to which it is put every day – as a building
to sawing technologies and deliveries of different materials, handles of cooking utensils etc.
sizes of planks, Herbert L.E. 1969.
However, wood is highly combustible but not
Plank Preparation: Sawn wood inevitably has a readily ignited. Certain timbers are classed as fire-
rough surface, because the action of saw- teeth resistant, having withstand a standard flame test or
breaks the fibres of the timber. Hence, further have shown themselves capable, under certain
process of preparation, manually or mechanically conditions, of resisting the passage of flame during
are adopted to straightening, cutting, surface a definite arbitrary period.
smoothening and planning carving, shaping,
moulding and wood turning. Fire Retarding Process: Chemical Application-
modern research indicates that suitable chemicals
Seasoning timber: From the moment that the tree acted in one or more of the following ways
is felled, its timber starts to lose moisture, this The chemical melts at a temperature below
process of drying or seasoning begins. As the that at which wood decomposes, forming a
wood loses water air fill the emptying spaces of glaze over the surface and preventing access
cells and so becomes lighter in weight, harder and of oxygen to the wood.
substantially stronger with little shrinkage. The chemical decomposes heat, yielding non-
The loss of water, with associated shrinkage and inflammable gases that dilute the inflammable
slight change of shape is of serious concern. Hence gases from the decomposing wood sufficiently
steps must be taken to reduce it ill effect using any to produce a non- inflammable mixture.
of the following approaches; Chemical vaporizes at relatively low
i. Stacking method: this is natural and takes temperatures, absorbing sufficient heat to
many months
Page 26
prevent the temperature o the wood rising to Fire Resistance Rating: This is determined by
the critical decomposing point. considering the period of time for which a
Effective chemical impregnation requires an material/construction inhibits passage of fire
average penetration to a depth of 25 to 37mm, and/or continues to support structural load,
Desch, 1973. Schaffer E.L 1967.
It is to be noted also that chemical processes is
costly, corrosive, having hygroscopic effect and Thus in fire resistance test the subject
toxical. materials/construction is submitted to a standard
fire exposure during which time it’s behavior is
Fire Retardant paint Application: this confers recorded. This is compared with the ASTM
some degree of protection. These paints acts as Standard time-temperature curve (Fig1) for control
plasters, insulating and reflecting layer. They of the fire test.
normally consist of thin mixture of calcium
sulphate plaster or sodium/potassium silicate with Surface Flame Spread: Spread of surface flame is
an inert fillers and should be applied either by two known to reduce with an increase in moisture
brush coats or by a spray, to give a covering of content and surface smoothness. However, threat
1.86 to 2.3m2 to 4.55 litres. of travel of flame along a material under test is
compared with asbestos – cement board which
Limitations: Fire retardant paints practically offer does not spread flame, rated zero (0) and red oak
no protection in the event of intense fire, they are flooring which is rated at 100 (ASTME 84 – 68).
not durably under exposed conditions. Again they
are not applicable to timber already painted with
oil paints. Methodology
Fire Considerations In structures: Losses in The method involves materials sampling, physical
building and other structures each year are observation, specimen preparation, fire testing and
substantial both in terms of lives and properties. laboratory determination of stresses. Results were
However, the concern to prevent fire and reduce collected, collated, analysed and compared with
fire losses has resulted in more restrictive building standard control fire test in the discussion.
codes over years. Material Sampling: Since the focus is on load
Since no material is immune to damage by bearing materials of wood, hardwood of four
prolonged exposure to fire, engineers are therefore varying species were obtained at market source.
confronted with two distinctive fire problems in The size considered for the test is 50 x 75 x
the design of buildings 3600mm plank as seem commonly used in
i. Fire resistant/endurance problem- this is the construction works. Specimen Sampling: two sizes
ability of the construction to restrict passage were obtained for investigation behavior under the
of fire through it. This requirement is mainly two principal methods of loading as follows:
applicable to load. Compression – 300mm Length
ii. Surface inflammability of a material – it is a Tension – 100mm length
measure of rate at which flame spreads along The tensile stress was estimated applying
the surface. The relevant data are stress/strain relationship expression as detailed
documented in the code of practice. above.
4N0 specimens were prepared from each of
Ignition and Charring: Wood surface are 4species of the hardwood and tested at 5 min,
observed to char prior to ignition from a flaming 15min, 30min and 1hr respectively.
source. The time to ignite wood with a small flame
varies with environment temperature. Equipment/Materials used: 50 x 75 x 3600mm
If wood is uniformly heated with hot air, without hardwood of four (4) different species, Incinerator,
presence of flame, spontaneous self-ignition may Fire wood, thermometer, Stop watch, Copper wire,
occur in less than an hour at temperature as low as Nail, Plier, Wheel barrow, Matches and Writing
330oC. materials
Consequently, the char layer increases in thickness
with continued exposure to flame, as more wood is
volatilized.

Page 27
Procedure If η = 0.115, b = 50mm and d = 75mm,
Samples were collected at market point Fb = 6.129 x 10-7PL ……………… (v)

Specimen prepared and grouped into four
batches of timing; 5 min 10 min 30min 60min. Discussion: Like any other materials, wooden
elements of structures are susceptible to loss of
A meter length of copper wire nailed to each
strength by prolonged exposure to fire, while the
specimen for prompt withdrawal.
surface flammability of timber had been
Batched specimen arranged over the wire
discovered to be a measure of the rate at which
gauze inside the incinerator.
charring occur prior to ignition from the flame
Fire woods were set under the wire – gauze
source.
and ignited at the set of a s top watch and
temperature. The result however is a true behavior of structural
Withdraw of the fired specimens were done at timber exposed to fire in order of the period of
expiration of the set time 5 min, 1 5min, exposure. Highest char was recorded for teak,
30min and 1hr and allowed to cool normally. followed by iroko and mahogany respectively.
Samples taken to the laboratory and loaded on These were also seen to correspond with the rate
tension and compression respectively. of lost in strength of the tested timbers.
Scale reading were taken and recorded
accordingly.
Conclusion
Results and Discussion The choice of a particular structural timber during
design must also put into consideration the
Fired specimens were tested in the laboratory for intended use of the structure or the locations
compressive and tensile strength of the material proximity to fire hazard. Teak had been known to
after firing. Another set of unfired specimens for be of keen interest for choice when aesthetic plays
each of the species were also tested for priority, but it is weak in fire resistance potential.
comparative analysis. Detail of the results in the Hence this characteristic must also be considered
table 1 below. before a final decision is taken. Otherwise
adequate fire retardant treatment must be observed.
Analysis of Results: Compressive stress, bending
stress and density of the specimens were obtained References
using rational analysis approach and formulae, see
detail in Table 2 Andrew, H. B (2001), structural design for fire
safety, John Wiley & Sons, ltd
Compressive stress, fc = load/Cross sectional area
of samples ASCE Structural Division (1975), Wood
Structures; A design Guide and Commentary.
Bending stress fb;
Scofield, W. F and O’Brien, W.H. (1954), Modern
f/y = M/I …………… (ii)
timber Engineering. 4th Edition
fb = Mf (y/I) …………… (iii) Desch, H.E. (1973), timber; its structure and
3
Where; y = d/2, I = bd /12 and Mf = PL/4. properties. Fifty edition
Considering the self-weight of specimen negligible
BS 5268 (2003), Code for Fire resistance of
and incorporating strength reduction factor,
Flexural tension and compression Members of
Andrew H.B., (2001);
timber.
fb = ηMf (y/I) ……………… (iv)

Page 28
Appendix
List of Tables
Table 1: Laboratory Test Results
Time of
Bending
Fire Compression Support
Timber Temperature Char Specimen Load at Mass
Exposure Load at Interval
Species (oC) (mm) Dimension failure (g)
Time failure (KN) (mm)
(Kn)
(min)
0
30 0 165 35
5
Opepe 92 3 135 32
10
(Naudea- 102 5 99 50x75x300 30 420 720
30
Diderrichii) 112 15 44 27
60
122 30 0 17
0
30 0 151 35
5
Oro/Mahta 92 3 148 33
10
(Antiaris 102 6 132 50x75x300 31 420 830
30
Taxicaria) 112 16 35 26
60
122 32 27 18
0
30 0 140 41
5
Mahogany 92 3 135 38
10
(Khaya 102 6 127 50x75x300 32 420 740
30
ovorinsis) 112 17 86 25
60
122 34 36 18
0
30 0 127 35
5
Iroko 92 4 99 30
10
(Milicia 102 7 68 50x75x300 26 420 650
30
Excelsa) 112 19 42 21
60
122 38 39 16
0
30 0 81 33
5
Teak 92 4 76 28
10
(Tectona 102 7 60 50x75x300 22 420 830
30
Grandis) 112 21 40 18
60
122 42 30 15

Page 29
Specimen Compressio Bending
Fire Resistance Potentials of Structural Timber
Compre- Support Bending
Page 30
Timber Time Cross n Load at Stress, fb =
Specimen ssive Interval Load, P Mass (g)
Species (min) sectional Failure (N) 6.13x10-7PL
Stress, fc L (mm) at Failure
Area (mm2) x 103 (N/mm2)
0
165 44.00 35 9.11
5
135 36.00 32 8.23
10 420
Opepe 50x75x300 3750 99 26.40 30 7.72 720
30
44 11.73 27 6.96
60
0 0 17 4.38
0
151 40.27 35 9.11
5
148 39.47 33 8.50
10 420

Oro/Danta 50x75x300 3750 132 35.20 31 7.99 830
30
35 9.33 26 6.69
60
27 7.20 18 4.63
0
140 37.33 41 10.55
5
135 36.00 38 9.78
10 420
Mahogany 50x75x300 3750 127 33.87 32 8.24 740
30
86 22.93 25 6.46
60
36 9.60 18 4.63
0
127 33.87 35 9.11
5
99 26.40 30 7.72
Adeniji, Okeniyi and Adeniran
10 420
Table 2: Analysis of Results
Iroko 50x75x300 3750 68 18.13 26 6.69 650

30
42 11.20 21 5.40
60
39 10.40 16 4.12
0
81 21.60 33 8.50
5
71 20.27 28 7.21
10 420
Teak 50x75x300 3750 60 16.67 22 5.66 830
30
40 10.67 18 4.63
60
30 8.00 15 3.84
(g/mm3)
7.4x10-4
5.8x10-4
6.6x10-4
7.4x10-4
6.4x10-4
Density
List of Figures
2000
1800
1600
Temperature (oC)
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (minutes)
Fig. 1 : ASTM Standard Temperature - Time curve for Fire Tests
140
120
Temperature (o C)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (minutes)
Fig. 2 : Time- Temperature curve

Page 31
45
40
35
30
Chars (mm)
25 OPEPE
20 ORO/DANTA
15 MAHOGANY
10 IROKO
5 TEAK
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Temperature (oC)
Fig. 3: Chars - Temperature curve
180
160
Compressive load at failure
140
120
100 OPEPE
(KN)
80 ORO/MAHTA
60 MAHOGANY
40 IROKO
20
TEAK
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (minutes)
Fig. 4: Compressive load at failure - Time

Page 32
50
Compressive Stress (N/mm2 ) 45
40
35
30 OPEPE
25
ORO/MAHTA
20
MAHOGANY
15
10 IROKO
5 TEAK
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (minutes)
Fig. 5: Compressive stress - Time curve
45
40
Bending Load at failure (KN)
35
30
OPEPE
25
ORO/MAHTA
20
MAHOGANY
15
IROKO
10
TEAK
5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (minutes)
Fig. 6: Bending Load at failure - Time curve

Page 33
12
10
Bending stress (N/mm2 )
8
OPEPE
6
ORO/MAHTA
4 MAHOGANY
IROKO
2
TEAK
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (minutes)
Fig. 7: Bending stress - Time curve

Page 34
An Assessment of Fuel Distribution Systems in Vehicles in Nigeria and
Impact on Energy Demand
Dare, A. A. 1, Odunfa, K. M.2 and O. A. Adeaga3

1, 2
Department of Mechanical Engineering. University of Ibadan
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering. The Polytechnic Ibadan
Abstract
Transportation in Nigeria is a large consumer of energy. Effort is therefore needed to minimise it. This
work is directed at this objective. A survey was carried out in Ibadan, the largest city in West Africa to
assess the mode of fuel distribution system in vehicles plying the road and consequent effect on the fuel
consumption. The survey was carried out among owners as well the mechanics. The survey suggests a
sluggish change from carbureting to injection system. Some opinions suggest a reduction in fuel
consumption using the injection system. However the competence of the mechanics to effect the repairs on
them is still in doubt. The study therefore established the need for developing appropriate strategies likely
to harness the benefit from the fuel injection system.
Keywords: Automobile, Fuel, System, Energy and Economy
Introduction A survey was conducted via oral interviews

among car users and auto-mechanics. The survey
Transportation in Nigeria is a large consumer of was carried out in Ibadan, the largest
energy. Vehicles in Nigeria rose from 1,288,000 metropolitan city in West Africa. A total of 50
in 2000 to 2,176,000 in 2004 (NBS, 2005). There vehicles users (consisting of 48 cars and 2 buses)
are however more vehicles in the South than the and 50 auto mechanics participated in the survey.
North(Husher, 2005 a and b). The importance of Varieties issues covered in the survey include
this sector to the economy was underscored by vehicle age, maintenance problem, fuel
the setting up of urban mass transit system in consumption pattern etc.
Nigeria (Egbeahia, 1989).
Data Analysis
Transportation in Nigeria has witnessed many
transformations. Dare et. al (2006, 2007) The study revealed that 65% of the passenger
reported the gradual shift from rear wheel drive cars/buses on Nigerian roads are equipped with
to front wheel drive. Similar trend may seem to carburetor for fuel distribution. While there have
emerge in the near future on the fuel distribution been instances of a change from carburetor to
system for gasoline vehicles. fuel injection and vice-versa, these have been
largely been due to purchase of a new vehicle or
While fuel injection systems have been inavailability of local experts for repairs.
traditionally used for diesel engine, there are Majority of vehicle owners (55%) are still
now emerging in Nigeria today, cars using fuel undecided on which of the fuel distribution
injection system and gasoline as fuel. The system have better fuel economy. However a
objective of this work is to assess the level of sizeable percentage (40%) are well disposed to
acceptability of fuel injection-gasoline cars in changing over to fuel injection system. About
Nigeria and its effect on the energy consumption sixty percent (60%) of those who are undecided
spectrum of the economy. are yet to use vehicle equipped with fuel
injection distribution system. Many of the
Method of Study automobile users are of the opinion that the
carbureting system has longer life span than the
Dare, Odunfa and Adeaga An Assessment of Fuel Distribution Systems in Vehicles in Nigeria and Impact on Energy Demand
fuel injection system. There are equally divided in repair of fuel injection system and suitability
opinions on the competence of local mechanics for Nigerian environment.
Conclusion and Rear Wheel Drives in Nigeria”. Global
Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Volume 7,
This work inferred that there have been sluggish Number 1
changes from carbureting system to fuel
injection system. Since some of the users agreed Egbeahia, A.A. ((1989). “Urban Mass Transit
to reduction in fuel consumption using injection System in Nigeria”. Federal Urban Mass Transit
system, appropriate strategies may be put in Programme. Ed. Tunji Bolade. The Presidency,
place to further expand on this option which may Lagos.
bring reduction to the national consumption of
fuel. National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2005),
“The Nigerian Statistical Fact Sheet on
Economy and Social Development”.
References
Nick Husher (2005)a. “Road Transportation in
Nigeria”. HST 142: Nigeria Giant of Africa
Ademola Dare, S.A. Oke and Nurudeen
Lawal(2007). “A survey of Automobile Drives
Nick Husher (2005)b. “Road Transportation in
in a Developing Country”. Pacific Journal of
Nigeria”. HST 145: Nigeria Giant of Africa
Science and Technology. Volume 8, Number 1
Dare, A.A. Lawal, N.O. and O.I. Olaleye (2006).

“Comparative Study of Performance of Front

Page 36
Failure Analysis of Fired Corrugated Brass Connectors
Adegbenjo, A.O., Adeaga, O.A. and Adegbola, A.A.

Department of Mechanical Engineering. The Polytechnic Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
Corrugated brass connectors are used to deliver propane and natural gas to fuel fired appliances from a gas
distribution system. Typical alloy compositions include cartridge (Cu-30Zn) and admiralty (Cu-29Zn-1Sn)
brasses. The area of origin from a fire scene may include a fuel-fired appliance and its associated gas
connector. If the connector holds pressure during a leak test, the connector is eliminated as a potential cause
(i.e., source of gas leak) of the fire. In some cases the connector may be collapsed, separated or contain a
single or multiple through-wall cracks. Detailed examination of the damage to the gas connector is crucial
to determine the failure mode and whether the crack occurred prior to the fire, as a result of exposure to fire
or after the fire. However, a complete failure analysis of damaged corrugated gas connectors from fire
scenes requires information from the fire scene, microscopic examination of the fracture surface and
microstructure adjacent to the fracture surface and evidence of the conditions for the known failure modes
of brass connectors. The microstructure and the morphology of the surface at the damaged area will
indicate whether the failure occurred at room temperature or during exposure to the elevated temperatures
of the fire environment. The purpose of this paper is to present a summary of the failure analysis of flexible
metal connectors alleged to have been involved in a fire and/or explosion.
Keywords: Failure analysis, gas connectors, microscopic, fracture surface and Failure modes.
Introduction industrial atmospheres at ambient temperatures

or lower. The copper alloys are not suitable for
Both brass and stainless steel are used in the liquid/vapor ammonia and chlorine containing
manufacture of corrugated flexible gas appliance environments [4]. Combined with stress, a
connectors. This presentation focuses on the specific corrosive environment can cause stress
failure modes of brass alloys used in this corrosion cracking. Environments that may cause
application. The brass alloys are inexpensive and stress corrosion cracking of copper alloys are
can be formed into complex shapes. Alloy ammonia vapors and solutions and amines [5].
compositions for brass connectors include Erosion corrosion and dezincification (plug-type
cartridge brass (C26000 - 70Cu-30Zn) and and layer) are usually associated with aqueous
admiralty brass (C44300, C44400, and C44500 - corrosion of brass tubing (i.e., heat exchanger
70Cu-29Zn-1Sn). Typical properties of copper tubing) and not gas system piping. However,
alloys 1 and fabricated products are reported in brass and other copper alloys are susceptible to
References 1 and 2. The hardness and tensile high temperature corrosion and oxidation
strength of cartridge brass decrease and ductility reactions between metal and air or oxygen in the
(%elongation) increases at T > 250°C (482°F) absence of water to form metal oxides [6].
and significant grain growth occurs at T > 400°C
(752°F). The melting temperature of these alloys Corrugated brass connectors are used to connect
range from 900-955°C (1650-1750°F). The and deliver natural gas or propane from building
copper-zinc alloys are ductile, have low strength piping to a variety of fuel-fired appliances such
at elevated temperatures and are susceptible to as kitchen ranges, water heaters, fireplace
stress corrosion cracking in specific installations, dryers, furnaces, barbeque grills
environments. and fixed space heaters. The use and installation
of flexible gas connectors for gas utilization
Alloying elements (Sn, Ni, Al, As, P) improve appliances must comply with the manufacturer’s
the mechanical properties by solid solution installation instructions, ANSI Z21 standards [7,
strengthening and also improve the corrosion 8] and, fuel gas and mechanical codes [9-11].
resistance [2, 3]. Since the 1980’s, brass Specifically, the connector must be listed,
connectors have been coated with paint for added labeled, and located entirely in the same room as
protection against corrosion assisted failure the appliance without going through any
modes. Copper and copper alloys are resistant to partitions. Properly installed flexible gas
corrosion by dry gases and urban, marine and connectors are designed to perform reliably
under normal conditions for the anticipated life
Adegbenjo, A.O., Adeaga, O.A. and Adegbola, A.A. Failure Analysis of Fired Corrugated Brass Connectors
of the fuel fired appliances and oftentimes longer damage assessment of origin, assessment of
than that. other sources for leaks.
 Document detailed damage pattern(s) in the
During the course of a fire origin and cause vicinity of the connector. Document the
investigation, a fuel fired appliance and the identification of materials around the
associated gas connector may be identified as connector (i.e., wood, plastic, paper).
potential causes of the fire and/or a source of fuel  Elimination of other potential causes and
for the fire. Typically, a leak test is performed to ignition sources.
determine if the flexible connector is intact. If
the flexible connector holds pressure, the Preservation of the Gas System Components
connector itself is eliminated as a cause of the
fire although the integrity of the compression  Detailed photographic documentation of the
seals may still be suspected. If the connector gas system, appliance and connector in the
does not hold pressure, the location of the leak is area of origin or as found.
identified and a failure analysis of the flexible  Proper removal and preservation of the
connector is required to determine if the leak connector and appliance.
occurred before, during or after the fire. 
at the location may be useful as exemplars
The room and elevated temperature failure because they are often installed at the same
modes of flexible connectors and the conditions time and manufactured by the same
necessary to create each type of failure are manufacturer.
described below. An example of how this
characterization is crucial is presented. The Documentation and Examination of Connector
microscopic examination of as-manufactured, from End to End
laboratory tested and various case studies of
connectors were used to correlate the fracture  Photograph and examine the connector from
surface morphology and grain size at the location end to end.
of the fracture. In determining the failure mode  Photographic documentation is crucial
of the damaged gas connectors, the grain size at before performing any destructive testing;
the fracture surface is used to discriminate photograph all anomalies, markings and
between failure initiated at room temperature labels.
(i.e., before the fire) and a fire related failure (i.e.,  Leak Test
during or after the fire).  Use air at low pressures and minimize any
chemical contamination
Failure Analysis
Sectioning
The failure analysis of brass gas connectors
requires: (1) information from the fire scene; (2) Only section as-needed to preserve as much
microscopic examination of the damage; (3) integrity of the connector as possible; abrasive
evidence that the conditions for a specific failure wheels can contaminate the part; a jeweler’s saw
mode were present at the time of the failure. The blade works well for this thin-walled tubing.
following events are necessary before sound
conclusions can be made about the gas SEM Examination
connector’s contribution to the incident:
 Characterize the affected areas.
Background Information  Note and photograph the surface
morphologies, single or multiple origins,
An interview of necessary parties to obtain distinct fracture modes.
information about all the gas appliances, the  Chemical analysis of residues and/or
installation, the service, evidence of gas odors, corrosion products on the outside, fracture
the environment, and nearby combustibles. surface and inside of the connector.
Fire Scene Investigation Metallographic Examination
 Cause and origin investigation (including  Prepare a section at the affected region, as
electrical) for evidence of a gas explosion, well as from an unaffected region and/or
identification of an ignition source, fire from a suitable exemplar connector.

Page 38
 Compare grain size and shape at the fracture during cause and origin investigations or during
surface and adjacent to the fracture surface removal.
and remote from the fracture surface.
 Identify fracture pattern (single, multiple, The best preservation of the gas connector and
branched, intergranular/transgranular). the associated appliance are mandatory.
 Identify the presence of any Evidence of intentional abuse of gas connectors
corrosion/oxidation (pitting, dezincification, including loosened connections, puncture holes
arcing). or cutting marks is oftentimes determined at the
 Check for the presence of melting/re- scene by the fire investigator. The evidence
solidification. described in Table 1 for stress corrosion cracking
 Check the integrity and thickness of any and melting of brass gas connectors are
existing coating. illustrated using samples prepared in the
laboratory and gas connectors taken from fire
Results and Discussion scenes.
The conditions necessary for stress corrosion
Five general failure modes of gas connectors at cracking (SCC) of a brass gas connector are
ambient conditions are: (1) mechanical (2) applied or residual stress and exposure to a
external damage (intentional/accidental); (3) specific corrosive agent or atmosphere.
manufacturing anomalies; (4) environmental;
and, (5) electrical. Electrical related fuel leaks in Uncoated gas connectors are susceptible to stress
appliance connectors have recently been corrosion cracking therefore a coating is applied
identified as a failure mode in appliance gas to protect the brass from corrosive agents. Stress
connectors [12]. A potential secondary failure corrosion cracking of coated connectors can
mode is melting of the brass at elevated occur only if the metal is exposed (i.e., at the
temperature during a fire. flared ends) or the coating is compromised. An
uncoated brass connector artificially exposed to
In any type of failure, there are key ammonia vapors2 is shown in Figure 1. The brass
characteristics that indicate the type of failure connector contains numerous visible cracks and
that occurred. The key characteristics, observed is in many pieces. The integrity of the connector
after the fact, have corresponding conditions that is compromised only when the crack propagates
must have occurred or been present in order for through the wall thickness of the material. At
this type of failure to occur. The various high magnifications, the fracture surface shows
expected types of failure modes for corrugated small faceted grains across the fracture surface
brass connectors at room and elevated (Figure 2). The original grain structure of the
temperature are listed in Table 1 along with the brass tube is typically 0.035-0.055 mm and is
conditions necessary to create each type of shown in Figure 3. The microstructure after
failure and the evidence that would be found artificial SCC, shown adjacent to the fractures
during the fire inspection and exhibits multi-branched, intergranular cracks,
failure analysis. At the least, the failure analysis characteristic of stress corrosion cracking at
of brass connectors from fire scenes requires that room temperature (Figure 3). The grain facets of
the brass connector is identified as being in the the fracture surface are similar in size and shape
area of origin. In some cases, the area of origin to the as-manufactured microstructure.
may be one room and include multiple
appliances. A connector that failed due to stress corrosion
cracking at room temperature and was
Brass connectors from fire scenes exhibit a subsequently exposed to elevated temperatures
variety of damage from intact to completely would exhibit significant grain growth. The
severed. The organic coating may be partially or fracture surface morphology and microstructure
completely burnt away. The exposed brass is of the stress corrosion cracked brass connector
usually discoloured. The brass connectors are after heating in an air furnace at 8700C (16000F)
susceptible to mechanical damage at elevated for 15-30 minutes are shown in Figures 4 and 5.
temperatures if building materials fall down (i.e., Grain growth occurred in the adjacent material
structure collapse) during the fire. If the fallen but the grains cannot grow past any pre-existing
debris continues to burn or nearby combustibles cracks or larger than the boundaries of any
are ignited in the vicinity of the gas connector, surfaces. If the fracture facets are fine grained
the connector may exhibit localized melting, tube and the microstructural grain size is much larger,
collapse or separation. The connector may have
been deformed during extinguishment activities,
Page 39
then the fracture likely occurred prior to the

grain growth and prior to the thermal exposure. Conclusion
The connector may collapse or separate when the Information from the fire scene and evidence of
external temperature exceeds the melting conditions required for a specific failure mode
temperature of the alloy (Figures 6 and 7). When are required to determine the failure mode of
the temperature exceeds 4000C (7520F), damaged corrugated brass gas connectors from
significant grain growth occurs and the strength fire scenes. Damage to brass connectors retained
of the alloy decreases. The grain growth of this from fire scenes can vary from intact and
material exposed to a fire can reach the limits of cracked to severe deformation to complete
the tube wall, approximately 0.35 mm (Figure 8). severing of the tube. Information regarding the
Large grain microstructure at the fracture surface appliance and installation, photo documentation
is consistent with grain growth as a result of and preservation of the gas connector are
exposure to elevated temperatures before the combined with microscopic examination of the
separation occurs at the grain boundaries due to damage to the connector. The failure modes and
incipient grain boundary melting (Figure 9). This effects analysis is used to assign as well as
figure shows a fracture surface from a connector eliminate potential causes of the failure.
that was in a fire compared to one that was
exposed to 8800C (16150F) in a lab furnace.
Table 1: Failure Modes and Effects Analysis of Brass
Failure Mode Conditions Evidence

1.Mechanical
a.Tensile Overload Tensile load exceeding Severe deformation of product shape, tensile ductile-
the material strength dimple fracture
Tensile load exceeding
the clamping forces of Severe distortion of compression flared end,
the compression joint compression nut intact and still in place without
evidence of being disturbed
Source of vibration
b. Fatigue Cyclic Some localized distortion of convolute(s), may be
loading/unloading compressed or expanded from repeated flexing, fatigue
exceeding the fatigue striations on fracture surface, possibly secondary fatigue
limit of the material crack initiation sites in adjacent convolutes
2.External
damage
a. Accidental Impact from sharp Pattern to localized damage, probably a ductile tear or
object resulting in a shear
tear
Abrasion from contact Directional witness marks; coating/surface removed;

with sharp edge tube wall thinned to the point of perforation
b. Intentional Abrasion from contact Pattern to localized damage, probably a ductile tear or
with abrasive media shear
Impact from sharp
object resulting in a On-site pressure test shows leak at compression fitting;
tear, cutting marks damage/unusual discolouring of the surfaces of the flare
Loose compression that would normally be in contact with the mating metal
joints parts

Page 40
3.Manufactu-ring
anomalies
a.Raw material Splits at weld seam Directional separation along the weld line; possible
evidence of dendritic solidification on the fracture
surface from insufficient contact pressure or alignment
during welding.
b. Forming Splits from corrugating Non-uniform convolute profile as a result of misaligned

rollers; thinning of the wall section due to a shearing
action of the misaligned rollers
4.Environmental
a.Stress Corrosion Residual or applied Multi-branched cracks; the fracture exhibits an

Cracking tensile stress intergranular texture and the facet size is the same as the
Exposure to a specific original substrate grain size (~ 0.025-0.050mm); damage
corroding agent will only occur if the connector is unpainted or the paint
Susceptibility to SCC has been compromised.
from specific corro-
sive agents
b.Pitting Corrosion Exposure to specific Generally random corrosion pits associated with contact
corrosive agents point of the corroding agent; the corroding agent may
form as condensation or liquid droplets which tend to
collect at the lowest series of convolutes; dezincification
will most likely be found when observing the affected
area on the SEM or in a cross-sectional sample; damage
will only occur if the connector is unpainted or the paint
has been compromised
5.Electrical System
Failure Source of electrical Evidence of arcing can be observed as shiny beads of
current melted metal on or adjacent to the fracture surface;
Entry-exit path for possibly two points of arcing, entrance and exit; usually
electrical current occurs at a point of poor electrical conductivity; small
amount of paint or sealant on flare surface prevents good
current flow; primary damage is only localized; there
may be secondary damage from ensuing fire
6.Secondary Failure
Modes
Mechanical
1. During Fall-down and low Significant deformation of ductile brass when debris in
Incident burning debris the fire falls down onto/around the connector
Shape (bending) of the connector is not consistent with

2. Post During cause and the installation location; shiny areas where the surface
Incident origin investigation was scraped after exposure and/or during removal

Page 41
Paint damaged or completely burned away, may be

localized; severe discoloration of the brass tubing;
localized separations in the connectors; surfaces of the
separation probably will not mate directly back together
Melting Excessive heat because of missing pieces or distortion during the
exposure; fracture surface will exhibit large intergranular
appearing facets; significant grain growth occurs up to
the wall thickness of the tubing
(~0.3-0.35 mm); The microstructure will reveal grain of
similar size to the fracture facet in the heat affected
areas; the original grain size of the material is preserved
in areas where the paint is still intact
References 7. ANSI Z21.24-2001/CSA 6.10-2001,

1. Metals Handbook; Ninth Edition, Volume 2, American National Standard/CSA Standard for
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Connectors for Gas Appliances.
Alloys and Pure Metals, November 8. ANSI Z21.69, American National Standard
1979, pp. 323-326, 348-349. for Connectors for Moveable Gas
2. Strubel, G.C., Machine Design, 42(4), Feb. Appliances.
1970, pp. 59-64. 9. Appliance Connectors, International Fuel
3. Brooks, C.R., Heat Treatment, Structure and Gas Code, American Gas Association, 2000.
Properties of Nonferrous Alloys, ASM, 10. National Fuel Gas Code Handbook, Ed. T.C.
Materials Park, OH, 1982, pp. 275-327. Lemoff, NFPA, Quincy, MA, 2002.
4. ASM Materials Data Series, Handbook of 11. BOCA National Mechanical Code/ 1993
Corrosion Data, 2nd Edition, ASM, Commentary, Section M-703.7.
Materials Park, OH, 1995, pp. 20-23. 12. Goodson, M., Sneed, D., Keller, M.,
5. Montana, M.G., Corrosion Engineering, Electrically Induced Fuel Gas Fires, Fire and
Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, NY, 1986. Arson Investigator, Volume 49 No. 4,
6. Kofstad, P., High Temperature Corrosion, July 1999, pp. 10-12.
Elsevier, NY, 1988.

Page 42
Assessment of Kwara State Tractor Hiring Unit
1
Mijinyawa, Y. and 2Adebayo, S
mijin1957@yahoo.com and oluvictor4life@yahoo.com
1
Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, University of Ibadan.
2
Department of Agricultural and Bioresources Engineering, Federal University of Technology Minna.
Abstract
A survey was undertaken to assess the Kwara State Tractor Hiring Unit using fleet of equipment,
personnel and workshop facilities, and its impact on the farming populace in the state as assessment
criteria. The study adopted the use of a questionnaire and interview schedules, focused group
discussion and personal observation for data collection. Records available at the headquarters of the
unit provided additional source of information. The unit has a total of 38 tractors which comprises of
29 Ursus 5312, six New Holland 5635, three heavy duty tractors, 22 disc ploughs, seven mouldboard
ploughs, 18 disc harrows, eight disc ridgers, 10 trailers, two rice shellers,five multipurpose shellers,
two maize shellers and one four-wheel drive jeep car. Majority (81%) of the equipment were
functional, a few (13%) required minor repairs to be used on the farm and 6% were scraps. The unit has
neither a workshop nor an implement shed thus exposing the machinery to inclement weather.
Personnel in the unit are adequate but the maintenance culture is service driven. There has been a
general increase in farm sizes since the introduction of the unit even though only a few farmers have
been able to access the services rendered by the unit. Several reasons accounted for the limited
beneficiaries from the activities of the unit prominent among which are inability to raise the cost of
hiring, delay in service delivery, remoteness of farms and small holdings. The unit has great potentials
for improving the agricultural productivity of the state if the equipment available can be effectively
utilized. Towards achieving this, it is recommended that a functional workshop and implement sheds
be provided at the headquarters and area offices, the activities should be decentralized while adopting a
regular maintenance culture. As an agency of the government, there should be adequate funding by the
state government.
Key words: Tractor, Hiring, Farm, Machinery, Productivity and Government
Introduction urban drift made up mainly of the younger

generation which left the farms in the hands of
Prior to the advent of the oil boom of the the aged. There was a drastic decline in both
1960s, the Nigeria economy was substantially cash and food crops production and a country
agriculturally dependent. Cash crops such as which was a major exporter of various
cocoa, cotton, groundnut and livestock agricultural crops became a major importer of
products contributed more than 70% of total even food crops such as rice and beans, and
exports. Various food crops were also livestock. The expansion of the area under
cultivated in sufficient quantities to meet the cultivation was contemplated as a possible
demand of the teeming population and Nigeria means of addressing the food crisis situation
was one of the food self-sufficient countries of and return the country to its former status as a
the world (Ikpi and Ikpi, 1998; Ado, 2005; food self sufficient country. If the target of
Opara, 2006). increased area under cultivation was to be
achieved with a declining labour force on the
The discovery and exploration of crude oil as a farm, then the productivity of the available
more lucrative income earner for the country manpower must be increased. Drudgery in the
was the first major setback to the agricultural execution of various farm operations was also
sector. The introduction of the nationwide acknowledged as a major discouragement to
universal free primary education in the early the youths taking up farming. Mechanization
70’s and the extension of the free education to of the farms which reduce the drudgery was
the secondary school level in the south western considered as a possible solution hence the
part of the country in 1979 resulted in the introduction of the tractor and implements into
withdrawal of the active labour force from the the Nigerian agricultural system (Anazodo et.
agricultural sector. There was massive rural-to-
al 1989, Hamidu and Simon, 1999; Haque et climate and soil conditions that are suitable for
al, 2001) the production of a number of crops and
various livestock.
Tractor agriculture which started in a few
isolated locations in the country have spread to Methodology
all nooks and cranes of the country and every
state in Nigeria at present maintains a tractor The Kwara State Tractor Hiring Unit
and implement unit aimed at helping the (KWSTHU) has its headquarters at Ilorin, the
Nigerian small scale farmers improve their state capital. Towards ensuring effective
farmsizes. Over two decades of the massive service delivery to the nooks and crannies of
introduction of tractors into the Nigerian the state, the activities of the unit are executed
agricultural system, smallholding farms are through 12 area offices spread among the four
still prevalent in many farming communities in zones of the state. The catchment areas of each
Nigeria while a number of activities that can be zone and the area offices are as presented
mechanized are still carried out manually. Table 1.
The main thrust of the work reported in this

paper was to assess the performance of the
tractor hiring unit of Kwara state, a state with a
Table 1: Zones and Area Offices of the Kwara State Tractor Hiring Service
Zones Catchment Local Government Areas Locations of Area Offices

A Baruteen, Kaiama. Kaiama, Okuta.
B Patigi. Patigi, Lade, Saragi, Lafiagi.
C Asa, Ilorin East, Ilorin West, Moro, Ilorin South. Ilorin Farm Centre, Songa, Bode
Saadu.
D Ekiti, Ifelodun, Oke-ero, Irepodun, Offa, Oyun, Isin. Erin-ile, Omuaran, Obbo-ile.
The information of interest in this study a. Coordination of Activities

included inventory of farm tractors and
implements, and their conditions; farm The activities of the unit are centrally
holdings, increment in farm sizes, maintenance coordinated from the headquarters located at
culture adopted service charges and the unit the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural
responses to request for services. These pieces Resources Ilorin. The equipment are
of information were obtained through the use distributed to the area offices at the beginning
of structured questionnaire, focus group of the season and at the end of the season, all
discussion, interview schedules and personal tractors and implements are returned to the
observation. headquarters where major repairs and annual
maintenance are carried out.
Sixty questionnaires were administered to
small scale farmers randomly selected in each b. Equipment Inventory and Condition.
of the zones, making a total of 240
respondents. Mechanized farms were excluded Table 2 shows the equipment inventory of the
from this study because they usually own their unit as at survey period. In order to ascertain
the capacity of the unit for service delivery, the
machinery and do not depend on tractor hiring
tractors and implements were classified as
services. functional, serviceable and scrap. Scrap was
used for those equipment which have broken
The data obtained were collated and analyzed down to such a state that the unit believes that
using descriptive statistics such as frequencies it may as well be better to acquire a new one
and percentages to describe and summarize the rather than invest on their repair while
characteristics of the observations. serviceable was for all those that repairs will
get them back to the field. 81% of the
machinery were functional, 13% were
Results and Discussions serviceable and 6% were scraps.
Page 44
Mijinyawa, Y. and Adebayo, S Assessment of Kwara State Tractor Hiring Unit
c. Workshop Facilities and Personnel. Four Work Superintendents, and 58 Tractor

Operators. The ratio of tractor to operator is
The unit has neither a workshop nor an 2:3 which means that there are three operators
implement shed. An open field is used to to two tractors. This ensures that the tractors
accommodate the equipment and also used as are not idle at any time due to lack of operator.
workshop to service and undertake minor Interaction with the operators revealed that
repairs. Major repairs and overhauling are there are periodic in-serve training to upgrade
contracted out. The unit has staff strength of 80 their skills and expertise.
made up of four Engineers, 14 Technologists,
.
Table 2: Machinery/Equipment Inventory
No of Year
S/N Equipment Present Condition
Unit Purchased
Functional Serviceable Scrap
1 Heavy duty tractor 3 1998 3
2. Ursus 5312 29 2003 28 1
3. New Holland 5635 6 2003 6
4. Disc plough (Baldan) 22 2003 16 4 2

5. Mouldboard plough 7 1999 2 2 3
6. Disc harrow 18 2003 16 1 1
7. Disc ridger 8 2003 5 2 1
8. Trailers 10 2003 8 2
9. Rice sheller 2 2003 2
10 Multipurpose sheller 5 2003 5
11 Maize sheller 2 2003 2
12 4 wheel-drive jeep 1 2003 1
Total 113 91 15 7
% 81% 13% 6%
d. Services Rendered and Charges. delay in service delivery which in most cases
either make them to reduce the area of land
The services rendered by the unit and charges they would have cultivated, or affects the crop
are presented in Table 3. These rates exclude yield because of delayed operation, Hamidu
fueling and the individual to whom the service and Simon (1999), Mijinyawa and Kisaiku
is rendered is expected to provide the fuel. (2006) made similar observations in Bauchi
Farmers who patronize the unit complained of and Edo States respectively.
Table 3: Charges for Services Rendered by the Unit
Rate/Day
Service
(Naira)
Bush/land clearing 45,000.00
Ploughing 7,000.00
Harrowing 7,000.00
Ridging 7,000.00
Maize and Rice shelling (Post harvest operation). 500/tonne
e. Impact on the Farming Communities. all of them have been able to benefit from the
services. Based on the accessibility to the
Most farmers in Kwara state are aware of the services rendered by the unit, the farmers in
existence and the activities of the unit but not the states can be classified into two broad

Page 45
groups as shown in Table 4. The first group routes for machines to be taken to such
are those who have benefited from the services places for work even if the farmers can
of the unit and have been able to increase their afford the cost of hiring, and
farm sizes and income. The group consists of iii. those whose farm holdings are too small,
full-time farmers and civil servants who take usually below 2.5ha and have no means of
farming as a part time job. acquiring more land. In many instances,
these small holdings are used for mixed
The second group are those who have not cropping. The use of farm machinery by
benefited from the services rendered by the such individual farmers is uneconomical.
unit and this group can be further subdivided During the study, it was observed that some
into: farmers who could not access the services of
i. those who have sufficient landholdings but the unit employed more hands to increase their
cannot afford the cost of hiring the farm size.
equipment
ii. those who are in areas far remote from
area offices of the unit and whose farms
are in places where there is no access
Table 4: Accessibility to the Services rendered by KWSTHU
Variable Respondents Percentage

Benefited 90 37.5
Not benefited 150 62.5
Total 240 100
f. Maintenance Culture. Conclusions and Recommendations
A maintenance culture is a programme which The Kwara State Tractor Hiring Unit has 29
specifies what action needs to be taken, at what Stery Ursus 5312, six New Holland 5635 and
time, by who and in what form in order to three heavy duty tractors; 22 disc ploughs;
sustain a system. Buhari (2000) reported that seven mouldboard ploughs; 18 disc harrows;
the lack of a maintenance culture in Nigeria eight ridgers; 10 trailers; one four-wheel drive
has been the bane of our predicament of jeep car and nine post harvest machines,
inadequate and non-functioning infrastructure Majority of the equipment are functional but
and that the inculcation of good maintenance are parked unsheltered for lack of either an
culture by operators of public infrastructure implement shed or a workshop Major repairs
and the public at large remains one essential and overhauling of tractor and equipment are
condition to the resuscitation of ailing executed by contract. The maintenance culture
infrastructure.The maintenance of equipment is adopted is customer driven. A few farmers
customer driven, that is maintenance is only have benefited from the services of the unit
carried out when there is a request for use of while many have not because of their inability
the equipment and for which payment has been to raise the service charge, small holdings and
made. Routine maintenance is not a practice of lack of access routes to their farms. The unit
the unit similar to the findings of Mijinyawa has great potentials for improving the
and Kisaiku (2006) in Edo State. Lack of a agricultural production of the state if well
routine maintenance culture appears to be managed.
common to most of the tractor hiring units
nationwide. Another observation is the lack of Towards achieving this goal, the following
proper care for the equipment in terms of recommendations are made:
storage. No implement sheds are provided and
equipment are exposed to the inclement a. There should be a functional and well
weather conditions. equipped maintenance workshop at the

Page 46
b. headquarters to ensure prompt repair and economic growth in Nigeria”.

complete maintenance services in-house. http://www.anppusa.org/page 14-18.html
This will reduce cost and eliminate
delays associated with contract servicing. Hamidu, B.M. and D.U. Simon, (1999).
In addition, an implement shed should be “Comparative Analysis of Tractor and Non-
provided to protect the machinery from Tractor farm operations among Rice Farmers
inclement weather. in Bauchi Local Government Area of Bauchi
c. The unit activities should be state”. Proceedings of the Annual conference
decentralized to enable farmers have of the NIAE 21, 217-222.
quick access to the services.
d. While it is expedient that the state Haque, M.A; B. Umar and S.U. Mohammed.
government funds the unit adequately, (2001). “Performance of state-owned tractor
the unit should be reorganized into a self- hiring units in Nigeria. A case study from
sustaining outfit, which is feasible taking Taraba State”. Journal of Agricultural
into account the possible patronage if the Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin
unit can deliver services promptly and America (AMA) 32(1), 55-58.
effectively.
e. A culture of regular maintenance should Ikpi, A.E and A.L. Ikpi, (1998). “Government
be adopted as this is cheaper and and Agricultural Research funding in Sub-
prolongs machine life. Saharan Africa”. An invited paper presented at
IITA workshop on the Role of African
References Government in Agricultural Research. IITA
Ibadan, May 17-20.
Ado, S.G. (2005). “Crop Production for
Economic Empowerment in the Northern Mijinyawa, Y. and O. Kisaiku, (2006).
States of Nigeria”. A paper presented at the “Assessment of the Edo State Tractor hiring
National Conference on Prospect and Problems services”. Agricultural Engineering
of Agricultural development in the Northern International. The GIGR E-Journal. Invited
States of Nigeria held at the Institute of Overview paper No. 10 Volume VIII.
Agricultural Research (IAR) Ahmadu Bello
University Zaria June 29-July 2, 2005. Opara, A. C. (2006). “Government policies
and their implications for productivity,
Anazodo, U.G.N., L.U. Opara. and T.O. improvement in agriculture”. Paper presented
Abimbola. (1989). “Perspective Plan for at a Workshop on Effective Agricultural Inputs
Agricultural Development in Nigeria (1989- Management for Improved Productivity.
2004)”. Agricultural Mechanization Study Modotel. Owerri. 31 March 2006.
Report, Federal Agricultural Coordinating Unit
(FACU), Ibadan.
Buhari, M. (2000). “The role infrastructural

development and rehabilitation insustainable

Page 47
Design and Construction of a Sheanut Cracker
Lawal, B. M. and Ibrahim, S.O. Page 47
easyprogress@yahoo.com
Department of Agricultural Engineering. The Polytechnic Ibadan, Saki Campus.
Abstract
Cracking of sheanut is a key operation in the processing of sheanut. A sheanut cracker with horizontal rotor
on a vertical shaft was designed and constructed. The cracking and separation of the cracked aggregates
were achieved by using separate shaft for the two operations. The machine recorded the highest cracking
and separation efficiencies of 91.86% and 43.56%, respectively.
Keywords; Sheanuts, Cracker ring, Rotor, Fan and Centrifugal Force.
Introduction performance of nut cracker (Sankat,1992,

Cracking of sheanut is a key operation in the Makanjuola, 1978, Yadav et al, 1996). Sankat
processing of sheanut as it separates the kernel (1992) reported that nuts could also be cracked
from the dried nut. Traditionally, sheanuts are by proper arrangement of rollers. Separation of
cracked manually by striking the nuts in-between kernels and shells were carried out by using the
stone surfaces. The output and the tedious nature principle employed by Gorial and O’ Callagham
of this process form a major bottleneck, which (1991), they identified that separation of a
restricts the process to a very small scale. mixture of particles in a vertical air stream is
Furthermore, the manual process often only possible when the aerodynamic
constitutes a source of injury to the operator who characteristics of the particles are so different
often gets hit by shattered shells. Control of that the “light” particles are entrained in the air
kernel damage is difficult and is often based on stream and the “heavy” particles fall through it.
the ingenuity of the operator. Separation of Kashayap and Pandya (1986) reported that the
kernels from the shells is an arduous task, which horizontal displacement between two dissimilar
is made more difficult when the kernels are particles decreased as the height of the free fall
broken. As a result of this, the quality and above the air stream increased. This fact was
quantity of the product have remained low and noted in the construction of the cracker.
therefore renders manual cracking ineffective. Other reports on centrifugal nut
Mechanical cracking of sheanuts in the machines crackers include that developed by Makanjuola
presently in use occurs by impact, with the force (1978) for cracking conophor nuts, which were
of the impeller on the nuts being controlled by released from hollow tubes attached to an
the speed of rotation and the ensuring peripheral impeller mounted at the end of a vertical drive
velocity of the impeller. The rate of kernel shaft. Lawal (2004) notes that damage due to
damage with this method is very high due to kernels during mechanical cracking of sheanuts
multiple impacts of the impeller with the could be minimized greatly with the speed of the
sheanuts. rotor of cracker and moisture content of nuts
From the foregoing, attention has been directed being carefully controlled during cracking.
at development of a cracker that is potentially
capable of cracking the nut in a single process, Design of the Machine
which then remove the kernel immediately from
the cracking zone. It should have the advantages Fan
of being relatively inexpensive and high output. A blade type of centrifugal fan was selected for
Sheabutter,a product of sheanut, is very well this work because it is relatively inexpensive and
utilized in the chocolate, biscuit, cosmetic and self-cleaning. The peripheral velocity of the fan,
pharmaceutical industries. This paper reports on speed of rotation, velocity of air from the fan and
the design and construction of a machine for the power required to drive the fan were
cracking sheanut. estimated as 59.10m/s, 85.51 rev/s, 74.47 m/s
Asiedu (1989) identified two types of centrifugal and 1.14 KW respectively. The fan shaft
cracker, namely; the cracker with vertical rotor diameter was calculated to be 30 mm (Appendix)
and driving shaft being horizontal and the
cracker with horizontal rotor and vertical shaft. Resultant Nut Velocity.
The later type was used in this study. Rotor The resultant nut velocity and approach angle of
speed, moisture content of nut and nut sizes were nut to cracker ring (figure 1) were estimated as
reported to be the critical factors that affect the 26.11 m/s and 34.440 respectively. Thus, the
Lawal B. M and Ibrahim S.O. Design and Construction of a Sheanut Cracker
energy required to crack the nut was 5.11J employed. The use of pulley ratio was applied in
(Appendix). achieving the variable speed of the rotor and that
of the blower. A single feed rate of 5 kg/min,
Rotor was employed for the test. The first level of
The speed of the rotor shaft, the power required moisture was the natural moisture content of nut,
to drive the rotor and the rotor shaft diameter while the second and third levels were achieved
were estimated as 1209.60 rpm, 2.31 KW and 30 by soaking each sample of 105 nuts for 24 hours
mm respectively (Appendix). and 48 hours, respectively. Each sample was
therefore put into a cellophone bag and was
Machine Description frozen for 48 hours for moisture equilibrium to
The machine consists of a rotor (300 mm) and a be attained. The fourth moisture level was
centrifugal fan. Basically, the machine performs achieved by drying the nut at 1200c for six hours.
the cracking at the upper part of the machine.
Cracked aggregates flow to the separation Results and Discussion
chamber where the aggregates are separated into Table 1 shows the analysis of variance for
shells and kernels. The cracker rotates at a speed cracking efficiency. The moisture of nut, fan
quite different from that of the separator by using speed, rotor speed and their interactions are all
separate shaft for the two operations. The rotor significant at P<0.05. Tables 2,3 and 4 show the
(4) has six hollows slots, which serve as effect of moisture content of nut, fan speed and
channels through which the nuts, fed through the rotor speed; respectively, on the cracking
hopper (1) are propelled at high speeds against a efficiency of the machine. Means of 91.85% at
steel guard called the cracker ring (3), which moisture content of 2.6% w.b is higher than
surrounds the rotor (4). The rotor shaft is V-belt means of other levels of moisture using
driven from a vertical mounted electric motor. Duncan’s multiple range test. It was observed
The rotor is mounted on the top end of the that as the moisture content of nut increased the
vertical shaft. The lower end of the shaft carries cracking efficiency decreased. This might be due
the pulley (11), which drives the shaft. Another to the fact that as the nuts dry out, the kernel
pulley is on top of the fan shaft, while the lower shrinks and its adherence to the shell becomes
end of the shaft carries the centrifugal fan (14). weaker. Table 3 shows significant different
between means at the three levels of fan speed.
The nuts are fed through the hopper into the The highest cracking efficiency of 91.53% was
rotating rotor. They are propelled through the recorded when the fan speed was at 2800 rpm.
slots in the rotor and are thrown at high velocity Further decrease or increase from this speed
against the cracker ring, thus breaking as a result reduces the cracking efficiency of the machine.
of impact. A duct transports the cracker Means at the first and third levels of rotor speed
aggregates across a current of horizontal air, are not significantly different. This means that
developed by the fan. As the aggregates move the third level of rotor speed (1600 rpm) was not
across the current, the air blows out the shell, necessary. At the first level of rotor speed, the
which are lighter and the kernels which are speed was not enough to completely crack the
heavier fall through an outlet where they are nuts. This explains the lower cracking efficiency
collected, Figure 2. at this level. Further increase on the rotor speed
(1400 rpm) resulted in the highest cracking
Experimental Procedure efficiency of 90.89%.
In carrying out the test, standard test code for
groundnut shellers was employed. The Conclusion
experimental design that was used to analyze the The centrifugal type cracker provides the
data was a 4x3x3 factorial experiment in a split- necessary cracking action to split open sheanuts
pilot design. The computer package used was to release the kernels. From the analysis of
GENSTAT Release 3.1 variance and Duncan’s Multiple Range Test
conducted, it could be concluded that sheanut is
Three speed levels of the rotor (RS1 = 1200 rpm, best cracked when the moisture content of nut is
RS2 = 1400 rpm and RS3 = 1600 rpm) and three at 2.6% w.b fan speed at 2800 rpm and rotor
speed levels of the fan (FS1 = 2200 rpm, FS2 = speed at 1400 rpm. The cracking efficiency
2800 rpm and FS3 = 3200 rpm), four moisture decreased as the moisture content increased.
level of the nut (M1 = 8.7% w.b, M2 = 23.5%
w.b, M3 = 31.7% w.b, and M4 = 2.6% w.b) were
Page 49
References Okere P.N and Anyakoha M.W (2000). Senior

Asiedu, J.J (1989). Processing Tropical Crops. A Secondary Physics. New Edition.
Technological Approach. Macmillan Macmillan Ltd. pp 168.
Education Limited, London. Pp.183. Osborne, W.C (1977). Fans. 2nd Edition
Gorial, B.Y and O’Callaghan, J.R (1991). in S.I Units. Pergamon Press. pp. 175-
Separation of Particles in a Horizontal 204
Air Stream J. Agric Engr. Res. 49: pp. Sankat, C.K. (1992). Mechanical Shelling of
273-284. Grenadian Nutmeg Seeds: Theoretical
Kashayap, M.M and Pandya, A.C (1986). Air and Experimental Approaches.
Velocity requirement for Winnowing Canadian Agricultural Engineering.
operations. Journal of Agricultural Vol. 34 (2): pp. 157-163.
Engineering Research. Vol. 11 (1): pp Smith, P.H and Wilkes, H.L (1990). Farm
24-32 Machinery and Equipment. Sixth
Lawal, B.M (2004). Mechanical Damage and Edition. Tata Mc Graw – Hill
Performance indices of a Centrifugal Publishing Company Ltd, New – Delh,
Sheanut Cracker. The Environscope. pp. 34.
Vol. 1, No 1. pp 107-110. Yadav, R. Singh, P. and Tiwari, G. (1996).
Makanjuola, G.A. (1978). A Machine for Studies on Centrifugal Decortication of
cracking Nuts. Appropriate Technology, Sunflower Seed. Agricultural
Vol 5 (1). Pp 21-22. Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin
Nigerian industrial Standard (1997). Standard America. Vol. 27 (3); pp. 62-64.
Test Code for Groundnut Shellers.
Standard Organization of Nigeria.
Appendix
Seeds strike Cracking Seeds Leave Rotor

Ring At Velocity VR at Velocity VR
And are cracked Fixed Cracking ring
Horizontal Rotor
Speed Feeding Zone

Rc
Rc Rc
Approach r
Angle β
Vertical Shaft
Radial Plot
Fig. 1: Principle of Operation of the Centrifugal Cracker (Source: Sankat, 1992)

Page 50
HOPPER
ROTOR HOUSING
CRACKED
AGGREGATE
DUCT
FAN
HOUSING
SHELL
OUTLET
KERNEL OUTLET
Fig. 2: Isometric Views of the Cracker.

Page 51
Table 1. Analysis of Variance of Cracking Efficiency of the Sheanut Cracker .
Source Sum of Square df Mean square F Sig.
Main effects
M 479.815 3 159.988 21.72 .000*
F 442.722 2 221.361 30.072 .000*
R 231.056 2 115.528 15.694 .000*
Interactions
Mxf 714.907 6 119.151 16.187 .000*
Mxr 739.019 6 123.170 16.732 .000
Fxr 1100.722 4 275.181 37.383 .000*
M x f x r 1831.426 12 152.619 20.733 .000*
Error 530 72 7.361
Total 6069.667 107
Significant at P< 0.05

f = fan speed, rpm
m = moisture content of nut, % w.b
r = rotor speed, rpm.
Table 2. Effect of Moisture Content on Cracking Efficiency*

Moisture Content of nut (%wb) Cracking Efficiency (%)
2.6 91.8518a
8.7 89.9259b
23.5 87.6296c
31.7 86.3704c
Table 3. Effect of Fan Speed on Cracking Efficiency*

Fan Speed (rpm) Cracking Efficiency (%)
2200 86.5833c
2800 912.5278a
3200 88.7222b
Table 4. Effect of Rotor Speed on Cracking Efficiency*

Rotor speed (rpm) Cracking Efficiency (%)
1200 86.5833b
1400 90.8889a
1600 90.3611b
* Means with the same letters are not significantly different from each other at P< 0.05 using Duncan’s
Multiple Range Test.

Page 52
(i) Peripheral velocity of fan
The peripheral velocity of the fan was determined using the equation derived by Osborne (1977).
2
Ps + /2 {(0.3) U2} = p U2 {2 (U2 – U2sin β2 – Vm cot β2) …..………………(1)
η Z
Where:
η = fan efficiency, % =66% (Osborne 1977)
Vm = radoa; velocity, m/s = 0.42U2m/s (Osborne 1977)
Ps = fan static pressure, Pa = 500 Pa (Osborne 1977)
ρ = air density, kg/m3 = 1.2 kg/m3 (Osborne 1977)
U2 = Peripheral velocity, m/s
Z = number of blade = 48 (Osborne 1977)
β2 = blade angle (degree) = 150degree(Osborne 1977)
Substituting these value in equation (1)
U2 = 59.10 m/s
(ii) Speed of rotation of the fan
The speed of rotation of the fan was given as (Osborne 1977)
n = U2 ……………………………………….. (2)
π
Where:
n = speed of rotation, rev/s
U2 = peripheral velocity, m/s = 59.10 m/s (calculated)
d2 = 0.22 m
Substituting in equation (2)
n = 85.51 rev/s
(iii) Velocity of air from the fan

This is the velocity of air coming out from the fan outlet and was given as (Osborne, 1977)
V3 = 1.26 U2 …………………………………………….. (3)
Where:
U2 = Peripheral velocity of the fan, m/s = 59.10 m/s (calculated)
Substituting for U2 in equation (3)
V3 = 74.47 m/s

Page 53
(iv) The power of drive the fan.

The power required to drive the fan is given as:
P1 = Q Ps ……………………………………………………(4)
Η
Where:
Q = fan duty, m3/s = 1.5m3/s
Ps = fan static pressure, Pa = 500 Pa
7 = fan efficiency, % = 66%
.: Pf = 1.14KW
(v) Resultant nut velocity

The resultant nut velocity in the rotor was determined from the relationship given by
Sankat, (1992) as:
2 2 1/2
VR = w (2 R - r ) ………………………….. (5)
Where:
ω = angular velocity of the rotor, rad = 126.72 rad (calculated)
R = radius of rotor, m = 0.15 m (calculated)
r = radius of cracking ring, m =0.05m (calculated)
.: VR = 26.11 m/s
(vi) Approach angle of nut of cracker ring

The approach angle figure --- is defined as the angle with which the nut strikes the cracker ring
and it is given by Sankat (1992) as:
-1
β = Sin Rsinα …………….. (6)
Rc
Where:
Rc = radius of cracker ring, m = 0.193
α = tan-1 R ……………… (7)
2 2 1/2
(R – r )
= angle at which the seed leaves the rotor, degree
Substituting for the values of R and r equation (7)
α = 46.69, degree.
Also, substituting for the values of values of Rc, R and α in equation (6)
β = 34.44 degrees

Page 54
(vii) Speed of the machine.

The speed of the machine was determined from the equation given by Smith and Wilkes (1990) as
N1 D1 = N2 D2 ………………………. (8)
Where:
N1 = speed of the electric motor, rpm = 1440 rpm
D1 = diameter of motor pulley, m = 0.042 m
N2 = speed of the rotor, rpm
D2 = diameter of the rotor pulley, m = 0.05 m
Substituting these values in equation (8)
N2 = 1209.60 rpm
(viii) Energy required for cracking the nut.

The energy required to crack the nut is given by
K.E = ½ M V R2 ………………. (9) (Okere and Anyakoha, 2000)
Where:
K.E = Kinetic Energy, J
M = Mass of a nut, Kg = 0.015 kg (average mass)
VR = velocity of a nut, m/s = 26.11 m/s (calculated)
K.E = 5.11 J
Therefore, the energy required to crack the nut is 5.11
(xi) Power required for driving the machine

The power required to drive the machine is given by the relation
Pr = Mr 2 πV2 3 r2 ………………………(10)
60
where:
Pr = Power to drive the rotor, KW
Mr = Mass of rotor, kg = 2.578 kg
N2 = speed of rotor, rpm = 1209.6 rpm
R = radius of the motor pulley, m = 0.021 m

Pr = 2.31 KW

Page 55
(x) Diameter of rotor shaft

Based on maximum direct stress of 1.2 x 108 N/m2 (Osborne, 1977) and using ASME code
equation far steel, the shaft diameter is given by (Osborne, 1977)
d3 = 16 Mb + (Kb Mb)2 + (Kt Mt)2 ……………….. (11)

πSd
Where:
d = diameter of rotor shaft, m
Mb = maximum bending moment, Nm = 113.49 Nm (calculated)
Mt = maximum torsional moment, Nm = 15.32 Nm (calculated)
Sd = allowable bending stress for steel, N/m2 = 1.2 x 108 N/m2
Kb = combine shock and fatigue factor to bending moment.
Kt = combined shock and fatigue factors to torsinal moment.
ASME Code specific 1.5 – 2 for Kb and 1.0 – 1.5 for Kt both for rotational shaft (Spotts, 1971).
d = 23 mm
In view at the fact that the machine, may require to run at a higher speed and because of factor of
safety, a shaft diameter of 30 mm was used.

Page 56
Skill Acquisition Methodology in Indigenous Aluminum Industry
in Southwestern Nigeria
Isola, O. O., Siyanbola, W. O. and O. O. Olamade

National Centre for Technology Management. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife
Abstract
The growing interest in indigenous knowledge signifies a realization that technology is not the exclusive
property of industrialized societies, but that indigenous cultures are also inventors and custodians of
technology. In Nigeria, the indigenous industries are as diverse as the culture of the people. Thus, there is a
large deposit of IKS through which communities have been sustained over many generations. Some of the
common indigenous industries found in Nigeria, include the production of pots from clay and aluminium metal
scraps, textile making, cloth weaving, bronze casting, leather tanning, sculpture, brewing and the likes. This
work is an audit of the indigenous Aluminium casting in Nigeria. It documents the mode of knowledge
transmission in the industry, the extent of government intervention and factors militating against the industry.
Keywords: indigenous, casting, realisation, culture, recognition, technology, aluminum.
Introduction science and technology). By so doing the

continuity of the remaining IK may be assured for
Today, the growing interest in Indigenous the benefit of the present and future generations.
Knowledge (IK) signifies a realization that This research, as part of a larger study of
technology is not the exclusive property of indigenous technology system in Nigeria, focuses
industrialized societies, but that indigenous on empirical evaluation of skill acquisition
cultures are also inventors and custodians of methodology in indigenous aluminum industry in
technology. In Nigeria, the indigenous industries Nigeria.
are as diverse as the culture of the people. Thus,
there is a large deposit of Indigenous Knowledge
System (IKS) through which communities have Literature Review
been sustained over many generations. Some of
the common indigenous industries found in Indigenous knowledge (IK), traditional knowledge
Nigeria, include the production of pots from clay (TK) or local knowledge (LK), generally refers to
and aluminum metal scraps, textile making, cloth a body of knowledge unique to a given culture,
weaving, bronze casting, leather tanning, society or community. It consists of the abilities
sculpture, brewing and the likes. The indigenous and skills of people accumulated through many
knowledge supporting these industries is passed on years of experience, learning, development, and
from generation to generation and hence it is a transmission. This knowledge, which is deeply
tradition in some locations to produce some rooted in cultural traditions, values and belief
specific indigenous products. The knowledge is systems, is generated and transmitted through a
not documented in books but such indigenous systematic process of observing local conditions,
technology has been sustained over the years. experimenting with solutions, and readapting
However, IK is gradually disappearing and previously identified solutions to modified
remains only in the memory of some old-age environmental, socio-economic and technological
people who live in remote rural areas. When these situations (Brouwers, 1993). For millions of
people pass away, some IK may be lost forever. indigenous peoples of Africa, Latin America, Asia,
According to an old African proverb, when a and Oceania, IK (or what others have called the
knowledgeable old person dies, a whole library native ways of knowing) is an everyday
disappears. However, there is now a growing rationalization that rewards individuals who live in
recognition of the potential of IK and its a given locality. Partly to these individuals, IK
consequent value in environmental, socio- shows the dynamic way in which the residents of
economic and political management, technology an area have come to understand themselves in
and sustainable development. It is for this reason relationship to their natural environment and how
that many developing countries are now taking they organize that folk knowledge of flora and
some far-reaching steps to collect and document fauna, cultural beliefs, and history to enhance their
the remaining IK in traditional communities and lives (Semali and Kincheloe, 1999). Indigenous
integrate it into modern education (most especially Knowledge Systems (IKS) have long been
Isola O. O., Siyanbola, W. O. and O. O. Olamade Skill Acquisition Methodology in Indigenous Aluminum Industry in Southwestern Nigeria
undervalued and have been under attack for being disciplines, for example, pharmacology and
backward, static and a hindrance to modernization. resource management, and to separate it from its
Terms such as objective, rigorous, control and cultural context. It is then assumed that this
testing have helped to develop the perception that indigenous knowledge can then be applied in
science and engineering/or technology are value- completely different contexts, an assumption that
free, and that they operate outside of the societies is false on various occasions. Indigenous learning
in which they are rooted (Hill, 1993). This attitude can be defined, for operational reasons, as the
has undermined the capacity of IKS to innovate, acquisition of knowledge and skills as an integral
and lowered the status of grass-roots innovators part of a specific culture. This knowledge can
particularly those living in the rural areas, whose
contribution to technology development has come from outside and be new to the
traditionally been undervalued. Recently, culture concerned,
however, an increasing amount of research on be new but originate from within the
indigenous knowledge is being done to reverse this culture, or
negative trend, even though indigenous knowledge be traditional, with a long history of being
is still not being recognized as being product of passed on within the culture
holistic systems of perceptions, relationships and Thus, indigenous knowledge skills can be acquired
organizational arrangements. The recognition and by different ways knowing full well that craft can
reinforcement of indigenous knowledge systems play a significant role in the economy of the
can form the basis for alternative development people. Some skills are acquired through a
model. The capacity of these systems to integrate conscious learning process whether traditional or
multiple disciplines and the resultant synergism adapted or learned anew whereas some crafts are
are beginning to demonstrate higher levels of learned by conscious effort rather than by doing.
efficiency, effectiveness, adaptability and
sustainability than many of the conventional Skill Acquisition by Apprenticeship
technology systems (Mathias-Mundy, 1993).
The mode of transmission of IK is peculiar to Apprenticeship is a process of skill formation. It is
people and specific to their local community. In a form of local knowledge institution. It often
some Asian countries, IK has helped in solving the lasts from a period of about six months to three
problems of and contributed to the development of years and tends to be organized by small firms,
people’s way of life in accordance with the though may not be limited to it (Velenchik, 1995;
changing time and environment. The government Ibitoye and Ilori, 1998). It is a form of learning in
of Thailand, for example, through its Office of which the learner, in addition to learning a skill
National Education Commission has revitalized from a firm or a master, provides labour services
the country’s IK and returned it to its educational to the firm or the owner of a business unit. During
system. Through this process, IK learning centers, the period of apprenticeship, the apprentice is fully
remuneration of IK teachers and the government’s occupied with his training and thus, he is not faced
commitment to support the operation of the with the problem of unemployment as he is
learning centers were pursued. Thai IK teachers deposited on to the labour market during the
are representatives of diversified areas of local period of training (Obidi, 1995) and not on the
knowledge, who have accumulated their street riding motorcycles ferrying people from
knowledge and skills for many years, and have place to place as it is the case in most communities
contributed to the transmission of local knowledge in Nigeria today. The practice takes different
to the communities. forms but the two major categories are; one, the
highly structured training in large firms, such as in
Methods of IK Transmission and Skill the developed countries in Europe, Germany for
Acquisition example and second, the more loosely organized
Interest in indigenous learning- indigenous ways ‘learning-observing own work mates’. Training is
of acquiring knowledge and skills - has grown the object and the mode of instruction takes on a
over the past two decades. Indigenous learning variety of forms. One form is the use of specific
systems are seen as especially important in areas instructional manuals and another form is the
that cannot be adequately served by modern unspecified and randomly assigned oral tasks that
education systems, and as playing a role in the supervisor may give. Each of both feeds the
socialization and in the preservation or creation of other. The use of specific instruction manuals is
cultural identity. Less attention has been given to referred to as codified and the other form is tacit
indigenous ways of acquiring skills for production. based. Tacit knowledge is a bundle of information
There is a tendency, therefore, to view indigenous that is more easily expressed than spoken. It is
knowledge in relation to specific ‘modern’ built from considerable practice and accumulated
Page 58
experience in some narrow tasks, for instance by  The minimum age for admission to
an apprentice learning from the master. In Nigeria, apprenticeship is usually not defined but the
this mode of learning finds ready application in duration of the training is precise and
small businesses like metal casting, tailoring, clearly understood between the apprentice
dressmaking, furniture and auto-mechanics and the instructor.
(Akinwumi et al., 1966).  There is no prescribed syllabus and
therefore no defined standard of
In the African context, apprentices tend to emerge performance which can be used to
from the young, low ability range with no more determine the apprentice ability to obtain a
than secondary education or even less. Training is certificate.
of a generalized type that takes place on the job. It  The apprentice who receives instruction in
is now observed that educated workers in Africa one craft does not have any opportunity to
tend to be more productive apprentices, as are master other crafts in contrast to the school
apprentices who remained where they are trained. curriculum which attempts to preserve the
Apprenticeship or apprentice training is strategic interrelationships among several subjects.
in any attempt to develop a country’s human
resources in the ways necessary for the Thus, people need to acquire vocational education
management and development of a nation’s if they are to play a full and leading part in the
economy. Apprenticeship is a form of on-the-job- development of their countries and in the
training in which people learn by doing under particular case of apprenticeship, the vast majority
supervision and guidance. It enables people to of trainees would need basic education in literacy,
receive specialized training directly related to their numeracy and general background.
jobs and is a major category of non-formal
education. Non-formal education has been defined Research Methodology
by the International Council for Educational
Development (ICED, 1973) as any organized
educational activity outside the established formal IK does not exist in a vacuum, it belongs to a
system - whether operating separately or as an community, and access to the knowledge is gained
important feature of some broader activity that is through contact with that community. This
intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles research considers aluminium foundry technology
and learning objectives. Thus, apprenticeship is using sand casting method that is prevalent in the
popularly considered to be part of non-formal whole of the South Western part of Nigeria. While
education because it is not pursued in an organized there are small clusters of aluminum metal pottery
formal school system, but provides apprentice activities scattered all over the south western
training for a client’s identifiable, specific and Nigeria, this trade and its associated technologies
immediate need. Apprenticeship is essentially are more widely spread and prevalent in Oyo and
practical; a process of learning by doing. This Osun States of the South-west. In mapping the
process, if properly organized within the modern indigenous technology of aluminium casting, two
non-formal education category, may serve as the distinct clusters were identified in southwestern
key to improving the quality and efficiency of the Nigeria, namely Saki and its environs in Oyo state
labour force in small enterprises, government and tagged Saki zone and some parts of Osun state
administration. tagged Osun zone respectively. Questionnaire was
therefore administered both in Saki zone
(comprising of Saki, Oje-Owode and Tede) and
The features of apprenticeship involve the Osun zone (comprising of Ede, Ilobu, Erin-Osun,
following. For instance; Ikire, Ilesa and Ile-Ife). Overall, 230 copies of
Many of the activities are located close to questionnaire were administered. The response
the life and work of the clientele rate was 87%.
They provide opportunities to establish a
close relationship between the acquisition of Data Collection and Analysis
knowledge or skill and its application and
production in order to meet a need. It is Primary data using questionnaires and guided
therefore open to all that is interested in a interviews were used to collect relevant data from
particular vocation. the practitioners of the two trades – aluminium
They usually do not follow some defined pottery and bronze casting. This is supplemented
standards and may involve unrelated or by observation of the practitioners as they carry
uncoordinated activities. out the practices. Photographs were also taken at

Page 59
various stages of work completion to back-up and in Nigerian market today are inscribed with ‘Saki’
complement the information obtained. on them, regardless of where they were produced
in the region. Thus, Saki today represents the best
The aluminium pottery survey was carried out in practice in Nigerian aluminum pottery and the
two stages to ensure proper coverage of the symbol of originality.
practice in Oyo and Osun States where it is
predominant. At the first level, preliminary General Technical Description
interviews were conducted with trade leaders and
unit heads of the practice that gave background Sand casting is the most popular process employed
information about the trade and allowed access to in the industry. Sand casting molds use silica-
observe products and processes. Through the trade based sands. There are two general types of sand:
leaders the sample areas were clearly delineated naturally bonded and synthetic sand. Synthetic
based on the prevalence of practice, number of sand can be better controlled and is the most
active practitioners and volume of trade. The commonly used by foundries. In general, sand
second level of the survey involved the used in making sand cast molds is fine, rough
administration of questionnaire to the generality of grains that can be closely packed to form a smooth
active practitioners, structured interviews, mold surface. Sand cast molds are designed to
observations and photographs. have a smooth collapsibility (the casting shrinks
while cooling) to avoid defects such as hot tearing
Inferential and descriptive statistics are applied for and cracking in casting. Clay is used to cohesively
data analysis. This is used to generate systematic bond sand particles to give it strength. Sand
information and policy guidelines. casting is one of the earliest forms of casting
techniques practiced due to the simplicity of
materials involved. It still remains one of the
Discussion of Results cheapest ways to cast metal. Other methods of
casting, such as those using shell molds produce
In an interview with the practitioners, they opined higher quality of surface finish, but at a higher
that aluminium pottery trade began in the cost. The sand casting approach is more popular
Southwest about forty years ago. As gathered in among the practitioners of indigenous aluminium
the Saki cluster, the first set of practitioners foundry in south-western Nigeria.
introduced the trade in Saki when they returned
from Ghana on repatriation in 1969. Faced with The furnace system employed by the practitioners
unemployment and the attendant welfare consists of a hollow earth mound with a net at the
problems, the returnees decided to carry on with base. The purpose of the net is to allow the ash
the practice of aluminium pot casting, the from the charcoal being used as a source of heat to
technique and methodology they were exposed to drop to the base of the mound. Aluminium scraps
and acquired in Ghana. The practice, within a are placed inside the crucible to be heated by the
short time, became so embraced in the Saki zone charcoal. The molten metal is poured into the
that the home based people became interested and mould to form the required shape. This type of
enrolled as apprentices. Most of the initial furnace is crude and inefficient in terms of heat
apprentices had no formal education. Later, conservation. It loses a lot of heat due to
primary school leavers, either because of interest construction defects and as a result takes a long
in the practice or lack of fund for further education time to melt aluminium at the required melting
started to show interest and enrolled as point of about 600 oC. A 2-dimensional schematic
apprentices. It was gathered on the field from Saki diagram of the furnace described above is shown
axis during questions and interactive fora here as Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3 are
organized as part of the survey that the practice did photographs of two variants of the furnace system
spread from Saki to other parts of the Southwest. found in operation by the practitioners for melting
The Saki origin of the practice was confirmed by aluminium scraps. Figure 4 is a process flow chart
the fact that most indigenous aluminium pots sold of aluminum casting.

Page 60
charcoal
crucible
aluminium scraps
to the fan
ash
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the furnace presented in Figure 2
crucible
charcoal charge
Figure 2: Typical hand-made furnace used for melting aluminium scrap

Page 61
bicycle wheel
blower
Figure 3: Another furnace for melting aluminium using a home-made blower
Sourcing/Procuring Al-scraps
Sizing/charging of scraps Sand/Clay Processing
Firing/Melting Mould Preparation
Fill the mould cavity with

molten metal (casting)
Solidification
Mould Dismantling
Cleaning of Castings
Final Product
Fig. 4: Aluminum –Pot Casting: Process Flow Chart

Page 62
Skill Acquisition Process those interviewed believed that anybody who is

interested can learn the trade, 6 % believed that
Almost 90 % of the practitioners were introduced people with some special abilities are better
to the practice as an apprentice with a master. Very candidates to learn the trade while a small
few learned the profession as a member of a percentage of them (1 %) opined that people of
practicing family. Very negligible number of specific extraction are those who can learn the
people learned the job through school and as an trade effectively. It is obvious here that the trade is
observer of the practice. In most of the cases, open to parties who are interested and that
aluminum foundry is not a family tradition. participation does not require strict or special
Almost all the practitioners got engaged in the abilities to learn. On the possibility of widening
profession out of sheer interest and only few of the practice through training of people who are
them were forced into the practice by their parents. interested in the trade, 95 % agreed to train others
using informal methods that were employed to
Nearly all the practitioners acquired their train them. They, however, would like that schools
knowledge informally, that is, without proper are set up to train apprentices and if given the
documentation but through oral instructions, opportunity, they would like to instruct in such a
observations and learning by doing. Only a few of school. The practitioners are also of the view that
them (1 %) acquired this knowledge through small training groups could be set up in different
documentation. The practitioners believe that the localities, if the setting up of schools will take a
practice does not have to be codified and that long time to be realized. They indicated
acquisition of this knowledge can be through willingness to instruct in these small training
apprenticeship where people learn by observation groups. The few among the practitioners who
and by doing. It is thought that under this learning expressed reluctance to train others gave reasons
process there would be direct communication such as not having enough time for the training
between the master and the apprentice. It is also because they are interested in furthering their
thought that efficiency in knowledge transmission education, while still in practice.
would be enhanced. Moreover, if an apprentice Though existing practitioners would like to
could focus very well on the job, within a short continue with the trade, there is a general concern
period such could be trusted with casting work and about the future of the trade as new apprentices are
would be able to deliver good product. Some now hard to find. The lack of new apprentices was
apprentices with good focus can acquire the skill however said to be a common problem confronting
within one year of apprenticeship but masters almost all trades such as; tailoring, automobile
often hold on to them for as long as three years. repairs, bricklaying and the likes, as would be
There is a hidden advantage here for the masters; candidates apprenticeship now prefer quick and
the apprentices provide free labour to the masters easy money making ventures such as cyber crimes
all through their period of apprenticeship. and commercial motor cycle riding popularly
Observation from the field also revealed that the called Okada. The poverty alleviation measure that
trade is practiced in group. Casting is not easily gives easy access to motor cycles and tri-cycles as
done by one individual performing all aspects of commercial means of transportation was said to
the work. Many people get together in the foundry have further accentuated the problem of apprentice
and do several distinct works towards producing scarcity. Almost all the practitioners agreed to
finished aluminum products. Someone could be upgrade their skills if given the opportunity.
doing the breaking of the solid aluminum into
smaller pieces, the firing, fanning and melting About one tenth of the practitioners were found to
while some would be mixing sand, some preparing have at one time or the other break from the
the mould and the cope and drag and some doing practice for between 2 to 5 years at a stretch. The
the pouring. Where a single individual handles reasons usually adduced for the break include low
every aspect of the casting work, the process sales patronage, health related problems and
becomes very slow and number of products finance. The break is understandable because the
produced per day or week greatly reduced trade is open to competition from other producers
compared to a situation where practitioners are scattered all over the South-west. Moreover, ready
organized into teams. substitutes can be found for the products.
Increasing their abilities to produce other products
Without proper documentation, majority of the apart from pot and spoons would have added more
practitioners agreed that it will take at least an economic values to the profession. But the general
average of 3 years to learn the profession. 92 % of preference for such aluminum pots is
Page 63
commonplace during cooking for social activities 4. Micro-credit facilities should be arranged at
like wedding ceremonies or other big social events a very low interest rates for the practitioners
probably because of large volume of cooking that to enable them improve their method of
can be done at once. Nowadays, ever household is production which will actually lead to an
desirous of having a set of aluminum pot of their increase in the level of production, quality
own rather than to go out and borrow or rent. All of products and also allow them to produce
of the practitioners sampled, however, claimed other products.
they would love to continue the practice. From this 5. The practitioners should be encouraged to
standpoint, it would seem the practice cannot go interact with tertiary institutions’
down into extinction, what is necessary therefore departments vice versa. In order to obtain
is the availability of new materials. help for state of the art knowledge in
metallurgy and foundry education and learn
how to diversify their products and add
Conclusions value to the profession.
Effective knowledge transfer and innovative 6. Aluminum pottery and other indigenous
capability on the part of local practitioners of technologies should be included in school
indigenous technology and appropriate curriculum up to the end of the basic
government intervention are the basic pre-requisite education in the various localities where
for sustainable technological growth. they are prevalent.
Aluminium casting is a well established trade in

the south western part of Nigeria. A large References
percentage of the practitioners are not well
educated and this limits their abilities to cast 1. Akinwumi, I.O., Ilori, M.O. and Asaolu,
advanced products which their method of D.A., (1966) Some factors affecting
production can really produce. They do not vocational training given to apprentices in
interact with tertiary institutions that can help them the garment industry in Osun State of
in improving their skill as well as developing new Nigeria. Ife Psychologia 4, pp. 156-167.
products. For instance, in the case of aluminium
casting, it will be an advantage if the practitioners 2. Brouwers, J.H.A.M (1993). Rural
can be trained to cast products such as engine Peoples’ response to soil fertility decline:
blocks, cylinder heads, hosing and other similar The Adja case (Benin). Wageneigen
enclosures. Agricultural University Papers 93-4.
3. Hill, C. (1993). Healthy communities,
healthy animals: reconceptualizing health
Recommendations and wellness, pp.4-32 in Indigenous and
local community knowledge in animal
1. One of the major problems of the health and production systems: Genader
practitioners is their educational perspectives. Ottawa: The World Women
inadequacies. Efforts should therefore be Veterinary Association
made to ensure that the practitioners are
well educated at least in the areas of their
profession. This may increase their level of 4. http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ikdm/I-
awareness. 1/kater.html---A. Kater-Indigenous
2. Aluminium casting is well known all over learning in crafts: a pilot research effort.
the world as a means of producing spare http://www.nuffic.nl/ciran/ik-dm/3-
parts that are needed in a country. This 1/communications/resarch.html
method of production is being used to
produce engine blocks, cylinder heads, 5. Ibitoye, S.A. and Ilori M.O. (1998)
housing and other similar enclosures. The Indigenous metal casting in Nigeria: its
practitioners should therefore be trained to technology, attendant problems, business
produce these types of products for the prospects and policy implications.
Nigerian market. Elsevier (Technovation) volume 18, Issue
3. Efforts should be made to document sand 11, pp. 705-711
casting (aluminium casting) procedures for 6. ICED, 1973, Non-formal education for
fabricating of needed parts. This can be rural development: strengthening learning
achieved through organised training. opportunities for children and youth,
Page 64
Report for UNICEF, p.12, Paris, study of the Yoruba blacksmith in

UNICEF] Nigeria, vol. 31 No. 3, 369-383
9. Semali L.M., and Kincheloe J.L (1999)

7. Mathias-Mundy, E. (1993) Abstracts of
What is indigenous Knowledge? Voices
Papers. Indigenous knowledge and
from the Academy pp.3
development monitor 1(2):21
10. Velenchik, A.D. (1995). The World
8. Obidi, S.S. 1995. Skill acquisition Bank Economic Review, 9, 451-477.
through indigenous apprenticeship: a case

Page 65
Comparative Analysis of Carburizing Atmospheres on 1030 Steel
Components
1
Adegbola, A. A., 2Olowonisi, A. M. and 1F. O. Raji
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering. The Federal Polytechnic, Bida
Abstract
Machine components are prone to wear during their useful lives. This is a serious menace in
engineering because of the consequent failure which usually is costly. Hence, this study has examined
the causes, and analyzed the media which enables the carbon mass that is responsible for the hardness
and the case-depth to be transported into the surface of steel. The carburized components were prepared
for micro-examination by mounting, grinding, polishing and etching. Solid and Liquid Carburizers
were used to effectively determine their performance. The mechanical properties and the case-depth
variation at different temperatures in solid carburizing were compared with the liquid carburizer. The
Volutish appearance on the case reveals high case-depth with retrogressive increase toward the core
due to martensitic formation. While, PK, recorded highest tensile strength of 610.6 N/mm 2 compared to
WC, BC, and Ce-80B with a respective 570.1N/mm2, 4452 N/mm2 and 410.3 N/mm2.This will
hopefully can be a substitute to the existing carburizers as studied to satisfy the local content demand.
Numenclature: HRC – Rockwell Hardness,WC - Wood Charcoal , PK - Palm Kernel,

BC - Bone Charcoal, Ce - 80B – Ce - Constant 80B
1.0 Introduction
However within the wealth of the environment
The essential difference between ordinary steel when this work was being carried out, the
and pure iron is the amount of carbon in the destructive testing (DT) was adopted. The
former, which reduces the ductility but surface engineering components improves life
increases the strength and susceptibility to and performance of the parts used in
hardening when rapidly cooled from elevated engineering equipment and structures. In
temperatures addition the surface engineering treatments
will produce extensive re-arrangements of
Surface deterioration is a primary cause of atoms in metal alloys of surface hardness and
failure in metal parts and surface treatment the effective case depth requires the use of
such as phase transformation by heating and proper and optimized processes variables.
cooling of the outer surface by case hardening,
and thermo chemical process are widely used Although, some methods of carburizing had
in industry to increase the useful life of the been used by metallurgists in the past to
components. improve the surface condition of materials
(ferrous alloy) but had some limitations
Essentially, a carburizing procedure under heat amongst which are:
treatment is widely employed to combat this
problem, which involves a process of adding i. uncontrollable heating
carbon to the surface of a metal by exposing ii. Unequipped furnace
the component to carbon rich atmosphere vis- iii.Determination of carbon profile
à-vis WCl, PK, and, or Ce-80B. iv. Inability to determine the evaluation of
carburizing media on the mechanical
Case hardening improves both the wear properties of carburized steel material
résistance and the fatigue strength of parts v. Evolution of noxious gases
under dynamic and thermal stresses [1]. The vi. Inabilities to determine the percentage
characteristics of case-hardening are primarily carbon concentration on the case-depth of
determined by surface hardness, the effective the carburized steel materials.
hardness depth profile of the residual stress.
The advent of different heat treatment methods
Case-harness depth or the thickness of the such as carburizing and furnace expedite the
hardened layer is an essential quality attribute production of good carburized steel and
of the case-hardening process. Until recently, bringing relief to early metallurgists.
the quality of the hardening process could only Concisely, the application of modern and
be evaluated by random sampling using innovative heat treatment method (such as
destructive testing methods, which were liquid carburizing) carburizing) and furnace
expensive and time consuming .In addition really assist the metallurgist to evaluate the
there is an NDT Ultrasonic method which is effect of any heat treatment methods on the
less expensive [2]
Adegbola, Olowonisi, and Raji Comparative Analysis of Carburizing Atmospheres on 1030 Steel Components
mechanical properties of steel. Thus, providing carburizing as a means of evaluating the

precision in heat treatment process. performance of the different carburizers
During carburization in salt bath, the surface of vis-à-vis liquid and solid
low carbon steels becomes enriched with iv. Determination of microstructure of 1030
carbon and a little nitrogen, usually at steel material before and after carburizing
temperatures between 850 and 9500C. It is the v. To ascertain the effectiveness of varying
task of the molten salts to heat upon the parts temperature and time on wear resistance
to the reaction temperature and to release and case depth of carburizing steel [4].
carbon by decomposing the cyanide.
Decomposition of the carbon can be
accelerated by the addition of earth alkaline Methods employed for determining the depth
compounds, such as salt –baths are designated of case are either chemical, mechanical, or
“activated carburizing baths” acb. visual, and the specimens or part may be
subjected to a described test either in the soft
After being carburized the work pieces have a or hardened condition. Total case-depth, will
wear resistant surface with a hardness of more however be employed, because it is considered
than 60HRc and a tough core with strength of the most accurate for carburized parts [2,8].
up to about 15000N/mm2, depending on the
material from which the component is The measured case-depth may then be reported
manufactured. Meanwhile, great demands are as either effective or total case-depth on
made of mechanical properties of case hardened specimens
hardened components .At this level, the
composition of the carburized marginal zone is The methods are highlighted as follows:
important. The properties, such as surface
hardness and wear resistance, fatigue strength i. Preparation of specimen: Thirteen samples
and impact values are greatly influenced by the of 1030 steel were prepared, 12 were
structure and composition of the marginal carburized and the remaining one is
zone. To enable the component meet the reserved as a control sample.
required demands without difficulty, the ii. Preparation of carburizing compounds
prescribed carbon penetration and case depth iii. Ce 80B was ground into a powdery form
are indispensable. and mixed with mixture of Ce Control and
covering foam in a simple and accurate
In order to control their effects, liquid proportion before transforming into liquid
carburizing (Ce – 80B) is employed [3]. form
Besides; liquid medium is considered due to iv. Liquid carburizing operating sequence
the affordability and availability of the
required facilities. a. The 12 samples of 1030 steel were
preheated in the preheating furnace @
The extent of hardening of a case is simply a temperature of 400o C for one hour.
referred to as case depth. The measured case b. The 3 samples were austenised
depth on hardened specimens, and as the total separately in each medium @
case-depth on unhardened specimens, it should temperature ranging from 800oC-950
o
be recognized that the relationship between C for a period of say three hours (1-
case depths as determined by the different 3hrs)
method can vary extensively.
v. The samples were quenched in SWQ
2.0 Materials and Methodology (Saltwater Quenching Furnace).Salt bath
@ 180oC for 5 minutes
This paper is intended to extend the arrays of vi. The samples were rinsed in hot water @
carburizers with qualitative and effective 90 oC
hardness and case depth. vii. Samples were later rinsed in cold water
viii. Tempered @ 200 oC for 1 hour
The objectives are as follows: ix. The samples were finally rust-proof in
anti-corrosion fluid
i. Carrying out performance of the solid and
liquid carburizer on the mechanical The carburized components were later
properties of 1030 steel. prepared for micro-examination by mounting,
ii. Determination of microstructure at grinding, polishing and etching microscopic
elevated temperature methods may be used for laboratory
iii. Determination of hardness value of the determination of total case and effective case-
steel component before and after depth in hardened condition.

Page 67
3.0 Micro-Examination
Microscopic examination is generally for

laboratory determination and require a
complete metallographic polish and an etch
suitable for the material and the process.
Usually, the magnification is 100x. [2,8].
However a magnification of x500 was

employed. This was to enable the contrast
(ring shape) to be visible enough under
micrography. Mounting was performed for
convenience in handling specimens of difficult
shapes or sizes for subsequent micro-
examination processes.
Fig 3. 2(b):1030 steel carburized using BC
Specimens were by compression and cold X500 mag
mounting methods. Compression mounting
involved moulding around the specimen by
using Bakelite powder. The operation requires
heat and pressure during moulding cycles.
Fig 3.2 (c):1030 Steel carburized using

WC X500 mag
Fig 3.1 Mounting press
Grinding and polishing were done by using

240 and 320 grades of emery paper. Etching
for micro-examination was carried on using
5% Nital for approximately 60 seconds @
ambient temperature. The etched specimens
were rinsed with water and dried with ethyl
alcohol.
Fig 3.2 (d):1030 Steel carburized usingCe-

80B X500mag
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a

material to permanent penetration by another
one that is harder [2,6] .This is achieved by
using diamond indenter on a Rockwell
Fig 3.2 (a):1030 Steel carburized using PK Hardness tester .This machine provides a faster
X500 mag means of reading without conversion.
Hardness Values Result
Page 68
Specimen Diameter: 25mmQ Table 3.2: Case depth Values after Solid
Carburizing using Bone Charcoal
Table 1: Composition of the Sample Specimen
(1030 Steel) Case Depth (csd)mm
Tempo
Chemical Composition, Percent 1.0hr 2.0hr 3.0hr
C
Steel 800 0.32 0.47 0.55
designation C Mn P.max S.max
AISI 850 0.48 0.56 0.68
G 0.60/ ≤ ≤ 900 0.50 0.64 0.75
1030 0.26/0.34
10300 0.90 0.040 0.050 950 0.60 0.75 0.80
Source: Special Bar Products
Table 3.3: Case depth Values after Solid
Carburizing using Palm Kernel
The hardness values were determined by
taking readings thrice for each sample at a
Case Depth(Csd)mm
time. On the Rockwell Hardness tester. Scale
C was chosen due to ease of obtaining results Tempo
1.0hr 2.0hr 3.0hr
coupled with precision and accuracy. The C
mean hardness was obtained by taking average 800 0.39 0.59 0.67
reading. This was aimed at reducing possible 850 0.52 0.64 0.78
errors. The Case-depth was measured in 900 0.59 0.71 0.93
millimeter by a gradual filing down process of 950 0.73 0.95 1.06
the ruling section.
Table 3.4: Case-Depth Values after Liquid
Table 3.1: Case depth Values after Solid Carburizing using Ce- Constant 80B
Carburizing using Wood Charcoal
Case Depth (Csd)mm
CaseDepth (Csd)mm Tempo C 1.0Hr 2.0Hr 3.0
o 800 0.17 0.24 0.29
Temp C 1.0hr 2.0hr 3.0hr
800 0.36 0.53 0.61 850 0.18 0.25 0.30
850 0.52 0.62 0.74 900 0.18 0.25 0.31
950 0.18 0.26 0.32
900 0.58 0.70 0.86
950 0.64 0.82 0.93
Table 3.5a: Stress (N/mm2) against the Strain values for WC

Strain 0.005 0.008 0.01 0.015 0.021 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.054 0.071 0.1 0.13 0.155
Stress 49 99 150 200 270 320 370 420.2 480 530 570.1 565 525
2
N/mm
Table 3.5b: Stress (N/mm2) against the Strain values for PK

Strain 0.0045 0.0074 0.007 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.12 0.15 0.2 0.225
StressN/mm2 44.5 250 240 330 410 440 480 570 589.7 610.6 600 580
Table 3.6 : Stress (N/mm2) against the Strain values for BC

Strain 0 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.008 0.01 0.02 0.027 0.06 0.075 0.1 0.13 0.15
StressN/mm2 50 100 150 200 275 310 350 374.7 420.5 445.2 420 384.3 348.7
Table 3.7: Stress (N/mm2) against the Strain values for Ce-80B
Strain 0.001 0.0015 0.0028 0.02 0.025 0.05 0.075 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.29
Stress(N/mm2) 25 70 100 220 230 340 372.1 387.4 410.3 399 370 340

Page 69
4.0 Graphical Analysis
0.9
0.8
LEGEND
0.7 3 hrs
Case-Depth (mm)
0.6 2 hrs
1 hr
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
0
Temperature ( C)
Fig I:Case-Depth Values After Solid Carburizing Using WC @

o
Various Temperature ( C)
1.2
1
LEGEND
0.8 3hr
2hr
Case-Depth (mm)
1hr
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Temperature ( 0C)
Fig II:Case-Depth Value after Solid Carburising usingl PK
0.9
0.8
LEGEND
0.7
3hr
2hr
Case-Depth (mm)
0.6
1hr
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
0
Temperature ( C)
Fig III:Case-Depth Value after Solid Carburising using BC

Page 70
0.35
0.3
0.25
Case-Depth (mm)
0.2 LEGEND
3hr
0.15 2hr
1hr
0.1
0.05
0
750 800 850 900 950 1000
Temperature (0C)
Fig IV:Case-Depth Value after Liquid Carburising using Ce-80B
Fig 4.1: Stress (N/mm2) against the Strain for

WC @ 900Oc for 3Hours Fig 4.3: Stress (N/mm2) against the Strain
@ 900OC for BC in 3 Hours
Fig 4.2: Stress (N/mm2) against the strain Fig 4.4; Stress (N/mm2) against the Strain for
Ce-80 Constant B in 3Hours
@ 900 o C for PK in 3Hours

Page 71
Generally, the process is applied to near

1.2 finished components; the processes impart a
1 high-hardness wear-resistant surface which,
0.8
with sufficient depth, can also improve fatigue
Case- 0.6
Depth(mm)0.4
strength. This formed the basis behind case-
1 depth evaluation.
0.2 3 2
0 Carburizing
WC PK 1 time)hours) 3
BC In addition, with the urge to add local content
Ce-
80B to our technology; it is hoped that Pk can be a
Carburizers
substitute for the usual carburizers that have
Fig 4.5:Comparative Analysis of WC,PK,BC,and Ce-80B betw een
1-3 hours
long been in the market.
Acknowledgement
5.0 Discussion
We acknowledge the immense assistance of
From Fig 3.2 (a,b,c,d),the microstructures the Special Bar Products for supplying the
revealed that, the hardness reduces sample composition. A special thanks goes to
progressively until it reaches the core hardness. our Technologist who helped in setting up the
This necessitated the caution for not grinding testing equipment in the Strength of Materials
the parts excessively, otherwise the resulting Laboratory, for the successful conduct of the
surface hardness and strength will be experiment. Our appreciation will be
significantly diminished. incomplete without a mention of the immense
contribution of Engr,(Dr) Omotoyinbo J.A of
However, hardness values in solid carburizing the department of Metallurgical & Materials
are high compared with the liquid carburizer. Engineering for his invaluable advice
This is evident in the microstructures on the whenever and wherever required.
case. The Volutish appearance on the case
revealed high case-depth with retrogressive
References
increase toward the core due to martens tic
formation.
1. Adegbola.A.A (2005) „‟Basic Materials,
In Fig. 1-4.4, the effect on the mechanical Propertaies and Applications‟‟ Debo print
properties vis-à-vis ,the yield strength ,ultimate (Ibadan): Primer Edition; PP58-88
tensile strength ,and the fracture strength
revealed that the tensile strength of 610.6 2. Adegbola, A. A (2004)“Performance and
N/mm2)for the PK is the highest compared to Evaluation of Different carburizing
WC,BC and Ce-80B which respectively Media-Arrhenius Approach“(A case study
imparts 570.1,445.2,and 410.3 (N/mm2). In of carburizing steel)The Engineer Vol
other words with PK as a Carburizer, will 3,No 1
enable the Carburized parts to be tough, that is,
hard case and soft core having been tempered 3. Agraval, B.K (1989)“Introduction to
to 200oC for 1 hour. Engineering Materials”Tata Mc GrawHill
Publishing Coy.Limited,New Delhi:First
This is further established from the strain Edition pp 158- 331
imposed on the material when Ce-80B is used.
PK and Ce-80B would allow a strain of 0.15 4. ASTM B 721-91 : Standard Test Method
but with PK capable of higher strength of for Micro-hardness and Case-Depth of
0.15/610.6 N/mm2 compared to Ce-80B of Powder Metallurgy(P/M)(1999)
0.15/410.3 N/mm2. Interestingly, the summary
of the performance is depicted in Histogram 5. ASTM B 934-04a : Standard Test Method
(Fig4.5), where PK records the highest value for Metallographically Estimating the
of Case-depth of 1.0mm. This comparatively observed Case-Depth of Ferrous Powder
shows the relative ease with which carbon Metallurgy9P/M) Parts Using Micro
diffuses into the part surface. indentation Hardness Measurements,(Oct
2004
6.0 Conclusion and Recommendation 6. Ede, A.J., ( 1967) “An Introduction to
heat Transfer, Principle and
Calculations” Pergraman Press Limited
Case-Hardening treatments offer a means of
first Edition PP 210
enhancing the strength and wear properties of
7. Flowes, B. A. and Mendoza, E.
parts made from relatively-inexpensive easily
(1970) “Properties of matter‟‟ John Wiley
worked materials.
Page 72
and son Limited,London,First Edition pp 290
8. Gugels, ( 1998) “Method of and Device Udpa and N Bowler(Amsterdam:IOS

for producing carbide and carbon solid Press)
solution containing surface layers” United
State patent No 5,798.002 12. Panagiotidis P P,.Antonatos A S. and
Tsananas G M (2007), “Case Depth
9. Johnson, W,, Kim S A and S. J. Norton determination by using Vickers M icro –
(2005) “ Profile of material properties in Hardness Test Method”. www.hsnt.gr, E-
Inductioned hardened steel determined mail : hsnt@hsnt.gr
through inversion of resonant acoustic
measurements” Review of Progress in 13. Rajan T.V Sharma,C.B Sharma Ashok
Quantitative NDE,vol 24B ed D (1998) “Heat Treatment Principle and
Thompson and D E Chimeenti (New Techniques” Easter Economy Edition
York,Plenum)pp1285-91 Prentice Hall of Ludia Private Limited.
10. John R Bowler ,Yongquiang Huang, 14. Rasheed Adeyinka (2004), “Effect of
Haiyan Sun ,Jonathan Brown and Nicola different Carburizing Media on the Wear
Bowler(2008), ”Alternating current resistance of 1020 Steel”. HND Thesis ,
potential –drop measurement of the depth Unpublished.
of case hardening in steel rods”. Iowa
State University ,Center for 15. Skewmam P.G(1989) “Diffusion in
Nondestructive Evaluation;Applied Solid”Mc GrawHill Book Company; New
Sciences Complex II 1915 Scholl Road York. Reprinted by the Mineral Metal and
,Ames I A 50011,USA Materials Society Warrendale P.A
11. Kai Y ,Tsuchida Y and Enokizono M 16. Datasheet for Non Heat Treaters; the
(2005). “Nondestructive evaluation of Contact Heat Treatment Association
Case hardeniung by measuring magnetic Samora-Polytechnics Inc Richmand Hill
properties Electromagnetic N.Y.
Nondestructive Evaluation(IX)”. ed; L

Page 73
The Effect of Calibration and Instrumentation on Farm Machinery
Performance
Morakinyo, T.A. and Bamgboye, A. I .

morakzotec@yahoo.co
Department of Agricultural Engineering Technology, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi. Nigeria.
Abstract
Many imported machines are being introduced into the farms in Nigeria; however, they could not be used
effectively on our soil. This is because the machineries were not designed to suit our soil texture, climatic
condition seeds sizes and topography. Due to these factors, their performance cannot be effective without
timely calibration with standardized instruments prior to field application. This study investigated the effect
of adequate calibration on farm machinery performance. A pneumatic grain planter and boom sprayer were
used for the study. Dynamic and static methods of calibrating farm machinery were adopted. Parameters
measured were the quantity of grain discharged, the distance covered and the speed. The application rate
was estimated from the values obtained during calibration process. The effects on input utilized per hectare
of land associated with capacity of herbicide sprayed and grains planted using dynamic calibration method
were compared with those quantities utilized under static calibration method. Application rate of the planter
increases with increase in the speed of the planter, a speed of 110 rev./min. was found suitable for the
planter; while a pressure of 6bar and 8bar were found suitable for the boom sprayer under static and
dynamic loading respectively. Dynamic calibration was found to be more effective and more economic
than static calibration method.
Keywords: Calibration, farm, machinery, cropping, herbicide.
Introduction
Adekoya and Buchele (1988) worked extensively
A philosopher stated that “if a little does some on punch/stick planter suitable for both tilled and
good, then a lot will really increase determined untilled soil, specifically deduced that seed-rate
out-put”. This could not be farther from the is proportional to soil dynamics. Dauda, et al.,
truth. In this regard, calibration of our farm (1988) threw more light on dark spot of
machinery with accurate instruments carried out calibration and emphatically declared that the
by using a little quantity of grain will go a long only way for uniform planting is through
way of determining the quantity and quality of accurate calibration and that it is a relevant factor
grain output. to influence crop production. Stephen and Daniel
(2008), highlighted the calibration procedures for
Calibration is a scientific technique of gauging grain dill planter. They justified calibration of
with accurate scale of reading or correlating farm machinery as the only way of eliminating
instrument generally accepted by the regulating un-uniform stand. Price et al.,(1997)
bodies for standardization. Furthermore, stated some basic fundamental procedures for an
calibration involves timely presetting of farm effective calibration of band sprayer. Others are:
machinery by carefully checking the dimensions Inman (1982). He designed and fabricated bulk
of the working components such as metering unit metering planters to achieve more accurate in
and vacuum pump pressure against deviation grain planting. Likewise other good work was
from known standard specified by the done by him to improve planter a. Singh et al
manufacturer, before engaging the machinery to 1985, manufactured a ridge planter for winter
avoid non-uniformity in grain displacement or maize, they deduced that working depth variation
rate of discharge. is inversely proportional to the amount of water
content in a soil. Finally, Copwell and Koroma,
Calibration of planter or fertilizer broadcaster is (1981) improved manual planter for Soya bean
expressed as the amount of grain or chemical and other related seeds while Kumar, et al.,
grain discharge per hectare (kg/ha) while (1986) designed and constructed grain seeder to
calibration of sprayer for herbicide application is evaluate the performance of a manually operated
expressed as the volume of chemical solution seeding attachment for animal traction.
discharged per hectare (Ltr/ha). Various research
works that have been done on calibration of farm The objective of this study is to present unique
machinery can be depicted as follows: calibration procedures that can communicate
techniques of these critical farm operations, in a
simple and direct manner to farmers appropriated
Morakinyo, T.A. and Bamgboye, A. I . The Effect of Calibration and Instrumentation on Farm Machinery Pe rformance
into our country. This will actually increase the Static Calibration Procedures
technical know-how of our agricultural
technologists, machinery operator and individual Initially manufacturer’s recommended charts
farmer at large. were used to determine seed rates with the gear-
combinations corresponding to the seed rate
Methodology specified which was 24/36 with inter-row
spacing of 8m, space within the row 0.2m and
A Gaspado Pneumatic precision planter and rate of discharge 50kg/hectare as our target. We
Cordonto Boom sprayer were selected and ran the engine of the tractor to raise the planter
mounted on Steyr tractor 780 models on 3-hitch above the ground to take the planter trailed tire
points having its pto shaft engaged to that of the circumference. The hoppers were filled with
tractor. The experiments were performed in the viable grain and delivery chutes to the coulter
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Auchi were detached, while cellophane bag was
Polytechnic, Auchi. attached to each of the metering unit.
Types of Calibration The aspirator was engaged at a low speed of

engine while the planter was raised above the
There are two major types of calibration; ground. The trailed tires were rotated manually
namely: for 20revelutions. After that the cellophane bags
were removed for measurement of grains
1. Field or dynamic calibration discharged on calibrated weighing scale, the data
2. Laboratory or static or stationary were recorded shown in table 1 At this stage, it is
calibration called un-calibrated condition because the total
sowing rate per hectare was well below the
Experiments have been carried out for dynamic manufacturer’s sowing rate.
and static methods on both planter and sprayer
by observing the following procedures after Further procedures were observed using different
certain preparations were put in place in area of gear combinations such as: 24/30, 26/30, and we
maintenance of planter and speed selection. repeated former procedures. Data collected for
both static and dynamic methods are shown as
Table 1. Descriptive statistical method was used
to analysis the data to determine percentage of
deviation from the specified rating corresponding
to the manufacturer chart and correlated to the
agronomist specification.
Computation of Parameters
Disc plate used: 50 pierced holes and of 200cm in dia.

The gear combination: Drive sprocket= 24 teeth and Driven sprocket = 36 teeth
n
wi
75.7
Average weight of seed collected = w= i 1 = 12.62g
ni 6
Average weight of seed sowed for that specified area = 6 x 12.6 = 75.72g
Circumference of the tyre = D = 22/7 x 62cm = 194.86cm
Total length of the field covered = 20 x 194.86(cm) = 3.897m
Area expected to cover = 4 x 3.897(m2) = 15.6m2
Since 1 Hectare 10,000m2 and 15.6m2 75.72g
For 10000m2, Area 10000m2/15.6m2 x 75.72/1 = 48538.5g = 48.5kg/Ha

By considering the chart, the seed rate for maize of 80cm inter-row spacing and 200mm crop stand
to each other = 50kg/Ha.
Page 75
Since 48.5kg/Ha is less than specified, then we result to gear selection to increase the seed rate by
changing 24/36 combination to 24/30 combination.
New setting
Drive Sprocket = 24teeth and Driven Sprocket = 30teeth.
n
wi
Mean = i 1 78.2 = 13.03g
ni 6
Sum of the seed weight = 78.2g and 15.6m2 = 78.2g
For 1ha of land = 10000m2/15.6m2 x 78.2/1 = 50128g = 50.1kg/ha
Field/Dynamic Calibration of Planter
The first method was to target kilogram of seed planted per hectare. But this second method was target seed
population per hectare.
The next critical procedures are:

1. Physical counting of the number of seeds per grain in batches for example 100seeds
was measured to be 15.12g.
2. We load 1kg of the same seeds inside 6 hoppers in batches and recorded as 1000g x
number of seed/grain. For 1kg 6614seeds.
3. We marked-out 100m of a distance length on our experimental field that we have
prepared for planting operation.
4. Cellophane bag was attached to each delivery tube to collect seeds.
5. Initially, we utilized the planter manufacturer’s specification to determine our gear
combination, corresponding to our seeing target.
6. We calculated the target seeding rate for an individual discharge by using these
experimental procedures.
Experimental B 1
1. A gear combination of 24/36 corresponds to 200mm row spacing was specified through
manufacturer’s chart. We need to confirm this specification before engaging our planter.
2. We selected a tractor speed of 15km/hr.
3. We engaged our planter from initial point demarcated and ran it by maintaining a constant
speed selected through a distance of 100m.
4. Area covered was calculated as (4x100)m2
5. Each cellophane bag was detached for weighing. The data collected by weighing seeds only
were recorded in table 1.
n
Average weight of seed collected = wi 1892.2 = 315.4g
i 1 ni 6
Total weight of seed for 400m2 Area = 1892g

For 10,000m2; 10,000 x 1892.2 , g = 47305g 47.3kg/ha
400
= 47305g/15.12g x 100 seeds = 312864seeds/ha
Our specified target was 50kg/hectare. The germination percentage by physical counting was 98%.
Page 76
Crop population expected = 0.98 x 330,688seedling = 324074 seedlings. We re-select another gear
combination of 24/30 to increase the discharge rate, speed of the tires was measured to be 100rpm.
With tachometer . Mathematically the new sowing rate becomes 49.03k. We measured spacing
within row to be 220mm. This is higher than the specification.
We have to repeat the calibration procedures by selecting another gear combination of 26/30. We
re-filled our hopper by 0.5kg of grain in each compartment. We ran the planter again with
cellophane bag attached to delivery tube.
The weight of seeds from individual metering unit were recorded as shown in Table 1.
n
Average weight = wi 2033.8 = 338.96
i 1 ni 6
For 400m2 = 2033.8g will be sowed.

For 10000 m2 = 10000m/400m x 2033.8 = 50.845kg/ha
The sowing rate was confirmed by direct measurement with steel-rule averagely to be 199.5mm.
This is acceptable and with germination rate percentage = 98 x 50.845kg = 49.83kg = 50kg.
100
Calibration of Boom Sprayers
The objective of calibrating boom sprayer is to convection wind force, and (vii). Climate
ensure accurate and efficient distribution of condition e.g. rainfall.
herbicides. In boom sprayers’ calibration, the
following factors influence the application rate The essence of calibration is to determine the
and the effectiveness of the application; They actual volume of chemical solution needed per
are: (i). Operating speed, (ii). Operating pressure, acre of land or hectare, at a given pressure and
(iii). Nozzle size and shape, (iv). Nozzle spacing, speed. There are several methods to measure this
(v). Height of the boom, (vi). Direction of the volume. Under this research, only two methods
will be considered.
Statical Method of Calibrating Boom Sprayers
Method A
400 liters, 3- point hitch condorto boom sprayer was used for the experiment.
Step 1:
The boom sprayer tank was filled with water, only to the level ¾ of the tank). The effective boom
width was calculated using this method below.
Vertical height of the nozzle tip to the surface ground was selected as 6m to avoid drift.
Total number of nozzles were counted to be 19 nos.
We measured nozzles inter- spacing= n = 0.50m
We set the pressure to 8bar. .
The directional valve of first link to the right hand side of boom was opened for spray.
Maximum length of the first nozzle without considering partial wetted area was measured
to be 0.6m.
The effective width of each nozzle was calculated as demonstrated below.

Page 77
0.6m
0.6m
1.2m
The effective boom width = n x 19 nozzles + 1.2 (m) = 0.5 x 19 + 1.2 (m) = 10.7m
By Candela Company Limited, Victoria Island Lagos, having a specified application rate of 200 liters/ ha
maximum. To achieve this, the following trials were done. We select tractor speed of 5km/hr regulated
through tractor speedometer. 8 bar pressure was selected as un-calibrated condition. The discharge/ nozzle
was collected using plastic jog for 60 seconds period of spraying at stationary.
Average discharge/ nozzle= 0.964 litre

For 20 nozzles in a boom = 20 x 0.964(ltr) =19.28litres
Speed selected= 5km/hr=5000/3600m/sec= 1.3m/s
The effective boom width = 10.7 m, demarcated length = 100m
Area covered = 10.7 x 100 (m2) = 1070m2.
Step 2:
We determined the amount of time needed to cover 1070m2.

Actual time to cover in 1070m2 = 100m/1.3m/s = 77 seconds
For 10,000m2 = 1 hectare: Theoretical time = 10,000/1070 x 77 = 719.6 secs
For 60 seconds, discharge capacity measured = 19.28
For 719.6 secs, Application rate = 719.6/60 x 19.28 = 231 litres/ha
This is not acceptable, because by using the same chemical ratio of 1.5 litres/ha, the concentration
will become less and this will make the application not to be effective. We maintained our speed
of 5km/hr but the pressure was reduced down to 6 bars. Nozzles of numbers 2 and 3 were replaced
to achieve a maximum 10% variation discharge in all nozzles.
These following data were collected at 60 secs by using analog stop watch as shown in table 2.
Average discharge per nozzle = 4.205/5 = 0 .841 ltr
For 20 nozzles of boom = total volume discharged in 60 secs = 0 .841 x 20 =16.82 litres
At the same speed and predetermined length of 100m, the area = 10.7 x 100(m2) = 1070 m2
For 10,000m2, theoretical time = 719.6 secs
Page 78
For experiment 2, discharge rate = 16.82 litres

For 719.6 secs = 719.6/60 x 16.82 = 201.7 litres/ha
Dynamic Method of Calibrating Boom Sprayer
The same facilities of method A were adopted the full volume of 400 litres capacity. It
for this method, and following steps were taken was found to be 18.5 litres.
for effective calibration.
Step 7: From the quantity of water used, we
Step 1: The boom sprayer tank was filled with determined the rate of application/ha,
ordinary water to the graduated mark of using this formula;
400 litres on tank.
Qh= V/Wb x L
Step 2: A demarcated distance of 100m was
measured with measuring tape. Where: Qh = application rate (litres/
ha), V = volume of water used (litres),
Step 3: The boom of the sprayer was set on the Wb = effective width of the boom, L=
starting point of 100m distance length distance demarcated (meters), From
demarcated. experimental data, application rate for
10,000m2; 18.5/10.7 x 10,000/100 value
Step 4: The speed of 5km/hr was regulated using was found to be below specified
the tractor speedometer. Directional application rate for 10,000m2.
valve was adjusted to 6 bars by opening
non- return valve through a pressure Step 8: We adjusted the pressure to 8 bars and to
gauge. increase the discharge rate, under the
same setting of speed and nozzle size to
Step 5: At the starting point of movement, as achieve the desired volume.
valves were opened and closed at the
end of 100m spraying operation. The total volume of water discharged at
the new increase in pressure was found
Step 6: The total volume of water discharged to be 21.5 litres at the end of 100m
was determined by measuring distance, mathematical computation
water used for re-filling the tank back to was done to arrive at application rate of
200.9litre/ha.
Result and Discussions
As shown in Table 1, application rate increases Boom Prayer

with speed. The speed of 110 rev./min was
attained in the planter with the rate of application As shown in Table 2, the total discharge/ha was
of 14g of grains per row. This has as saved about 231.0litres which was above the recommended
7% of the grains that would have been lost due to value for the chemical application. When the
improper setting of the machine. The same trend sprayer was calibrated by reducing the pressure
was observed in the dynamic method with higher from 8bar to 6bar, a new discharge rate of 201.7
rate of planting than in the static method. It was attained, which was closer to the
shows that dynamic method of calibration is recommended value.
more economical and effective than static
calibration method. This suggests that calibration Under the dynamic method, it was found that the
increases the performance efficiency of farm discharge rate was lower than the recommended
machinery. value when operated at static value of pressure
(6bar). Therefore increasing the pressure to 8bar
gave 200.9litres application rate which was
adequate for the work.

Page 79
Analyzing the calibration procedure on both automatically leads to low farm yields. Likewise,
planter and sprayer confirms the crucial need of from Table 2, 16% of chemical will be on waste
replacing worn - out working components that without calibration. Conclusively, dynamic
can affect their working performance. calibration is more accurate, economic and
pragmatic than static calibration method. This
The farm in-put losses that will be incurred will enhance the performance efficiency of farm
cumulatively for large hectares of land will machinery, because accuracy of farm in-put
eventually take over the profit. Considering displacement is guaranty, no need of additional
Table 1, there will be 7% of total grain seed cost of thinning down or replacement.
losses that will not be sowed. This will
Table 1: Planter Calibration Data
Static Method Dynamic Method
Un -
Un - calibrated Calibrated Calibrated
calibrated
Date of Experiment 10/04/2009 17/04/2009
Gear combination 24/36 24/30 26/30 24/36 24/30 26/30
Speed of wheel (rpm) Weight of grains/ Row (g) 80 100 110 80 100 110
12.7 13.1 14.2 318.2 328.5 340.5
12.6 13.0 14.0 316.0 326.0 338.3
12.8 13.2 14.3 320.2 333.0 345.0
12.5 12.9 13.8 314.5 324.5 336.0
12.6 13.0 14.0 315.0 325.0 337.5
12.5 12.9 13.7 312.5 323.5 336.8
Mean (g) 12.6 13.03 14.0 315.5 326.8 338.9
Summation of mean (g) 75.7 78.2 84.0 1892.0 1960.5 2033.8
Weight of grain Kg/ha 48.5 50.1 53.9 47.3 49.0 50.8
Sowing spacing Within the row (mm) 245.0 220.0 200.0 245.0 220.0 200.0
Crop density based 98% Germination rate kg/ha 47.5 49.1 52.8 46.4 48.0 50.0
Percentage of deviation from specified sowing - 5.0 -1.8 +5.6 -7.2 -4.0 0.0
rate

Page 80
Table 2: Boom Sprayer Calibration data
Static Method Dynamic Method
Un-calibrated Calibrated Un-calibrated Calibrated
Date of experiment 10/4/2009 17/4/2009
Speed of the tractor (m/s) 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3
Pressure selected (bar) 8.0 6.0 6.0 8.0
Discharge Rate/Nozzle in(lrt) 0.90 0.83 0.84 1.10
0.98 0.84 0.96 1.02
1.07 0.85 1.02 1.20
0.93 0.85 0.90 1.00
0.94 0.85 0.92 1.05
Average discharge Rate/Nozzle in (ltr) 0.96 0.84 0.93 1.07
Sum of discharge (ltr) 4.8 4.2 4.65 5.37
Total discharge/ha 231.0 201.7 172.8 200.9
Percentage of Deviation from specified Rate of discharge. 16 0.9 -14 0.5
The importance of maintaining critical If the inter-row spacing of the planter varies
dimension in field operation from that of corn- head, there will be poor
harvesting operation. This is one of the
In full mechanized farm, a critical dimension of precautions that must be adhered to while
inter- row spacing must be maintained right from calibrating the planter since the inter-row
planting to harvesting. The inter- row spacing is spacing of the corn-head head is fixed, correct
not critical in tillage operation, but in measurement should be taken to transfer the
same dimension to the planter setting.
planting and harvesting equipment must be the
same in inter- row spacing, e.g. combine Recommendation for Effective Planting
harvester. Operation
Why setting the planter during calibration, the 1. Since seed size varies from variety to
inter-row spacing dimension should be with zero variety, from year to year and from lot
tolerance and conformed to that of corn-head of to lot within a variety, seed plate must
the combine harvester. This will eventually be tested to retain the available seed
enhance the efficiency of corn- head auger in size , if not, modification must be done
picking almost all the standing cobs except those prior to field operation to avoid poor
that fell below the level of the auger. performance.

Page 81
2. An appropriate speed calibrated must be 9. Always use clean water to avoid

maintained during planting operations, contamination.
and cover your hoppers always. 10. Use correct nozzle size to achieve
3. After planting operation, left over seeds effective application.
must be totally removed to a void
corrosion of metering unit.
4. All moving parts must be lubricated Conclusion and Recommendation
appropriately to avoid wears.
5. Air leakages must be rectified before The effect of calibrating farm machinery prior to
engaging the planter.
any field operation, using appropriate
6. Correct calibrated tachometer, must be instruments and procedures had been
used to determine aspirator speed to demonstrated in this study as the most essential
void wrong selection that will operation. To achieve optimum performance of
jeopardize all efforts in calibration. our farm machinery and crop yield, calibration
7. All weighing scale, measuring cylinder, must not be neglected but regularly observed.
steel rule, calipers must be calibrated
using correct reference standard The result of our experiment shows that failure
instrument to avoid errors. to calibrate farm machinery will lead to loss of
8. The manufacturer supplied charts for farm in-put between 7-16% and consequently
setting of gears for seeding rate reduce crop yield.
adjustment are not the final commands
but a good starting point, when begins
Since calibration enhance routine repair and
the calibration process to secure maintenance, it will increase machinery
variation in seed sizes and challenges of durability, efficiency and reduce breakdown hour
soil dynamics. and cost of maintenance. In summary, dynamic
9. The actual calibrated result should be method of calibration is highly recommended for
recorded and kept for future references
all farm machinery on yearly bases and if they
to avoid repeating corrected errors.
are frequently engaged it should be done at an
interval of 50 hrs for optimum performance.
Recommendations for Effective Spraying

Operation References
1. Avoid spray drift by regulating your Adekoya A.S, And A.A. Amama. 2003. The
vertical height, so that spray droplets modification And Calibration Of A Rolling
drifting on nearly susceptible crop can Injector Planter. Journal Of West Africal
be eliminated.
Society Of Agricultural Engineers, Vol. 9
2. Do not spray in strong wind and high Pp261-266.
temperature or low humidity
3. Soil contact herbicides should be Copwell P.A. And E.V. Koroma. 1981. An
sprayed on the moist soil Improved Manual planter For Soyabean And
4. Avoid spraying target plant for Other Related Seeds. Proceeding Of
supplement when they are stressed but International Conference On Agricultural
early in the morning. Engineering And Agro-Industries In Agriculture,
5. Do not spray when weed foliage are still Asia Institute Of Technology Bangkok,
wet. Thailand, Pp 10- 13.
6. Replace worn out nozzles before
engaging in calibration.
Dauda D.Y.,O.Abdullahi And W.F. Buchele.
7. Speed and operating pressure must be
1988 .Appropriate Technology Cereal Manual
calibrated and maintained through out
Planters, Jat Jat Journal (Median Edition), Nbte
the application period.
Kaduna. Pp 50-54.
8. Consider the application rate
recommended by your manufacturer for
Kuma K. M.K Naresh. And T.P. Ojiha 1986.
an effective application.
Design, Construction And Performance Analysis
Of A Manually Operated Seeding Attachement
Page 82
For An Animal Drawn Cultivator. Agricultural

Mechanization In Asia,Africal And Latin
American. Vol. 17 No. 2.
Price T.,B. BEUMER., P.Graham. And P.

Hausler 1997. Mechinery Calidration, Boom
Sprayer, Seeder And Fertilizer Applicators.
Agriculural Extension Officers Darwin Tech.
Publications No C31 aGDEX No;740
ISSN,No:0157-8243.
Stephen E.S, And R.Ess Daniel 2008. Grain Drill

Metering Systems And The Need For
Calibdration. Purdue University, Cooperative
Extension Services , West Lafayelle Industrial
Publication. No:AY-217-W. www.ces. Purdue-
edu/extmedia /AY/AY-217-W- html).

Page 83
An Assessment of Capacity Utilization of Iron and Steel Industries in
Nigeria
1
Ghazali, .A, 1Yusuff, K. A. and 2Kareem, B.
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering. Federal University of Technology, Akure
Abstract
Having realized that per capital steel consumption is one strong index of industrialization and economic
growth, this paper has assessed the capacity utilization of Iron and Steel Industries in Nigeria. This
informed the establishment of the government owned steel plants namely: Delta Steel Company (DSC)
Aladja; Ajaokuta Steel Company (ASC), Ajaokuta and the three inland rolling steel mills at Oshogbo,
Kastina and Jos. The installed billets capacity production of DSC and ASC plants are 1.0 x 106 tonnes per
annum and 1.3 x 106 tonnes per annum respectively. The total steel rolling capacity of the five plants are
1.49 x 106 tonnes per annum, out of which the three inland rolling mills are of production capacity of 2.1 x
105 tonnes per annum each. The study involved the collection of data for assessing the capacity utilization
of these plants; and investigated the problems militating against the sector, with particular reference to
Oshogbo Steel Rolling Company (OSRC) as a case study. Findings from the study show that the peak
production was in 1985 with a total output of 488,791 tonnes per annum in which the government plants
accounted for 62.77% and the remaining 37.23% from the private sector. Also, the highest capacity
utilizations of the three inland rolling mills are 19.7% (OSRC), 33.3% (KSRC) and 30.9% (JSRC)
respectively. The paper finally revealed that the shortcomings are acute shortage of billets, in-appropriate
product-mix for downstream applications, energy problem, social-political instability, insufficient capital
and infrastructures.
Keywords: Capacity utilization, installed capacity, product-mix, rolling mills and billets.
Introduction are the transportation, printing and

machinery/equipment building industries. The
Steels are, essentially, alloys of iron and carbon, technology of Iron and Steelmaking is quite
containing up to 1.5 percent of carbon. It is made versatile such that the four major processing
by oxidizing away the impurities that are present divisions required are in themselves proliferated
in pig iron produced in the blast furnace (John, into various upstream industries. These are the
1983). Steels are broadly classified into five iron-ore mining; the pig- iron production; the
grades according to their carbon contents. These steel making and the steel rolling industries.
are: the dead mild steel (0.07 – 0.15% carbon);
mild steel (0.15 – 0.3% carbon); medium carbon These industries are well represented in Nigeria,
steel (0.3 – 0.6% carbon); high carbon steel (0.6 especially by the government owned plants.
– 0.8% carbon) and carbon tool steel (0.8 – 15% These include the National Iron-ore Mining
carbon). The pig iron is differs from steel for Company (NIOMCO), Itakpe; Ajaokuta Steel
having higher carbon contents (up to 4.5% Company (ASC), Ajaokuta; Delta Steel
carbon) and contains some impurities like Company (DSC), Ovwiam-Aladja and the three
phosphorus, silicon, sulfur and manganese. It is steel rolling mills at Oshogbo, Katsina and Jos
hard and brittle and must be shaped by casting respectively (RMRDC, 1996). The government
rather than by rolling (Walker, 1986). efforts in steel production or re-rolling of billets
are also supported by a number of private
The ability of a country to produce and use steel sectors.
has been suggested to indicate the level of her
industrialization and economic growth However, despite over 2.0 to 3.0 billion metric
(Agbonifoh, 1991). Inuwa (1988) reported a tonnes of iron-ore deposit and estimated reserve
strong correlation between per capital of about 600 million metric tonnes in Nigeria
consumption of steel and the level of economic (RMRDC MTF Report, 1989), coupled with
activities in Nigeria from 1970 to 1981 in a work about 3.4 million metric tonnes per annum of
on the Analysis of the Nigerian Steel Industry. installed rolling steel capacity production, the
The Iron and Steel products constitute major raw steel industries are yet under-developed in term
materials inputs to many downstream industries of capacity utilization. The paper therefore, seeks
such as construction, electrical/electronics, to collect data for assessing the capacity
communication, oil and energy sectors. Others utilization of steel industries in Nigeria and
Ghazali, A., Yusuff, K. A., and Kareem, B., An Assessment of Capacity Utilization of Iron and Steel Industries in Nigeria
investigate the problems militating against them carry out geological surveys, market studies
with particular reference to Oshogbo Steel metallurgical research and other related studies.
Rolling Mills, Oshogbo. This is with a view to The NSDA laid foundation for the steel plants in
propose sustainable frameworks for the revival the country before it was dissolved in 1979.
of the industries. However, the National Steel Council Decree No
69 of 1979 restructured the steel industry and the
Historical Overview of Nigeria Steel Delta Steel Company (DSC), Ovwiam-Aladja;
Industry the Ajaokuta Steel Company (ASC), Ajaokuta;
and their three inland steel rolling mills at
The plan to establish Nigeria steel industry first Oshogbo, Jos and Katsina were established.
came up in 1958, during the colonial era. This Apart from the government steel plants, there
was later undermined and waved-off on account were efforts of private investors in the steel
of propositions of inadequate financial funds, industry that predate the government owns, even
non-existent infrastructures, and manpower though, they are largely spread through the
needs. But upon independent in 1960, due to Western part of the country.
prevalent iron-ore deposits in various parts of the
country, and the plan to construct the Kanji Dam Methodology
and some other heavy structural projects
encouraged the idea of an integrated steel plant Information for this paper were collected from
(i.e. combined steel making and steel rolling the review of various journals, articles, book of
plant). records of relevant government parastatals,
textbooks, and visitations/inter-views at the plant
The period between 1960 and 1967 witnessed site of Oshogbo Steel Rolling Company (OSRC),
proposals from foreign firms. In 1963, the Oshogbo. Table 2.1 below shows the profile of
Federal Government received proposal from Steel Plants in Nigeria which reflects their
Messrs Demang of Western Germany, McKee of installed production capacities, ownership and
the United States and David Ashmore of the process of operation. Tables 2.2 and 2.3
United Kingdom. McKee recommend the use of respectively are the product-mix analysis and the
the blast furnace system while the two other production output/capacity utilization of the
suggested the direct reduction (DR) process. OSRC between 1982 and 2002. The Table in 2.4
Consequent on this in the same year, the reveals the production output/capacity utilization
government constituted the United Nigeria Iron of the government steel plants for fifteen years
and Steel Company (UNISCO) with the purpose between 1985 and 1999. The total production
of utilizing the direct reduction (DR) process. output of Steel Rolling plants, including private
However, this effort failed because it was based sector between 1985 and 1988 is shown in Table
on the use of iron-ore deposits at Agbaja and Udi 2.5.
which were later found to be unsuitable for DR
process by a Swiss firm employed for the Data Discussion
Federal Government (Agbonifoh, 1991).
The current crude steel production capacity of
Despite the disappointments from the Western the Steel Plants in Nigeria is about 2.5 million
companies, the government efforts were not metric tonnes per annum (see Table 2.1), out of
retracted. Then in 1967, a team of geological which the Ajaokuta and Delta Steel Companies
experts from the USSR disproved the prevailing account for 90.69 percent and the remaining 9.31
views of the West that Nigeria had no iron-ore percent is in the hand of private plants. The
and cokable coal suitable for steel production, as country has total installed rolling steel capacity
the Itakpe (Kogi State) iron-ore deposits were of 3.4 million metric tonnes per annum, from
found to be excellent for steel making. This which the government owned steel plants has
prompted a contract award to Techno Export of 59.63 percent. It is very evident that despite the
USSR in 1970 with the assignment to carry out trace efforts of private entrepreneur, the
further geological surveys to determine the government plants are dominant in the industries
availability in sufficient amount of various local and their performances are highly significant in
resources needed for steel production. the steel businesses.
In 1971, the Nigeria Steel Development For over two decades of production (1982-2002),
Authority (NSDA) was established with the the OSRC, Oshogbo has a total output of
objectives of planning, constructing and 323,689.30 metric tonnes as against the 4.41
operating Nigeria steel plants. It was also to
Page 85
million metric tonnes, if the plant were to be ii. In appropriate product mix to meet the
fully utilized by producing to the installed steel consumption pattern of the down
capacity of 2.1 x 106 metric tonnes per annum stream economic activities.
(Table.2.3). The capacity utilization of the iii. There was no provision for the
OSRC, Oshogbo between 1982 and 2002 (Fig production of flat/sheet products that
3.1), shows that the company attained 19.71 has immense usage in the metal
percent of the installed capacity in 1985. This fabrication shops
being the highest capacity utilization ever iv. Unreliable power supply
attained as a result of 38,000 metric tonnes of v. Lack and in-sufficient technical know-
billets received from the DSC to complement the how in the technology of iron and steel
procured 20,000 metric tonnes imported billets. making. The production technology of
steel is entirely foreign.
The capacity utilization of the government five vi. Lack of enabling infrastructures such as
steel plants between 1989 and 1999 was inland transportation, including railway,
presented in Fig 3.2. Delta Steel Company road and water.
(DSC) operates between 18.9 to 0.2 percent in vii. Political instability and inconsistent
1990 and 1999; OSRC between 19.7 to 0.2 government policies.
percent in 1985 and 1998; JSRC between 30.9 to viii. Privatization policy
less than 0.3 percent in 1985 and 1997; and ix. Inadequate funding for operational
KSRC between 33.3 to 3.0 percent in 1985 and activities, procurement of spare parts,
1998; while ASC, Ajaokuta was completely out consumables and plant maintenance.
of operation. x. Internal administrative crisis in
appointments, contract awards without
It is evident from Tables 2.2 and 2.3 that there due consideration to competency,
was design deficiencies in the product mix of the integrity and result orientation.
OSRC. By design the merchant bar production is
67.9 percent while wire-rods take 32.1 percent.
This was based on the steel consumption pattern Recommendations
of the seventies which favours structural
development projects like girders, heavy In spite of the general problems confronting the
machinery inputs to mention but a few. The iron and steel industries, the following
production of wire rod increases steadily against suggestions are being made as part of the
that of merchant bars in response to the market recommendations to revive the sector.
demand and steel consumption pattern (Fig. 3.3).
It was also reported that the necessary i. The Western experts are ill disposed to
accessories required for the production of some African independence in the iron and steel
dimensions were not supplied with the mill sector as evident in their feasibility reports,
equipment in addition to poor market demands. in order to ensure sustainable market for
This has forced the plant to suspend the their countries. Then, government should
production of products like  20 mm,  22 mm, open more bi-lateral trade agreement with
 24 mm,  25 mm,  28 mm,  32 mm and Asian and industrialized developing
countries.
 40 mm , thereby reducing the capacity ii. Government is to become more committed
utilization of the plant. to fulfill her plans to reactivate the
manufacturing sub-sectors of the steel
Factors Militating Against Full Capacity industries by completing abandoned
Utilization projects at Ajaokuta and Delta Steel plants.
iii. Due attention needs to be paid to decayed
The highlights are some of the factors militating and poor infrastructural facilities in the
against full capacity utilization of the steel country to promote industrialization.
industries in Nigeria. Transportation is a great problem to this
sector.
i. Acute shortage of raw materials in form iv. Government should hasten her plans to
of iron-ore and coke for the integrated boost and sustain improved electric energy
plants and billets for the rolling supply of the nation.
mills. v. There should be consistency in government
policies affecting the sector, in order to
promote long-term planning and
Page 86
investment, if private investors are to Way Forward. Paper presented at a

attracted. Seminar Organised by the Iron and
vi. The idea of privatizing government steel Steel Senior Staff Association of
plants cannot do the nation any good at the Nigeria at Durbar Hotel, Lagos on May
present state of our economy depression 30, 1991.
and political system, when the few
privilege individuals enjoys the nation’s ii. Central Bank of Nigeria: Annual Report
wealth. Rather, commercialization of the and Statement of Accounts (Various
plants is a viable alternative. issues 1985 – 1995), CBN, Lagos.
vii. Education and re-training of steel personnel
is better promoted and enshrine in our iii. Colin Robb (1987): Metal Data Book.
educational system and curricula. The Institute of Metals, London. 1st
Government should motivate interest in Edition
vocational and technological knowledge.
viii. The plants needs to have autonomy in their iv. Inuwa, M. M. (1988): An Assessment
administration system to promote of the Ajaokuta Steel Project. A Paper
competency and integrity. Presented at the National Institute of
Policy and Strategic Studies, Kuru on
Conclusion May 19, 1987.
No doubt, the iron and steel industries in Nigeria v. John V.B (1983): Introduction to
has performed very insignificantly in Engineering Materials. 2nd Edition,
terms of capacity utilization of the installed Macmillan Press, London.
facilities. This is on account of inconsistencies in
government policies and design technical vi. Raw Materials Research and
deficiencies at the plants. However, the paper has Development Council (1996): Report of
highlighted the problems affecting the sector and the Multi-disciplinary Task Force on
proffers useful suggestions. Base Metal, Iron and Steel and
Engineering Services Sector (RMRDC).
Acknowledgement Abuja, December Edition.
vii. Raw Materials Research and

The authors are grateful to Oshogbo Steel
Development Council (1989): Report of
Rolling Company, Oshogbo, Central Bank of
the Multi-disciplinary Task Force on
Nigeria and the National Institute of Social and
Base Metal, Iron and Steel and
Economic Research, Ibadan for providing
Engineering. Services Sector
materials for the study.
(RMRDC). Abuja.
References viii. Walker, R.D (1986): Modern Iron
Making Methods. The Institute of
i. Agbonifoh, B.A. (1991): The Relevance Metals, London. 1st Edition
of the Steel Industry in Nigeria and the

Page 87
Appendix
Table 2.1: Profile of Steel Plants in Nigeria
Crude Steel Rolling

Capacity Steel
S/No Firm/Company Location Processes Ownership
t/a Capacity t/a
1 ASC, Ajaokuta Ajaokuta 1,300,000 1,090,000 B.F Fed. Govt

2 Delta Steel Company Aladja 1,000,000 320,000 D.R Fed. Govt
3 Katsina Steel Rolling Coy (KSRC) Katsina - 210,000 R Fed. Govt
4 Jos Steel Rolling Company Jos - R Fed. Govt
210,000
(JSRC)
5 Oshogbo Steel Oshogbo - R Fed. Govt
210,000
RollingCoy(OSRC)
6 Allied Mills Onitsha - 20,000 R Private
7 Asiatic Manjarin Ind Ikeja - 60,000 R Private
8 Brollo Onitsha - 65,000 R Private
9 CISCO Ikeja 60,000 150,000 R Private
10 Continental Iron & Steel Ikeja - 90,000 EAF/R Private
11 Federated Mills Ota 40,000 140,000 EAF/R Private
12 GMS Asaba 14,000 50,000 EAF/R Private
13 Kew Metals Ikorodu - 20,000 EAF/R Private
14 Kwara Commercial Metal & Ilorin - R Private
40,000
Chemical Industry
15 Mayor Engineering Ikorodu - 228,000 R Private
16 Nigeria Spannish Engineering Kano 72,000 188,000 EAF/R Private
17 Niger Steel Enugu - 50,000 EAF/R Private
18 Qua Steel Eket - R State Govt &
100,000
Private
19 Sels Metal Ikeja - 60,000 R Private
20 Union Steel Oro - R Private
-
Ilorin
21 Universal Steel Ikeja 50,000 80,000 R Private
22 Homan Ota - 30,000 R Private
23 Hoesch Lagos - 10,000 R Private
TOTAL 2,536,000 3,421,000
Key: B.F = Blast Furnace; EAF = Electric Arc Furnace; D.R = Direct Rolling; R = Rolling
Source: Atlas of African Industry, UNIDO, 1989.
Table 2.2: Design Product-Mix Analysis of the OSRC, Oshogbo
Rod Sizes Final Rolling Speed Mill Capacity Shift Capacity Rolling Time Assigned Quantity
( mm) ( m/s) Tonnes/hour Tonnes/shift Hour (h) Tonnes
t/h t/shift T
6 61.00 41.5 232.4 278 11,550

8 45.76 55.3 309.68 197 10,920
10 29.26 55.3 309.68 247 13,650
12 20.34 55.3 309.68 560 31,290
Wire - Rod 1,288 67,410
14 12.00 44.3 248.0 171 7560
16 12.00 58.0 324.8 333 19,320
18 12.00 73.3 410.48 290 21,210
20 10.60 80.0 448.0 108 8,210
22 8.76 80.0 448.0 168 13,440
24 7.35 80.0 448.0 126 10,080
25 6.87 80.0 448.0 420 33,600
28 5.40 80.0 448.0 215 17,220

Page 88
32 4.14 80.0 448.0 90 7,220

40 2.65 80.0 448.0 55 4,410
Merchant Bar 1,976 142,590
Total 3264 210,000
Source: OSRC, Oshogbo

Page 89
A Study on Inventory Control System of typical Steel
Construction Firm
1
Oriolowo K. T., 2Oladejo K. A and 3Lateef A. A.
kolaorry@yahoo.com
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Nigeria.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
3
Mechanical and Production Section, Ladson Quarry, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Abstract
Current events confirm the vital and dynamic need for studies that embrace economics, engineering,
management, and many other disciplines to confront the difficulties encountered in converting inputs to
outputs in manufacturing outputs. This paper presents the assessment of inventory control system in a
typical steel construction firm in Ibadan, Nigeria, with a view to predict how best the inventory cost can be
reduced. Data were collected by interviewing appropriate respondents at the production, stores, transport,
purchasing, accounts, and wages sections of the firm; and relevant documents used between the year 1994
and 2000. These were tailored towards identifying the controllable variables that were later classified using
ABC Pareto analysis; implementation of an inventory model (Langrangian Multiplier) by mathematically
relating the variables to the total cost; and evaluating the optimal values of the variables and the optimal
cost of the system. The raw materials of the outfit was found to involve 88 items; which was grouped into
5, 20 and 63 items for classes A, B, and C respectively in accordance to ABC Pareto analysis. The
identified controllable variables involved premises rent, unit ordering cost, annual demand, unit space and
unit holding cost. On implementing the model, the Annual total inventory cost was found to be N61,
489:25, N30, 933:50, and N16, 807:00 for quarterly, bi-annual and annual inventory policy respectively;
while the EOQ was found to be N9, 022:13 per annum. This shows that the company’s inventory cost can
be reduced by the sum of N44, 682:25 if appropriate model is implemented. This study has revealed the
effect of implementing a standard inventory model for cost reduction in the area of material management.
Key words: Inventory control, Inventory model, Profit, Construction firm, Nigeria.
Introduction
Inventory can be defined as a means of ensuring Inventory, in a production context, is an idle

that the right material, in the right quantity, is resource. Most commonly it is production
made available at the right place at the right material inventory tools, parts, raw materials,
time. Inventories serve to decouple service office supplies, products in-process, and so forth
operations in the process of making a product (Olaniran, 1985). That the resource is idle does
and getting it to the customers (Levin et al., not mean it is serving no purpose. It is available
1993). The objective of material management when needed. It serves as an insurance policy
system is to have the right materials in the right against the unexpected breakdowns, delays, and
amount at the right place at the right time. other disturbances that could disrupt ongoing
Implementation problems arise in deciding production (Olaniyan, 2002). The idle resources
which the proper materials are, how much of can be damaged or become obsolete before it
them is needed, how to get them there, and what serves any purpose. The task is again to secure
the best time to act is. It is indeed a formidable an economic balance between the cost of loss
undertaking to make such decisions for each of and the cost of preventing it. Inventory problems
the multitude of items required to sustain are natural candidates for formal analysis. The
production facilities and to provide the inputs problem area is common to all industries, its cost
that are transformed into product outputs. The warrant detailed attention, and few intangible
functions of material management are considerations are embraced.
represented in Figure 1 (Oladejo, 2002). Each
stage is irrevocably linked to the other stages and
to the aggregate production process it serves.
Oriolowo, Oladejo, Olaniyan and Lateef. A Study on Inventory Control System of typical Steel Construction Firm
Inventory
Purchasing Control Material Handling Production
Material
Information
Fig. 1: Flow and functions involved in material management
Several studies have been carried out in this area typical steel construction firm; with the intention
of material management. The first mathematical of pursuing the following specific tasks:
model for inventory control was first published i. Study the current methods of inventory
in 1915 (the economic lot size concept). In the system in the firm.
paper presented by Tinarell (1984) in which he ii. Classifying the inventory items of the
said that Wilson (a scientist) developed it into a firm,
statistical approach to determine order points in iii. Study the raw material storage
1934. Battersby (1970) stressed the existence of requirement, and
inventory control to have been in practical iv. Development of inventory planning
application since 1920’s and 1930’s. Moreso, and control model best suited for firms
control of inventories is now very essential in all operating environment
business activities, in need of that computers,
research is now being based more on simulation. Description of Inventory Model
Groover (1987) described inventory management
in the manufacturing environment as concerned A model is a replica or abstraction of the
with keeping the investment on raw materials, essential characteristics of a process. It shows the
work in progress, finished goods, factory relationships between cause, effect, objectives
supplies and spare parts as low as possible and constraints. Problems that defy direct
without disrupting production operations or solutions because of size, complexity, or
jeopardizing customer service. Colin (1996) structure can often be assessed through model
described process of controlling inventory as a simulations as detailed in Figure 2 (Riggs, 1993).
means of ensuring that stocks are sufficient to
meet the requirements of production and sales; Inventory models quantify the relationship to
also it must avoid holding surplus stock that are identify the order size that minimizes total costs.
necessary and that increases the risk of Different model can be used to represent the
obsolesce. Ploss (1986) observed that inventory same situation because a particular model is
is of two types: those concerned primarily with constructed for a particular purpose and what is
costs and finances which describe inventory as appropriate for a particular situation may not be
an asset or cash in material form, while those appropriate for others (Arculus, 1968). Harris
involved with operations define inventory as (1915) developed a mathematical model known
materials used in the products and as a means of as classical Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)
check and balances to run the plant more model, which was modified later. Buzaccot
efficiently by keeping production at fairly level (1975) supported the classical EOQ model but he
rates and to run reasonably sized manufacturing added some cognizance factors like inflation and
lots. Any inventory can be separated into three Interest rates. He later modified it by iteration
distinct parts with specified percentages method. The inventory items that deserve the
separation means classifying of items by value most attention are determined by an ABC
tie up annually for each item one of the most analysis is concentrated, typically account for 75
applicable and effective, yet least exploited of to 80 % of the total Naira usage but only 15 – 20
the basic principle of production (Bowersox et % of the quantity volume. The effect of
al., 1986). following an ABC policy is to “buy” analysis
The global aim of this study was to design a time for the high-value items by overstocking the
suitable raw material inventory system for a low-value items. Application of the technique
Page 91
allows for concentration of efforts on the area of detailed in Table 1(Oriolowo, 2000).
highest pay-off, which is mostly the A–items as
Real World Abstract World
Problem
Data
Formulation
Manipulation
Evaluation
Prediction
Verification
Fig. 2: Pattern of model simulation
Table 1: Pareto Analysis Percentages
Class Cumulative % Quantity Cumulative % of Cost of

of Total Item Total Purchases
A 0 – 10 0 – 70
B 11 – 30 71 – 90
C 31 – 100 91 – 100
Insurance – conservative policy to

Inventory Cost Components insure goods during storage
Taxes – inventory taxes on the amount
Inventory costs composed of expenses that vary in storage at a time
directly and inversely with the size of an order.
Cost must be assigned with the size of an order. The cost components of inventory is classified as
Costs must be assigned to the diverse inventory (Tersine, 1981);
considerations to evaluate properly the merits of
opposing functions. The more relevant costs are
the following: Carrying Cost
i. Price – the unit purchase price of an item
ii. Holding Cost – This remain fixed to a This is also known as holding cost. It is the cost
certain inventory capacity and then vary incurred by the firm for carrying item(s) in
with the additional quantity stored. It varies inventory. Holding costs are normally expressed
with: on a per unit basis for some period of time, they
Storage facilities might often be referred to as annually based. The
Handling – cost of moving items total holding cost is subject to the amount of
Depreciation – change in value of an inventory on hand during the year.
item during storage
Page 92
Ordering Cost Only one deterministic model is selected for

analysis in this research.
This is the cost incurred anytime an order is
placed. It is the cost that is associated with Multiple-Item Static Model with Storage
placing order for an item. It is expressed on per Limitation
order basis, the total ordering cost is derived
from the number of orders that will be made in a The main objective in using this model is to
year. know:
i. How much of an item to order within the
Total Inventory Cost limits of specified constraints.
ii. When to place an order for an item.
The total annual inventory cost is estimated by
summing the total annual carriage cost, ordering The following assumptions were made in the
cost and purchase cost respectively. model:
i. Demand is known and constant
Inventory Model ii. Replenishment is instantaneous
iii. Quantity discount is not allowed
Inventory was categorized along two decision iv. Back order is not allowed
theories (Taha, 2006): v. There is a constraint or limitation on the
i. Deterministic models; and order quantity.
ii. Probabilistic or stochastic models. vi. No shortages are allowed.
Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) Model
C = c 1 I 1 + c2 I 2 + c3 I 3 (1)
Since shortage is not allowed,

C = c 1 I 1 + c3 I 3 (2)
q r
= c1 c3
2 q
N
qi ri
Minimize, C qi c1i c3 i (3)
i 1 2 qi
N
Subject to ai q i A (4)
i 1
The following notations were used:
C: Total Cost of Inventory

I1: Inventory Holding Cost
I2: Shortage Cost
I3: Cost of buying item
qi: Optimal quantity
ai: Unit space occupied by an item i
A: Total cubic meter of storage space
c1i: Holding cost for item i
c3i: Ordering cost for item i
λ: Langrangian multiplier
ri: Annual demand
Total inventory cost for items can be combined:

C (qi) where i = 1, 2, 3, ………n
Page 93
N
If ai q i A, we place order of qi
i 1
N
But if ai q i A, we minimize the total cost function i =1 subject to the equality constraint. The
i 1
expression for the multiple-item static model with storage limitation is derived (Taha, 2006) thus:
N
ai q i A, (5)
i 1
N
qi c3i ri
Minimize C q i ........ q N c1i
i 1 2 qi
N
Subject to: ai q i A,
i 1
qi > 0 for all i
The general solution of this problem is obtained by the Langrangian multipliers method.
Let the unconstrained value of qi be given as
2 c 3i ri
q1 (6)
c1i
Satisfies the storage constraint, the constraint is said to be inactive and may be neglected. If the constraint
is not satisfied by the values of q , it must be active. In this case, new optimal values of q i must be found
which satisfy the storage constraint in equally sense.
By formulating the Langrangian function as:
N
L , q1 , q 2 ,......... , q N C q1 , q 2 ,......... , q N ai q i A (7)
i 1
N N
qi c3i ri
c1i ai q i A (8)
i 1 2 qi i 1
Where 0 is the Langrangian multiplier. The optimum values of qi and can be found by equating 7
to zero.
Partial derivation of L with respect to qi

L c3i ri c1i
ai 0
qi q 12 2
(9)
Secondly, find partial derivatives of L with respect to

N
L
ai q i A 0
i 1
(10)
Equation (10) implies q1 must satisfy the storage constraint in equality sense. Solving (9) and (10)
simultaneously

Page 94
2 c 3i ri
q1 (11)
c1i 2 a i
The value can be found by systematic trial and error. The most negative value of gives the values of
q i which satisfy the given constraint in equality sense.
Methodology
Various techniques have been proposed by iii. Assign a number to rank the items in
different researchers for analyzing inventory order, starting with the highest Naira
systems. The Naddor’s approach with the value of annual usage,
following four steps was adopted in this study iv. List these items in ranked order and the
(Tersine, 1981): cumulative annual usage plus the
cumulative percentage calculated,
i. Determination of the properties of the v. Classification of items into A, B and C
system to ascertain the current groups by adopting the Pareto analysis
inventory control situation; percentages.
ii. Formulation of the inventory problem
to identify the variables that are The company’s total premises is 1080m2 out of
subject to control; which 720m2 is used as a workshop/storeroom
iii. Application of an inventory model by area. The remaining 360m2 consists of
mathematically relating the Administrative and Executive offices. The
controllable variables to total cost; and company uses 256m3 of its premises as a raw
iv. Determining the optimal values of the material inventory system in a crude way. The
variables and the optimal cost of the inventory policy is usually determined by
system. executive opinion, forces of demand and supply
which makes their inventory records to be
To achieve the first step, the following survey inaccurate. The major raw material for the
techniques were used: interview, record viewing, company are: 100cm X 100cm angle iron, Gauge
and plant tours. The aim of record viewing was 10 Electrode, 70cm X 70cm angle iron, Gauge
to observe preliminary inventory ordering 12 Electrode and 60cm X 60cm angle iron. 90%
policies, while plant tour and interviews were of the company’s raw materials were purchased
carried out in order to discover the nature of at Lagos on the average of once in 3 months.
operations and existing material inventory
planning and control. To identify the variables Data Collection
that are subject to control, according to Naddor,
an ABC analysis was carried out as follows: The data was obtained through interview which
was used to analyze the inventory parameters of
i. List the items, unit costs and their the company. 88 items were recorded in which
annual usage, Pareto analysis was applied which gives 5-items
ii. Multiply the unit costs by the annual as A–items as Table 2.
usage,
Table 2: Inventory items in Class-A
Annual
Cumulative Annual
Item No Material Name Demand Cumulative %
Demand (#)
(#)
1 100cm X 100cm Angle iron 5000000 5000000 9.40
2 Gauge 10 Electrode 4800000 9800000 18.50
3 70cm X 70cm Angle iron 4620000 14420000 27.20
4 Gauge 12 Electrode 3750000 18170000 34.30
5 60cm X 60cm Angle iron 3600000 21770000 41.10

Page 95
Rent Estimation
Building premises cost N3000000. The amount was depreciated form the company’s record and
charged as an annual rental rate. The rent was determined as follows:
PV: Present value = N3000000
SV: Salvage value = 15% of N3000000
= 450,000
N: Asset was assumed to have a lifespan of 20 years
Using the straight line method of Depreciation
PV SV
Dn
N
3000000 450000
Dn
20
Dn = N127500 per annum which is equivalent to the annual rental rate
Volume of storage room = 8 X 8 X 4m3
8 X 8m2 of store room is equivalent to
64
X N127500 = N7556.00 per annum.
1080
Table 3: Ordering Cost, Annual demand, Unit space of raw materials, Unit holding cost for each raw materials
c3i ri Storage ai Holding c1i

Ordering Annual space raw Unit space cost for Unit holding cost
Raw Materials cost Demand material of raw each raw for each raw
(m3) materials materials materials (N)
(m3) (N)
100cmx 100cm Angle iron 4740 1000 6.4 0.0064 230 0.23
Gauge 10 Electrode 670 6000 37.9 0.0063 1320 0.22
70cm X 70cm Angle iron 2940 2200 13.8 0.0063 484 0.22
Gauge 12 Electrode 4500 5000 31.5 0.0063 1100 0.22
60cm X 60cm Angle iron 2170 2000 12.5 0.0063 440 0.22
Inventory Model using Langrange Multiplier
2c3i ri
q (12)
c1i 2 ai
Where
q= Optimal quantity for item i
c3i = Order cost for item i
c1i = unit holding cost for item i
ri = Annual demand
ai = Unit space occupied by item i
= Langrangian Multiplier
Total available storage volume is given by A = 256m3 using equation (11), Langrangian Iteration below
was obtained:

Page 96
Table 4: Langrangian Iteration
5
q1 q2 q3 q4 q5 ai q i A
i 1
0 6420 6045 7668 14302 6281 + 1.2
– 0.1 6402 6028 7646 14261 6263 + 0.8
– 0.2 6385* 6011* 7625* 14221* 6246* – 0.3*
* optimal quantity
For A = 256m3, the storage constraint is satisfied in equality sense for some value of between – 0.1 and
– 0.2. This value is equal to and may be estimated by linear interpolation. The corresponding values of
qi should thus yield q i directly. Since from the table appears very close to – 0.2, optimal q i are given
by the table below.
Analysis of the Company’s Inventory for Raw Materials
The present inventory policy of the company shows a quarterly ordering for raw materials.
Inventory Cost = c3i D c1i Q (13)

Q 2
= 4c3i c1i D
8
Bi = annual inventory policy is obtained as 2c3i c1i D
4
Annual inventory policy is obtained as c3i c1i D
2
Annual inventory cost for an Economic order quantity as
D q
c3i c1i (14)
q 2
Q = Order quantity,
D = Demand,
c1i = Holding cost
c3i = Ordering cost
q = Optimal quantity
Table 5: Summary of the Inventory Policy
Inventory Policy Annual Total Inventory Cost (#)

Quarterly 61,489.25
Bi-annual 30,933.50
Annual 16,807.00
Annual Economic Order Quantity (Proposed) 9,022.13
Result and Discussion considering the most “vital few” of the raw
materials: 100cm X 100cm Angle iron, Gauge 10
The annual data of the company was used for Electrode, 70cm X 70cm angle iron, Gauge 12
analysis and useful results were discussed. The Electrode, 60cm X 60cm Angle iron constitute
rent constitutes 87% of the estimated total 2.5%, 14.8%, 5.4%, 12.3%, 4.9% of total space
holding costs. The storage capacity for raw capacity respectively.
materials was estimated at 256m3. By
Page 97
From the table 5, quarterly inventory policy cost Bowersox, D. J., Closs D. J. and Helferich, O. K.
N61489.25 per annum. The ordering cost (1986), “Logistical Management”,
constitutes 97.7% of the total inventory cost Macmillan, New York.
while holding cost constitutes 2.3% of the total
inventory cost. The annual cost for a bi-annual Buzaccott, J. A.(1975), “EOQ with Inflation”,
inventory policy is N30933.50 per annum, the Operations Research, Vol. 26, No. 3,
ordering cost was 97.1% of the total inventory
cost while the holding cost was 2.9% of the total Colin (1996). Management and Cost
inventory cost under the bi-annual inventory Accounting, Prentice Hall of India Private
policy. For the annual policy, the total inventory Limited, 3rd edition, New Delhi.
cost was N16807.00 per annum. The ordering
cost was estimated as 89.4% of the total Groover, P.M. (1987); “Computer
inventory cost while the holding cost was also Manufacturing Planning System,
estimated at 10.6% of the total inventory cost. Automation and Production Systems,
The annual cost of inventory for an economic Prentice Hall International Inc. USA.
order quantity was put at N9022.13 per annum.
The ordering cost was estimated as 50.30%, and Levin, R.I., Rubin, D.S. and Gardner, E.S. Jnr.
holding cost was estimated as 49.7% of the total (1993). Quantitative Approaches to
inventory cost. Management, 7th edition, McGraw Hill,
New York.
From the research work, it was discovered that
the model used is feasible with the inventory Oladejo K. A. (2002), “Material and Inventory
system of the company. The survey shows that a Management”, Paper presented at a
minimum of one week is required to order and Workshop organized by ARCEDEM,
receive raw materials. Ibadan.
Conclusion Olaniran, T.K. (1985). Investigation of

It was observed that the company adopted no Production Inventory Systems in selected
scientific inventory control procedures. The local production companies, Unpublished
results of this work show that: M.Sc Thesis, Industrial and Production
Engineering Department, University of
i. The model used is feasible with the Ibadan, Nigeria.
inventory system of the company;
ii. The present quarterly ordering policy is Olaniyan A. (2002), “Stores and Inventory
not the best in the circumstances; Control”, Paper presented at a workshop
iii. An annual ordering policy is to be organized by ARCEDEM, Ibadan.
preferred. This leads to a savings of
N44,682.25 per annum which is Oriolowo K. T. (2000), “The Multiple Items
estimated to be 72.6% reduction in Storage Constraint Inventory Model: The
inventory cost over the present policy; Case with Construction Firm”,
and Unpublished B.Sc. Thesis, Department of
iv. If the proposed model is adopted, the Industrial and Production Engineering,
company will save N52,467.12 University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
(85.30%) per annum.
Ploss, W.G. (1986). Production and Inventory
References Control, “Principles and Techniques”,
Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, 2 nd
edition, New Delhi.
Arculus, R.G., (1968), “Inventory Control: A
Practical Approach Management in
Riggs J. L., (1993), “Production Systems:
Nigeria”, Vol. 3, No. 5
Planning, Analysis, and Control”, John
Wiley and Sons, New York, 4th Edition.
Battersby, A. (1970), “A Guide to Stock
Control”, 2nd edition, Pitman Publishing,
Schall, S. and Chandra, J., (1989), “A Multiple
London.
Product Inventory Policies with Unit Load
and Storage space considerations”,
Engineering Costs and Production
Economics, Vol. 16, pp 245-246.
Page 98
Taha, A. H., (2006), “An Operation Research: Elsevier Publishing Company, 2nd
An Introduction”, Prentice Hall of India, edition, New York.
8th Edition, New Delhi.
Tinarelli, G.U., (1984), “Inventory Control
Tersine, R.J. (1981). Principles of Inventory and Models and Problems”, European Journal
Materials Management, American of Operational Research Vol. 16, pp 310-
312.

Page 99
Effective Line Balancing Activities in Coca-Cola Production
1
Okunlola G.S and 2Adeniyi E.K.
1
Ogunsanya Girl’s Science Academy, kIlometre 9.5 Arorokole, Ojoo-Arulogun Road, Ibadan
2
Technical Education Department. Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, Oyo, Lanlate Campus
Abstract
Longest Operating Time heuristics were used to analyze production activities of the Nigeria Bottling
Company. It takes 14479 seconds to produce one crate of 35cl bottle of Coca Cola. The plant has a
maximum daily output of 557 bottles (i.e. 23 crates and 5 bottles). The labour utilization efficiency is
43% and the daily idle time is 122.5 hours. Also, it consists of 9 workstations, 12 workers and 20 work
elements. As a result of line balancing, the amount of product produced per day remains the same;
labour utilization efficiency increased from 43.3% to 97.4%; and daily idle time reduced from 122.5 to
2.5 hours. The number of workstations reduced from 9 to 4 workstations and the number of workers
reduced from 12 workers to 11 workers. Consequently, the same product is produced at less cost.
Keywords: Line Balancing, Product-quality, Labour-Utilization and Idle time.
Introduction workstations. This study adopted the Type I

problem.
Nowadays companies around the world are
producing high quality products to sell them at Optimum balancing of production line usually
the lowest price possible. This is not because leads to increase in production of the company.
they do not want to earn more money through Productivity is defined as a measure of
the sales of products. It is because they are effectiveness, a ratio between output and input.
facing the necessity of increasing their The input or work content means the amount
participation in the market because of the work “contained” in a given product or
competition also are selling products with high process measured in man-hours or machine-
quality at the lowest price possible (Milas, hours. Output, input and work content are
1990). measurable by work study.
There are several techniques to continuously Work study can be defined as a term used to
improve quality and reduce operation costs. embrace the technique of method study and
One of these techniques is called line work measurements which are employed to
balancing. The line balancing problem consists ensure the best possible use of human and
of assigning approximately the same amount material resources in carrying out specific
of work to each workstation (worker) in an activities (ILO, 1979). Method study is
assembly (or production) line. Line balancing concerned with the reduction of work content
involves selecting the appropriate combination of the operation, while work measurement is
of tasks to be performed at each workstation so concerned with the investigation and reduction
that the work is performed in a feasible of ineffective time and the subsequent
sequence and approximately equal amounts of establishment of time standards for the
time are required at each of the workstations operation on the basis of the work content as
(Heizer and Barry, 1988). established by the method study.
Assembly line exists when we assemble or In this study, work measurement is used to
handle any device or product in a planned, determine the balance delay of the assembly
sequential manner with two or more operators lines which shows the degree of idle times and
performing tasks of repetitive work at finally the balancing of the lines to minimize
established workstations (Milas, 1990). When idle time.
the products have many operations and the
demand is high the process of balancing the This study covers the components of
line becomes more and more difficult. There production lines of Coca Cola Produced,
are two types of optimization problems for the Nigerian Bottling Company Plc, Owerri plant.
line-balancing problem (Ajenblit, 1998). In Based on this the overall objective of the study
type I problem, the cycle – time (Maximum is to optimize line capacity by minimizing both
amount of time units that can be spent at each labour and idle times on production line. The
workstation) is fixed and the objective is to specific objectives are:
minimize the required number of workstations. i. To minimize the number of workstations
The Type II attempts to minimize the ii. To minimize balance loss (idle time)
maximum cycle-time given a fixed number of iii. To distribute balance loss evenly
between stations
Okunlola, G.S and Adeniyi, E.K Effective Line Balancing Activities in Coca-Cola Production
v. Number of workers per stations

Research Methodology
Ten cycles were observed in the industry and
In Nigeria Bottling Company Plc, the existing the results are tabulated in Table 1 which
numbers of workstations, cycle time and idle shows the study summary sheet for Coca Cola
time were identified and observed. A new production line. It takes 680368 seconds to
number of workstations was calculated after produce one pallet. This means, a crate, which
which the production line was balanced to contains 24 bottles, is produced in 14479
minimize idle time and labour and to ensure seconds. Task 10 is the bottleneck operation
maximum profit. and its task time of 3717 seconds is the cycle
time.
Results and Discussions
The precedence diagram of the production line
is shown in Figure 1. The results of observed
Data were collected from the industries. The
data are listed in Table 2. Task number 10 has
collected datas includes:
a task time of 3717 seconds giving us a
i. Rating factor
production rate of 23.2 crates which is
ii. Observed time
calculated as shown below.
iii. Work elements (tasks)
iv. Number of workstations
Maximum daily output = Available time per day (second)/Cycle time required per crate
= 86400/3717 = 23.2 Crates
The production line is operational for 24 hours

daily. From the above calculation, the From Table 3, labour utilization effectiveness
maximum daily output of the company is 23 is 43.3% and the idle time is 56.7% of the
crates 5 bottles (i.e 577 bottles). Labour available time per cycle. The idle time per day
utilization effectiveness is calculated as shown is calculated as follows.
in Table 3.
Idle time per day = idle time/cycle x available time/day

Cycle time (One hour in seconds)
= (18974) x (86400 ÷ 3717)/60 x 60

= 440955.76/3600 = 122.5 hours
Although there are many heuristic rules in workstations. In an attempt to balance the line,
balancing assembly line, longest operation the new number of workstations is calculated
time is used to balance the production line. as follows:
Originally, the production line has 9
Theoretical minimum = Total work desire number

Number of workstation Content of unit per day
Total productive time available per day
Total time Desire number of

= per cycle unit per day
Available time per day
= 14479 x 23.2/86400 = 3.89 = 4 stations
To balance the production line, the tasks or The performance times assigned to each
elements would be assigned to at least 4 station cannot exceed 3717 seconds cycle time.
workstations following the precedence The result is shown in Table 4.
relationship of the elements.
To minimize idle time, the line should now
have 4 workstations and 10 workers instead of
the former 9 workstations and 11 workers. The

Page 101
new labour utilization effectiveness is 97.4% while the idle time per cycle is 2.6% of
calculated in Table 5. According to Table 5, the available time per cycle. The idle time is
the new labour utilization effectiveness is calculated as follows:
New idle time = (idle time/cycle) x (available time/day ÷ cycle time)

Per day one hour
= (389) x (86400 ÷ 3717)/ 60 x 60
= 389 x 23.24/3600 = 2.5 hours
The new idle time per day is 2.5 hours compared to the former 122.5 hours.
In summary, to minimize idle time Coca Cola output remains the same but the number of
production line should have 4 workstations and workstation was reduced from 9 to 4
10 workers instead of the current 9 workstations and the number of workers
workstations and 11 workers. It was reduced from 12 workers to 11 workers
discovered that the worker responsible for task including a supervisor. Hence the same amount
4 could also take care of task 5. This led to the of product is produced at less cost.
reduction of workers from 11 to 10 workers.
As a result of this, the labour utilization
increased from 43.3% to 97.4% and the idle Recommendation
time reduced from 56.7% to 2.6%.
consequently, daily labour hour idle reduced On Coca Cola production line, it was
from 122.5 hours to 2.5 hours. discovered that there is a bottleneck at task 10
and also the washing machine in task 9 is slow.
In this case, the company should create three
Conclusion or more pathways linking washed bottled to
empty inspection light and the slow washing
The industry used for this study did not make machine should be replaced with new and
any existing precedence diagrams or definite faster one.
information on cycle time available. The cycle
time used and the precedence diagram were
based on the result of this study. References
1. Ajenblit, D.A. (1992) “Applying
Normally, it took 14479 seconds for Nigeria
Genetic Algorithms to the U-shaped.
Bottling Company Plc, Owerri Plant to
Assembly Line Balancing Problem”
produce one crate of 35cl bottles of Coca Cola.
Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on
The maximum daily output of the company is
Evolutionary Computation pp.96 – 101
557 bottles (i.es 23 crates and 5 bottles) and
2. Heizer, J. and Barry, R. (1988),
the production line runs 24 hours daily.
Production and Operation Management,
Allyn and Bacon Inc. Massachusets.
Also the production line is made up of 9
3. International Labour Office (1979),
workstations and 12 workers including one
Introduction to Work Study, (3rd ed.)
supervisor. Before optimum line balancing, the
ILO Press, Geneva.
line was not efficient. The labour utilization
4. Milas, G.H. (1990) “Assembly Line
was 43.3% and the daily idle time was 122.5
Balancing: Let’s Remove the Mystery”,
hours. As a result of optimum line balancing,
Industrial Engineering, Vol. 22 No 5,
labour utilization efficiency increased from
pp. 31 – 36.
43.3% to 97.4% and daily idle time reduced
from 122.5 hours to 2.5 hours. Although the

Page 102
Appendix
Table 1: Study Summary Sheet for Coca Cola Production Line
Allowance (Sec)
Task or Basic Fatigues Personal Standard Time Standard Time
Frequency
Element Time (sec) (4%) Need (6%) per Pallet (Sec) per Crate (Sec)
1 1/1 181 7.24 10.86 199 4
2 1/1 292 11.68 17.52 321 7
3 1/1 1469 58.76 88.14 1616 34
4 1/1 130 5.20 7.80 143 3
5 1/1 6438 257.52 386.28 7082 148
6 1/1 37324 1492.96 2239.44 39564 824
7 1/1 8058 322.32 483.48 8864 185
8 1/1 27279 1091.16 1636.74 30007 625
9 1/1 63080 2523.20 3784.80 69388 1446
10 1/1 162203 6488.12 9732.18 178423 3717
11 1/1 69o11 276.44 414.66 7602 158
12 1/1 70965 2838.60 4257.90 78062 1626
13 1/1 11520 460.80 69o1.20 12672 264
14 1/1 62210 2488.40 3732.60 68431 1426
15 1/1 5760 230.40 345.60 6336 132
16 1/1 148263 5930.52 8895.78 163089 3398
17 1/1 5400 216.00 324.00 5940 124
18 1/1 1729 69.16 103.74 190o2 40
19 1/1 561 22.44 33.66 617 12
20 1/1 100 4.00 6.00 110 2
Total 680368 14479
Table 2: Assignment of task to workstations in Coca Cola Production line

Number of Task or work Task times Time per Idle time per
Work Station
Workers element (sec) station (sec) station (sec)
1
199
2
7 206 3511
3
1 2 34
2 1 4 3 37 3680
6 824
1 1009 2708
3 7 185
8 625
1
4 9 1446 2071 1646
5 1 10 3717 3717 0
11 158
12 1626
6 1 13 264 2048 1669
14 1426
1
7 15 132 1558 2159
16 3398
17 124
8 2 5 148 3670 47
18 40
18 13
9 1 20 110 163 3554
TOTAL 11 14479 18974

Page 103
Table 3: Labour utilization effectiveness for Coca Cola production line
Stations Total
Utilization of
time per
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 employee
cycle
(efficiency)
(sec)
Productive time 14479 x 100
(Task time) 33453
206 37 1009 2017 3717 2048 1558 3670 163 14479.
expended each = 43.3%
cycle
Available
371
employee time 3717 3717 3717 3717 3717 3717 3717 3717 33453 -
7
(cycle time)
18974 x 100
Idle time each 368
3511 2608 1646 0 1669 2159 47 3554 18974 33453
cycle 0
= 56.7%
Table 4: New task workstation assignment in Coca Cola production line
Number of Task or Time per Idle time per

Work station Task time (sec)
workers element station (sec) station (sec)
1 199
2 7
3 34
4 3
5 148
6 824
7 185
8 625
1 4 9 1446 3471 246
2 1 10 3717 3717 0
11 158
12 1626
13 264
3 2 14 1426 3606 111
15 132
16 3398
17 124
18 40
19 13
4 3 20 110 3685 32
TOTAL 10 14479 389
Table 5: New labour utilization effectiveness for Coca Cola production line
Station Total time Utilization of

per cycle employee
1 2 3 4
(sec) (efficiency)
Productive 1449 x 100
time (task 14868
time) 3471 3717 3606 3606 14479
expended = 97.4%
each cycle
Available
employee
3717 3717 3717 3717 14868 -
time (cycle
time
Idle time each 389 x 100
cycle 245 0 111 32 389 14868
= 2.6%

Page 104
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
6 5
2
Fig. 1: Precedence diagram of Coca Cola production line
1

Page 105
Application of Fluidization Technique in Designing Batch Dryer for
Agricultural Products
Adeaga, O. A., Adesina, A. B and J.O. Oyetoso

adeagaoye@yahoo.com
Department of Mechanical Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan.
Abstract
An attempt has been made to employ the fluidization technique in designing and fabricating a drier that can
effectively replace the crude, inefficient and strenuous method of frying /drying some agricultural produce
like cassava flour (Gari). The drier can be called Fluidized Bed Batch drier. The design of integral parts of
the fluidized bed batch drier was presented. Such integral parts include fluidizing column, air heater,
blower, etc. Various parameters were also determined as these would be extensively useful in the
evaluation of the performance of the system after fabrication. These parameters include pressure drop
across the fluidized bed, pressure drop across the distributor plate, number of orifices required for the
distributor pressure, power rating of the heating element, pressure drop across air heater, speed of blower,
e.t.c. The device set-up was also presented in other to ease fabrication.
Keywords: Fluidization, Cassava Flour, Fluidized Bed, Pressure Drop and Orifices
Introduction
Fluidization was discovered out of the need to Description of fluidizing systems and its
improve the fired cracking process of petroleum basic components
in order in order to meet the tremendous demand Heated air is blown upwards through a bed of the
for gasoline arising from World War II [4]. particulate to be dried.. The gas is distributed
Commercially, a fluidized bed was employed in evenly through small orifices supporting the
1942 by Humble Oil and refining Company in material at a rate sufficiently high as to give the
the catalytic cracking process of petroleum. appearance of a vigorously boiling bed [7].
Since then, catalytic cracking by fluidization
technique has become a common method in the At the top of the bed, there is disengagement
petroleum industry. space (height), in which all, but the smallest
entrained particles can settle out and fall back to
In recent past, the technique has been applied to the bed. In some designs of dryer, the upper
drying, roasting and freezing of food to the section of the dryer (disengagement height) is
disposal of radio-active wastes, cleansing and expanded to a greater cross-sectional area than
classification of foundry sands, production of that of the fluidized bed [7]. The drying gas (air)
chemicals such as uranium, hexafluoride, leaves through some form of the arrestor, such as
calcium carbide and sulphur- dioxide and to the the cyclone. The collected fires can be returned
preparation of high performance composite to the bed or incorporated into the wet feed or
material such as iron – alumina systems etc[7]. conveyed to the outlet, if sufficiently dried.
Fluidized dryer for batch operations are
A fluidized bed can be described as a system synonymous to their continuous counterparts
containing solid or moistened particles, through except for the addition of discharge ports at the
which a gas flows with a velocity higher than the base of the bed (a dished distributor with a
incipient fluidizing velocity, but lower than the central discharge pipe is convenient).
entrainment velocity [2]. It is apparently not
impossible to achieve very efficient heat transfer Fluidized Bed Batch Gari Dryer
between the individual particles to be dried and The system is mainly of two parts. These parts
the drying air, since there is a very intimate are;
contact between the powdery or granular (i) The fluidizing column/unit
material and the fluidizing gas. This intimate (ii) The air handling compartment i.e.
contact makes it possible to dry even very the blower, electric
sensitive materials without the danger of large heater/combustion chamber.
temperature differentials [2].
Adeaga, Adesina and Oyetoso Application of Fluidization Technique in Designing Batch Dryer for Agricultural Products
Design parameters
Size Distribution of wet (moistened) Gari, Dp = 456.296 x 10-6

Bulk density of wet gari, ρp = 1898.0488kg/m3
Voidage, є = 0.385
Archimedes number, Ar = 633119.09
Minimum fluidization velocity, Umf = 0.434m/s
Particle terminal velocity, Vt = 4.318m/s
Reynolds Number Velocity, Ret = 1296.689
Drag coefficient velocity, Cd = 0.5021
Average expanded bed depth H = 0.3020m
Transport Disengagement height, TDH = 1.5536m
Equivalent volume diameter at bed surface, Deq = 0.1208m
Safe drying temperature range of Gari, Fg = 56.5oC – 57oC
Cyclone diameter, Dc = 0.14m
Cyclone air inlet velocity, Vc = 27m/s
Cyclone pressure drop, ΔPc = 874.77 N/m2
Bed height, HB = 1.74m
Blower shaft diameter, DSb = 30mm
Designing a fluidizing column
In doing this, the under-listed assumptions were made

1. Gari particles are tiny and spherical
2. The design is for 25kg of moistened moistened cassava chips(maximum)
3. Column diameter is 0.4m
4. Wire net (gas distributor) is of 0.2 cm by 0.2 cm square holes.
Determination of pressure drop across the Bed (ΔPB)
ΔPB = (1 – є ) (ρp – ρg) g hmf [3]

ρp = ρg / RTg = Mass, M/Volume, V
Therefore, V = M/ ρp = πr2hmf (Sphere)
hence, hmf = M/ πr2ρp

hmf = 25/( π(0.2)2x(1898.0488))
hmf = 0.1048 m
Let Tg = 57oC = 57 + 273 = 330K
While R = 287J/kgK and g = 9.81m/s2
The fluidizing gas (air) enters the bed at a pressure much higher than the atmospheric pressure, ρgRT = aP
where “a” is a constant whose value depends on the gas (air) pressure. By assumption “a” = 1.03 for this
situation;
ρa = ρg = a P/ RT
ρa = ρg = (1.03 x 1.01325 x 105)/ (287 x 330)
ρa = ρg = 1.1019kg/m3.
ΔPB = (1 – 0.385) (1898.0488 – 1.1019) (9.81) (0.1048)

ΔPB = 1199.39 N/m²

Page 107
ΔPB ≈ 1200 N/m²
Determination of pressure drop across distribution plate ΔP D
. . ΔPD/ ΔPB = 0.01 + 0.2 1 – exp -0.4/2 (1.74) [3]
= 0.031716.
ΔPD = 0.031716 x ΔPB
ΔPD = 38.04 N/m²
. . ΔPD ≈ 38 N/m²
Determination of number of orifices required to achieve this distributor pressure drop
Mmf = ρgABUmf
ρg = 1.1019kg/m²
AB = cross-sectional area of bed πD²/4
= π x 0.4²/4
= 0.125 m2.
and Umf = 0.4347 m/s
Mmf = 1.1019 x 0.1257 x 0.4347
= 0.0602 kg/s.
The density of gas in window box ρgω is obtained by:
ρgω = 1199.39/ (287 x 330)
ρgω = 0.01266kg/m2
Velocity of gas in window box, Uw is given by
Uw = Mmf / ρgωAB = 0.0602/(0.01266 x 0.1257)

Uw = 37.83 m/s
Uw = 38m/s.
The fractional open area of distributor,
For = Uw √ ρgω/ Cd √(2ΔPD) [3]
For = 37.83 x √(0.01266)/ 0.6 x √(2 x 38.04)
For = 0.8133.

Page 108
Ratio of centre to centre hole spacing “C” to the diameter of orifice D or is given
S/ D = 0.9523/√For
Since, S = 1.056 Dor
Dor = √(0.022 x 4)
√π
= 2.256756 x 10-3 m
. . S = 1.056 x 2.256756 x 10 -3 m
= 0.2383 m.
The distributor circumference = πD
= π x 0.4 = 1.2567
If the distributor has a square form, the length of each side is given by
Length of side = distributor circumference/4 = πD/4
L = 1.2567/4
L = 0.3142 m.
From the above figure,
Length of side = NDor + N(S – Dor) [3]

= N (Dor + S – Dor)
= NS
Where N is the Number of orifices per side.
.˙. N= length of side/S
= 0.3142/0.002383
= 131.85
N = 132.

Page 109
The total number of orifices shall be N² (square shape)
.˙. N² = 132²
= 17,424.
This means that 17,424 orifices are required on the distributor.
Air Heater design
Determination of the Power Rating of the Heating Element

Assumptions.
i. The source of heating shall be electric current.

ii. The heater shall be of coil type.
The heating element is expected to raise the temperature of 0.0602kg/s of air from 25ºC (room
temperature) to 57ºC (safe drying temperature).
The heat, H required per second = Mmf . C. Δθ
and Mmf = 0.0602kg/s
C = Specific Heat Capacity of Air = 1.006kJ/kg.K
Δθ = (57 – 25) ºC = 32ºC
H = 0.0602 x 1006 x 32 = 1937.96 J/s = 1937.96W
.˙. H ≈ 2000 Watts.
Hence, a heater of 2000W = 2KW is required.
Determination of the Power Rating of the Heating Element
ΔPAh = 1 - A2 ² V² ρg [3]
A1 2
A2 = πD² = π x 0.3175² = 7.917 x 10-4 m²

4 4
A1 = LxL = L² = 0.2 x 0.2 = 0.04 m²
V = 4 Mmf = 0.0602
ρg A2 1.1019 x 7.9173 x 10 -4
V = 69m/s
. ˙ . ΔPAh = 1 - 7.9173 x 10-4 ² (69)² x ρ x 9.81

0.04 2
. ˙ . ΔPAh = 2520.3 N/m²

Page 110
Determination of pressure drop in the pipe after heating ΔP P
Re = 4 Mmf [3]
πDµ
Re = 4 x 0.0602
π x 0.03175 x 1.84 x 10-6
Re = 1.312 x 106
The „Re‟ value ascertained the turbulent nature of the flow through the pipe.
. ˙ . ΔPP = F(L/D)V²ρ g [3]

2
F = Friction factor whose value depends on the mean roughness of the pipe and it is
assumed to be 0.048.
L = Length of the pipe (between air-heater box and the fluidizing column) = 0.2m
. ˙ . ΔPp = 0.048 (0.2/0.03175)(69)² x 1.1019

2
ΔPp = 793.12N/m².
Therefore, the total pressure drop ΔP T in the entire dryer is given by the equation
ΔPT = ΔPAh + ΔPB + ΔPC + ΔPD + ΔPP
= 2520.3 + 1199.39 + 874.77 + 38.04 + 793.12
ΔPT = 5425.62 N/m² ≈ 5430 N/m2.
Blower Design
The following assumptions were made
i. Centrifugal type blower of eight (8) backward facing impellers
ii. Involutes type of diameter , D C = 326mm
iii. Impeller of 1.0mm thick mild steel with outlet angle of 40º.
iv. Peripheral diameter of impeller DP = 290mm
v. Radial length of impeller, Lr = 60mm
vi. Impeller with unit width

Page 111
vii. Outlet dimensions, Ld x Wd = 163 x 124mm
viii. Inlet diameter of Do = 134mm.
Determination of the speed of the blower N
Q = Mmf [3]
ρ2
Q = Volume flow rate of air = 0.0602

1.21
But, Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2
A1 = inlet area = 1.21 m²
V1 = inlet velocity
. ˙ .V1 = 4 x 0.0498
Π (0.134)²(1.21)
V1 = 3.53m/s.
To compensate for any constructional/inherent loss (es), V1 = 5m/s,
N = 60V1
π Lo
Nf = 60 x 5
π x 0.134
= 712.6 rpm.
Determination of the diameter of the pulley on the blower shaft
Recall, N f/ N m = D1/ D2
Where,
N1 = speed of the blower = 712.6rpm
Nm = motor speed = 1420 rpm
D1 = diameter of the pulley on the motor shaft = 80mm
D2 = diameter of the pulley on the blower shaft = ?
.˙. D2 = D 1 . Nm/ Nf = 80 x 1420/712.6
= 159.4 mm ≈ 160 mm.

Page 112
Determination of the centre distance between the two pulleys
For normal centre-to-centre distance
D2 ≤ C ≤ 3 (D1 + D2) [5]
. ˙ . 6.28 ≤ C ≤ 3(3.15 + 6.28)
6.28 < C < 28.29
23 inches is chosen for C and hence, the belt length, L is obtained by
L = 2C + 1.57(D1 +D2 + (D1+D2)2 [5]

4C
L = 2(23) +157(3.15+6.28) + (6.28 - 3.15)2

4 x 23
L = 60.9 inches
A 61 V-belt is selected.
The actual centre distance, C is given by,
C= B + √ B2 - 32(D2 -D1)2 [6]

16
Where
B = 4L - 6.28(D2 + D1)
= 4L x 61 - 6.28(6.28 + 3.15)
B = 184.78 in
Substituting for B
C = 184.78 + √184.782 - 32(6.28 -3.15)2

16
C = 23.04 in the pitch length of the belt = Lp =L + D
Where
D = 1.3
Lp = 61 + 1.3
= 62.3 in
= 1.582 m.
Determination of the Power required to drive the Blower shaft
Applying the expression,
PT = P1 + P2
Where, P1 = 2 Π Nf Ts / 60
[5]
Where P1 = Power required to rotate the blades and,
Ts = Torque required by the blades = WD2/ 2
For W =Total load on the shaft

Page 113
=Weight of impellers + pulley weight

=9.5N + 5.3N
= 14.8 N
Ts = 14.8 X 0.1594/2
Ts = 1.18 Nm
Therefore, P = 2 712.6 x 1.18/60

P1 = 88.055 W
= 0.088055 KW
For P2 = Power required to overcome pressure losses
P2 = Q (P2-P1) + MV2/2 [6]

P2 = Q (∆PT) + MV2/2
P2 = 0.0498(5425.62) + 0.0602 X 52/ 2
P2 = 270.20 + 0.7525
P2 = 270.95W
= 0.27KW
PT = P1 + P2
PT = (0.08805 + 0.27)
PT = 0.359KW
PT = (0.359/0.746) h.p
PT = 0.48 h.p ≈ 0.5 h.p
An electric motor of 1h.p was recommended in order to account for power requirements to the high side.
Determination of Pressure/Head of the Blower

From Euler's equation,
g H = U2Vt2 - U1Vt1 [7]
Where
U2= Outlet velocity, Vt2 = Tangential component of the velocity at outlet,
Vt1=Tangential component of the velocity at inlet,
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81m/s2 H = pressure/head
Assuming no whirl, Vt1 = 0.

g H = U2Vt2
U2 = ΠDpNf / 60
U2 = Π x 0.290 X 712.6 /60
= 10.82 m/s
Vt2 = U2 - VR2 Cot β2

VR2 = Radial component of the velocity at outlet
β2 = Blade outlet angle,

VR2 = Q/ Π (Deq)b
Deq = Equivalent diameter of the blower outlet and b = impeller width

Deq = √4A2/ Π
A2 = outlet area of the blower

= 0.163 x 0.124

Page 114
= 0.124 = 0.020212 m2
Deq = √4 x 0.020212/ Π
= 0.1604 m
VR2 = 0.0498/ Π(0.1604)(0.095)

= 1.0403 m/s
Vt2 = U2 - VR2 Cot β2

= 10.82 – 1.0403 Cot 400
= 10.82 – 1.0403(1.192)
= 9.58 m/s.
Therefore, H = U2Vt2/g
H = 10.82 x 9.58/ 9.81

= 10.57 m
Determination of the Power developed by the Blower
g H = PB = U2Vt2 - U1Vt1 [6]

PB = Power developed
=mgH
= 0.0602 x 9.81 x 10.57
= 8.4 x 10-3 KW.
Construction Procedures
The parts of the machine to be fabricated are frame, blower, air heater box and the fluidizing column.
Frame
The frame is to be constructed from ½ in by ½ in mild steel angular bar. The bar should be marked, cut into
the required dimension and welded together as shown in the apparatus set up.
Air Blower
The casing of the blower should be fabricated from 2mm steel plate. The casing is an in-volute with
diameter of 326mm.The metal is marked, cut and folded into the required shape. The impeller of the blower
were also marked cut and welded to the disc plate .The impeller were constructed from 1mm thick mild
steel plate. After welding, the disc plate was bolted to shaft and inserted into the involutes housing and
latter sealed.
Air Heater Box
The air heater box was constructed from 2mm thick mild steel plate It was a square pyramid box. The metal
sheet was marked out, cut into required dimensions, folded and welded together to form the required shape.
Assembled System /Apparatus set up
A 3 hp electric motor and the blower were mounted and bolted to the frame. They were connected together
with an A61V belt and the belt was appropriately tensioned. The air heater box was tightened to the
fluidizing column and the heater was inserted into the box and bolted. The blower and the box were bolted

Page 115
together with a seal or gasket between them to prevent air leakage. The heater was connected to 13A
electric plug.
Conclusion
Since the technique can be applied to any material to be dried, it was therefore recommended that the dryer
be put into test and the performance evaluation carried out.
References
1. Eugene A.A, (1987) Mark‟s Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 9th edition McGraw
Hills, London. pp 8.56-8.63, 8.131-8.142.
2. Geldart. D, (1986) Gas fluidization technology, Wiley Interscience Publication, London pp

53,219,256.
3. Denn M.M (1980) Process Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall Inc, Englewood cliffs New Jersey, pp. 71.
4. Shigley E.J and Mischke (1989) Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill 5th edition London
pp.107-110.
5. Singh Sadhu (2003) Khanna‟s Mechanical Engineer‟s Handbook, Khaanna Publishers, Lal Kuan
Delhi. pp78-79
6. Sayers, A.t.(1980) Hydraulics and Compressible Flow Turbo machines. McGraw Hills 1st Edition,
London. pp.21-23
7. Kunii,D and Levenzpiel, O (1991) Fluidization Engineering. Butter-Heinemann, U.S.A.

PP.1-3, 19-49

Page 116
The Roles of Universities of Technology and the Polytechnics in the National System
of Novation (NSI) in Nigeria
Falade, J. O.
engrdelefalade@yahoo.com
National Board for Technical Education Plot B, Bida Road, Kaduna
Abstract
Among the family of Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Nigeria the Universities of Technology and
the Polytechnics are more relevant in the system of innovation. Most of these institutions are yet to be fully
aware of their roles in technological development and transfer. Innovation is one of the most important
determinants of international competitiveness and economic growth while intellectual and social capital has
been found to surpass all forms of physical capital in creation of wealth. HEIs are crucial for the success of
clusters in the NSI and are linked to other structures and organisations, such as government, industry, and
the fourth pillar organisations. The perceived roles of HEIs, changes in technology and a better
understanding of technology transfers processes is the focus of this paper. This paper intends to show the
importance of the interaction between various pillars in a National System of Innovation, and the unique
roles required by HEIs for technology transfer.
Keywords: Education, Technology, Social, Wealth, Government, Industry, Innovation.
Introduction
Nigeria can achieve the creation and transfer of
technologies and build human skills for the
Generically, National System of Innovation
mastery of new innovations if they can create
(NSI) is a cluster or network of interacting public
and private organizations within a specific technology, diffuse new and old technologies,
country focused on the nurturing and the and the development of human skills.
development of the science and technology space Technological innovation has played a critical
within the borders of that particular country. It is role in raising economic growth in the industrial
countries while the lessons derived from these
further explained by Metcalfe in 1995 (1) as that
set of distinct institutions which jointly and experiences have not been applied in developing
individually contribute to the development and countries especially in black Africa, where
diffusion of new technologies and which technological change remains very significant in
provides the framework within which national growth strategies.
governments form and implement policies to
For University of technology/Polytechnic in
influence the innovation process. As such it is a
system of interconnected institutions to create, Nigeria to be able to contribute to science and
store and transfer the knowledge, skills and technology–based, appropriate supporting
artifacts which define new technologies. It is set institutions will be necessary. These include both
to address the following issues: enabling policies and organizations that can
increase the pathways of interaction between
academia, government, and industry.
outdated technology and technology
support used by many SMMEs
Another significant problem in Nigeria system is
failure rates of start-up and entry into
the absence of demand for value-added and more
value-added areas by SMMEs
sophisticated technological activity. One of these
access to competitiveness and business technological activities is R&D as it relates to
support enterprises’ collective learning functions—that
promotion of innovative ideas is, their organizational path to assimilating and
innovating new technologies. If this important
The classical view of technology transfer as function is left unattended, enterprises will
flowing from industrial countries to developing remain dependent on imported technologies,
countries is being replaced by new approaches which are expensive and not adapted for local
that emphasize complex interactions between conditions. If demand for future high-level
countries. This systems view allows countries to technological activity is not transmitted to
think strategically of different ways in which enterprises through appropriate policies, Nigeria
scientific and technological knowledge is runs the risk of importing equipment without the
acquired, retained, diffused, and improved.
Falade, J. O. The Roles of Universities of Technology and the Polytechnics in the National System of Novation (NSI) in Nigeria
complementary generation of domestic Teaching Staff is poor in number and
innovations. quality of teaching is very inadequate
across the board.
According to the observation of UNESCO: The
lack of proper knowledge in technical and
vocational education and training (TVET), and Economic growth and innovation
practical experience in specific areas of
technology often make a country: There is no substitute for scientific and
technological bases in a country, which show the
Engage in very limited R&D activities. level of development in every sector of a
country’s economy ranging from agricultural
R &D being poorly coordinated.
self-sufficiency, to social services, water,
Shirting emphasis from one sector of
sanitation, infrastructure, public health, and the
economy to another before mastering
development of indigenous technology in the
TVE and production technologies.
region. By generating opportunities for Nigeria
Local technical and vocational know-
therefore on multiple fronts, science, technology,
how being below standard (2).
and innovation policies can help solve problems,
build wealth, and eventually bring country into
State of Education in Nigeria full partnership with the international
community.
Currently, education at all levels in Nigeria is not
fulfilling the national objectives set down in the Money does not drive prosperity but intellectual
national policy of education and neither is it capital (the collective mind of a people) does. In
fulfilling the internationally agreed values and another way, it can be said that poverty is driven
targets. (Obiageli Ezekwesili, Minister of by lack of intellectual capital. A clay of wisdom
Education 2006) (3). Some of the problems is better than a bag of gold says an ancient
confronting tertiary education in Nigeria today Babylonian parable. (Emeagwali 2006). (4)
include: Long-term economic growth requires not only
capital but also an understanding of innovation
The curricula especially in most (Clark and Juma 1992) (5). Innovation and
universities has little emphasis on skill technology are also needed to transform
acquisition making the graduates less countries from reliance on the Exploitation of
prepared for the demands of the labour natural resources to technological innovation as
market; the basis for Development, as it is the case with
The lack of active learning Finland. Finland’s success reflects its ability to
opportunities that is much necessary for combine science and technology policies aimed
science and technology teaching is at promoting research with industrial policies
making graduates produced to be ill- geared toward manufacturing and export into a
prepared to master new skills and adapt comprehensive innovation policy.
their learning to new situations;
The question is, how can government, higher
Laboratories and workshops are poorly education institutions (HEIs) and
equipped, managed and maintained business/industry work together to improve the
which makes practical works and skills utilisation of research develop in Nigeria for
an illusion; development is the focus of this paper. The
Instructors lack the exposure and immediate problem facing Nigeria, at least in the
manufacturing sector, is not the creation of new
experiences to man the available
knowledge but the efficient application of
facilities;
existing technologies. Understanding how
A national qualification framework research can be effectively applied in Nigeria
which is expected to match the will help this country to spend public money
qualification to what is required in the more productively and assist the private sector in
labour market is seriously lacking; allocating skills and resources where they are
needed most.
Research and Development is poorly
funded compared to what obtains in
developed and the newly industrialised
nations;
Page 118
Research and Development (R & D) In Some universities offer at least some research
Nigeria training that could hardly afford graduates
research careers outside the university setting.
How well is research and Development carried Whereas, a good linkage with institutions abroad
out in Nigeria leaves much to be desired. Much (Cross boarder cooperation) could change the
of the researches that are carried out year-in phase values of R & D in Nigeria.
year-out in Nigeria take place in 58 universities
(26 federal, 23 state and 10 private), and 44 Poor research infrastructure, equipment and
polytechnics recognized as centers for research shortages of journals and reference books further
and development (R & D) activities. These reduce research capacity in the institutions.
institutions along with the Federal Ministry of
Science and Technology institutes receive about The Federal Government has further
1% out of the Federal budget (6) unlike South compounded the problems by not given adequate
Africa where in 2001/02, 2003/04, and 2004/05, policy directions, attainment and focus for the
7.5 billion Rand, 10.0 billion Rand and 12 billion industry, the HEIs and the research institutes.
Rand respectively were provided as R&D This has made each sector stand alone rather
expenditure (7). than developing a well established collaboration
among the knowledge users (government,
Some researches carried out in some universities industry, civil society and scientific community)
and polytechnics are funded from the who provide the demand environment for the
departmental budget. Most researchers publish in knowledge producers (universities, polytechnics,
local and regional journals that are not research institutes/centers), and appropriately
internationally recognized. In 2004, the Federal disseminate the products(science and tacit
Ministry of Science and Technology’s approved knowledge, and technology) through journal,
recurrent budget of 3,352,167.903 (USD 26 conferences and patent/license(8).
million with 1 NGN = 0.00780001 USD),
constituting 0.6% of the National Recurrent Industry, want to protect their Intellectual
budget of #539,286,472,751 (USD 4,206 Property IP from being used by their
billion). This is very inadequate for any competitors. This confidence is currently lacking
meaningful work in this area. However, with the and this has to be guaranteed. To further support
ETF and PTDF currently showing positive this, Academics are not practical; they don’t
interest in sponsoring research, the situation is understand the way business operates and have
likely going to improve. Nigeria may need to different priorities and schedules.
review its allocation to R&D so as to facilitate
high quality research relevant to National needs. Institutions concentrate on paper presentations
for promotion purposes; hence the focus for
A good number of the researches published are innovation and technology transfer is weak.
theoretical and abstract, which cannot attract the
interest of private/industry. The links between Indigenous Knowledge and R&D,
the institutions and the industry are weak while Innovation and Technology Transfer
cooperation is poor, making utilization of
research output very inadequate. The research There is a clear need to recognize and protect
output could be improved upon and more Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in Nigeria for
relevant to national needs if necessary structures cultural, economic development, and educational
that could attract targeted funding, competitive reasons (9). The Republic of South Africa after
bidding for key national projects along with the dismantling of the old apartheid formulated a
collaborated researches with both research workable policy and established Indigenous
institutes and the industry are put in place. Knowledge System (IKS) under the Department
Already the polytechnics in Nigeria have taken of Science and Technology (10). This is one of
this initiative by solving some industrial and the major reasons for the rapid development and
environmental needs. For example, the achievements of South Africa in all spheres of
production of essential oil and salt processing life in the last decade.
equipment developed jointly between Federal
Polytechnic, Nasarawa and RMRDC, Abuja is a The purpose of recognizing IK in Nigeria is to
good showcase. affirm, promote and debate IKS, and to create a
sense of community across a diverse range of
practitioners. IKS in Africa, as well as
Page 119
practitioners within such systems, were access to foreign sources of Innovation is vital to
marginalized, suppressed and subjected to continued technological progress. Technological
ridicule such as Dr. Abalaka who believed that development can take place at different depths.
he had discovered a cure for aids in Nigeria. He The attainment of a minimum level of
was prevented from show casing this for lack of operational capability (know-how) is essential to
Intellectual Property (IP) that could protect his all activity. This may not lead to the
works. This has further led to poor attitude in our development of deeper capabilities. An
society with poor unsustainable patterns of life, understanding of the principles of the technology
consumption and production, poor information (know-why) requires a discrete strategy for
acquisition and management, making investment.
information unavailable, rejection of what we
have and preference for what we do not have etc. The learning process is highly technology
specific, since technologies differ in their
Technology and Technology Transfer learning requirements. Some technologies are
more embodied in equipment, while others have
It is obvious that Nigeria needs economic growth greater tacit elements. Process technologies (like
to create jobs and eradicate poverty. It needs chemicals) are more embodied than engineering
innovation to become more competitive and technologies (machinery or automobiles) and
promote new products and processes both locally demand different (often less) effort.
and abroad.
The Role of Higher Education Institutions
Technology refers to the theoretical and practical (HEIS)
knowledge, skills and artifacts that can be used
to develop products and services as well as their A national system of innovation (NSI) consists
production and delivery systems. Technology is of all the institutions involved in innovation, and
a knowledge system, not simply physical links and flows between them. An institution is
technology and equipment. It relies heavily on defined as the "norms, habits, laws, and routines
modes of learning; adaptation to new that regulate the relations between people,
technologies; educational systems; industrial thereby shaping human interaction" (12).
policies and policies on science, technology, and
innovation; the nature and composition of the Relevant institutions in the National System of
private sector; and the capabilities inherent in the Innovation (NSI) are business firms, financial
public sphere. Today’s forum calls for a change institutions, universities/polytechnics,
in these directions. institutions for general education, and the
government.
Technology relies heavily on strong demand for
technological solutions directed to local University of technology/ Polytechnic in Nigeria
capabilities can be one of the strongest incentives can play a vital role in developing national
to learning accumulation. The demand to process innovation systems and their human resources.
salt found locally in Nigeria environment has They have immense potential to promote
enhanced the need to develop an equipment for technological development. But HEIs in science
its processes Federal Polytechnic Nasarawa. and technology are given low priority because it
Technology also depends on the flows of is costly to provide. They are ill equipped to
knowledge, resources, and people (public and meet the challenge.
private) and the mechanisms by which
information on specific innovations is shared, HEIs play a key role in the environment, they are
developed, commercialised, and diffused. expected to educate and train human capital,
Technologies are usually the outcome of develop new knowledge, increase the level of
development activities to put inventions and sophistication of the environment, assist in
discoveries to practical use" Burgelman, et al technology transfer, and develop social capital. If
(11). the HEIs will perform their roles, they must
interact with the environment where they are.
Technological interactions occur within a
country and with foreign countries. Imported The University/Polytechnic is expected to be the
Technology provides the most important input driver of economic development in a country.
into technological learning in developing Progressive HEIs are no longer counting
Countries. Since technologies change constantly, students, papers in accredited journals, or
Page 120
conference participation. The international trend
is to develop metrics measuring the HEI's impact Conclusion
on the local cluster, National System of
Innovation (NSI) and internally (13). This paper has been able to look at the factors
affecting the transfer of technology especially in
The University of technology/Polytechnic in Nigeria. The education system is indeed in crisis
Nigeria could utilize existing technologies while R&D is badly utilized, developed, funded
conducting technology prospecting. Technology and equipped. In facilitating the development of
prospecting entails the searching for, identifying, business and industrial firms, University of
adapting, and diffusing imported technology. It Technology/Polytechnic in Nigeria can
uses technologies that are readily available, contribute to economic revival and high-tech
adapting them to the local economy. This growth in the environment. There are many ways
process entails both research and enterprise in which a University of technology/Polytechnic
development. It usually involves creating in Nigeria can get integrated into the productive
institutions designed to undertake global sector and into society at large. It can conduct
searches for technology and find ways of R&D for industry; it can create its own spin-off
adapting them to local and International markets. firms; it can be involved in capital formation
projects, such as technology parks and business
The growing recognition of the role of incubator facilities; it can introduce
knowledge in economic transformation has entrepreneurial training into its curricula and
resulted in a diversity of efforts aimed at encourage students to take research from the
strengthening advisory systems for science, university to firms. This approach is based on the
technology, and innovation at all levels of strong interdependence of academia, industry,
government. Advisory functions could include and government.
activities such as coordination, consensus
building, adjudication, assessment of
Nigeria HEIs need to transfer, adapt, customize
effectiveness of measures, and development of
and develop, according to their environmental
progress indicators. In carrying out these
and social requirements, selective approaches in
functions, advisory agencies are guided by a set
the new technologies and the acquirement of
of principles that include trust, credibility, and
proper knowledge, education, training, and
accountability. This role would reshape the entire
practical experience in many areas, including
HEIs and the nation’s development (14).
Technology transfer management, State-of-the-
art knowledge, developing and executing R&D
Universities of technology and the polytechnics
activities, among others.
in Nigeria will have to be transformed and be
partakers in the National System of Innovation.
In doing this each institution must have a niche, Recommendations
which will influence its reality. In the same way,
the institutions will be influenced, and Industry does not want knowledge; they
transformed, by the environment. The want to make money. They need
university/polytechnic must have a specific focus solutions, and opportunities. The mode
differentiating it from other institutions. The of HEIs-industry technology transfer
University of Technology and the polytechnic should therefore be changed from
therefore have to "package" knowledge and selling knowledge to solving problems.
skills in a Technology format, in order to sell and
exploit IP. HEIs can facilitate national and
international networks. The networks
"The lecturers have four main tasks in economic must be flexible, wide, and responsive.
development of a nation: Teaching, Research, Trust based networks are by far the
Technology Transfer, and Incubation. These more efficient type of network.
they do through human and technical resources
development of students, teaching and research, A concerted effort should be made to
Research Innovation and technology transfer, entice knowledge personnel back to the
Incubation, entrepreneurship, innovation, and institutions.
venture capital supportive structures,
mechanisms, and processes" (15). R&D is a specialised activity, and
should be run semi-autonomously, with
Page 121
minimum red-tape, clear knowledge for National Development
developmental, economic and growth and Business Success. National
responsibilities. Advisory council on Innovation, P.O.
Box 1758, Pretoria 0001.
All researches in Nigeria must be
networked and published for utilization. 5. Emeagwal, P. (2006) emeagwali.com
We need more variation,
experimentation, and risk taking in the 6. FMSI (2004) Ministerial Press Briefing,
sector. HEIs are part of learning Abuja.
networks, with government, industry,
and fourth pillar organisations. 7. Paterson, A. (2006), National Survey of
Research & Experimental Development
Universities of Technology/Polytechnic (R&D), Department of Science &
should be integrated with local industry. Technology (2004/05 Fiscal Year),
Not only should there be incubators on HIGH LEVEL KEY RESULTS,
campus, but also consultation firms Pretoria 0001, Republic of South
should share offices with academics. Africa.
Industrial experts should teach many of
the higher-level courses. Academics 8. Falade, J. O. (2006), ―Models for
must be directors of companies. Delivery of Technical and Vocational
Education (TVE) and the challenges for
Staff must be evaluated on their impact appropriate and Relevant Model for
on the environment firstly and secondly TVE in Developing Countries with
on how well they execute tasks. The Nigeria as a case study”. International
evaluation must include activities such Conference on Technical and
as teaching, research, technology Vocational Education, Abuja.
transfer, and economic development,
with a reward system linked to the
outputs in the same order. 9. Hattingh, A. (2004), “Defining a
Technological Innovation Technology
The distinction between types of Transfer and R&D framework in a
research should not be between basic University of Technology”. In Higher
and applied, but rather between targeted Engineering Education in the 21st
and open research. Century, Ishwane University
Technology, South Africa.
References 10. Vannevar, B. (1945). Science the

Endless Frontier Washington D.C: The
National Science Foundation.
1. Al-Masri, M. and EI-Atrash, A. (1995),
―Feasibility Study for Facilitating
11. Clark, B. R. (1995), Places of Inquiry,
Access to Databases and
Research And Advanced Education In
Documentation in Technical and
Modern Universities, University Of
Vocational Education in UNEVOC
California Press, United State of
Centres and Associate Centres‖,
America.
Chapter 5, (NCHRD – ROEAS),
Amman 11181, Jordan, 1995.
12. Burgelman, R. A., Maidique, M. A.,
and S. C. Wheelwright, (2001),
2. Ezekwesil, O. (2006), National
“Strategic Management of Technology
Framework, FME, Abuja.
and Innovation”. McGraw-Hill/Irwin,
New York, Third Edition.
3. Clark, N. Juma, C. (1992). ―Long-Run
Economic Growth: An Evolutionary
13. Juma, K. and Yee-Cheong, L. (2005),
Approach to Economic Growth”.
UN Millennium Project 2005.
London: Pinter Publishers. 1992.
Innovation: Applying Knowledge in
Development. Task Force on Science,
4. NACI (2003) Making Research Work
for us. How South Africa uses
Page 122
Technology, and Innovation, London of Research and Theory, School of
UK 2005 Public, Gergia Tech, Atlanta, USA,
Research Policy, 29 627-655 at
14. Boseman, B. (2000), Technology www.elsevier.nlrlocatercombase
Transfer and Public Policy: A Review

Page 123
Inadequacies in Engineering Professional Activities in Nigeria
*Olaniyan A. and *Adegbola A. A. and **Okene, S. U.

olaniyanabolade@yahoo.com
*Department of Mechanical Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Nigeria
**Department of Mechanical Engineering. The Federal Polytechnic, Bida. Nigeria
Abstract
Four major engineering stakeholders; engineering educators; professional engineering societies; employers
of engineering talents; and the engineers themselves have been surveyed to determine some shortcomings
in engineering practices and professional standards in Nigeria. These transformed into a detailed research
objectives which provided basis for developing the questionnaire and analysis procedure utilized in this
study. Over 250 engineers in different organizations were contacted and the composition of the final
sample and a summary of returns were very encouraging with 83% of the contacted engineers responding
as at the time of our analysis. A breakdown of the engineers in our survey by their principal functions
shows that constructions, communications, engineering management, research, design and developments
that are very important in the engineering professions and practices accounts for less than 37% of the
engineers found in the survey. In higher educational institutions, the study shows that holders of certain
engineering degrees favour registration more than others and the relationship between the degree held by
engineers and the number of professional societies to which they belong follows a different pattern from
that of the relation between degree held and the extent of involvement in registration considered. Finally,
the study reveals that the only two venues by which engineers in Nigeria participates in the aspect of
professional activities are through articles and publications, not by practice and standards.
Keywords: Practices, Standards, Professional, Societies, Practitioners and Improvement
Introduction technology reform project to use market driven

research and development to reverse the negative
Rapid development can only be realized if it is trends in the industrial sector when[5] presented
anchored on sound science and technology base. the status of science and technology system; with
Many surveys in the past have revealed that 65 research institutes witnessed by paucity of
nation building and development is directly funding and depletion of highly qualified
proportional to engineering practices and researchers leading to shortage and generally
professional standards [1]. The great challenges to lacked requisite capacity.
the engineering profession lie in the multifarious
problems of the country. Engineers should In research and development, much results and
update their knowledge by reading more, finding have been achieved by tertiary
attending conferences, subscribing for journals in institutions and research centres in the country.
their field, register with professional engineering However, the result of a study shows that about
societies and participate in research and 41% adoption rate was achieved and the major
development activities.[2]. The engineers role militating factor against investments in acquired
also include the formulation of policies in technologies was finance[6]. Nigeria has
engineering; preparing plans; teaching, research, abundant deposits of solid minerals, including
design and development of new products, barites, coal, columbite, gemstones, gold,
processes and project and the operation and graphite, gypsum, kaolin, marble, iron ore, salt,
maintenance of complex engineering planets, soda, sulfur, tantalite, tin, and uranium.
services and establishment [3]. Nevertheless, the mining industry, which
exported significant amounts of coal and tin until
In addition to providing a means by which the 1960s, has declined as publicly controlled
members come together, set standards of infrastructure has deteriorated and today mining
performance, and influence the behavior of its is suffering from extremely low productivity and
practitioners, professionals are also concerned high production costs. In 1972, Nigeria
with the creation and communication of new Government removed the mines department from
knowledge, taking into consideration, challenges the Ministry of Mines, Power and Steel to form
and elements of performance[4]conference paper the Petroleum and Mineral Resources Ministry
[7]
supported the objectives of the science and . Despite all the effort of government, the solid
Olaniyan, Adegbola, and Okene Inadequacies in Engineering Professional Activities in Nigeria
mineral industry has not witnessed any

significant development. Series of significant Scope and Method
structural failures, including some spectacular
bridge failures in the country are having Scope
profound effect on engineers and forced the
profession to confront shortcomings in technical The choice of the sample designed for this
and construction practices, as well as ethical survey was made within the frame work of
standards. All these activities contributed little to several constraints: that the finding of survey
indigenous value added or to employment, and was based on a study to improve engineering
reduced subsequent industrial growth. practices and professional standards in Nigeria;
It was also pointed out that most engineering that the engineers in the sample represents the
failures were much more involved than simple various organizational settings in which
technical mis-calculations and involves the engineers were found; and that the necessary
failure of the design process or management data was compiled with little resources available.
culture [8]. These episodes of engineering failure The questionnaire was designed for long-range
include ethical as well as technical issues. In man-power planning. It focused upon present
order to produce a sufficient number of engineers and future engineering needs in Nigeria and the
in all industrial settings in which engineers are appropriate future emphasis in engineering
employed, the use of a procedure that would practices and professional standards.
yield a higher rate of return for the preparation
and distribution of questionnaires would be Information from the employers and engineers
required. This is possible by considering both themselves were obtained from a random survey
analysis required and the available resources for of engineers in industries, governments and
the study and particularly for the purpose of educational institutes; to delineate the scope,
facilitating the collection, tabulation, study the adequacy, and investigate the need for
presentation and analysis of data. In addition it is post-baccalaureate programs leading to
capable of promoting uniformity and professional degrees, practices and standards.
comparability in the presentation of statistical
data. Leslie Kish sampling plan was applied in The task of assembling data from all the
which both the engineers and organizations were engineers in this country would, of course be
used as units of analysis. impossible with the found available.
Consequently, a sample study had to be
Leslie Kish who worked till he died at the age of employed. For the survey data to be meaningful,
90 in October 7, 2000 was one of the pioneers of three different sampling plans were considered;
survey sampling and his research was broad- (i) Sampling engineers directly from some
ranging, covering sampling methods, variance available list of engineers; (ii) Sampling
estimation and design effects, non-sampling organizations in which engineers are employed
errors, small area estimation, survey designs and (iii). Sub-sampling engineers within the
across time and space, and observational studies. organization.
Leslie encouraged demographers and social
scientists and engineers to use equal probability Method
sampling and to compute design effects
whenever they select a sample [9]. A sampling plan was designed which both the
engineers and the organizations used as units of
In this study, Leslie Kish survey sampling analysis. Procedures outlined for sampling units
methods and experience was adopted in of unequal sizes were followed in the selection
analyzing the survey data based on some of organizations with probability proportional to
identified factors required to improve their size [10].
engineering practices and professional standards
in Nigeria. Suggestion and recommendations Sub-sampling of engineers within each
were made for the conference communiqué organization was carried out on an equal
towards the improvement. probability basis from each unit. The number of
data established depends upon the number of
engineers. In order to obtain a good statistics and
well distributed analysis from organizations, 8
strata were applied. Strata were set by summing
across organizations to obtain a good sample „n‟
size for the engineers. Each subsequence sum
Page 125
provided another stratum. Once the strata were

established, at least two organizations were Survey Analysis
selected from each stratum to compute the
variance [11, 15]. Table 1. Contains a breakdown of the engineers
in our survey by their principal functions. Non-
The following procedures were adopted for the engineering management, sales, production and
next stage of the study; constructions account for over two third of the
i. A letter was sent to someone in an upper engineers. Communications, engineering
executive position of the choosing management, research, design and developments
organizations describing the goals of this that are key factors in engineering practices
study and outlining the role of each accounts for less than 25% of the engineers
organization willing to take part. found in the survey.
ii. A request was made that someone be named
as contact person in the organization who These patterns of registration seem to reflect the
would serve as a liaison with the staff. nature of the work performed by the engineers,
iii. When the contact person was named, a letter when a public service is involved, especially
was sent to him requesting the figure of when the employer is a governmental body,
persons with BSc, MSc, and PhD degrees in particularly, a local governmental body, or even
engineering. when the employer is a private contractor who
iv. When these figures were received, a survey does a great deal of work for a governmental
package was compiled and sent to the contact body, or when the engineer is more likely to be
person. registered than when he is employed by private
industry.
This package contained a set of general
instructions for drawing the sample and for In higher educational institutions, the
distributing and collecting the questionnaires; a study reveals that holders of certain
“sampling number sheet” which listed the engineering degrees favor registration
numbers of those engineers that would be more than others. Engineering with
selected in the sample; and the questionnaires. advance degrees. This leads our study to
Many organizations declined the invitation to the survey data in Table 3.
participate and many refused to respond to our
invitation. All these organizations were replaced The relationship between the degree held by
by another random pull from the same stratum. engineers and the number of professional
In all, only 17% of the organizations could not societies to which they belong follows a different
complete their part in the study as at the pattern from that of the relation between degree
concluding stage of our analysis. held and the extent of involvement in registration
considered.
In the study, we were able to collect some
significant data related to; (i) ethical From our survey, it appears that there are no
commitment of the professionals to clients, important differences between the registered and
colleagues and society; (ii) professional activities non-registered engineers on such things as
requiring specialized and expert knowledge; (iii) publications, patents, professional-society
membership in professional societies and membership, technical reading and attendance at
associations for the establishment and control of technical meetings.
professional standards; and (iv) increases and
dissemination of professional knowledge. These The relationship between the level of education
areas were studied in regards to: (a) registration and the number of published articles is stronger
and membership in professional societies; (b). than between level of education and number of
publications and patents and (c) professional patent applications. Among the doctorate
activities and values. Tables, graphs and engineers, 98% have written one or more
illustrating charts were drawn based on the articles. 52% of Msc degree engineers have
survey data for the required analysis on the written one or more articles. Productivity of
improvement. articles is therefore very high among the
advance-degree engineers, but much lower
among the BSc and MSc degree engineers.

Page 126
Another mechanism by which new knowledge is

Discussions communicated is through articles in professional
journals. In Fig.4 shows the Percentage of
Registration is an attempt by professionals to BSc, MSc and PhD graduates writing
maintain standards of performance by subjecting technical articles. We have the breakdown of
practitioners to evaluation by their peers [12, 13]. the number of articles written by engineers with
different levels of education. In general
In Fig. 1, engineers in tertiary engineers with the PhD in engineering are having
institutions have the largest percentage greater due to their educational level.
who passed the professional
examination, followed by engineers in Findings
federal government set up and then by
constructions. In addition, relatively i. Engineering graduates are found to vary
large percentages of professional greatly in their social economic and
engineers who have not taken formal geographic backgrounds, their educational
examinations are found in utilities, local experience, their work activities, and their
governments and constructions. professional activities. Their attitudes also
vary toward registration and graduate works,
Our survey further reveals that over half of the as well as toward other educational and
engineers employed in local government professional matters.
organization and in engineering services report ii. The advanced degree engineer, more often
that their organizations give a great deal of than other are found in research and
encouragement for professional registration. development functions and activities.
Following these organizations are the utilities iii. Doctorate engineer seems to be more
and construction industries in the order of extent concerned with what might be called the
to which they encourage registration among their academic-intellectual features of his work,
engineers. while the non-doctorate engineer stresses
management-security characteristics.
In Fig. 2, the data here indicate that the engineer iv. There are no important differences between
with the Msc degree is the one most likely to be the registered and non-registered engineers
involved in professional engineering registration, on such things as publications, patents,
the engineer with the Bsc degree is involved professional-society membership, technical
somewhat less so, and the doctorates is involved reading and attendance at technical
least of all. meetings.
v. Currently, bribery and political corruption is
Fig. 3 shows the percentage membership figures being addressed very directly by several
for BSc, MSc, PhD engineers. The doctorate professional societies and business groups
engineers (PhD) clearly have a greater around the world [14].
proportion of persons holding membership in vi. However, new issues have arisen, such as
more than one professional or scientific society. offshoring, sustainable development, and
There are about as many as engineers with the environmental protection, which the
BSc degree who have membership in one society profession has to consider and address.
as there are with membership in none. Engineers
with the MSc degree have somewhat more of a Conclusions
tendency to hold membership in professional
societies but much less than those with PhD Diversity comes from the organizational settings
degree. in which engineers are employed, and industries
differ in their needs for engineers with certain
Comparing the data on professional registration educational experiences. Other industries that are
and membership in professional and scientific much more involved in production, operation,
societies, it appears that engineers in general are and construction have greater need for engineers
likely to hold membership in societies than to be with stronger educational backgrounds in
registered. Despite the high participation in engineering graphics and design, business and
professional societies among engineers, there are management. Both educational level and type of
still about one-third of the BSc engineers and industries are found to influence the graduates‟
one- quarter of the MSc engineers who do not participation in engineering registration and in
hold membership in any society. professional-society activities. Participation in

Page 127
the latter is especially pronounced among the

doctorate-degree engineers.
3. Okunade, E.A. (2000), “Engineers and
The relationship between the degree held by Development in Nigerian society”, Montem
engineers and the number of professional Paperbacks, Akure.
societies to which they belong follows a different 4. Nyagba, S.I. (2005), ”State of Industrial
pattern from that of the relation between degree Manufacturing in Nigeria”. National
held and the extent of involvement in registration Consultant, Industrial Sector. UNESCO
considered and hence, the only two venues in Project on Reform of Science, Technology
which engineers in Nigeria participates in the and Innovation System in Nigeria. Abuja
aspect of professional activities are through 2nd-6th August. 2005.
articles and publications and not through patents 5. Obiaga,T.I.(2005), “The Nigerian Research
and projects. Institute System Context for the Reform of
the Science, Technology and Innovation
Recommendations System”. National Consultant, Research
Institutes. UNESCO Project on Reform of
Encourage doctorate degree holders to get Science, Technology and Innovation System
more involved in professional activities and in Nigeria. Abuja 2nd-6th August. 2005.
practices and to be involved in reviewing the
development trends around the world so as 6. Kupoluyi, C. F. and Ogundeji, R.O.(2002)”.
to evaluate the role that engineering and Adoption of transferred Research and
innovation can play an economic Development Results: Case Study of
transformation in particular and sustainable FIIRO”. NJISS, Vol.1: NO 3. PP 5- 10.
development in general.
Both professional and technical societies
should advance the technical practices 7. Ojo, O. (2001),”Problems Militating Against
through developing standards, and providing the Development of the Solid Mineral
educational, and training resources. Industries in Nigeria” NJEM. Vol. 2. No. 2.
The currently bribery and political 2001.
corruption which is being addressed very
directly by several professional societies and 8. Henry, P. (1985). “To Engineer is Human:
business groups around the world be guided the Role of Failure in Successful Design”. St
against so as not to be added to Nigerian Martins Press. ISBN 0-312-80680-9.
shortcomings.
Finally the new issues, such as offshoring, 9. Kish, L. (1996), “Developing Samplers for
sustainable development, and environmental Developing Countries”, International
protection should be considered and Statistical Review, 64, pp. 143-162.
addressed.
10. Kish, L. (1987), “Statistical Design for
References Research”. John Wiley and Sons Publishers.
New York.
1. Olaniyan, A. and Oladejo, K. A. (2006).
“On the strategic reform and revitalization 11. Goodman, R. and Kish, L. (1950),
of Technology in Nigeria.” Conference of “Controlled Selection – A Technique in
the Nigerian Institution of Mechanical Probability Sampling”, Journal of the
Engineers. 8th – 11th November, 2006 at American Statistical Association, 45, pp.
The Federal University of Technology., 350-372.
Akure with the theme Increasing Local
Content in Machine Building for sustainable 12. Edwin, L. (1986). “The Revolt of the
self-reliant development. Engineers: Social Responsibility and the
American Engineering Profession”.
2. Lawal, K. O. and Aribisala, J. O. (2004), “A Baltimore, Maryland, USA: The Johns
survey of the use of computer and Internet in Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-
Conducting Engineering Research and 3287-X.
Training in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria,”
ARCEE 2004 UNILAG, 20th -22nd 13. ASCE, (2000). “Standards of Professional
September 2004. Conduct”. Reston, Virginia, USA: ASCE
Page 128
Press. y_press.cfm?uid=1794. American Society of

https://www.asce.org/pdf/ethics_manual.pdf. Civil Engineers (2005-06-17).
14. ASCE (2005). "Report Details Guidelines to 15. Kish, L. (1949), “A Procedure for Objective
Reduce Corruption in Engineering and Respondent Selection within the
Construction Industry". Press release. Household”, Journal of the American
http://www.asce.org/pressroom/news/displa Statistical Association, 44, pp. 380-387.
Appendix A. Tables
Table 1: Principal Functions of Engineering in Nigeria
Principal Functions
S/No. Industrial Classification
(%)
1. Non-Engineering Management 26
2. Sales 20
3. Production 17
4. Constructions 13
5. Communication 10
6. Engineering Management 06
7. Research 05
8. Design and Development 03
Table 2: Status of Professional Registration in Nigerian Industries
Never Attempted Attempted P.E Passed P.E P.E not by

S/No Industry Registration Examination Examination Examination
(%) (%) (%) (%)
1. Tertiary Institutions 10 08 78 04
2. Local Government 33 11 36 20
3. Federal Government 16 06 57 21
4. Utilities 59 04 13 24
5. Construction 28 13 42 17
P.E: Professional Engineering

Page 129
Table 3: Status of Profession Engineering Registration with Levels of Degree
Never Attempted Attempted P.E Passed P.E P.E not by

Degrees Registration Examination Examination Examination
(%) (%) (%) (%)
BSc 42 24 26 08
MSc 54 04 34 08
PhD 66 01 17 16
Table 4: The Number of National Professional and Scientific Societies among Engineers
Societies (%)
Degrees
None 1 2 3 4 plus
BSc 38 36 18 06 02
MSc 23 35 24 10 08
PhD 06 16 27 24 27
Table 5: Article in Professional and Academic Journals
Societies (%)
Degrees
None 1-2 3-4 5-8 9 or more
BSc 70 18 6 4 2
MSc 48 27 11 7 6
PhD 1 26 20 22 31
Appendix B. Charts
100%
90%
80%
70%
Passed P.E Examination (%)
60%
P.E not by Examination (%)
50%
Attempted P.E Examination (%)
40%
Never Attempted Registration (%)
30%
20%
10%
0%
Tertiary Federal Construction Local Utilities
Institutions Government Government
Fig. 1: Percentage distribution of Professional Registration in Nigerian Industries and Organizations

Page 130
P.E not by Passed P.E

PhD
MSc
Examination
BSc
PhD
MSc
Examination
BSc
Attempted
PhD
MSc
P.E
Examination
BSc
Attempted
PhD
Never
MSc
Registration
BSc
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Fig. 2: Percentage of B Sc, MSc and PhD graduates involved in Professional Registration
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
PhD
0 MSc
BSc
None 1 2 3 4 plus
Societies (%)
Fig. 3: Percentage BSc, MSc and PhD The graduates

Book of Proceedings
belonging to Professional and Scientific Societies
Page 131
70 BSc
MSc
60
PhD
50
40
30
20
10
0
None 2 to 3 3 to 4 4 to 5 9 or more
Fig. 4: Percentage of BSc, MSc and PhD graduates writing technical articles

Page 132
Cooperative Education as a Tool in Producing Good Engineering
Personnel
Onyeocha, E.I.E
eddyonyeocha@yahoo.com
National Board for technical education, (Programmes Dept.), Plot B Bida Road, P.M.B. 2239, Kaduna
Abstract
The globalization of the economies of the world has brought to the front burner the need to produce
engineering personnel or graduates who can easily fit into industry setting in any part of the world as they
graduate from school. It is no longer secret that current engineering programmes can not produce engineers
who can meet their company’s basic needs. Current engineering and engineering technology curricula have
not kept up with the changes in the industry, and as a result, are turning out graduates who are ill prepared
to work in today’s technical work place. It is the sincere opinion of this paper that today, engineering
colleges must not only provide their graduates with intellectual development but following industry’s lead,
those colleges must equip their students with superb technical capabilities that will enable them work in the
industry with minimal supervision. This will stop the present trend where industries have had to incur
considerable cost of additional training to give new employees the skills they need to be productive.
Presently, the industry complains of an absence of trained quality engineers. Engineering education in
Nigeria is facing multiple problems of inadequate human and infrastructural resources, low enrolments as a
result of unattractive training procedures and higher training costs etc. It is the sincere opinion of this paper
that there is need for strategic policy intervention and industry-government-academia interactions to
strengthen engineering education in the country.
Keywords: Globalization, Graduates, Curricula, Industry and Education.
Introduction classroom based education with practical work

experience. In another mode of cooperative
Among the skills required in the engineering education, the engineering undergraduate student
personnel of today are: analytical ability, self is allowed to alternate periods of academic study
confidence, personal initiative and problem with full-time periods of paid work experience
solving ability. These skills are not developed related to their academic and professional goals.
merely by taking engineering students through
pedagogy or a body of engineering theories and
experiments, but are developed by giving the For it to succeed, cooperative education
students the opportunity to interact with real- advocates for partnership between the various
world experiences in the industry or work sites. stakeholders (government, academia and
These real-world experiences (which are not industry) to ensure effective delivery of
being acquired under classroom or laboratory education that will meet the challenges of
conditions) will generate the curiosity and desire technology and economy in the 21st century.
to find solutions to engineering problems
through personal initiatives and scientific Action Plan
analysis. Once the art of solving real-life
engineering problems is mastered, the student The following are some of the ways that can be
gains self confidence, which will enable him to followed in order to implement cooperative
face future challenges. education in Nigeria:
What is cooperative education? (a) Reforming or Reshaping Curriculum
Cooperative education is the kind of education The curricula for teaching engineering
programme that can prepare a student for a world programmes in Nigeria are fraught with theories
of work as soon as he graduates from an on engineering fundamentals and materials on
engineering college. Cooperative education design skills. They are mainly designed by the
programme prepares the student to balance the academia with little or no input from the
differences between classroom work and field industry. Besides, some of those curricular are
work. It is a structured method of combining obsolete or old fashioned with little or no
Onyeocha, E.I.E Cooperative Education as a Tool in Producing Good Engineering Personnel
relevance to current realities in the work place (industry).
in the establishment of centres of excellence in

schools.
For effective cooperative education in Nigeria,
curriculum developments should be an effort (c) Continuing Professional Development
between the industry and academia. At least 50%
of curriculum development or review experts Collaboration between the industry and
must be from the industry so as to capture the engineering colleges should go beyond training
new developments in the industry. The task of regular students. Engineering colleges can
reforming curricula must offer training in all of partner with industry to provide continuing
the skills desired in graduates, and with a high education to practicing engineers under non-
level of quality. It must be aimed at preparing a degree, career enhancing programmes. This will
graduate engineer to be successful in the help such practicing engineers to sustain their
changing work place and also equip students technological and managerial competence and
with technical knowledge and capabilities, acquaint them with newest tools and techniques.
flexibility and an understanding of the societal Flexible continuing education (lifelong learning)
context of engineering. The curricula must also modules drawn up in consultation with industry
incorporate the current emphasis on will be useful and also build bridges for
entrepreneurship skills to enable young graduates enhanced academic-industry interactions.
to be wealth creators in terms of being self
employed or employable. (d) Supervised Industrial Works Experience
Scheme (SIWES)
Besides, all curricula must be reviewed regularly
after a period of four to five years in order to Here, the students are sent to the industries to
keep pace with fast changes in technology and acquire work place experiences under the
industry. supervision of an experienced industry based
supervisor. The student is herewith provided
(b) Industry established Centre of Excellence with an opportunity to apply knowledge in a
work setting. As a matter of policy, government
Industries and corporate organizations should be should make SIWES compulsory for all
encouraged to establish workshop/laboratory engineering students. The arrangement should be
facilities as centers of excellence for engineering such that, at the end of each session, the student
training in schools. The establishment of the would go on industrial attachment in the field
centre may be based on the school’s area of relevant to his course of study.
strength in terms of infrastructure, staffing or
local need of its host community. Each centre The problem with SIWES is getting a placement
may be in form of Engineering Park (that is for the student in the industry. Most industries
multidisciplinary) or in a specialist form (that is, are not willing to throw their doors open for
for only one specialized engineering field). The students on industrial attachment. Those willing
running of such a centre will be funded by the to accept students on industrial training do take
organization that established it. The centre can only very few students. This is another area
be used for training staffers of the industry on government should partner with industries in
continuing professional tune up exercises, and order to give engineering students opportunity to
also for training students. It could be open to acquire workplace experience. Government
public for training a wide range of engineering should make it a policy matter that no industry
professionals from different backgrounds as a should reject students on industrial attachment.
consultancy unit of the institution. In this case, Offending industries with proven evidence of
money generated from the centre could be rejecting attachés should be appropriately
plowed back for maintenance, salaries and penalized. Moreover, those that comply by
regular upgrading of facilities. accepting good number of attachés could be
rewarded either by tax incentives or direct
Challenges from industries could be sent to the payment of fixed amount to the industries for
centre to form the basis of some research work each attaché accepted on industrial training.
for students and university lecturers. By way of
policy and partnership, government should grant Various agencies of government like the
handsome tax relief for any industry that invests National directorate of Employment (NDE) and
the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) could serve as
Page 134
disbursement agencies for the fixed fee per engineering college students who may
attaché to the industries. Each industry could graduate and eventually work for it.
send the number of attachés it is willing admit iii. It fills the short term Labour needs of
for SIWES through an engineering college the industry.
specifying the subject areas such attachés should iv. It provides the industry with productive
be drawn from. The college will in turn send the workers during peak times.
list to ITF or NDE (as the case may be) for
onward computation of the allowances payable The benefits of cooperative education to
to the industry based on the number of attachés it engineering college students include:
admitted. Part of the money spent on bursary by
the various tiers of government could be a. It provides the student an opportunity to
channeled to securing industrial placements for apply knowledge in a work setting
attachés so as to make sure that an average b. It assists the student in developing
engineering student gets a placement in the confidence in his skills and abilities.
industry for industrial training.
The benefits accruing to government from
Alternatively, the industry could be given an cooperative education include:
option of a negotiated tax relief for all the
attachés admitted. a. It reduces unemployment and security
risk
Proper implementation and coordination of b. It reduces the burden of sponsoring
SIWES promises to be another avenue through education on the government
which the three major stake holders in education c. It provides engineers who can hold the
-government, industry and engineering colleges economy of the nation, thereby
(academia) could cooperate to give effective increasing the per capita income of
engineering education to Nigerians. that nation
(e) Personnel Exchanges Conclusion

Engineers from the industry and government Technology is changing. Industry needs of
could be exchanged with graduate students and adequately trained man power must be met.
engineering lecturers from engineering colleges. These call for a review of how we train engineers
In this way, engineering students and their and the curricula for training them. This paper
lecturers are exposed to engineering practice. has described that giving students of engineering
Time spent by such graduates and their lecturers and the engineering personnel the experience
can enhance transfer of new technologies to that will prepare them for this 21st century
industry. On the other hand, time spent by requires collaborative effort among the
industry engineers and their counterparts from government, industries and engineering colleges.
government in engineering colleges can help
make engineering coursework and research more References
relevant to actual practice. More so, the
engineers from industry can contribute to college 1. Auld, R. B. (1972), The cooperative
projects and curriculum enrichment while their Education Movement: Association of
stay in the college lasts. cooperative Colleges, Journal of
Cooperative Education 8(5): 24-27, ISSN
Benefits of Cooperative education 0022-0132
2. Barton, P. E. (1996), Cooperative Education
Cooperative education holds benefits for the in High School: Promise and Neglect,
government, industry and engineering students Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service
respectively. Among the benefits it holds for the (ED400413)
industry are: 3. Crow, C. (1997), Cooperative Education in
the New Millennium, Cooperative
i. It gives the industry continuous feed
Education Experience, Columbia, MD:
back from college curricula.
Cooperative Education Association, PP. 1-5
ii. It helps the industry to train its future
(ED414433)
work force. This is done as it trains the

Page 135
4. Leslie Lahndt (1998), Industry Mentored Report, Sponsored by Observer Research

Engineering and Engineering Technology Foundation), Energy Systems Engineering,
Curricula, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai-400076
http://mailto:leslielh@jove.acs.unt.edu 6. Kerka, S. (2008), Cooperative Education,
5. Banerjee, R. and Muley, V. P. (2007), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cooperative_edu
Engineering Education in India, (Draft Final

Page 136
Factors Affecting the Poor Performance of Engineering Students in
Citizenship Education: A Case of The Polytechnic Ibadan
Muyiwa, S. A.
muyiwadayo@yahoo.com
Department of General Studies. The Polytechnic, Ibadan
Abstract
The study examined the factors affecting the poor performance of Engineering Student in Citizenship
Education at The Polytechnic Ibadan. Six null hypotheses were postulated while the writer applied cluster
sampling technique on the 3 departments that made up the faculty of engineering to select 389 students who
offered the course within 5 years. Those who rerun the course formed the “Experimental Group” while
those who passed formed the “Control Group” 32 variables and sub-variables factors were examined and
six factors emerged significant within 0.05 level using chi-square for the statistical analysis. These include
academic background in citizenship education, academic aspiration, parents, teacher’s role and the school
library conditions. Finally, the deductions from the study revealed certain critical areas that require
attention for better performance of engineering students.
Keywords: Line balancing, Product-quality, Labour-utilization, Idle-time.
Introduction what government should for him but what he can

also do for his country (Abraham Lincoln).
Student’s performance is at the forefront of Invariably it will teach them the application of
education both nationally and internationally. the knowledge acquired as an engineer whenever
Katie (2004) Educators and parents are searching they found themselves in the position of
to find the best way to boost student performance authority in the future.
in class work. Some believe that reducing class
size is the key to improving student performance. Statement of the Problems
Others believe that a change in pedagogy is the
way to improve student’s achievement. There are The problem confronting this country is not lack
many factors contributing to the performance of of adequate manpower but, that of people not
students in class work and on test. There is not getting their priorities rights. It is the problem of
one correct answer or miracle cure Kaplan leaders suddenly finding themselves in position
(2002). of authority without adequate and basic political
knowledge.
Engineering students are those sets of students
that are trained towards the development of the The researcher had been a citizenship education
technological sector of any nation and they are lecturer at the polytechnic Ibadan for years and
found in various department that makes up any had been confronted with the problem of student
engineering faculty of any higher institution they having poor performance in the subject matter.
include; Civil Engineering, Electrical This, the researcher feels, is a matter of great
Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, concern for which a solution must be found. The
Automobile Engineering etc. this students are study is therefore design to:
trained in the ac of technology for the overall
development of any nation. While citizenship i. Investigate the factors affecting the poor
education is that discourse that was inculcated performance of engineering student in
into the syllabus of engineering student in citizenship education at the Polytechnic,
Nigeria to expose them to the basic concept and Ibadan.
provision of the Nigerian constitution as well as ii. Find out the extent to which student perform
instill in them, the consciousness and awareness dismally from department to department.
of democratic values, socio-political institution iii. Identify the relationship of the variables
and the citizens’ rights and obligation to the contributing to these.
society, as such not only will the student think of
Muyiwa, S. A. Factors Affecting the Poor Performance of Engineering Students in Citizenship Education: A Case of The Polytechnic Ibadan
Significance of Study Motivation
One of the causes of Nigeria’s While there are a number of factors that affect
underdevelopment since independence in spite of student’s performance in school, one of the most
been a country that is profoundly blessed with influential is motivation. Motivation is also
milk and honey is the nature of unpreparedness referred to as academic engagement, refers to
of our leaders and their qualities. “cognitive, emotional and behavioural indicators
of student investment in and attachment to
So, if you critically look at our various
governments since independence and regime by education (Tucker, Zayco and Herman, 2002, p
regime from Balewa to Yar’adua. You will 477). It is obvious that students who are not
found out that none has actually envisioned or motivated to succeed will not work hard. In fact
dreamt of being a president but they were forced several researchers have suggested that only
into the office because of the nature and motivation directly effects academic
character of our polity and this have really dent a achievement, all other factors affect achievement
big blow on the system because leaders without
only through their effect on motivation (Tucker
genuine intentions hurriedly put in place
emergency policies that are not enduring but et al, 2002). However, it is not easy to
only centered around the leaders and his period understand what motivates students. Numerous
of rule. studies have been conducted on this topic, which
has led to the development of several theories of
Therefore, if student are well grounded in motivation.
citizenship education, they will know the right
thing to do especially as an engineer who holds One widely accepted theory is goal theory. It
the key to the future of placing the country
postulates that there are two main type of
among the best twenty economies in the not too
distant future, because citizenship education motivation for achieving in school. Student with
makes student to be aware that the relationship an ability or performance goal orientation are
between the citizens and the state is that of a concerned with proving their competence by
recipository. getting good grades or performing well
compared to other student (Auderman and
This study is hoped would help the various Midgley, 1997; Maehr and Midgley, 1991). On
quarters concerned to identify some specific
the other hand student with a task goal
variables which cause poor performance of
student in citizenship education in view of the orientation are motivated by a desire to increase
importance of the subject matter and direct their knowledge on a subject or by enjoyment
students in their career aspirations. The from learning the material. Studies have shown
hypotheses postulated for the solution of the that students with a task goal orientation are
problem under study are: more likely to engage in challenging tasks, seek
help as needed, and adopt useful cognitive
i. There is no significant relationship to
students, family background and their strategies and possibly most importantly, tend to
poor performance in citizenship be happier both with their academics and with
education. themselves as learners. (Annes, 1992; Anderman
ii. There is no significant relationship to and Midgley, 1997).
students, academic background and
their poor performance in citizenship Researcher also identifies a number of other
education. students goals. Another goal orientation is work
avoidance, where students try to minimize the
amount of effort they put into task (Dawson and
Conceptual Framework Mc Inerney, 2001). Students also have social
goals that influence their motivation alongside
This aspect provides a background on factors
academic goals. Urdan and Maehur (1995)
influencing student performance. It includes
describe four types of social goals: social
theories involving student motivation, under
approval, social compliance, social solidarity,
achievement and transition through school.
Page 138
and social concern. Research involving transitions often involve significant shift in both
qualitative methods has suggested that soial goal classroom and socio environments, which may
orientation are associated with academic have different effects on student learning. In
achievement (Kaplan and Maehr 2002). addition, the transition occurs during a time
Unfortunately, most researchers has focused only when students are beginning to experience both
the previous two orientations. the physical and psychological changes of
adolescence which may in turn affect their
As motivation has been shown to play a attitudes and motivation level at school, as well
significant role in student achievement, as perception of self and others.
techniques that focus on increasing student
motivation should be developed. Maehr and Methodology
Midgley (1991) suggest that changes need to be
made at the school-wide level to increase student A total of 389 students were randomly sampled
motivation rather than only focusing on changes from the three departments that made up of the
in individual clears level. Tucker et al. (2002) faculty of Engineering. Using only two sets of
think teachers need to be encouraged to show students were used. The first randomly selected
concern for and take an active interest in student were those who re-run the course and
disaffected students. They should understand the they are termed. Re-runners – (R.R) the second
relevance of classroom work to other aspect of group are the (R) regular students. The (R.R)
their lives. Furthermore, teachers should be groups were used as experimental group because
aware of the message they are sending their they form the basis of this study while the
students about their academic ability. (Anderman second groups (R) were the control group.
and Midgley 1997).
Questionnaires were distributed and
Under Achievement administered on the students through their class
representatives. A pilot test was first
Many theories of underachievement are based on administered on the sampling in order to validate
the assumption that student who are not motivate the final questionnaire. The first part of the
will not perform well. Adolescents Self questionnaire consisted items on demographic
expectancy for success and the subjective value information of the students such as department,
they place on an academic task have also been sex, class etc. the second part consisted of the
proposed as two factors that most directly predict students family background showing with whom
academic performance and choice Wigfield and student live, father’s and mother’s occupation.
Tonks, 2002). In this expectancy valued model, This is with a view to answering the hypothesis
self-expectancy is defined as adolescents beliefs one above. The student were also requested to
about how successfully they will perform an indicate their academic performance in their core
upcoming task. Subjective task value or subject areas. The questionnaire further asked
achievement value is defined as how a task reasons why the student either like or dislike
meets the different needs of individuals. Such citizenship education.
value is determined by factors such as the
importance of doing well on the task, the On the relationship of the teacher’s role and
intrinsic enjoyment value of the task, the poor performance in citizenship education,
usefulness of the task, and the cost of performing students were requested to rate their teachers’
the task. role in terms of his/her mastering of the subject,
creating relaxed atmosphere, marks students
Transition through School work, himself and always regular and punctual
in class. Questions on teacher’s stability
An issue in secondary education that has been
highlighted the teachers’ role. The other areas
receiving a significant amount of research
where the questionnaire dwelt on was the school
attention is the transition process that occurs
environment such as the condition of the library,
from secondary school to higher institution. This
Page 139
it’s usage by the student’s and the condition of This study concluded that the knowledge of
the classroom to learning. Finally, the career English or other non-numeric subject are
aspirations of the students was probed whether independent of the poor performances rate in the
they are forced on them or their personal choice. subject matter. This study reveals that it is not
attributable to insufficient English background
Data Analysis but owing to the technicality of citizenship
education as a course.
There were 32 variables used for this study each
data obtained from the questionnaire was coded Academic Aspiration Embodied with Interest
and scored using statistical package for social
science (SPSS). The null hypothesis were tested The educational level aspired by the student has
statistically by the use of the chi-square (x2). a strong relationship with the poor performance
“Chi-square test” is a general own parametric rate in the subject matter. For instance a student
test which can be used to evaluate whether or not aspiring to be a medical doctor or an engineer
frequencies which have been empirically concentrate more on science because his career
obtained differ significantly from these aspiration does not fall in citizenship education
expected under a set of theoretical assumptions profession. Therefore, one can conclude that
(Yusuff, 2004). interest or lack of it due to educational level
aspired plays a great factor in student
Findings and Conclusions performance in their courses.
The following factors were considered to have The Parent/Guardian

significant effect on the poor performance rate in
citizenship education at 0.05 significant level: This study indicates that the role of parents/
Citizenship education as a subject; academic guardian is significant. The lecturer may be too
aspiration level of the students; parent/guardian busy with teaching techniques or marking of
teachers’ attitude to citizenship education; scripts than to concern himself effectively with
availability of the teachers and school library the problem of one student and those of
condition. behaviorally deviant ones. They serve as
effective link between home and school.
It is generally observed that students who offered
citizenship education do so without choice unlike School Environmental Factors
the enthusiasm which they employ to their core
Students sometimes discuss their problems on
subjects. The study also found that age of student
various courses with their colleagues but the
has nothing to do with their poor outing in the
findings of this study show that it is insignificant
subject matter though it is true that the more they
to the poor performance rate in the subject
advance in age, the better their performance,
matter. This study reveals that student don’t,
since experience makes perfect.
have access to well-equipped library.
Student’s family background
Recommendations
The null hypothesis of the family background
which includes occupation of the parents has no In view of the findings and conclusion, the
significant influence on the poor performance in researcher offered some recommendations to
the subject matter other than their parental or government, school administrators, coordinators
guardian counseling. Student interested in their of part time programmes and all interested
parents’ occupations may take after them. listeners. These include the provision of sound
background knowledge in civic education at the
Academic Background secondary school level whereby pupils will be
alive to their responsibilities. The establishment
of curriculum planning committee that will make

Page 140
the learning of civic education and its allies for a students’ should be highly motivated in terms of
better future for our country compulsory. It also scholarship, bursary, and good hostel
recommends that suitable teaching aids and well accommodation.
equipped library with related texts should be
established. Finally, the study recommended that
References year findings. U.S Department of education,
Office of the Under Secretary.
i. Adegbola, O. (1996), “Essentials of ix. Kaplan, A. and Maehr, M. (2002).
Government”. Spikenard Press, Ibadan. “Adolescents’ achievement goals: Situating
Nigeria motivation in Sociocultural contexts”. In F.
ii. Adesiyan, E. A, and Muyiwa, S. A. (2004), Pajares and T. Urdan (Eds.), Academic
“Introduction to Citizenship Education”. Motivation of adolescents (pp.125-167).
Mubak Prints Ibadan. Nigeria Greenwich, CT: Information Age
iii. Ames, C. (1992). “Classrooms: Goals, Publishing.
structures and student motivation”. Journal x. Mehr, M.L. and Midlegy, C. (1991).
of Educational Psychology, 84 (3), 262-271. “Restructuring the school environment to
iv. Anderman, E. M. and Midgley, C. (1996). enhance student motivation and learning”.
“Changes in Achievement Goal Orientations American Educational research Association
after the Transition to Middle School”. Annual Meeting. 2-18.
Paper presented at the biennial meeting of xi. Solorzano, D. (1998). “Sociology of
the Society for Research on Adolescence, Education; Emerging Perspective”. Albany,
Boston, M.A. March, 1996. NY: State Uni. of N.Y Press.
v. Anderman, E. M. and Midgley, C. (2002). xii. Tucker, C. M., Zacyco, R. A., and K.C.
“Assessing the Motivational Goal Herman, (2002). “Teacher and child
Orientations of International English for variables as predictors of academic
Academic Purposes (EAP) Students Engagement among low-income African
(Electronic Version)”. Current research in American Children”. Psychology in the
Social Pyschology, 7 (15). Retrieved Schools, 39(4), 477-488.
October 18, 2003, from Center for Study of xiii. Urdan, T. C. and Maehr, M. L (1995).
Group Processes, University of Lowa. “Beyond a two-goal of motivation and
vi. Downson, M. and McInernery, D. M. achievement a case for social goals”.
(2001). “Psychological Parameters of Review of educational research , 65(3), 213-
Students’ Social and Work Avoidance 243.
Goals: A Qualitative Investigation”. Journal xiv. Wigfield, A. and Tonks, S. (2002).
of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 35-42. “Adolescents’ expectancies for success and
vii. Hwang, Y. S., Echols, C. and K. achievement task values during the middle
Vrongistinos, (2002). “Multidimensional and high school years”. In F. pajares and T.
Academic Motivation High Achieving Urdan (Eds.), Academic Motivation of
African American Students”. College Adolescents (pp. 53-82). Greenwich, CT:
Student Journal, 36 (4), 544-544. Information Age Publishing.
viii. Jacobson, L. (2003). “When Schools stay xv. Yusuff, A. Q (2004), “Management of
open late”. The national evaluation of the Statistics for Behavioural Science”. Onilex
21st century learning centres program, first Publishers Ibadan.

Page 141
Cultural Barriers to Engineering Education and Practice in Nigeria
Onyeocha, E. I. E.
eddyonyeocha@yahoo.com
National Board for Technical Education, (Programmes Dept.), Plot B Bida Road, P.M.B. 2239, Kaduna
Abstract
The need to consider the cultural practices that impinges negatively on engineering education and practices
in Nigeria. This paper has discussed the underlying and deep rooted problem of culture with its resultant
parochialism in the principle and practice of engineering and engineering education. Cultural practices that
impinge negatively on engineering were considered with some anti-engineering cultures that are not
particular to Nigeria. The paper seeks to address some of these cultures which may not be glaring and how
to contain them so that engineering education and practice will improve tremendously and launch Nigeria
as one of the strong economic country in the world. This study has discovered that engineering education
has been bedeviled with a barrage of problems ranging from out of date curricula, adequate financing and
poor state of infrastructures. The paper then resolved that, in today’s world and in the future, engineering
education programmes must be attractive, so that the excitement and the intellectual content of engineering
will attract highly talented students with a wide variety of backgrounds and career interests, particularly
women and will empower them to succeed.
Keywords: Resultant, parochialism, cultural, impinge, and economy.
Introduction historical ethno-cultural values of her diverse

As noted by Richard Morrow, past chairman of population. This paper is just concerned with
the National academy of Engineering USA, ‘’the how the cultures other than ethno-cultural
nation with the best engineering talent is in heritages of the people form barriers to the
possession of the core ingredient of comparative practice of engineering and training of future
economic and industrial advantage.’’ In the light engineering technology personnel.
of Morrow’s statement, Nigeria can not afford to
trifle with the training of her own engineering Religious Culture
talents neither can it afford to sacrifice
professionalism in engineering on the altar of Nigeria has two major religions, namely,
reprehensible values and cultures that can only Christianity and Islam. Nigerians’ way of living
serve the narrow interests of few. As the most is influenced by their religious beliefs. This has
populous country in Africa and the tenth largest also affected their attitude to engineering
country by population in the world, Nigeria is training. In the north, Islamic practices are still
made up of over 250 cultural groups. common. Research in the 1980s indicated that,
for the Muslim north, courses and professions
The concept of culture, according to Geertz, is a were chosen for women by the family, and not
shared way of living which includes knowing, the women themselves. Average Muslim
valuing, interaction with others, feeling etc. families in the north see engineering as a
(Geertz, 1993). masculine profession and must not be
recommended for the Islamic womenfolk. This
More so, Phelan, Davidson and Cao, (1991), no doubt has contributed to the low enrolment of
suggested that culture be conceptualized as the women into engineering colleges and which has
norms, values, beliefs, expectations and consequently robbed Nigeria of talents that
conventional actions of a group. would have contributed to the growth of
engineering. Table 1 shows that only 29% of the
It is these conventional actions (according to total enrolments into technology based
Phelan et al) and way of living (according to programmes (including engineering and science)
Geertz), that this paper seeks to look at and were female students. The number would be less
consider how they affect educational training and if it were computed for engineering alone.
practice of engineering in Nigeria. Nigeria as a
nation has a rich content of religious, political,
academic and social cultures apart from the
Onyeocha, E. I. E. Cultural Barriers to Engineering Education and Practice in Nigeria
Table 1: Student enrolment in Polytechnics by programme type and gender as at 2005
Programme Type Male Students Female Students Total

Technology-based 115,717 34.0% 56,603 16.6% 172,320 50.6%
Non-Technology-based 90,795 26.7% 77,420 22.7% 168,215 49.4%
Total 206,512 60.6% 134,023 39.4% 340,535 100%
The low enrolment of women into engineering programmes in favour of less qualified
also reflects the low number of women lecturers candidates at the expense of the qualified ones
and professionals on the staff of engineering who do not have god fathers. This will
colleges and private and public establishments. eventually lead to the training of people who
This shows that religion as a culture (way of ordinarily would have nothing to do with
living) of Nigerians is affecting engineering engineering, and in the long run affect the quality
training and practice negatively. of personnel in the profession.
Political Culture Academic Culture
Cases abound in Nigeria where politicians Nigerian institutions of higher learning operate
influence appointments into sensitive positions rigid academic calendar that gives no room for
simply because they are within the corridors of different levels of certificates and variable entry
power or the beneficiaries of such appointments requirements other than paper qualification.
are card carrying members of the ruling party. Several gifted talents that would have trained as
Professionalism and competence is disregarded engineering personnel who have relevant
under this condition. We see some of these experience but less paper qualifications are not
appointments into engineering schools, allowed admission. This is another barrier to
industries and government parastatals. They are engineering education.
based purely on political exigencies other than
the interest of the system and the larger society. More so, their calendar does not provide for
The result is that many of the beneficiaries of variable examination dates if the need arises.
these political appointments end up flouting Because of this, nursing mothers and expectant
ethics of the engineering profession, mothers are made to face strenuous examinations
demoralizing the professionals in the system and with their condition. This leads to poor
at last, grind the system to a halt. They are just performance. Engineering is difficult and full of
there to approve contracts and sign cheques drawing unlike other programmes in business
without meaningful contribution to the well and management. As such, candidates especially
being of the system. women, should be given an option of a change in
dates of examinations on need without being
These political appointees can afford to exercise made to pass through stringent rules.
arbitrary and unethical practices in engineering
establishments because they have the cover and Besides, a candidate’s success should not only be
protection of their god fathers. Several tied to his performance in formal examinations
production plants and industries have packed up but his performance in assignments, practical and
as a result of political considerations in project work done outside the classroom should
appointments because the beneficiaries of such also form a better portion of the overall
appointments are not fit for such positions assessment, since engineering is not theoretical.
neither can they motivate professionals to give Similarly, the culture or tradition within
their best. Many of them who can not understand academic circles, of using paper publication as a
engineering terminologies or even read condition for promotion, without consideration
engineering plans are used to dupe the system to one’s practical achievements has led to the
due to ignorance. Engineers must be allowed to production of more theory based engineering
manage engineering systems and establishments. lecturers. It should be appreciated that many
people due to their nature of schedules, may not
Politicians in Nigeria seem to wield unlimited have the time to sit down and start writing
powers. They have recently penetrated citadels theoretical papers. Such people should be
of learning swaying admissions into engineering evaluated for promotion (or professional

Page 142
registration) based on their achievements in the engineer can receive both a B.Sc. engineering
practical field. and an MBA in five years. Adapting this in
our higher institutions, will necessitate
Delivery of curricula should move away from the teaching the engineering students, core
traditional method of formulation of theories and engineering and science programmes in three
derivation of equations and formulae to a more years and core management and business
pragmatic approach like visits to sites, industries programmes in two years. The two year
and incorporation of entrepreneurship education. management and business programmes will
make up for the non engineering and science
The training of engineering students should be programmes the undergraduate dropped in
progressive in outlook. In Nigerian higher his first three-year B.Sc. engineering
institutions, engineering training is becoming programme.
less attractive because of its non mobile nature. It iv. Make engineering gender sensitive:
is the sincere submission of this paper that Humanity will not realize its full potential
engineering will attract more candidates if it is without taking advantage of the salient pool
run in one of the following suggested ways: of resources that women represent (Saduwa,
2006). It is in the light of Saduwa’s statement
i. Six-year master’s degree: Develop curricula above that this paper advocates for giving
that will make engineering programmes run a women more slots in engineering education
straight six years course for master’s degree. and appointments. Certain percentage of
The first four years of bachelor’s degree will admissions into engineering programmes and
be for professional courses. There will be appointments into engineering positions can
interludes of three months industrial training be reserved for women. COREN and NSE
at the end of each year. The remaining two of could embark on campaigns in secondary
the six years will be for management, schools using female professionals to talk to
entrepreneurial and professional courses. At female students on the gains of engineering
the end of which the student goes for youth programme. Serious campaign via electronic
service in a relevant industry/ area followed and print media should be waged against
by professional registration. The one year African prejudice to training women in
youth service may be supervised for the engineering. Engineering teachers should
purposes of professional registration. If include examples of women engineers as role
architecture can run a straight master’s models which female students can relate to.
degree for five years, engineering can do the
same for six years and will attract more
Social Culture
patronage from students.
ii. Professional model institutions: While the
There are a number of things Nigerians do to
existing higher institutions will be left to
ensure peaceful co-existence of the multi ethnic
continue running the undergraduate/graduate
groups in the country. Some of these things no
programmes as multi disciplinary colleges,
doubt affect the level of training in and practice
new ones can be established to run
of engineering. Admissions are based on the
professional model. By professional model
quota system or state of origin and not on merit.
this paper means setting up institutions that
This has led to the screening out of the best
will run pure engineering programmes just
qualified candidates for engineering programme.
like the case of college of medicine. The six-
Akin to this is the twin evil of making
year master’s degree in engineering may
appointments into engineering positions based
better be anchored by the professional model
on quota system or who you know in the
engineering colleges.
country. Cases abound where the best materials
iii. Dual degree alternative: As a way of
are dropped from appointments they merited in
attracting more students especially women
order to create openings for candidates
into engineering programmes, a cross
nominated by politicians, traditional rulers,
disciplinary track for engineers who desire
generals and those who feel they have the power
business training could be established via a 3-
of death and life. This is destroying engineering
2 dual degree format e.g. at the university of
practice and promoting mediocrity.
New Mexico, the Anderson schools of
management and engineering faculties have The social malaise called corruption has become
begun a 3-2 MBA programme by which an the second name of an average Nigerian.
Page 143
Sometime ago, Nigeria was ranked second most of her because they were able to address some of
corrupt nation. Corruption is having its toll on these barriers. Nigeria must act now to avoid
engineering practice, ranging from inflated further retrogression. A stitch in time they say
contract, award of contracts to quacks, poor saves nine.
execution of contracts, supplies of inferior
materials/equipment for engineering projects etc. References
There is a wrong perception of who an engineer 1. Armstrong, J. (1990), Pathways for women
is by the society. Nigerians associate engineering postgraduates in engineering. New
with the mere art of artisanship and crafts, and pathways and methods in engineering
rank engineers with artisans and craftsmen. They education, proceeding of the 2nd annual
tend to patronize the road side artisans more. AaeE convention and conference,
There is a growing apathy against engineers who Melbourne, pp301-306
the society mistakes for carriers of hand tools.
The apathy has led to the patronage of quacks 2. Bogdanowicz, Anna (2006), Women in
and artisans whom the society recognizes the engineering, addressing the bias,
more. Engineers are both poorly rated socially http://www.theinstitute.ieee.org/portal/site/t
and poorly remunerated considering the longer ionline/menuitem
duration and cost of training in comparison to
other fields of study. As a consequence, young 3. NBTE news, vol.11, no.6, sept-oct, 2008,
Nigerians have been discouraged from taking to p11
engineering education.
4. Nigeria- the society and its environment,
Conclusion http://www.mongabay.com/reference/count
ry_studies/
This paper has looked at cultures (other than
ethno-cultural and traditional) that hinder 5. Onyeocha, E.I.E., (2008), engineering
engineering training and practice in Nigeria. It entrepreneurship, proceeding of Kaduna
shares the sentiment that the gender gap that has Polytechnic engineering conference, 2008
robbed women their place in engineering should
be bridged. It is of the opinion that for 6. Rangan Banerjee, Vinayak P. Muley
engineering practice and training to make a head (2007), Engineering Education in India,
way in Nigeria, it must be shielded from (Draft Final Report, Sponsored by
religious, social, political and academic practices Observer Research Foundation), Energy
that are inimical to its progress. Most countries Systems Engineering, IIT Bombay, Powai,
that embarked on the quest for engineering Mumbai-400076
breakthrough with Nigeria have gone far ahead

Page 145
Application of a Model Process in Solving Engineering Computational
Problems
Olaniyan, A. and Oyedemi, T. I.

olaniyanabolade@yahoo.com
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Nigeria
Abstract
Engineering often involves applying a consistent, structured approach to the solving of problems using
algorithms or step-by-step procedure by which one arrives at a solution. This paper has analyzed in details;
the engineering computational problem solving process. Many variations of this process exist and no single
variation is best for solving all problems. Three major computational tools (Mathematical models,
Computer models and Internet technologies) were studied and discussed. The paper describe and presents
an overview of the state-of-the art in mathematical modeling and studies to which extent current simulation
and internet technologies can effectively be applied in solving engineering problems using a computational
scenario as case study. The result of the prediction was found satisfactory with the mathematical and
computer solutions found in good agreement.
Keywords: Algorithms, Sequence, Modeling, Simulation, Tools and Engineering.
Introduction In effect, therefore, transportation engineering in

its broadest sense includes not only design of the
transportation system and building of its lines
Modern engineering is characterized by the
and rolling stock, but also determination of the
broad application of what is known as system
traffic requirements of the route followed. It is
engineering principles. The systems approach is
also concerned with setting up efficient and safe
a methodology of decision-making in design,
schedules, and the interaction of the system with
operation, or construction that adopts: (i) the
the community and the environment.
formal process included in what is known as the
scientific method; (ii) an interdisciplinary or
team approach using specialists from not only The trend in modern engineering offices is
the various engineering disciplines, but from overwhelmingly toward computerization.
legal, social, aesthetic, and behavioral fields as Computers are increasingly used for solving
well; (iii) a formal sequence of procedure complex problems as well as for handling,
employing the principles of operations research. storing, and generating the enormous volume of
data that modern engineers must work with. The
use of computer in manufacturing results in
Engineers in industry work not only with
improved product quality, flexibility, reducing
machines but also with people, to determine, for
inventory costs and finally less product costs.
example, how machines can be operated most
efficiently by the workers. A small change in the
location of the controls of a machine or of its Numerical modeling of geotechnical engineering
position with relation to other machines or problems has been carried out in the Civil
equipment, or a change in the muscular Engineering Research Group at Oxford since
movements of the operator, often results in 1980. Finite element analysis is performed using
greatly increased production. This type of the in-house finite element program, OXFEM,
engineering work is called time-study written in FORTRAN and running on UNIX
engineering. workstations. A particular area of interest of the
group, since 1992, has been the modeling of soft
ground tunneling and the interaction between the
A related field of engineering, human-factors
effects of tunnel construction and surface
engineering, also known as ergonomics, received
structures. A complex model, including
wide attention in the late 1970s and the '80s
simulation of tunnel construction and a surface
when the safety of nuclear reactors was
structure was developed to solve this problem
questioned following serious accidents that were
(Bloodworth, Augarde and Honisby, 1999).
caused by operator errors, design failures, and
malfunctioning equipment.
In the design of small Dams, geophysical
surveys can be used in a number of geotechnical
Olaniyan, A. and Oyedemi, T. I. Application of a Model Process in Solving Engineering Computational Problems
investigations. With a basic understanding of the At the heart of management’s responsibility is
geophysical methods available and of the the best or optimum use of limited resources
engineering problems to be solved, useful including money, personnel, materials, facilities,
geophysical programs can be designed for and time. Linear programming, a mathematical
geotechnical investigations (A Water Resources technique, permits determination of the best use
Technical Publication, 1987). which can be made of available resources. It
provides a systematic and efficient procedure
In Signal References, the three signal variables which can be used as a guide in decision making.
(current, voltage, and power) are defined in
terms of two basic variables (charge and energy). Bazaraa, Jarvis and Sherali in 1990, applied
Charge and energy, like mass, length, and time, dynamic programming to the solution of a
are basic concepts of physics that provide the stochastic decision process with a finite number
scientific foundation for electrical engineering. of states. The objective was to determine the
However, engineering problems rarely involve optimal policy that maximizes the expected
charge and energy directly but are usually stated revenue over a finite or infinite number of stages.
in terms of the signal variables because current The transition probabilities between the states
and voltage are much easier to measure. were described by a Markov chain and the
reward structure of the process was a matrix
This paper has been designed to present an representing the revenue (or cost) associated
overview of the state-of-the art in mathematical with movement from one state to another. The
modeling and simulation in solving an linear programming formulation is then used as
optimization problem in the design of a water the basis for the development of a special
tank. capacitated simplex algorithm for solving the
network flow model.
Mathematical Models To this day, LP remains one of the most widely

used of all O.R. techniques and despite the
relatively recent development of interior point
What are the objectives of mathematical models? methods as an alternative approach, the simplex
Forecasting the future, preventing an unwanted algorithm (with numerous computational
future, and understanding various 'natural' and refinements) continues to be widely used.
unnatural phenomena are some possibilities
expressed in very general terms. These might all
Operations Research
be put into the category of problem solving by
using mathematics to mirror an aspect of the O.R. may be viewed as a scientific approach to
world. solving problems. It abstracts the essential
elements of the problem into a model. A
Four Stages of the Mathematical Modeling common misconception held by many is that
Process O.R. is a collection of mathematical tools. While
it is true that it uses a variety of mathematical
i. Observing the phenomenon, delineating the techniques, operations research has a much
problem situation inherent in the broader scope. It is in fact a systematic approach
phenomenon, and discerning the important to solving problems, which uses one or more
variables underlying the phenomenon that analytical tools in the process of analysis.
affect the problem.
ii. Conjecturing the relationships among the Finite-Element Method
variables and interpreting them
mathematically to obtain a model of the The finite-element method is a powerful
phenomenon. numerical technique that uses variational
iii. Applying appropriate mathematical analysis methods and interpolation theory for solving
to the model. differential and integral equations of initial and
iv. Obtaining results and interpreting them in boundary-value problems. The method is so
the context of the phenomenon under general that it can be applied to a wide variety of
investigation and drawing conclusions. engineering problems, including heat transfer,
fluid mechanics, solid mechanics, chemical
Linear Programming processing, electrical systems, and a host of other
fields. The method is also so systematic and
modular that it can be implemented on a digital
computer and can be utilized to solve a wide
Page 147
range of practical engineering problems by are described using natural language statements
merely changing the data input to the program. that are visually arranged to show the structure
The method is naturally suited for the description of the program.
of complicated geometries and the modeling and
simulation of most physical phenomena A flow chart represents elements of the solution
(Amirouche, 2007). to a problem as statements enclosed in boxes and
the sequence in which used elements are
performed is identified by arrows connecting the
The Finite Element Method (FEM) is the most boxes as shown in a typical flow chart in Fig. 1.
popular numerical method, and many
commercial 2-D and 3-D FEM packages are Computer Models
available. Many manufacturers develop their
own customized FEM programs for optimization Computers manipulate data, i.e. process and
and reliability enhancements. The 2-D FEM transform given representations of information in
analysis, which is widely used for stray loss order to obtain a desired result. Within this basic
estimation/control, winding temperature rise description of computer behaviour we can
calculations, short circuit force calculations, etc., discern two fundamental ideas:
in the design and development of transformers
can be integrated into the main electrical design
optimization program (Kulkarni and Khaparde, Representation: A concrete, symbolic
2004). encoding of information, e.g. numbers,
words, and names.
A number of engineering problems and heat Transformation: The steps (recipe, program
conduction in particular, can be solved by using and algorithm) used to calculate a specific
one-dimensional element and linear functions to result.
approximate the solution. In fluid dynamics, the
impulse-momentum equation is often used in A symbolic encoding of information provides a
conjunction with the continuity and energy vehicle for communication; information can be
equations to solve engineering problems (Van passed on in a commonly understood form. A
Schijndel, 2003). record of the process by which the representation
is transformed allows the calculation process to
Finite-element analysis is tailored for be carried out repeatedly on different sets of
engineering problems where the closed-form data.
solution can’t be evaluated and numerical
approximation is required. One might ask, however, why, given a system
for encoding information and the sequence of
steps needed to manipulate this to a specific end,
ALE Models should it be necessary to seek mechanical
assistance with the task? The answer to this
Two new models that show how to use the question lies in the fact that the calculations
Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) required to carry out these tasks are often
formulation: laborious. This fact has two consequences if no
mechanical aid is employed:
i. ale_prescribed, where the moving
boundaries are prescribed
 The computation will take a long time to
ii. ale_free_boundary, where the moving
complete.
boundaries are free
 The answers may be incorrect, because of
human error, and so the same computation
The ALE formulation is useful for solving
may have to be carried out several times.
problems that include moving boundaries, for
example, in fluid- low applications.
The calculations involved in predicting celestial
Visual Tools phenomena from previously observed data; in
assessing the rates of taxation to levy in order to
Using an abstract visual representation while raise a required sum; in analyzing census
developing a program structure is often a useful statistics; in determining the path of a projectile;
technique. Several different visual all of these are examples where lengthy, tedious
representations have been developed in the past. and (if done by hand) error-prone computations
In flow charts elements of the problem solution arise. Thus the historical support on the topic we
Page 148
are considering can be seen to be based on three It ought to be clear that methods for representing
related processes: information must have been developed first, so it
is appropriate to examine one aspect of such
i. The development of symbolic representations - number systems - before going
representations of information that are on to consider the algorithms and mechanical
amenable to manipulation. aids that utilize them.
ii. The formulation of algorithms by which
such representations may be processed to
solve computational problems.
iii. The construction of mechanical aids that
allow such algorithms to be implemented in
an efficient and a reliable manner.
Start
Read N
Sum = 0
K=1
Is Yes
K > N? Write Sum
No
Stop
Sum = Sum +1/K
K=K+2
Fig. 1: A typical Flow Chart
System Simulation Geoffrey Gorden defined system simulation as

“the technique of solving problems by
Building simulation models show both the observation of the performances, over time, of a
strengths and limitations of the numerical dynamic model of the system”. Thus the
approach to science and engineering. Developing dynamic model and the time element are two
a mathematical model and deriving information important components of system simulation.
by analytical means is simulation. Where
analytical methods are not applicable, numerical Simulation is used for experiment with internal
methods or specific algorithms are applied to interaction of a complete system, or of a
analyze the mathematical models, which again is subsystem within complex system. It can be
simulation. Thus the term simulation described employed to experiment with new design and
as a procedure of establishing a model and policies, before implementing them. Simulations
deriving solution from it covers the whole gamut are used to verify results obtained by analytical
of physical, analogue, analytical and numerical methods and to reinforce the analytical
investigations (Hira, 2001). techniques. It is very useful in determining the
Page 149
influence of changes in input variables on the
output of the system. Finally and most Methods and Techniques
importantly, simulation helps in suggesting
modifications in the system under investigation The following problem solving process is fairly
for the optimal performance. involved and may be an adequate amount of
work for simple problems, but for more complex
Simulation models can be classified as being problems, the solution will usually not be
static or dynamic, deterministic or stochastic and obvious and this process will aid in development
discrete or continuous. Static simulation of an appropriate solution.
represents a system which does not change with
time or represent the system at a particular point This specific process is divided into a set of five
in time. Static simulation is also sometimes steps. Each step includes questions that help
called Monte-Carlo Simulation. On the other moving successfully through the problem
hand, dynamic simulation models represent solving process.
systems as they change over time.
The problem-solving process for a computational
Deterministic models have a known set of inputs, problem can be outlined as follows:
which result into unique set of inputs. Simulation
of an automatic machine, where the operation i. Define the problem.
times may vary from man to man and from time ii. Create a mathematical model.
to time in a random fashion is stochastic iii. Develop a computational method for solving
simulation. In a stochastic model there are one the problem.
and more random input variables, which lead to iv. Implement the computational method.
random outputs. The outputs in such case are v. Test and assess the solution.
only estimates of true characteristics of the
system. The boundaries between these steps can be
blurred and for specific problems one or two of
Another important classification of model is as the steps may be more important than others.
discrete or continuous. Systems in which the Nonetheless, having this approach and strategy
state changes continuously with time are called in mind will help to focus our efforts as we solve
continuous systems while the systems in which problems.
the state changes abruptly at discrete points in
time are called discrete systems. Modeling in Problem Definition
discrete and continuous depends upon the system
to be modeled and objective of the study, The first steps in problem solving include:
Simulation may be purely discrete or purely
continuous or mixed discrete and continuous.  Recognize and define the problem precisely
by exploring it thoroughly (may be the most
difficult step).
Internet Technology  Determine what question is to be answered
and what output or results are to be
This covers all primary technologies that can be
produced.
used for Web programming with applications to
 Determine what theoretical and
the Internet based data acquisition and system
experimental knowledge can be applied.
control.
 Determine what input information or data is
available
There are several well-developed network
programming tools available today. These tools
Effort at this step pays great dividends by
include HTML, JavaScript, VBScript, Java,
eliminating or reducing false trials, thereby
ActiveX, Common Gateway Interface (CGI) and
shortening the time taken to complete later steps.
PERL or C++, Active Server pages (ASP) and
PHP. It is essential to make a correct decision
After defining the problem:
which programming language should be used for
which part of the software package used in
 Collect all data and information
solving engineering problems (Kaplan, 2001).
about the problem.
 Verify the accuracy of this data and
information.

Page 150
 Determine what information you  If a computer program is required, a variety
must find: intermediate results or of programming languages, each with
data may need to be found before different properties, are available.
the required answer or results can  A variety of computers, ranging from the
be found. most basic home computers to the fastest
parallel supercomputers, are available.
Mathematical Model  The ability to choose the proper combination
of programming language and computer,
To create a mathematical model of the problem and use them to create and execute a correct
to be solved: and efficient implementation of the method,
requires both knowledge and experience. In
 Determine what fundamental principles are your engineering degree program, you will
applicable. be exposed to several programming
 Draw sketches or block diagrams to better languages and computers, providing you
understand the problem. with some exposure to this issue.
 Define necessary variables and assign
notation. The mathematical algorithm developed in the
 Reduce the problem as originally stated into previous step must be translated into a
one expressed in purely mathematical computational algorithm and then implemented
 Apply mathematical expertise to extract the as a computer program.
essentials from the underlying physical
description of the problem. The steps in the algorithm should first be
 Simplify the problem only enough to allow outlined and then decomposed into smaller steps
the required information and results to be that can be translated into programming
obtained. commands.
 Identify and justify the assumptions and
constraints inherent in this model. Test and Assess the Solution
Computational Method The final step is to test and assess the solution. In
many aspects, assessment is the most open-
A computational method for solving the problem ended and difficult of the five steps involved in
is to be developed, based on the mathematical solving computational problems.
model.
 Derive a set of equations that allow the The numerical solution must be checked
calculation of the desired parameters and carefully:
variables.
 Develop an algorithm, or step-by-step  A simple version of the problem should be
method of evaluating the equations hand checked.
involved in the solution.  The program should be executed on
 Describe the algorithm in mathematical obtained or computed test data for which
terms and then implement as a computer the answer or solution is either known or
program. which can be obtained by independent
 Carefully review the proposed solution, means, such as hand or calculator
with thought given to alternative computation.
approaches.  Intermediate values should be compared
with expected results and estimated
Implementation of Computational Method variations. When values deviate from
expected results more than was estimated,
Once a computational method has been the source of the deviation should be
identified, the next step is to carry out the determined and the program modified as
method with a computer. Some things to needed.
consider in this implementation are:  A “reality check” should be performed on
the solution to determine if it makes sense.
 Assess the computational power needed, as  The assumptions made in creating the
an acceptable implementation may be hand mathematical model of the problem should
calculation with a pocket calculator. be checked against the solution.

Page 151
ii. Concrete slab with hermetic seal is provided
for the base.
iii. Cost of the base does not change
Computational Scenario appreciably with tank dimensions.
Problem Definition Computational method
We want to bid for the construction of water Express total volume in meters cubed
tanks for the Water Corporation of Oyo state (to (note: 1m3 = 1000L) as a function of height and
be installed in all the towns and villages in the radius
state) base on the following given specifications Vtank = Vc + Vh
and conditions: For Vtank = 5 × 105L = 500m3
500 = πR2H +2/3πR3
a. The tank should be cylindrical with a
hemispherical top, as shown in Fig.2 Solving for H:
below.
b. Capacity of the tank when filled should be H = 500/πR2 – 2R/3
5.00 x 105L.
c. #45,000/m2 of the surface area will be paid Expressing cost in Naira as a function of height
for the cylindrical portion, and and radius:
d. #60,000/m2 will be paid for the
hemispherical portion. C = 45000Ac + 60000Ah
=45000(2πRH) + 60000(2πR2)
Method:
Compute H and then C for a range of values of
R, then find the minimum value of C and the
corresponding values of R and H.
To determine the range of R to investigate;

make an approximation by assuming that H = R.
Then from the tank volume:

Vtank = 500 =πR3 + 2/3 πR3 = 5/3πR3
Solving for R:
R = (300/π)1/3
Fig.2 Tank configuration
*We shall investigate R in the range 3.0 to 7.0
meters, to determine the appropriate R and H that
Problem Recognition will result in the minimum cost of the tank.
In this case, we are to determine the appropriate Using MATLAB

tank radius R and height H to minimize the cost
of the tank in order to win the contract. MATLAB is a powerful computing system for
handling the calculations involved in scientific
Mathematical model and engineering problems. The name MATLAB
stands for MATrix LABoratory. MATLAB and
Cylinder volume: Vc = πR2H other mathematical computation tools are
Hemisphere volume: Vh = 2/3πR3 computer programs that combine computation
Cylinder surface area: Ac = 2πRH and visualization power that make them
Hemisphere surface area: Ah = 2πR2 particularly useful tools for engineers.
Assumptions:
i. Tank contains no dead air space.

Computational implementation

Page 152
Matlab script to determine the minimum cost design:
% Design for Minimum Cost

%
% We compute height (H) and cost ( C ) as functions of radius (R)
R = 3:0.001:7.0; % Generate trial radius values R

H = 500./(pi*R.^2) - 2*R/3; % Height H
C = 45000*2*pi*R.*H + 80000*2*pi*R.^2; % Cost
% Let us plot the graph of Cost vs Radius
plot(R,C),title('Tank Design'),...
xlabel('Radius R, m'),...
ylabel('Cost C, Naira'),grid
% We finally compute and display minimum cost, corresponding H and R
[Cmin kmin] = min(C);

disp('Minimum cost (Naira):')
disp(Cmin)
disp('Radius R for minimum cost (m):')
disp(R(kmin))
disp('Height H for minimum cost (m):')
disp(H(kmin))
Running the script gives the following output
Minimum cost (#):

1.3709e+007
Radius R for minimum cost (m):

4.9240
Height H for minimum cost (m):

3.2816
The radius corresponding to minimum cost (Rmin) = 4.9240 is close to the approximate value,
Rest = 4.5708 that was computed to assist in the selection of a range of R under investigation.
The plot of cost C versus radius R is shown in the Fig. 3 below.
Conclusions solving engineering computational problems.

Mathematical model was developed for the
The problem solving process in this paper was scenario, and a MATLAB script was applied to
designed to handle adequate amount of work for simulate the process that determined the value of
simple problems, and to aid in development of the radius and the height which resulted in
an appropriate solution for more complex minimum cost for the water tank design and
computational and general engineering problems. construction.
The paper has shown an overview of the state-of- The study finally shows that mathematical
the art in modeling and simulation, and studies to modeling and simulation are important tools in
which extent, current simulation technologies resolving engineering computational problems.
can effectively support the methods involved in
Page 153
9. Hilal, S. S. and Erikson, W. (1981),

“Matching Supplies to Save Lives: Linear
Programming the Production of Heart
Valves”. Interfaces,Vol. 11, No. 6, pp. 48–
References 55.
1. A Water Resources Technical Publication. 10. Hira, D. S. (2001), “System Simulation” S.

(1987), United States Department of the Chand & Company Ltd. Ram nagar, New
Interior Bureau of Reclamation Design of Delhi – 110055
Small Dam. Third Edition.
11. Hooker, J. (1986), “Karmarkar’s Linear
2. Ahuja, R., Magnati, T. and J. Orlin, (1993), Programming Algorithm”. Interfaces, Vol.
“Network Flows: Theory, Algorithms, and 16, No. 4, pp. 75–90.
Applications”. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ. 12. IBM OS/2: http://www.ibm.com/software/
os/warp
3. Amirouche, F. (2007),“Introduction to the
Finite-Element Method”. In: Marks' 13. IBM: http://www.ibm.com/software/os/warp
Standard Handbook for Mechanical
Engineers. Eds: Eugene A. Avallone, 14. Jain, S., Stott, K. and E. Vasold, (1978)
Theodore Baumeister III and Ali M. Sadegh. “Orderbook Balancing Using a
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 11th Combination of Linear Programming and
Edition. Heuristic Techniques” Interfaces,Vol. 9, No.
1, pp. 55–67.
4. Bazaraa, M., Jarvis, J. and H. Sherali,
(1990), “Linear Programming and Network 15. Kaplan, G. (2001), “Ethernet's winning
Flow”. 2nd ed., Wiley, New York. ways,” IEEE Spectrum, January 2001, pp.
113-115.
5. Bloodworth, A.G. Augarde , C.E. and G.T.
Honisby, (1999) “Transferring a Non- 16. Lasdon, L. (1970), “Optimization for Large
Linear Finite Element Code to the Oxford Systems”. Macmillan, New York, 1970.
Supercomputer, OSCAR”. In:
Developments in Analysis and Design Using 17. Linux: http://www.redhat.com.
Finite Element Methods. Eds: B.H. V'
Topping and B. Kumar. CIVIL-COMP 18. Microsoft Windows: Microsoft:
PRESS. 10 Saxe-Coburg Place Edinburgh, http://www.microsoft.com
E113 5BR, UK.
19. Microsoft: http://www.microsoft.com.
6. Charnes, A. and W. Cooper, (1967), “Some
Network Characterization for Mathematical 20. Roff, J.T. (2001), “ADO: ActiveX Data
Programming and Accounting Applications Objects”. O'Reilly & Associates,
to Planning and Control”. The Accounting Sebastopol, CA, 2001.
Review, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 24–52.
7. Fogler, S. H. and LeBlanc, S. E. (1995), 21. UNIX: http://www.www.unix.org.
“Strategies for Creative Problem Solving”
Prentice Hall, 1995. 22. Van Schijndel, A.W.M., (2003), “Modeling
and solving building physics problems with
8. Gilmore, P. and Gomory, R. (1961), “A Femlab, Building and Environment”. Vol
Linear Programming Approach to the 38/2 pp 319-327
Cutting Stock Problem,” Operations
Research, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 849–859.

Page 154
Fig. 3 The plot of cost C versus radius R

Page 155
Predictive Model for Regulating Flow of Water in Open Channels
1
Agbede, O.A. and 2Okeniyi, A.G.
okeniyiag@yahoo.com
1
Department of Civil Engineering. University of Ibadan
2
Department of Civil Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan
Abstract
A model was developed for predicting flow of water over a V-Notch weir that can be used to ensure effective
regulation of flow of fluid in an open channel. The approach is purely mathematical techniques of modeling,
concept and application. A governing equation was theoretically formulated based on assumptions, laws and
theories. This was experimentally simulated to describe the relationship between variable parameters and
predict the behavior of the flow under natural phenomena. The geometry is specified by head, h, and the angle,
θ of the sides of notch, hence the required regulation, measurement and control of flow of water can be
accurately effected in open channels.
Key words: Model, Water, Flow and Weir
Introduction Model Methodology
One of the challenges of engineers in designing an Partial Analysis of experimental approach was
adequate water channel is accurate description and adopted, and this was primarily based on
prediction of hydraulic phenomena as occur in dimensional and similarity considerations.
nature, many of which are too complex to be Rayleigh’s Method of indicial approach was
comprehended ordinarily by usual mathematical followed in formulating the governing equation
calculations. Thus modeling technique are used as and to define the problem.
alternative tool for obtaining information
necessary to complete an efficient and satisfactory The principle of similarity Theory and Similitude
design of an open channel. Clear understanding of Analysis of two physical systems of different sizes
flow behaviour is requiring before control of water is that in which one (model) accurately reproduces
level can be properly affected. Measurement of the phenomena of other (prototype), J.J. Sharp,
discharge of controlled flow also hangs on the 1981. The criteria used are represented by model
same basis. laws used in the design of the model.
Resultful management and studies of events Governing Equation

associated with flow in a channel, for immediate
and future applications, to optimize system out-put The approaches result into a dimensionless
is an added advantage. functional equations which are the most commonly
used as an aid in planning experimental
Using mathematical models to predict the effect of measurements. These dimensionless equations
dimensional parameters of flow in the subject provide model laws, while the necessary scaling
channel enables accurate estimation of the criteria can be obtained by intuitive process as
controlling variables which are not directly classified according to a relative small number of
measurable. It will also ensure the possibility of dominant parameters/variables.
testing the sensitivity of the flow – system
parameters. Dimensional analysis was carried out to ensure
dimensional homogeneity based on the principle
Application of mathematical model, as generally developed by the Fourier, which states that any
applicable, simplifies representation of the subject equation is correct only if all terms of the equation
system, enhancing changes, better explanation, have the same dimension.
prediction and presentation of knowledge of flow Weirs may be round crested, broads crested or
in open channel. sharp crested as determined by consideration of
The aim of obtaining a predictive model that strength, site condition for stability and materials
accurately produces the phenomena of a prototype availability.
was gotten by similarity theory and similitude
analysis of J.J Sharp, 1981.
However, “notch” is a form of weir, particularly
suitable for water flow measurement, which could
be of any shape. But, rectangular and V- shape
notches are generally preferred.
Agbede, O.A. and Okeniyi, A.G. Predictive Model for Regulating Flow of Water in Open Channels
Thus, V- notch is considered in this study
B H
Ѳ B
H B
H B
H B
Fig. 1 H
For flow of fluid, the equation is generally given thus;
Q = f (H, B, ρ, μ, τ, g, Ѳ,) …………………………………….… (i)
Where:
Q = discharge over the notch
H = head of fluid above the vertex of the notch
B = width of water surface over the notch
ρ = density of the fluid
μ = viscosity of the fluid
τ = surface tension of the fluid
g = gravitational acceleration
Ѳ = angle of the sides of notch
For flow of water, the following presumptions are made to obtain the governing equation;
1. It is presumed that viscosity µ, surface tension τ and density ρ are not relevant
variables.
2. The free surface indicates that pressure variations are not important.
3. The phenomena are purely dominated by gravitational forces.
4. The geometry is specified by the head, h, and width, B
The functional equation for water flow is then written as
Q = f (g,H,B) …………………………………………….…. (ii)
For dimensional homogeneity, equation (iii) the dependent variables must be equal to a dimensionless
constant (k) multiplied by product of the dimension of each of the independent variables raised to
undefined power. Thus,
Q = K ([g]a *[H]b *[B]c) ……………………........…………….…….. (iii)
K, a, b, & c are the undefined constants.
Dimensional analysis of the equation (iii)
[L]3/[T] = K([L]/[T2])a * [L]b * [L]c ………………….………. (iv)
Equate the indices of discharge [L] and [T]
[L], a + b + c = 3 ……………………..………...….. (1)
[T], a = ½ ……………..….……….. (2)

Page 157
Put equation (2) in (1)
B = 5/2 – c ………………….…..….. (3)
Substitute (2) and (3) in equation (iii)
Q = Kg½ H5/2-c Bc
= Kg ½ . H5/2. H-c. Bc
Q = K g ½ . H5/2.(B/H)c ………………………………………….. (v)
C is an indication of the summation of constant terms, having the form (B/H) c. Then,
Q = g ½. H5/2 .∑K(B/H)c ………………………………. (vi)
Considering the statement of geometric similarity of model and prototype,
B/H = 2 tan θ/2
K = the coefficient of discharge Cd
This equation becomes
By experiment, Cd is found to be 0.437 for large value of H (Dake, 1974) and g = 9.81m/s2.
Hence the modeling equation,
Q = 2.737 H2.5. tan θ/2 ………………………………….…… (viii)
Discharge of flow at varying depth, h and angle, Ѳ of the notch sides may be determined with equation viii.
Result and Discussion
Results
Equation (viii) indicates that flow of water over a V notch weir is a function of H and θ of the notch sides.
For a V – notch angles (θ) of 150, 300, 450, 600, 750, and 900 at varying depth of 0.25m, 0.50m, 0.75m, 1.00m,
1.25, 1.50m, 1.75m and 2.00m. Detail in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1
V – Notch Angle θ H (MM) H2.5 (mm) Q(m3/s)

0.25 0.313 0.0110
0.50 0.1768 0.0640
0.75 0.4871 0.1753
1.00 1.0000 0.3600
150 1.25 1.7469 0.6292
1.50 2.7557 0.9920
1.75 4.0513 1.4580
2.00 5.6569 2.0361
0.25 0.0313 0.0229
0.50 0.0313 0.1296
0.75 0.4871 0.3570
1.00 1.0000 0.7330
300 1.25 1.7469 1.2805
1.50 2.7557 2.0199
1.75 4.0513 2.9696
2.00 5.6569 4.1466

Page 158
0.25 0.0313 0.0355

0.50 0.0313 0.2005
0.75 0.4871 0.5524
1.00 1.0000 1.1340
450 1.25 1.7469 1.9810
1.50 2.7557 3.1250
1.75 4.0513 4.5942
2.00 5.6569 6.4149
Table 2
V – Notch Angle θ H (MM) H2.5 (mm) Q(m3/s)

0.25 0.313 0.0495
0.50 0.1768 0.2793
0.75 0.4871 0.7696
1.00 1.0000 1.5800
600 1.25 1.7469 2.7601
1.50 2.7557 4.3540
1.75 4.0513 6.4011
2.00 5.6569 8.9379
0.25 0.0313 0.0657
0.50 0.0313 0.3713
0.75 0.4871 1.0229
1.00 1.0000 2.1000
750 1.25 1.7469 3.6685
1.50 2.7557 5.7870
1.75 4.0513 8.5077
2.00 5.6569 11.8795
0.25 0.0313 0.0855
0.50 0.0313 0.4838
0.75 0.4871 1.3333
1.00 1.0000 2.7370
900 1.25 1.7469 4.7813
1.50 2.7557 7.5423
1.75 4.0513 11.0884
2.00 5.6569 15.4828
2.5
2
Deoth (mm)
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Discharge (m3/s)
Fig. 2.1 Flow of 15o Notch

Page 159
2.5
Depth (mm) 2
1.5
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Discharge (m3/s)
2.5
1.5
Depth (mm)
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig 2.3 Flow of 45o Notch Discharge (m3/s)
2.5
2
Depth (mm)
1.5
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Discharge (m3/s)

Page 160
2.5
2
Depth (mm) 1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Discharge (m3/s)
2.5
2
Depth (mm)
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Discharge (m3/s)
18
16
14
/s)
12
(m3
15o
10
Discharge Q
8 30o
6 45o
4 60o
2 75o
0 90o
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Depth of Notch (H) mm
Fig. 3 Model of flow as functionof depth and v-notch angle

Page 161
Matrix format of presentation summarizes the rate of flow over the V-notch weir based on the dominant
parameters, Fig. 4a and 4.
Ѳ1 Ѳ2 Ѳ3 Ѳ4 Ѳ5 Ѳ6
H1 Q1.1 Q2.1 Q3.1 Q4.1 Q5.1 Q6.1
H2 Q1.2 Q2.2 Q3.2 Q4.2 Q5.2 Q6.2
H3 Q1.3 Q2.3 Q3.3 Q4.3 Q5.3 Q6.3
H4 Q1.4 Q2.4 Q3.4 Q4.4 Q5.4 Q6.4
H5 Q1.5 Q2.5 Q3.5 Q4.5 Q5.5 Q6.5
H6 Q1.6 Q2.6 Q3.6 Q4.6 Q5.6 Q6.6
H7 Q1.7 Q2.7 Q3.7 Q4.7 Q5.7 Q6.7
H8 Q1.8 Q2.8 Q3.8 Q4.8 Q5.8 Q6.8
Fig. 4a: Matrix of Dominant Parameters for Q
15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 90o
0.25 0.0110 0.0229 0.0355 0.0495 0.657 0.0855
0.50 0.0640 0.1296 0.2005 0.2793 0.3713 0.4838
0.75 0.1753 0.3570 0.5524 0.7696 1.0229 1.3333
1.00 0.3600 0.7330 1.1340 1.5800 2.1000 2.7370
1.25 0.6292 1.2805 1.9810 2.7601 3.6685 4.7813
1.50 0.9920 2.0199 3.1250 4.3540 5.7870 7.5423
1.75 1.4580 2.9696 4.5942 6.4011 8.5077 11.0884
2.00 2.0361 4.1466 6.4149 8.9379 11.8795 15.4828
Fig 4b: Iterative Result of the Matrix

Page 162
Discussion tool for approaching such challenges would

definitely go a long way to having a feasible
Considering the result in Fig. 4a and 4b and the solution.
graphical representations in Fig 3, respectively,
these reveals the iterative implications of the References
variable parameters as controlling the behavior of
flow over a V-notch weir. 1. Agbede, O.A. (1996), Groundwater
Modelling – An overview. A Publication
It is appreciative in this regard, that the model of Geological and Mining Society of
clearly established the interrelationship between Nigeria, Journal Vol. 32 1996 N0 2 pp
the dominat parameters of the flow system. This 105-112.
simplification however, according to Neelamkavil
(1987), enhanced understanding of the subject 2. Sharp, J.J. (1981), Hydraulic Modelling,
system of the case study and pragmatically First Edition
regulates the rate of flow in open channel.
3. Jonas, M.K. Dake (1974), Essentials of
Conclusion Engineering Hydraulics, Reprinted
Water flow problem, like that of flood and flood Edition of the first.
control, had being a serious one worldwide. This is
not unconnected with the difficulty of accurate 4. Herbert, F., Wang, M. P and Anderson, P.
estimation and prediction of flood and knowledge (1982), W.H. Freeman and Company, San
of behavior of the controlling phenomena. Francisco, Introduction to groundwater
However, the use of modeling and simulation as a Modelling.

Page 163
Embracing Integration of Numerical Packages to the Teaching of
Engineering Courses
Oladejo, K.A., *Abu, R., **Olaniyan A. and M.D. Adewale

oladejok@oauife.edu.ng
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
* Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
** Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
Abstract
Mastery of finite element theory is necessary to write finite element program, but it is not necessary to
use COMSOL Multiphysics package. It is only necessary to understand the physical problem at hand,
how to use the finite element program, and how to interpret the results. This paper gives an
introduction to modeling in COMSOL Multiphysics, as being employed in the heat transfer course, by
discussing the basic steps of modeling process, from generating the geometry to post-processing. This
was demonstrated by applying the package to steady-state heat conduction in a domain. Three different
temperature profiles, of different orientation, were obtained from the domain, and COMSOL
automatically generated the graphical illustration of the temperature profiles. The output of the package
was compared with the solutions generated by analytical application of finite difference method to the
same case. A spreadsheet program was used to graphically illustrate the profile for the analytical
solution. The results were in good agreement. The evaluation illustrates the powerful and flexible
nature of COMSOL for solving scientific and engineering problems; and as teaching tool in
engineering education. Provision of such packages and capacity building towards its application will
definitely bring improvement to learning activities.
Keywords: Engineering teaching; modeling; temperature distribution; COMSOL Multiphysics
Notations:
FDM = Finite difference method

FEM = Finite element method
FEA = Finite element analysis
Ti, j = Temperature at nodes
T1, T2, T3, T4 = Temperatures at the four boundaries of the domain
N = Number of iteration
n = number of division
Introduction linear or time dependent). It is used mainly

when hand calculations cannot provide
Modeling and simulation are becoming accurate results. This is often the case when
indispensable tools in design, optimization, the geometry or process in question is very
and research. An important part of these tasks complex. When solving the PDEs that describe
is the estimation of the influence of different a model, COMSOL applies the finite element
parameters that describe a model or simulation method (FEM). It runs that method in
(Nicholas, 1987). COMSOL Multiphysics is a conjunction with adaptive meshing and error
finite element modeling software that is control as well as with a variety of numerical
applicable to all fields of engineering and solver (Wilensky, 1998).
science. It comprises tailored modeling
solutions for Structural Mechanics, Chemical
Engineering, and Electromagnetic. It facilitates Finite element analysis (FEA) was first termed
modeling of all physical phenomena based on by R.W. Clough in a paper published in 1960,
Partial Differential Equations, PDEs, such as but the roots of the theory relates back to the
heat transfer, stress and strain analysis, and Ritz method of numerical analysis, first
fluid flow (COMSOL, 2004). The model introduced in 1909. Using the calculus of
equations, or physics, can either be applied in a variations, R. Courant applied the Ritz method
ready-to-use form, or specified freely to suit to obtain “piecewise approximations” of
any type of physical phenomenon (linear, non- solutions for problem of equilibrium and
Oladejo, K.A., Abu, R., Olaniyan A. and M.D. Adewale Embracing Integration of Numerical Packages to the Teaching of Engineering Courses
vibrations in 1943 (Schijndel, 2002). Further advantage of this powerful tool. COMSOL
development of these ideas continued through Multiphysics is used in research, product
the 1940’s and 1950’s. By 1953, engineers development and teaching, in such fields as:
began to use computers to solve structural Acoustics, Antennas, Bioscience,
problems. The paper by Turner, Clough, Bioengineering, Chemical Reactions,
Martin, and Topp, published in 1956 is Diffusion, Ecology, Electromagnetic,
considered a major turning point in the Environmental Science, Fluid Dynamics, Fuel
development of FEA. The paper dealt with the Cells, Geophysics, Heat Transfer,
“stiffness and deflection of complex Math/Applied PDEs, MEMS, Microwave
structures” and contributed to increase interest Engineering, Nanotechnology, Optics and
in the method. In 1960 the term “finite Photonics, Physics, Porous Media Flow,
element” was first used, and around this time Quantum Mechanics, Radio Frequency
numerical methods began to be widely used in Components, Semiconductor Devices,
the aerospace industry (Spyrakos, 1994). Structural Mechanics, Transport Phenomena,
In 1963, FEA was recognized as a specific Wave Propagation, any combination of the
technique, and a serious academic discipline. above, etc.(James, 2003). Oladejo et al. (2007)
This led to much greater research, leading to presented an in-house built model to solve
its application for heat transfer and fluid two-dimensional conduction heat transfer in a
mechanics problems in addition to structural. square domain using the concept of finite
By the early 1970’s, FEA had become difference method.
established as a general numerical technique
for the solution of any system of differential The main aim of this study was to demonstrate
equations. The method was still only used at the standard process of modeling using the
that time on a limited basis, however, the package for heat transfer problems. The
availability of powerful computers in industry package was used to simulate steady-state
(Hutchens and Gupta, 2000). The use was temperature distribution for a 2-D domain.
primarily in the aerospace, automotive, This is because the analytical solutions can be
defense, and nuclear industries. easily obtained for proper comparison. The
implementation of the package will reduce
With the advent of micro-computers in the frustration for students and provide better
1980’s, however, the methods have become platform to understand the basic principles of
more widely used. It is now possible for thermal analysis.
engineers in virtually every industry to take
Package Implementation
Problem definition
A flat metal plate of dimensions 1.2m x 1.2m is subjected to a temperature of 100º C on one side, 25º C
on two sides and 0º C on the fourth side as shown in Figure 1.
25 C
100 C 0 C
25 C
Figure 1: Graphical illustration of the problem.

Page 165
Algorithm for the COMSOL Solution
(a) Start COMSOL, a Model Navigator screen appears.

(b) Select an application mode from the Model Navigator.
i. Set the Space dimension to 2D.
ii. Click on + of Heat Transfer.
iii. Click on + Conduction.
iv. Click on Steady-state Analysis.
v. Select Element: Lagrange – Linear to use linear elements. (Note that the default
element is always quadratic).
vi. Click OK. This is illustrated in Figure 2.
Fig. 2: Nodal navigator interface.
(c) Draw the geometry in Draw mode.

i. Click on Rectangle/Square on the left-hand toolbar.
ii. Click at (0, 0) and, whilst holding down the mouse button, drag the cursor to
(1.2, 1.2) and then release the mouse button.
iii. Click on Zoom Extents on the top horizontal toolbar to get a better view.
(d) Set the Sub domain Settings and Boundary Conditions in Physics mode.
i. Select Physics - > Boundary Settings . . .

ii. In Boundary Selection, click on boundary 1 to highlight it. Look on the drawing
to see which boundary this is.
iii. Select Boundary Condition: Temperature.
iv. Change the temperature T0 to 100.
v. In Boundary Selection, click on boundary 2 to highlight it. Look on the drawing
vi. Select Boundary Condition: Temperature.
vii. Change the temperature T0 to 25.
viii. In Boundary Selection, click on boundary 3 to highlight it. Look on the drawing
ix. Select Boundary Condition: Temperature.
x. Change the temperature T0 to 25.
xi. In Boundary Selection, click on boundary 4 to highlight it. Look on the drawing
Page 166
xii. Select Boundary Condition: Temperature.

xiii. Change the temperature T0 to 0.
xiv. Press OK.
(e) Initialize a finite element mesh in Mesh mode.

A mesh is partition of the geometric model into small units of simple shapes.
Select Mesh - > Initialize Mesh.
(f) Solve the problem in Solve mode.

Select Solve -> Solve Problem.
(g) Visualize the Solution in Post-processing mode.

The package automatically goes from solve mode into post-processing mode. The temperature
distribution in the plate (as automatically generated by the package) is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Temperature distribution resulting from the boundary conditions.
i. Click on Draw Line for Cross-Section Line Plot on left-hand toolbar. Press the mouse
button down when the cursor is at (0.4, 0), drag the cursor to (0.4, 1.2) and release the
mouse button. A cross-section temperature plot along this line is displayed as shown in
Figure A1.
ii. Click on Draw Line for Cross-Section Line Plot on left-hand toolbar. Press the mouse
button down when the cursor is at (0, 0.8), drag the cursor to (1.2, 0.8) and release the
mouse button. A cross-section temperature plot along this line is displayed as shown in
Figure A3.
iii. Click on Draw Line for Cross-Section Line Plot on left-hand toolbar. Press the mouse
button down when the cursor is at (0, 0), drag the cursor to (1.2, 1.2) and release the mouse
button. A cross-section temperature plot along this line is displayed as shown in Figure A5.

Page 167
Analytical Solution of the Case Study approximation to the temperature at each point
(i, j) in turn from the equation (1) as
The method of solution is to iterate through all diagrammatically shown in Figure 4 (Donald
the grid points, calculating a better and Leighton, 1998).
T
2
i n
T11 T13 T17
* * *
T19 T22
* *
* (I , j)
T T
1 3
T64 T70
* *
i 0
T j n
j 0
4
Figure 4: Two-dimensional finite difference element configuration
Ti 1, j Ti 1, j Ti , j 1 Ti , j 1
Ti , j (1)
4
Where,
i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n-1, and
j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n-1.
Equation (1) simplifies the Gauss – Seidel small quantity εmax. Computations will also be
method of iteration. To start, the minimum discontinued if the number of complete
temperature of the boundary condition is iterations, k, exceeds an upper limit, kmax
assumed everywhere within the plate. The (Carnahan et al., 1976).
process of iteration through all grid points is
repeated until further iterations would produce, For the problem, diagrammatically shown in
it is hoped, very little change in the computed Figure 5, there are four internal nodes and
temperatures. The iteration stops if the sum ε, three elements on a row so there will be four
over all grid points, of the absolute values of equations to evaluate four unknown variables.
the deviations of the temperatures from their
previously computed values, falls below a

Page 168
25 C
. .1 2
100 C
. .3 4
0 C
25 C
Fig. 5: Graphical illustration of nodes for analytical solution.
Node 1,
T2 100 25 T3 4T1 0
T1 (T2 T3 125) / 4 (2)
Node 2,
0 T1 25 T4 4T2 0
T2 (T1 T4 25) / 4 (3)
Node 3,
T4 100 T1 25 4T3 0
T3 (T1 T4 125) / 4 (4)
Node 4,
0 T3 T2 25 4T4 0
T4 (T2 T3 25) / 4 (5)
Gauss–Seidel method of iteration was used to temperatures at some grid points on the
solve the linear equations (2), (3), (4) and (5) horizontal, vertical and diagonal lines defined
as shown in Table 1. The values of in Figure 6 are shown in Table 2.
25 C
a
* *z
. *. . *.y .
1 b 2 3 4 5
100 C c 0 C
* *x
d
*w
v
* * e 25 C
Fig. 6 : Illustration of problem definition with critical points in the domain.

Page 169
Table 1: Analytical solution by Gauss-Seidel iteration
N T1 T2 T3 T4
0 0 0 0 0
1 31.250 14.060 39.060 19.530
2 44.530 22.270 47.270 23.640
3 48.640 24.320 49.320 24.660
4 49.660 24.830 49.830 24.920
5 49.920 24.960 49.960 24.980
6 49.980 24.990 49.990 24.990
7 49.995 24.996 49.996 24.998
8 49.998 24.999 49.999 25.000
Table 2: Temperatures at some points in the domain
Vertical Horizontal Diagonal

Point Temperature Point Temperature Point Temperature
a 25.0000 1 100.0000 v 65.5000
b 49.9990 2 49.9980 w 49.9990
d 49.9980 4 24.9990 y 24.9990
e 25.0000 5 0.0000 z 12.5000
Discussion of Results ii. All of the calculation methodology is

open and clear to see.
From the analytical solutions obtained from iii. Graphs of results can easily be
the 8th iteration of the FDA, stated in Table 1, displayed.
one could be able to get the steady-state iv. A parametric study is well facilitated
temperatures for points (a,b,d,e), (1,2,4,5), and with little structured input required,
(v, w, y, z) as depicted in the domain shown in i.e. a range of “what if” studies can
Figure 6. These were clearly shown in Table 2. be undertaken to look for key trends
A spreadsheet package was used to graphically or relationships together with the
illustrate the temperatures for easy comparison potential successes and failures of
with that of COMSOL Multiphysics package. the numerical method.
These were shown in Appendix A. The minor
deviation of the temperature profile in the Using the COMSOL Multiphysics, the analysts
analytical solution from that of COMSOL is can readily explore the effects of changing the
primarily due to poor modeling, discretization physical problem. i.e. looking at the influence
(such as insufficient short time steps); and of different thermo-physical properties and the
round off and truncation (depending on application of different boundary conditions.
numerical representation, or the solution For engineering undergraduates such
algorithm). conduction investigations are useful in their
own right. The COMSOL implementations of
Conclusions the numerical method also allow an insight
into the numerical methodology and see
This paper has illustrated the usefulness of factors which affect its performance.
COMSOL Multiphysics 3.0 as a teaching and Numerical stability, rate of convergence, the
research aid in engineering education. The compromise between computational time and
case-study presented shows the simplicity, accuracy together with the influence of time
effectiveness, efficiency, reliability, and and space step lengths can all be explored.
accuracy of the package. The motivation for This study, synthesized with the conduction
using COMSOL Multiphysics to model studies, truly enables a deeper understanding
steady-state temperature distribution is simple of the problem and moves the study from a
as: skilling exercise to an understanding one.
i. It avoids any presumption that the Acknowledgment

students or engineers can read, write
and edit source code. The first author gratefully acknowledged the
provision of the trial version of COMSOL
Page 170
Multiphysics package by Mr. Tolani Owosina 7. Kharab, A. (1995), “Use a spreadsheet

of Simulo Technologies, a representative of program in a two-dimensional heat
COMSOL Inc. and their associated companies conduction problem,” Computer
in Nigeria, and opportunity to be trained on the Methods in Applied Mechanics and
application of the package by National Agency Engineering 12(2), 173-181.
for Science and Engineering Infrasctrure
(NASENI), Abuja, Nigeria. 8. Nicholas M. B. (1987). “Finite Element
Analysis of Microcomputers”, McGraw-
Hill New York.
References
9. Oladejo K. A., Adetan D. A. and Bamiro
1. COMSOL, A. B. (2004), “FEMLAB O. A. (2007); “A software tool for
Quick Start”; Tegnergatan 23 SE-111 40 determining steady-state temperature
Stockholm, Sweden. distributions in a square domain by the
finite-difference method” The
2. Carnahan, B., Luther H. A., and Wilkes International Journal of Mechanical
J. O., (1976), “Applied Numerical Engineering Education; Vol. 35, No. 4,
Methods”, John Wiley & Sons, New pp 305 -315.
York, pp 486.
10. Schijndel A. W. M. (2002), “Modeling
3. Donald, R. P. and Leighton E. S., (1998), and solving building physics problems
“Theory and Problems of Heat with FemLab”
Transfer”, Schaum’s Outline Series in http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_o
Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book b=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_Arti
Company, New York, pp 48. cleListID=465219388&_sort=d&view=c
&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_url
4. Hutchens, G. J. and Gupta N. K. (2000), Version=0&_userid=10&md5=806cf382
“A Spreadsheet Program for Steady- 860b32cb0a7b74ca47fcc530
State Temperature Distributions”;
http://sti.srs.gov/fulltext/tr2000132r1/tr2 11. Spyrakos C. (1994), “Finite Element
000132r1.html Analysis in Engineering Practice”, West
5. This document was prepared in Virginia University Press, USA.
conjunction with work accomplished
under Contract No. DE-AC09- 12. Wilensky, U. (1998), “NetLogo Heat
96SR18500 with the U.S. Department of Diffusion model,”
Energy. http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/mode
ls/HeatDiffusion,
6. Jame,s G. (2003), “Advanced Modern
Engineering Mathematics”, Pearson 13. Center for Connected Learning and
Prentice Hall, Harlow, England. Computer-Based Modeling,
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL.
Appendix
Fig. A1: FEMLAB generated temperature profile for the vertical line.

Page 171
Fig. A2: Analytically generated temperature profile for the vertical line.
Fig. A3: FEMLAB generated temperature profile for the horizontal line.
Fig. A4: Analytically generated temperature profile for the horizontal line.

Page 172
Fig. A5: COMSOL generated temperature profile for the diagonal line.
Fig. A6: Analytically generated temperature profile for the diagonal line.

Page 173
Building Quantum Computer by using Simulation Approach
Fagbolu, O. O.
Department of Computer Science. The Polytechnic, Ibadan
Abstract
In the history of computer, there have been several metamorphoses from one paradigm to another which
brings about drastic reduction in sizes of components until a point is reached where logic gates are so small
that they comprise of few atoms which leads to the possibility of quantum computer. This paper answers
the problem of continuing miniaturization of electronic components by building a quantum computer
simulator with already developed algorithms and this brings to the limelight the advantages of quantum
effect in solving problems which may require millions of steps and more computational tasks on the
conventional computers to tens of steps and less computational time on quantum computer simulator. The
alternative to conventional computer which is governed by laws of quantum mechanics is experimented in
this practical oriented paper. This project work answers the problem of continuing miniaturization of
electronic components by building a quantum computer simulator with already developed algorithms that
can take the advantages of quantum effect. The approach employed in bringing the significant quantum
computer features into use is done by creating basic unit of command in quantum computing that is gate,
algorithms are set of gates running on the quantum computer and both the algorithms and gates are
simulated. The simulation is done by editing the matrices that connote different prototypes of gates
(template) which serves as input into circuit instead of putting them manually. Two different universal
gates are going to be used in the simulation namely Controlled-NOT gate and Toffoli gate. At the end
Visual Basic 6.0 is used as the framework to design gates and circuitry, set of instructions (command) is
developed in multi lingua approach: English language (the Nigerian lingua franca) and Yoruba (my mother
tongue) so as to bring usefulness of computing to the doorstep of illiterate who cannot read or write in
English language but are knowledgeable. Simulated quantum computer bits and gates would be developed
which will be a major steps towards a concrete realization of quantum computer and differences between
quantum computer and classical computer would be spelt out.
Keywords: Paradigm, Miniaturization, Command, Algorithm, Quantum and Gate.
Introduction previously used algorithms for instance

searching all the data in a database
Quantum computing cut across information simultaneously and just as we know that we
theory, computer science and quantum physics. survive from day to day in an hostile
Its aim is to understand how certain fundamental environment by spending most of our time
laws of physics discovered in the 20th century seeking for resources such as food, water etc
can be harnessed to dramatically improve the which is a large unsorted database. The only
acquisition, transmission and processing of efficient way so achieve better improvement
information (Nielsen and Chuang, 2000). in seeking for these daily needs is by
Quantum computer has several inherent involving several people- parallel processing
advantages that are not achievable due to several (Imre and Balazs, 2005).
delimiting factors such as environmental  It often provide an exponential increase on
influences via decoherence, noise, imprecision factoring large prime numbers which is not
and randomness. If a quantum computer can be achievable on classical computers, a prime
built so many benefits would be acclaimed to the factor is a number made from product of two
development of this generation computing such prime numbers. For example 15 is a prime
as: number and are made from the product 3
 Provision of quadratic speed up on searching and 5. A proposed algorithm would produce
techniques of some classical algorithms over a factor of any given prime number.
Although this seems simple enough but it is
Fagbolu, O. O. Building Quantum Computer by using Simulation Approach
computationally expensive. It is with comprehensive understanding of quantum

profound effect on cryptography as it would computing it would be useful to have knowledge
compromise the security often provided by of the various quantum effects that a real
Public Key-encryption (RSA). quantum will use which are Superposition,
Entanglement and Randomness.
Quantum computing idea came at a time when
scientists were studying the limits of A quantum system with n qubits has 2n mutually
computation (Feynman, 1985) as discussed orthogonal states and a qubit is a vector quantity
previously. Feynman and other great contributors unlike bits that are scalar. It belongs to a 2-
wondered if these quantum effects could be used dimensional complex Hilbert space H. The state
to create a new computing device, a quantum of a quantum system is represented by any of the
computer. They hoped that by using quantum following:
mechanics they could not only make computers
on a much smaller scale than available today but a. Vector notation
also use quantum properties to make b. Dirac representation
computation more efficient. If this prediction is
true quantum computing could revolutionize the For example, the basis states for a 3- qubit
computing industry by allowing previously system in Dirac representation is {|000>, |001>,
intractable problems to be solved in a relatively |010>, |011>, |100>, |101>, |110>, |111>} and its
short time. Its development had been impractical vector notation which is the row vectors (1 0 0 0
as a result of its sensitivity to noise and 0 0 0 0),(0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0), (0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0), etc
imprecision which makes this research work are the corresponding column vectors.
worthwhile and brings characteristic features of
quantum computer out of laboratory into reality Simulation of quantum computer brings the
(Imre and Balazs, 2005). advantages of the quantum computer to the users
which will subsequently increase the workability
of the quantum computer system ranging from
Quantum Computation its speed and accuracy to security of transferred
information but simulation of quantum computer
Before a thorough insight is given into quantum on a classical computer is when computer is built
computation, quantum mechanics need to be out of components that can harness these
delved into. What is quantum mechanics? resources made available by quantum mechanics
Quantum mechanics is a mathematical and this can be likened to two(2) artists drawing
framework or set of rules for the construction of the same object if artist 1 can only have access to
physical theories (Nielsen and Chuang, 2000). black and white while artist 2 gets to use all
Without brief introduction to computer history, colours but their job is to draw the rainbow as
quantum computer might not be explicitly you can all agree with me that artist 1 can not get
understood because changes that brought about it right, no matter how skilful because he does
advances in computing will still proceed further not have access to the right resources; artist 2
into reduction in sizes of the components used. has an advantage over artist 1 because all what is
required of him to draw rainbow are made
A quantum computer uses a different available at his disposal.
fundamental unit of information called qubit There are series of difficulty in the realization of
unlike a deterministic classical bit that can be in quantum computer but because of its inherent
one of the two states symbolized by 0 and 1. A advantages to society at large, simulating
qubit is a microscopic system like an atom, quantum computer on classical computer will
photon or nuclear spin which has a property overcome the deterrent problems of the physical
called superposition. This property enables it to realization of this future technology and bring its
exist in multiple states at the same time. A state benefits to doorstep despite frailities in its
is the description of the properties of a particle at development.
any given time. In order to gain a more
Page 175
The objectives of this research are to: probably the most formidable and decoherence.
Error correction is rather self-explanatory, but
 Design quantum computer simulator what errors need correction? The answer is
that will carry out its basic operations primarily those errors that arise as a direct result
which are quite impossible with of decoherence, or the tendency of a quantum
convectional computer. computer to collide from a given quantum state
 Carry out a comparative analysis of into an incoherent state as it interacts, or
classical computer with its quantum entangles, with the state of the environment.
computer counterpart.
 The purpose of the quantum computer There is a kind of inaccuracy in reversing the
simulation is to be able to model and logic gates making up the classical computer
simulate the quantum computer which which are quite possible in Quantum computer
seems impossible for now. but decoherence becomes major inhibiting factor
that affects the implementation of quantum
To simulate quantum computer there will be computer. These are the reasons why we have to
need to first create mathematical models which only simulate quantum computer on the classical
could be conceptual, spartial, functional, computer. Major demerit in quantum computing
declarative, constraint or multimodel. Quantum is that it is not possible to view the result of a
computer is in all ramifications better than calculation before the algorithm has been
convectional computers but hardware inability completed.
which is the non availability of the required
hardware outside research laboratories lead to The contents of each variable can be thought of
simulation of quantum computer. Quantum as being in separate parallel universes that cannot
computer simulator may be the answer to be viewed or measured without affecting the
building quantum circuits which is a challenging others, in fact measuring a variable halfway
task and many researchers have worked on the through a computation may cause the algorithm
simulation of quantum computer for different to fail. It is not just the programmer that can
algorithms which was reviewed (Wallace, 2001) cause a variable to be measured, any outside
(Wallace, 2004). Without the ability to build force such as a stray electron or photon influence
physical quantum computers, we must rely on the output generated, quantum computers evolve
quantum computer simulators and these are a coherent superposition of quantum states so
therefore at the centre of this research work, that each of these states follow a distinct
however there is no actual quantum computer to computational path until a final measurement is
experiment with for now which makes made at the output.
operations in this field to be performed on
quantum computer simulators running on Potentials of Quantum Computer
classical hardware.
Quantum computers evolve a coherent
Obstacles AND Pitfalls in bulding Quantum superposition of quantum states so that each of
Computer these states follow a distinct computational path
until a final measurement is made at the output.
The field of quantum computing has made It is therefore certainly possible that at least for
numerous promising advancements since its some problems, quantum computers could
conception, including the building of two- and surpass the power of classical computers that is
three-qubit quantum computers capable of some quantum computer processing speed and
simple arithmetic and data sorting. However, computational power outshines that of classical
there are a few potentially large obstacles which computers (West, 2000). The interest in quantum
inhibit and retard us from building a quantum computing increased dramatically after Peter
computer that can rival today's modern digital Shor's discovery of the quantum algorithm for
computer till date. Among these difficulties are factorizing large numbers. Mathematicians
error corrections, hardware architecture that are believe that the number of steps required on a

Page 176
classical computer to factorize a number with N factorize into its 64 and 65 bit prime factors,
decimal digits grows exponentially with N. Since using over 1000 workstations over a period of 8
the computational work required grows very months (A process called distributed computing).
rapidly, the difficulty of factorizing very large
numbers has been made the basis of the security A quantum computer using Shor's algorithm with
of the RSA encryption method. a clock speed of 100 MHz could factor RSA129
in a few seconds. This explains the interest of
This system is widely used to protect electronic various government agencies around the world in
bank accounts and secure information transfer the feasibility of building quantum computers.
over the internet. The significance of Shor's Shor’s factorization algorithm is still the most
result was that his algorithm, running on a important quantum algorithm. The problem is to
quantum computer, could solve the factorization write a given positive integer as a product of
problem in polynomial time. What this could prime numbers, e.g. 12827 = 101 × 127. It is not
mean for the RSA cryptographic system may be so difficult to find small prime factors, but if
illustrated by the time required to factorize a 129 there are several large prime factors, no fast
digit number known as RSA129. In 1994 this classical algorithm for factoring is known.
required 5000 MIPS-years of computer time to
Methodology
There are two different approaches to Simulation as a model

quantum computer simulation namely
Simulation as a model contrast the reality
a. Reality based approach based simulation; it is not aimed at
b. Simulation as a model approach physical phenomena of quantum
mechanical systems but rather focuses on
Reality based simulation mathematical modelling of basic quantum
operations. In simulation model approach,
In reality based simulation, concept of the this model goes beyond the postulates of
real world are imitated that is realizable quantum mechanics thereby enabling
actions in real life are performed. opportunities to be explored. Thinking in
Postulates of quantum mechanics are given terms of mathematical concepts is much
priority in this simulation for instance more meaningful for humans than thinking
qubits cannot be observed or cloned in terms of low level primitives that are
without disturbances. Much emphasis are meaningful to computer only (Tucci,
laid on the postulates of quantum 1999).
mechanics because nobody knows how the
physical world really operates the only The design of quantum simulator in this research
thing we can do is to model it (Imre and work will follow a simulation model approach
Balazs, 2005). A suitable description is which will make qubits to be cloned or observed
given to all the real life events around us in without disturbance due to the postulate of
the postulate of quantum mechanics. This quantum mechanics. Simulation model would be
model represent different viewpoints about used in order to enable flexible experimentation
nature therefore they give different capabilities as a means of exploring and
explanations on how the world operates founding new quantum algorithms. This
but what they have in common is that they approach have been adopted for this study
do not answer why the world operates that because of mathematical axioms that are used
way. such as the one given below that are used for
quantum gates,

Page 177
Model
Design
Model Execution
Execution Analysis
Fig 1. Three sub fields of Computer Simulation
n
2 -1
Ψ
M
= in 1 in 2... io
i =O
Ci
where ψ› represent quantum state that the (template) can be created that will be input
particles are in superposition will collapse to into the circuit instead of putting them
upon measurement. Note that superposition manually each time the gates are required.
can be explained as if the state of a particle is Two different universal gates that are
not known then the principle of superposition intended to be used in the quantum simulator
states that it is in all states simultaneously and are Toffoli and CNOT gates .The quantum
if any measurement is made upon the particle computer simulator would be developed
that is in superposition then the state using Visual Basic as its framework for
collapses to one of its possible states. C designing gates and circuitry which would
represent the start bit of quantum state and n allow the quantum computer simulator to run
represent the number of qubits but as regard on many platforms, the unit of a command
this research work 7 qubits where employed (set of instructions) for quantum computation.
and the number of qubits obtained were 127 It would be developed to cater for
qubits . Multilanguage that is unit of command and
questions can be asked in one of the Nigerian
The basic unit of command in quantum local language Yoruba. This simulation as a
computer is gate, algorithm are set of gates model can be any of the these approaches: a.
running on the quantum simulator. Each of Qubit simulation type, b. Qutrit simulation
the gates consists of matrix and by editing the type and c. Qudit simulation type.
matrices algorithms are created but in order to
avoid time waste different prototype of gates
Page 178
The qubit simulation approach will be systems. Qubit are at the forefront in this
explored in this research work which is a two design while qutrit and qudit are left alone for
state system while qutrit type is a three state future research although they have their
system and qudit type requires ten state benefits.
Fig. 2 Comparison of Classical computer with Quantum computer
Findings and Conclusion be achievable and the need to understand

capabilities and resources of quantum computing
In Nigeria, the essence of quantum computation so as to gain from its uses.
will in no small measure bring more powerful
computation than classical computation into The paper would also serve as a focal point
realization. More can be computed in less time whenever future references are needed in this
and thereby the complexity classes will be field of study. But I make my recommendations I
different. Once the simulator is feasible it will wish to intimate the audience on why we might
enhance quantum computer realization while not build quantum computer, if they can be built,
bringing its advantages to the doorstep of quantum computer could break today’s best
illiterate who can not read or write in English encryption systems, accelerate database
language but are knowledgeable on archaic searching, develop novel products such as fraud-
approach of solving their tasks and these tasks proof digital signatures or simulate complex
would done in their mother’s tongue. biological systems to help design new drugs. All
these could result into a chaotic situation when
The introduction of quantum computation and its most of the sensitive information can be made
advantages is capable of bringing benefits of known to unauthorized users and consequently
quantum computer to the users and as we were lead to anarchy and terrorism.
aware that in quantum systems possibilities
count. At the end of this research work a References
quantum computer simulator will be developed 1. Imre.S and Balazs.F, (2005), “Quantum
which would bring about the realization of Computing and Communications”, West
quantum computer and move quantum computer Sussex, John Wiley&Sons Ltd.
out of theoretical values and laboratories to its
2. Klappenecker.A and Rotteler.M, (2003),
physical realization. The dream of building “Quantum Software Reusability”. (Online).
quantum computer from its engineering
difficulties into physical quantum computer will

Page 179
3. Bevington.R.J ,(2005), “Quantum

Simulation and Further Examination of 13. Fitzgerald,D, (2004),” Quantum Qudit
Shor’s Algorithms”.Online Simulation”. Masters Thesis National
University of Ireland Galway.
4. Hogg.T, Polak.W, Rieffel.E and
Mochon.C, (2006), “Tools for Quantum 14. Hawick, K, (2006), “ Simulate Quantum
Algorithms”. Computation on Classical Computers”.
5. Meglicki .Z, (2005), “Introduction to 15. Nielson,M.A and Chuang. I.L, (2000),
Quantum Computing”. Online: Accessed “Quantum Computation and Quantum
Dec 2006. Information”. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press.
6. Kamalov. T.F and Rybakov Y .P,(2003),
“An Algorithm of Virtual Quantum 16. Viamontes, G.F,(2003), “More Efficient
Computer”. Gate Level Simulation of Quantum
Circuits”.
7. Marinescu. C.D, (2004), “The Promise of
Quantum Computing and Quantum 17. Gruska, J, (1999), “Quantum Computing,
Information Theory”, Florida, Prentice Chicago”. McGraw Hill.
Hall
18. Svore, K.M, Aho.A.V, Cross, A.W,
8. Blaha. S ,(2002), “Quantum Computers Chuang, I.L and Markov, I.L, (2006), “A
and Quantum Computer Languages”. layered Software Architecture for Quantum
Computing Design Tools”.
9. Perry R.T, (2004), “The Temple of
Quantum Computing”. 19. Berman,G.P,Doolen,G.D,Mainieri,R and
Tsifrinovich,V.I, (1998), “Introduction to
10. Steane.A ,(1997), “Quantum Computing”. Quantum Computers”.
11. Arun,Bhalla,Eguro. K and Hayward, W 20. Fishwick,P.A,(2003), “Simulation Model

(2002), “Quantum Computing,Shor’s Design and Execution”.
Algorithm and Parallelism”.
21. Wikipedia, (2003), Computer Simulations
12. Lomont, C, (2004), “Quantum
Computing”.

Page 180
Application of Digital Circuit in Computer Mathematical Operation
Akande, A. and Adeniran, A.

deymolar1@yahoo.com
Department of Physics. The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Nigeria
Abstract
Everything computer does is stored and manipulated in binary numbers; one electronic component that
suitably represents binary operation is the ‗Transistor‘ a transistor switch has only two possible states,
‗Open‘ (On) or ‗Closed‘ (off). The simplest operation that can be performed by a transistor is the NOT gate
and different combinations of the NOT gate creates all other gates which are described in this paper. One
kind of circuit required for electronic arithmetic is the adder, they are combination of different logic gates –
it performs binary addition. Half adder adds two bits at a time while Full adder adds three bits at a time, we
also have multi-bit adder which performs operations; for example to add two four-bit numbers. This paper
investigates the operational application of these various digital circuits in Computer mathematical
operations. It simply describes the basic ―How Computer Perform Maths‖ This paper is to give an insight
into how the basic digital electronics concept applies to the design of computer processor and microchips.
Keywords: Binary Numbers, Transistor, Arithmetic, Multi-bit, Digital Circuits and Microchips
display also can add numbers by representing the
Introduction 0 and 1 in the binary number system. And once
you can add numbers, you can perform any kind
The easiest way to visualize how computers of math, because multiplication is simply
work is to think of them as enormous collections repeated addition and subtraction is addition of
of switches, which is really what they are— negative numbers and division is repeated
switches in the form of microscopic transistors subtraction. And to a computer, everything m ~
etched into a slice of silicon. But for the ` `ath, words, numbers, and
moment, think of a computer as being a giant software instructions are numbers. This fact let‘s
billboard made up of columns and rows of all those switches (transistors) do all types of
lights—thousands of them. Then imagine a data manipulation.
control room behind that billboard in which there
is a switch for each one of the light bulbs on the In this paper presentation we will explore the
sign. By turning on the correct switches, you can application of digital circuits in ―How Computer
spell your name or draw a picture. Perform Maths with reference to the former
paragraph mean ―How Computer Performs
But suppose there are ―master switches‖ that Addition‖.
control dozens of other switches. Instead of
having to flip each switch individually for every Binary Number
light bulb that goes into spelling your name, you
can throw one switch that lights up a All information, words and graphics as well as
combination of lights to create a A, then another numbers are stored in and manipulated by a PC
master switch that turns on all the lights for an in the form of binary numbers. In the binary
D, then another switch to light up another E. numerical system there are only two digits 0 and
1. All numbers, words, and graphics are formed
Now you‘re very close to understanding how a from different combinations of those two digits.
computer works. In fact, substitute a computer
display for the billboard and substitute RAM Table 1
which is a collection of transistorized switches
for the control room, and a keyboard for the
master switches, and you have a computer Decimal Binary
performing one of its most basic functions,
displaying what you type on screen. 0 0
Of course a computer has to do a lot more than 1 1

display words to be helpful. But the off and on
positions of the same switches used to control a 2 10
Akande, A. and Adeniran, A. Application of Digital Circuit in Computer Mathematical Operation
3 11
Input
4 100 bit Input
1 bit 0
5 101
6 110
7 111 Clock
Pulse
8 1000
9 1001 Output Output

bit 0 bit 1
10 1010
Fig. 1
Transistor Switches
Transistor switches are used to manipulate

binary numbers because there are two possible
states of a switch, open (off) or closed (on), Table 2
which nicely matches the two binary digits. An
open transistor, through which no current is Input
Input f
flowing, represents a 0. A closed transistor, rom Clock
from other Output
which allows a pulse of electricity regulated by Transistor
the PC‘s clock to pass through, represents a 1. 1 1 0
(The computer‘s clock regulates how fast the 1 0 1
computer works. The faster a clock ticks, causing
pulses of electricity, the faster the computer
works. Clock speeds are measured in megahertz,
or millions of ticks per second.) Current passing Or gate
through one transistor can be used to control
another transistor, in effect turning the switch on NOT gates strung together in different
and off to change what the second transistor combinations create other logic gates, all of
represents. Such an arrangement is called a gate which have a line to receive pulses from the
because, like a fenced gate, the transistor can be clock and two other input lines for pulses from
open or closed, allowing or stopping current other logic gates. The OR gate creates a 1 if
flowing through it. either the first or the second input is a 1.
Fig 2: OR gate with its four possible
Not Logic gate
input and corresponding output
The simplest operation that can be performed
with a transistor is called a NOT logic gate,
INPUTS
made up of only a single transistor. The NOT
gate is designed to take one input from the clock 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
and one from another transistor. The NOT gate
produces a single output—one that‘s always the
opposite of the input from the other transistor.
When current from another transistor
representing a 1 is sent to a NOT gate, the gate‘s
own transistor switch opens so that a pulse, or
current, from the clock can‘t flow through it, 0 0 0 0
which makes the NOT gate‘s output 0. A 0 input
closes the NOT gate‘s transistor so that the clock OUTPUTS
pulse passes through it to produce an output of 1.
Page 182
Half Adder
Fig. 2 OR gate with its four possible input and
corresponding output With different combinations of logic gates, a
computer performs the math that is the
foundation of all its operations. This is
Table 3: Or Gate Operations accomplished with gate designs called half-
adders and full-adders. A half-adder consists of
an XOR gate and an AND gate, both of which
1st Input 2nd Input Output receive the same input representing a one-digit
binary number. A full-adder consists of half-
0 0 0 adders and other switches.
1 0 1
Full Adder + Half Adder
0 1 1
A combination of a half-adder and a full-adder
1 1 1 handles larger binary numbers and can generate
results that involve carrying over numbers. To
add the decimal numbers 2 and 3 (10 and 11 in
the binary system), first the half-adder processes
XOR Gate the digits on the right side through both XOR
and gates.
An XOR gate puts out a 0 if both the inputs are 0
A. The result of the XOR operation 1
or if both are 1. It generates a 1 only if one of the
becomes the rightmost digit of the result.9
inputs is 1 and the other is 0.
An AND gate outputs a 1 only if both the first
INPUT
input and the second input are 1s. An XOR gate
0 0 1 0 0 1
puts out a 0 if both the inputs are 0 or if both are
1 1
1. It generates a 1 only if one of the inputs is 1
and the other is 0.6
B. The result of the half-adder‘s AND

operations — 0 — is sent to XOR and AND
gates in the full-adder. The full-adder also
0 1 processes the left-hand digits from 11 and 10,
1 0
OUTPUT sending the results of both of the operations to
another XOR gate and another AND gate.
Fig. 3 XOR gate showing the possible inputs and
output combinations
C. The results from XORing and ANDing
the left-hand digits are processed with the results
from the half-adder. One of the new results is
Table 4: XOR Gate Operations passed through an OR gate. The result of all the
calculations is 101 in binary, which is 5 in
decimal. For larger numbers, more full-adders
1st Input 2nd Input Output are used—one for each digit in the binary
numbers. An 80386 or later processor uses 32bit
0 0 0 full-adders.
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

Page 183
2
1 + 1 DECIMAL
INPUT BIT
1 1 BINARY
AND
XOR
0 BINARY
1
Fig. 4: Operation of an Half Adder
2 3 DECIMAL
+
1 1 1 1 BINARY
FULL-ADDER HALF-ADDER
A
A
AND XOR AND XOR A
B
AND XOR
OR
C
C
BINARY
0 1
= 5 DECIMAL C
1
A B C
Fig. 5: Showing a 3bit adder (a combination of one full-adder and an half adder)

Page 184
Binary to Decimal Decoding Circuit
A 3-bit binary to decimal decoding circuit is shown in Fig. 1 below; can be used to decode the output of the
circuit in the Fig 5 above to give a decimal output. The circuit is designed with and gates.
2 Decimal Output
A B C
Fig. 6
Conclusions This paper has explained the application of the

basic knowledge of Transistors and logic gates
All microchips, whether they‘re into the much complex digital technology
microprocessors, a memory chip, or a special- innovations and inventions.
purpose integrated circuit, are basically vast
collections of transistors arranged in different Reference
patterns so that they accomplish different tasks.
Currently, the number of transistors that can be Darren L. Spohn, Data Network Design 2nd ED,
created on a single chip is about 16 million. The McGraw-Hill Primis Custom Publishing.
physical limitation is caused by how narrowly
manufacturers can focus the beams of light used Paul Horowitz, Winfield Hill, Art of electronics
to etch away transistor components that are made 2nd ED, Cambridge University Press.
of light-sensitive materials.
Ron White, How Computer Works 4th ED, QUE
Chip makers are experimenting with X-rays A Division of Macmillan Computer Publishing,
instead of ordinary light because X-rays are USA 201 W. 103rd Street Indianapolis, IN
much narrower. Someday, transistors may be 46290.
taken to their logical extreme—the molecular
level, in which the presence or absence of just Tom Duncan, B.Sc., Success in Electronics, John
one electron signals an On or Off state. Murray (Publishers) Ltd 50 Albemarle Street,
London WIX 4BD.
Page 185
Steinberg Ford, Electricity and Electronics Basic

Phillip Cutler, Linear electronic circuits with 4th ED, American Technical Society.
illustrative problems, McGraw-Hill Company,
New York. MILTON S KIVER, Transistor and Integrated
Electronics. McGRAW-Hill Book Company.

Page 186
Assessing Airline Performance using DEA Approach
Adegbola, A. A., Adeaga, O. A. and A. O. Adegbenjo

Department of Mechanical Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan
Abstract
Performance assessment is an indispensable, but a neglected activity in our public sectors. It enables an
organization to understand its current and past actions, to justify the future through efficient utilization of
resources. Towards achieving this goal, a mathematical modeling, which takes care of multiple inputs and
multiple outputs, was adopted. This is DEA. Through this mathematical technique, a standard value was
established for an efficient airline via a benchmark which an inefficient airline must emulate to achieve the
best. The measurement revealed lack of controls on the resources by some airlines, hence the poor
performance. This necessitated the need to monitor the activities by using efficiencies as performance
measure. As a means of consolidating the performance measure, a Visual Basic programming language was
developed to compute the optimum level of resources that should be utilized to enhance efficiency.
Keywords: Challenge, DEA, Data Envelopment, Linear Programming, QSB+: Quantitative

System Business plus, DMU: Decision Making Unit
Introduction approach this problem by measuring the

performance of one of the important
Organization exists to pursue set goals. The organizations, the airline Industries which is a
pursuit of goals, involves expenditure of critical outstanding sector based on its level of
resources. To minimize this expenditure while operation and services that requires maximum
maximizing goals achievement is generally held comfort and accident-free flight. First, there must
desirable. Several studies have documented that be a way of measuring the defining the concepts,
public and private sector organizations do not since we can neither improve what we cannot
always uses resources efficiently. The define according to Sink (1985). Hence, the
opportunity cost concerns have inspired need for performance measurement.
numerous research projects addressing the causes
of inefficiency and reform to the actual „firm‟ Performance measurement is an indicator, and a
such as changing the service provided and generic term that indicates how well an
management style. organization uses resources in production. It is
an essential tool for both public and private
Theorelli (1962) observed that inefficiency can sectors. In a well-functioning market, price
be attributed to investment cuts due to inflation changes provide signals about the quality of and
and growing capital costs, over-regulation and demand for goods and services. Although, firms
indiscriminate and direct state intervention in the operating in these markets receive feed-back on
economy. This, to an extent have been found to how they perform through indicators of
be true, while some administrators attribute it to profitability, and market share, performance
strategies of skilled man-power, and have found measurement approaches can provide
it necessary to substitute capital intensive information on the extent of potential
technology in some areas. This has contributed improvement that maybe possible. Governments
to high costs of production, and loss of profit, generally, provide goods and services where
which hamper the realization of some there has been a market failure, which cannot be
organizational objects. Examining the various adequately addressed by the regulations of
originations in Nigeria, banking sector has been market. The general absence of price signals kin
the only industry whose performance, have been such circumstances means that performance
closely monitored. However there are other indicators are even more important to guide
organizations like National Electric Power decisions to ensure that services are delivered to
Authority (NEPA), Aviation Services, health, the community efficiently
and Education which require close monitoring
whose impact have not been felt buy the public In measuring performance, past actions are
at large. considered to judge the present, and current
states. In essence, performance assessment is an
As a contribution to development a competitive objective approach towards solving productive –
market for our sectors the author is poised to efficiency problems, and there can be no doubt
Adegbola, Adeaga and Adegbenjo Assessing Airline Performance using DEA Approach
that it involves techniques which provide ii. To make recommendation on how to

valuable assistance to management in realistic improve performance levels.
planning, economic operations, and effective
control (Frank assistance to management in The information so obtained will help compare
realistic planning, economic operations, and the inputs of one airline to the other. Beside, it
effective control (Frank 1961) will help set a target for the less efficient airline
via an efficient fro tier, and therefore, create an
Performance assessment helps in achieving the enabling environment for competition among the
following: various airlines.
i. Provide a psychological stimulus to Poor performance could be attributed to the

managers, supervisors, or operates, following problems:
whose interest in the efficiency of
operations maybe engaged by the i. Poor market share
element of understanding or ii. Overstaffing
competition. iii. Underutilization of plants and machinery
ii. Provide an indication of marked iv. Misplacement of priorities on periodic
changes in output from available assessment.
resources, so that investigations of
unfavorable trends might be made, and With the problems highlighted above, there is an
corrected. urgent need to explore a means of ameliorating
iii. To plan and forecast the likely effects of the performance of aviation industry by
change of activity, or of likely treads in employing an effective tool. By establishing an
output in the light of expected changes over all performance target, the aviation industry
of available resources. with dwindling performance will new able to
iv. To form the basis for industry identify the origin of kits problems, its present
comparisons, thus providing the performance with its peers. With this insight,
organization the opportunity to improve three airlines namely Nigeria Airway, Kabo
its current performance. Airline and Skyline which are all operating and
v. The goals and objectives of the performing similar tasks (domestic flight) were
organization can be formulated and selected for study.
priority r-assigned in he light of
performance assessment effort DEA as a Tool
(Prokopenko 1992).
Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is a way of
Objectives of the Study assessing the comparative performance of units
within organizations. It seeks to measure their
The primary concern of this study is to assess the efficiency in terms of how well each unit
performance of some airline industries in performs when compared with its peers. It is
Nigeria, such that a means of utilizing resources non-stochastic. The results are sensitive to
efficiently may be developed. measurement error, and incorrect variable
selection. The applicability of DEA, however,
This will enable the airline industries to depends on the underlying production process. It
administer their activities as cost effectively, is essential that the model be consistent with
reliably, and rapidly as possible (Holloway et al known properties and production process
1995), to conform with three roles of (Johnnes 1993).
performance assessment of check, comply, and
challenge 3Cs) (Andy 1998). As part of its attributes it can be extended to
multiple input and multiple output ease using a
This work will describe how an explicit link can linear programming approach.
be established between performance indicator
and resource allocation, with the aim at The DEA efficiency index is a composite
enhancing efficiency. Specifically, the work is performance measure, which takes all inputs and
set to address the following objectives: outputs in the model into consideration. It is an
internal management tool that could partially
i. To determine the efficiency level of an reduce the manager‟s probability of making
airline relative to its peers. inappropriate decisions (Norton 1994), since it
indicates a proportion of current input that could
Page 188
be used if a Decision Making Units (DMU) was By considering the airlines with similar task, the
productively efficient. performance of each airline can be obtained. As
part of its attributes, multiple inputs and multiple
Furthermore, its efficiency scores can be used to outputs would be handled. This will make it
develop funding requirements, to set possible to obtain the relative efficiency for each
benchmarking targets for individual units, and to airline. Equations are obtained for each airline in
distribute resources. It includes incentive and a particular period. Which could be solved using
monitoring mechanisms designed to encourage a mathematical software package – Quantitative
managers and agencies to achieve benchmarking System Business plus (QSB+), to obtain the
targets. range of performance called „benchmark „target‟
Justification for the Use of the DEA Model Model Development
To analyze airline operations, a model that The concept of DEA efficiency measure can be
fundamentally connects the services provided by extended to a multiple input and output case
an airline to the resources consumed in providing using a linear programming approach. The DEA
this service is required. efficiency index is a composite performance
measure, which takes all inputs and outputs in
i. It defines a common view of airline the model into consideration. As an internal
operations management tool, information about DEA results
ii. It compares the performance of could be used set benchmarking targets for the
Organizations with similar set of tasks. inefficient organization and to provide directions
iii. It clearly defines he objectives within an to improve efficiency.
airline that are appropriate for measurement.
Notations
The link between inputs and outputs is the
external demand for services, which creates an Aio= input (i) of standard airline (I = l……n)
internal demand for inputs. Satisfying the Bio= output (i) of standard airline (i=l…….m)
demand for outputs with minimum consumption Akj= input (i) of airline k (j = l……………..s)
of inputs is an airline management objective Bkj= input (j) of airline k (j = l…………..…p)
(Holloway et al 1995). Enabling managers to ή = efficiency score for airline k (k = l…..3)
make decisions leading to higher achievement Xj = weighing factor for input (i) for a
levels of this objective is a central purpose of particular airline in its effort to
airline performance analysis. determine the standard airline
Xi = weighting factor for input I for a standard
airline.
Methodology
Assumptions
Model Description
1. Three airlines (k = 1,2,3) are under
Data envelopment analysis (DEA) is a linear consideration
programming method that constructs a 2. 2. The efficiency score is possibly 1 for a
production frontier from the most productive standard airline, that is, the efficiency should
observations in the sample (Suthathip et a not be more than 1 for any airline
(2001). The constructed frontier represents actual 3. That, if the efficiency score is less than 1,
best practice in the set of Decision Making Units than it is relatively inefficient.
(DMU) included in the study, rather than a 4. The input is to be minimized if the airline is
theoretically optimum benchmark. The to perform as efficiently as other(s)
efficiency score for each observation is then 5. DA will help in obtaining a benchmark
derived with respect to the observed best practice target in order to compare the three airlines
frontier. 6. Any of the airlines is possibly an efficient
airline (standard airline)

Page 189
Formulation
Efficiency as defined in section 1….3 is the ratio pf resources to be consumed to the resources actually
consumed (Sink 1985).
For a given output level, efficiency score will be represented by such that
ήk = Resources of airline k/Resources of standard airline
That is,
ŋk = Xl All + X2 A21 +………+Xj Aks Xj A10 + X2A20+………...+Xŋ An0

/
This results,
Xl All + X2 A21 + ……….+ Xj Aks = ŋk (An0)
The table below will be helpful in formulating ii. Cost of fuel (million Naira)
the efficiency score for each airline, and series of iii. Cost of labour (million Naira)
LPs (linear programming) are solved to obtain
the minimized objective function, by using And outputs as:
Quantitative System Business plus (QSB+)
software package. With this, the comparison i. Passenger uplift (billion Naira)
between the airlines can be easily described. ii. Passenger revenue (PR) billion Naira
iii. Non-Passenger Kilometre (NPK) billion
There are three identified inputs as: Naira
iv. Passenger Kilometre (PK) billion Naira
i. Cost of electricity (million Naira)
These are represented algebraically in the Table below:
Airline (k) Inputs (million Naira) Outputs (billion Naira)

A11, A12, A13 B11, B12, B13, B14
1
2 A21, A22, A23 B 21, B22, B23 B24
3 A31, A32, A33 B 31, B32, B33 B34
These are formulated into equations as follows ∑ XjA(k+2)j - ŋkAk (j+2) ≤0……………..(3)
under inputs and outputs. J=1
For Airline (k) Output side

Min ŋ k = ŋ 1X1+ŋ2 X2+ŋ3 X3
S+ P
s ∑ XjBkj ≤B0
∑ Xj Akj - ŋ k Akj ≤0……….(1) J=1
J=1 s.t
S XjBkj + Xj+1B(k+1)j+ Xj+2B(k+2)j≥Bkj…..(4)
∑ Xj (Ak+1)j - ŋ k Ak (j+1) ≤0……(2) XjBk(j+1) + Xj+1 B(k+1)j+1 +
J=1 Xj+2B(k+2)j+1≥Bkj+1………..(5)
XjBk(j+2) + Xj+1 B(k+1)j+2
s +Xj+2B(k+2)j+2≥Bkj+2………..(6)
Page 190
Xj Bk(j+3) + Xj+1B(k+1)j+3+ X B B
………......(7)
Xj
≥0…………....(8) Table 3.2 (b): Airline-Efficiency (ή ) for 1997
Xj+l Airline (k) Efficiency (ή)
≥0…………....(9) 1 1.00
Xj+2 2 1.00
≥0………….(10) 3 0.79
Using these LPs will help assist in solving for Table 3.2 (c): Airline-Efficiency ( ή) for 1998
the minimize objective function (efficiency Airline (k) Efficiency (ή)
score ή) as evident from Tables 3.2(a) – 3.2(f). 1 1.00
2 1.00
3 0.95
Organization’s Performance
Table 3.2 (d): Airline-Efficiency (ή) for 1999
An organization performance is assessed by Airline (k) Efficiency (ή)
comparing it with a standard one. This is 1 1.00
achieved through benchmark target approach. 2 0.87
The benchmark is a target approach towards 3 1.00
establishing a standard performance. This could
be made possible by setting linear programming
equations. In this case, linear programming
problems were set up, with three variables, and
ten constraints. The results were obtained with Table 3.2 (e): Airline-Efficiency (ή) for 2000
the aid of Quantitative System business Plus Airline (k) Efficiency (ή)
(QSB+). 1 1.00
2 1.00
The results are summarized in the table as shown 3 0.64
below:
Table 3.2 (f): Airline-Efficiency (ή) for 2001
Table 3.2 (a): Airline-Efficiency (ή) for 1996 Airline (k) Efficiency (ή)
Airline (k) Efficiency (ή) 1 1.00
1 1.00 2 1.00
2 1.00 3 0..86
3 0.60
Airline 1: Nigeria Airways
Table 3.1 (a): Inputs for Nigeria Airways between 1996-2001
S/N Inputs (million Naira) 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
1 Cost of Electricity 8.07 8.11 9.63 9.97 10.77 13.25
2. Cost of Fuel 0.77 0.87 0.96 1.01 1.01 1.45
3. Cost of Labour 1.80 2.05 2.17 2.20 1.30 2.30
4. Cargo Operating Expenses 1.37 1.48 1.50 1.62 1.20 1.50
Table 3.1b: Outputs for Nigeria Airways (1996-2001)
S/N Outputs (billion Naira) 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
1 Passenger‟s Uplift 4.10 6.99 10.16 10.25 10.89 11.69
2. Passenger‟s Revenue (PR) 2.89 3.70 3.89 5.20 5.35 7.50
3. Non-Passenger‟s Revenue (NPR) 1.50 1.65 1.90 3.25 3.78 4.00
4. Passenger – Kiometre(PK) 10.60 12.53 16.87 17.26 19.56 20.96
5. Available-Seat Kilometre (ASK) 23.82 79.63 89.90 91.60 99.61 105.30

Page 191
Airline 2: Kabo Airline
Table 3.1c: Inputs For Kabo Airline (1996-2001)
2. Cost of Fuel 6.03 7.05 10.51 14.51 20.07 30.05
3. Cost of Labour 2.30 2.45 3.55 4.50 5.60 7.30
Table 3.1(d) Outputs For Kabo Airline (1996-2010)
1. Passenger‟s Uplift 2.75 5.80 6.70 8.50 8.90 9.09
Airline 3: Skyline
Table 3.1(e): Inputs for Skyline (1996-2001)
2. Cost of Fuel 13.70 14.50 16.50 16.80 18.50 20.50
3. Cost of Labour 11.96 12.50 13.40 14.60 16.70 23.20
Table 3.1(f): Outputs for Skyline (1996-2001)
1. Passenger‟s Uplift 5.30 7.30 8.50 9.60 10.40 12.60
Discussion ii. Input-output variation

iii. Relative performance for the three airlines
The following sections discuss the result
obtained from the performance measurement DEA Frontier
over six-year period operation for the three
airlines. From Fig 3.4 (a) – 3.4 (f) each airline is
considered to produce same output level using
The discussion is classified into: different combinations of input namely cost of
electricity (million naira), as the cost of labour
i. DEA frontier (utilization of resources for (million naira). Since each Airline is considered
best performance) to produce same level of output a piece wise
Page 192
linear isoquant that envelopes all the data points frontier. This was revealed by the consumption
is A1 – A3 in 1996 for the three Airlines. of resources.
i. In 1996, Airline A1 and A2 are technically A2 was found to be efficient in services for the
efficient since they cannot proportionally year2000. This was borne out of the effective
(radially) reduce their current input. This is utilization of the resources in the year understudy
where A3 is found inefficient because it has than in the remaining operational years. This
consumed higher inputs than A1 and A2 In suggested that resources were not fully utilized
other words, the resources are not in the preceding operational years and after when
judiciously utilized. However, A3 can be as year 2001 deviate from the production frontier
efficient as A21 and A2 if it could reduce its against all expectation.
input by 31.9% in electricity cost and 36%
in cost of labour. Comparatively, A3 (Fig 3.5(c) performed
ii. In 1997, A1 and A2 were yet found to be creditably. The efficiency was on increase until
efficient save A3. This means that A3 will it attained the production frontier in 1997.
have to reduce its inputs on electricity by Beyond 1997, there was a decline, the reason for
43.3% and on labour by 47.9%. Apparently, a downward trend. This was due to inefficient
its efficiency from LP using QSB+ was utilization of inputs (resources), which affected
0.785075, which is below the standard the output. This was said to be attributed to
efficiency score of 1. ineffective short-term planning, nonchalant
iii. Similar result was obtained in 1998, where attitude to some staff, misplacement of priorities
both A1 and A2 were found to utilize their on period assessment, and expenses on hangar.
resources efficiently on the cost of
electricity, which was 5.68% higher than The main outcome from DEA tends to be
in1997. While the cost of fuel increased by identification of effiie3nt pees (fig 3.4 (a) – 3.4
25.7% in the same year. The inefficiency on (f)) as role models (best performers) for
the part of A3 was evident due to high inefficient airline, and the setting of benchmark
consumption of electricity, and fuel, high tailgates (Table 4.2a – 4.19b) for efficiency
cost of labour, and cargo. This was as a score. This gets away from the underlying theory
result of inadequate facilities and of DEA and its applicability that may well is
resourceful manpower. open to challenge. It therefore acts as a spur to
improvement within the normal processes of
However, they were able to identify these management.
inadequacies in 1997 by utilizing resources, cut
spending, and offering incentives as moral drive Furthermore, good performance can be attributed
for staff in 1999. Detailed examination of the to the judicious utilization of resources. Such
graphs in Fig 3.11 – 3.11f) revealed that there was a case for Airline 1 (Nigeria Airways) from
was no appreciable trend in the performance for the year 1996 – 2001, and Airline 2 (Kabo
A3. Airline), except for 1999, until when they re-
adjusted the usage of these resources in 2000 –
This was established by the efficiency score for 2001.
the year 2000and 2001. It was as a result of Airline 3 (Skyline) thrived only in 1999, and this
government intervention, a white paper report on was as a result of offering incentives, as a moral
private airlines, which could not operate with a drive and a break-through into new routes with
minimum of five aircraft to cancel its scheduled better conditions of services, and improved
services on some routes. This had a devastating managerial prowess.
effect on their traffic growth, which led them to Detailed examination of the performance of
lay off some staff as a result, the efficiency score skyline (A3) revealed that the inefficiency was
experienced a further downward trend below the largely due to inefficient use of the available
benchmark target compared with A1 and A2 resources, such as electricity, and expenses on
Figs 3.4 (e) – 3.4 (f). rented hangar, and aircraft.
Input-Output Variation
Conclusions and Recommendations
From Figs 3.5(a)-3.5(c), A1 could not perform
satisfactorily beyond and below 1998. It only Based on the findings of this study, the following
recorded a remarkable performance in 1998. recommendations are suggested:
This is the reason for being on the production
Page 193
1. The attitude of the staff can be improved by 2. Avery, T.E. and Burkhart, H.E (1983)
offering necessary incentives “Forest measurements” Mc GrawHill Coy.
2. The performance should be closely Page 331.
monitored
3. That the monitoring can be effective by 3. Beasley, J.E. (2000); Operations research
cutting down expenses on DEA’ http:/www.ms
ic.ac.uk/jeb/or/dea/htmi studies University
This was revealed in Fig 3.5(a)-Fig3.5(b) from of Warwick, Coventry pp563-576.
fig 4.7 – 4..9 the inefficiency in skyline was
evidently revealed, when it had to cut down its 4. Ezeife, C. (1983); “The role of Industrial
expenses in cost of electricity from N14.1 Engineering in our National Development”.
million to N7.1 million in the year 1998. The Keynote address of the inaugural meeting of
same trend goes for the cost of fuel. It was NILE.
reduced from N10.5 million to 7.8 million,
which with all expectation would trade-off. This 5. Fitzgerald, I. (1988); “Performance
led to reallocation of resources for an efficient Assessment in Service Industrial Structure”.
performance. To this end, the close monitoring A purity clay approach. The industrial
system may be used to correct unforeseeable institute for economic and social Research,
problems associated with implementation. This Stockholm.
could be done over a number of years, and
continuing improvement in data collection. 6. Hamdy, A.T. (1971); “Operation Research”
An introduction Macmillan publishing co.
However, it could also be suggested that proper Inc. New York, second edition.
funding be made to enable smooth airline
operations. Besides, long and short range 7. Holloway, J. (1995); “ performance
planning must be allowed for, as well as measurement and evaluation”; SAGE
organization of training programmes such as publications Ltd; London first edition.
conferences and seminar for the staff aimed at
enhancing performance. 8. Husch, B., Muller, C.I. and Bers T.W
(1984); “ forest. Measurement John wiley
and sons pp4. Krawjewski (1990);
In general, conclusion could be drawn as “operations management; strategy and
follows: Analysis Addison Wesley Reading . M.A.
 Inefficient use of resources attributed to 9. Lovell, C.A.K. (1993); “Production

government interaction, which stipulated the frontiers and productive efficiency” Oxford
minimum conditions for all domestic University Press mstc/clea/.dea.htmi.
airlines.
 That airline performs poorly, when it cannot 10. Rodney, H.G, John, R.D, and Wade, D.C.
harness its resources. (1994); “Theory and Methodology on
 That the high cost of resources was due to Efficiency Bounds in Data Envelopment
inability to acquire the required and Analysis. European Journal of Operational
appropriate technology. Research pp482-490.
 Other reason could have been due to
inefficient planning. 11. Ruggiero, J. (1990) “Theory and
 No standard procedure to monitor the Methodology on the Measurement of
performance. Technical Eddiciency in the Public Sector”
 The negative attitude of the staff towards European Journal of Operational Research
close and periodic monitoring of the vol. 90 (1996); pp553-565.
performances.
12. Schefezyk, M. (1990); “Warehouse
Performance Analysis Technique and
References application MHRS’; Report Services (TD-
90-11); Georgia Institute of Technology,
1. Andy, N. (1998) “Measuring business Atlanta.
performance”. Profile books Ltd; fist edition
page 89. 13. Sinkl, S.D (1985); “Productivity
Management; Planning and Evaluation
Page 194
Control and Improvement” New York, John

Willey and sons. 15. Suthathip, Y. and Nara, P. (2000);
“Performance Measurement and Resource
14. Stewart, J. (1993) “New management Allocation”; Prepared for International
Relationships in the public Sector”. The Conference on Public Sector Efficiency.
Limitations of Government by Contract, University of New Southwales Australia.
Public Money and management, July-
September (7-12).

Page 195
Borehole Development and Maintenance
Sangotola, T.M. and Olagoke, B.E

Department of Civil Engineering The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Nigeria
Abstract
Of all the natural resources, the most important for the benefit of mankind is water. For water to be of im-
mense benefit to man, there is need for wise exploitation and use. This paper critically examined borehole
drilling as a means of ground water exploitation. Design considerations in the construction of water bore-
hole were analyzed. The determining factors for the use of various sizes of casing screens and gravel packs
to ensure adequate and optimum water yield are also presented. Furthermore, some maintenance services
that are necessary to ensure efficient borehole operation are highlighted.
Keywords: Water, Design, Construction, Maintenance and Borehole.
Introduction diarrhea cases in the Eleyele Area of Ibadan,

Oyo State was traced to the sharing of a heavily
Water is the most abundant natural resources on polluted stream water by a group of residence
earth. It is essential to most human activities. (Sangodoyin 1991)
Despite the need for water as a fundamental ele-
ment of life, there is always a general scarcity of To cope with the problem of dry taps, and water
it in most cases, development suggests that water shortages experienced min most of our cities,
is in abundant supply in temperate region (cli- industries, housing estates, all the concerned
mates). Domestic water supply is not adequate in entities have resorted to the use of groundwater,
tropical developing countries, hence, the declara- sources like borehole and dug-wells. Most of the
tion of the 1980’s as the international Drinking water scheme financed by United Nation Devel-
WATER supply and sanitation Decade by the opment Programme, world Bank, World Health
United Nations is not surprising. Organisation and United Nation International
Children Educational Fund are mainly deep
In one of these fliers used to launch the pro- wells and shallow hand dug-wells. Borehole well
gramme, the water supply and sanitation situa- is preferred to other groundwater sources be-
tion in rural development environment was de- cause of its potential higher yield and whole-
scribed as follow: someness. There has been an increase therefore
in the construction of boreholes in most third
world countries especially Africa Nations in the
Half of the world’s population (2 billion
last decades.
men, women and children) are without
reasonable access to a safe and adequate
water supply. Borehole Sitting
Greater number of human being lack
proper sanitation. The overall success of groundwater supply is
dependent on borehole sitting. Previous exploita-
The developing countries are most severely af- tion of groundwater has met with limited or no
fected and their rural population, the worst suf- success in Nigeria like many other third coun-
ferers. Only 38% of those who live in the devel- tries. The boreholes which are isolated produce
oping world and 22% of the earth’s rural inhabit- variable and somewhat unpredictable yield, the
ants have easy access to safe water. The situation failure rate of boreholes more than 60 percent in
is even worse with regards to sanitation, no more Nigeria (Egboka, 1988). Many of the boreholes
than 15% of the world’s rural population have were wrongly located at politically favored but
adequate sanitation facilities. localities.
Akpovi (1981) reported that an estimated Borehole sitting investigation is carried out by a
2.5Million people in Nigeria suffer from guinea number of methods. Such methods include geo-
disease worm alone. This is because a large pro- physical method, aerial photography, hydrogeo-
portion of the population has no access to pota- logical or geological assessment. Groundwater
ble water or piped system. Even where there is occurs in perches in the basement complex. In
the, there is the problem of dry taps during dry recent years, borehole sitting has improved and
season. Early in 1985, the sudden appearance of become cost effective with the introduction of
Sangotola, T.M. and Olagoke, B.E Borehole Development and Maintenance
new geophysical technology, instrumentation rock, where a rotary air-hammer could be some
with the introduction of new geophysical tech- 15 times faster than the percussion rig.
nology, providing instrumentation with greater
resolution and rapidly of field measurement and When drilling in un-consolidated ground, it is
allowing comprehensive interpretation of data to rarely possible to make progress without the ce-
be obtained with the advent of portable micro- menting the permanent tubes, the enlarged annu-
computers. lar space (created by the concurrent withdrawal
of temporary tubes) will require more cement
Success is also dependent on the application of (Ken Cruse 1987). Percussion drilling rigs are
the correct technique or combinations of tech- often used in the geological sedimentary for-
niques in relation to the geological and geo- mation in Africa.
morphological environments. The ABED WAD,
is an ultra-modern computerized geophysical Hydraulic Rotary Drilling
instrument developed by Atlas Capco ABEM. It
gives an answer right on site without requiring The hydraulic rotary drilling rig has advantage
any complicated interpretation. Much of these over the cable percussion techniques in that it
drilling successes in Nigeria is traceable to ade- can drill types of rock formations and could be as
quate pumping test. The results of test data ob- 15 times faster. It is employed more in the base-
tained in the majority of basement well field ment complex geological formation. Rotary rigs
show semi-confined and semi-unconfined as the name implies, turn as the drilling opera-
groundwater conditions (Ken Cruse, 1987) tion is carried out. Rotary with air as drilling
fluid is a variation also known as rotary(down
The study of the test data that has been done by the hole hammer). This techniques uses com-
other people can go in a way to help the success- pressed air as the drilling fluid and is most suita-
ful development of groundwater resources else- ble for drilling through rock.
where. Two or more of the above operations can
be combined, depending on the constructional
method employed. For example, in an unconsol- Installation of casting
idated solid formation (sand, gavel etc), casting
is installed as the drilling operations proceed. After a well has been drilled, it must be complet-
When opening the borehole, installations of both ed. This can involved placement of casting,
of the casting and the screen are done at the same placement of well screens and gravel packing,
time. however, wells in hard rock formations can be
left open holes so that these components may not
be required.
Drilling Operations
Casting is a lateral support built into a borehole
Percussion or Cable Tool Method to prevent the whole walls from caving-in, in-
gress of polluted or contaminated water and to
Percussion drilling, also known as cable tools provide conduct through which water can be
drilling has been used for several thousand years brought into the surface. If a well is suck through
for penetrating the substrata in search of water. anything other than consolidated rock, it will
Diameter range from 100mm to 20mm and need to be cased so as to assure permanent hole.
depths of almost 500 metres have been reached
during the early days of his century. The percus- The casting extends from just above the ground
sion rigs an up-and down motion to the tools. surface to the top of the well screen which is at
The percussion drilling rig consist of a steel the bottom of the well. Steel pipes and stainless
frame mounted on a lorry or trailer which carries steel pipes were used as casting materials in
an engine driving two or three reels of steel wire about a decade ago. Due to their high cost non-
rope. It also drives a crank mechanism. The main metallic casting made of fibre-glass or thermo-
drilling lines passes from the largest reel to plastic materials are now used extensively all
wheel at the end of a hinged beam from where is over the world. Before using steel or galvanized
led vertically up to a crown wheel at the tip the iron or any other materials as a casting material,
mast before it descent to join the drilling tools. it is important to test the corrosiveness of the
The percussion drilling is easy to operate and is water in the wells. In Liberia, well with steel
versatile. The capacity costs is low compared to casting had life span as little as six months due to
rotary drilling equipment. However, it is general- corrosion. Although plastics are being used in-
ly slower in most formations, in particular hard creasingly because they will not rust or corrode,
Page 197
nevertheless, they can not be driven into hole as inner casting, the annular space is filled with
required by some drilling techniques and ground gravel and thereafter the casting is pulled out of
conditions. the well. In sandy aquifer, where a gravel pack is
not essential, deep wells should be constructed
Installation of Well Screens by rotary or reverse- circulated and diluted with
water before the gravel is introduced.
A well screen is a special section of the casting
with holes in it ,which is placed in the water Maintenance of Boreholes
bearing layer to allow water to enter the well. It
should be strong enough to withstand stress Optimum operation of borehole aims at rational-
while it is being installed as well as caving pres- izing the duration and number of times the well
sure in the hole. It should be made of materials is switched on to meet demands.
appropriate to the chemical and be bacteriologi-
cal characteristics of the local ground water, nei- The following maintenance procedures are nec-
ther easily corroding nor rotting. A list of metal- essary to ensure suitable water yield from a
lic well screen materials and their resistances to borehole:
acid and corrosion.
i. Servicing of a borehole: A periodic
Gravel Packed preventive servicing of a borehole is
mandatory after every six (6) months of
Gravel envelopes, also caklled gravel packed operation. The servicing entails pulling
should be used in relatively fine treated aquifer out the riser pipes and pumps for routine
(including poorly cemented sandstone) where the inspection. Any faults observed in the
effective particle size is less 0.25mm and the cable. Joints, leakages in the riser pipes,
uniformity is less than 3 (Bouwer, 1978). A join gaskets and bolt/nut or thread are
gravel-packed well can be defined as one con- rectified.
taining an artificially placed gravel screen or
envelope surrounding the well screen. ii. Reservoir service: overhead tanks must
be leak proof at the times. Cleaning of
A gravel pack does the following: the tanks should be done periodically to
avoid accumulation of dirty or rust in the
tank. Pumping into the reservoir should
stabilizes the aquifer
also be regulated to prevent over flowing
for long period. Regular inspection
minimizes sand pumping
should be carried out to ensure that they
wash out another fitting on the tank are
permit use of large screen slot with a in good condition
maximum open area and
iii. Corrosion of screen and casting: this
provide an annular zone of high perme- results in leakages of the well. This is
ability which increases the effective corrected in large wells by inserting a
radius and yield of the well. new case of slightly smaller diameter in-
to the old casting. For rocky well, the old
Maximum grain size of a pack should be near casting could be withdrawn and replaced,
1.0 while the thickness should be in the same but could lead to abandonment of bore-
range of 8to 15cm. hole drilled in unconsolidated soils.
Various formulas for relating gravel pack grain iv. Chemical treatment of boreholes: dis-
size gradations to aquifer grain size gradations solved solids deposited on the screen of
have been developed. Gravel should be placed in the borehole can cause incrustation.
such a manner as to ensure complete filling of Chlorination is used at time in the correc-
the annular space and to minimize segregation. A tion of bacteria clogging of borehole.
common procedure is to extend two tremic pipes
to the bottom of the well on opposite sides of the
screen. Gravel is proud, washed or pumped into
the tremic pipes; these are withdrawn in stages as
the pack is placed. In the caple-tool holes the

Page 198
3. Bouwer, H. (1978): groundwater hydrol-

ogy, mcgraw hill, koga kusha ltd.
Conclusion Anckland.
The importance of geology, stratrigraphy and 4. Eokenfelder, w.w.jr. (1970): water quali-
geochemical history of a borehole are extremely ty engineering for practicing engineers.
imperative for a borehole design and construc- Barnes and nobles, new york.
tion. The role of appropriate logging can not be
over emphasized as the information from them is 5. Ken Cruse (1987): percussions drilling:
considered in both the choice and placement of developing world water, grosvenor press
screens, castings, gravel pack etc the use of international, 128-133.NSE(ibadan
charts and appropriate tables in use in the water branch) at the conference center, Univer-
industry has been discussed. They are catalysts sity of ibadan.
in the design of successful borehole. In conclu-
sion, the recommended routine maintainance 6. Sangodoyin, A.Y. (1991): water quality,
practices in this paper should be given special influence and maintenance of rural bore-
attention to forestall a breakdown of the boreholes in Nigeria. International journal of
hole. environmental studies, 37, 97-107.
7. Speedster, D. (1992): well drill manual,

References keochring company enid, okla, 72-75.
1. Akpovis, S.V. (1981): guinea worm con- 8. U.S. Bureau of reclamation (1977):
trol, testing and efficiency of health edu- groundwater manual, U.S. Dept of inte-
cation in primary care. International rior, 480-483.
journal of health education, 24(4), 229-
231. 9. World health organization (1971): inter-
national standard for drinking water, Ge-
2. American Health Association (1980): neva.
standard method for the examination of
water and waste water (15th edition).

Page 199
Water Demand Administration in Some Selected Area of Ilorin
Metropolis
Ibikunle, O.A. and T.G. Fawole

Department of Civil Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan
Abstract
This project was concerned with the study of water demand administration in some selected area in Ilorin
metropolis. The study looked into the present situation of water demand, sources, estimation of available
water from sources, problems encountered in providing adequate water for different users and suggests
solution to the problems. There is a vast increasing awareness that water resources exist in limited
quantities and available supply varies supply source to the rapidly growing urban population is increasingly
becoming a problem for government throughout the World. The continuing expansion of the numbers of
people in cities who need water and cannot readily get these services by self provision form a continuous
problem to either invest in additional production capacity or to improve on the available supplies to serves
more people. However, due to the above discussion, this project thus recommend that the communities
have to be involved in the decision making process on the water supply systems based on their demands
and adoption of Demand Responsive Approaches (DRA), provision of water to the studied area,
resuscitating the water production capacities of water corporations through the granting of loans by
government, water supply should be made available to people through provision of more stand pipe and
house connections. Further more, there us need for government to promote effective information and
transparency which are main factors that influence community interest and ability to become involved in
their own water supply provision.
Keywords: Water, Management, Demand Responsive Approaches (DRA) and Adminitration.
Introduction The cost of developing new sources or

expanding existing sources is getting higher as
Water is life; it is essential for health and the most accessible water resources have already
necessary for the production of food, economic been tapped.
growth and the support of the environment.
There is a vast increasing awareness that water
resources exist in limited quantities and available Previous Work
supply varies considerably during the course of
the year. Sequel to this, the provision of adequate Fresh water is a finite and precious resource that
water supply source to the rapidly growing urban is essential for sustaining life. As demand
population is increasingly becoming a problem increases, the resource is becoming increasingly
for government throughout the world. The scarce. Global freshwater consumption raised six
continuing expansion of the numbers of people fold between 1900 and more than twice the rate
in cities who need water and cannot readily get population growth and the rate of increase of
these services by self provision, form a consumption (DFID, 2001) is still accelerating.
continuous problem to either invest in additional Demand for water resources is increasing both
production capacity or to stretch the available because of population growth (Particularly in
supplies to serve more people. At the same time, developing countries) and because of rising
industrial activity also demands the expansion of demand per person due to such causes as
urban water supply services. irrigation development, industrialization and
increasing use by individuals as income rise. A
The quantity of water from these sources varies partial crisis is looming where available
greatly, surface water generally contain large resources can no longer meet demands (DFID,
quantities of turbidity and bacteria than 2000).
groundwater, but groundwater contains higher
concentration of dissolved chemicals. Sixty percent of all persons in developing
countries live without an adequate supply of
It is in this line that this study is basically drinking water, 75% live without any kind of
focused on the studies of water supply sources in situation facilities and because water is remote as
some part of Ilorin and developed an approach well as polluted.. On an average day in the
towards meeting the increasing water demands. developing world, more than 25,000 people die
Ibikunle, O.A. and T.G. Fawole Water Demand Administration in Some Selected Area of Ilorin Metropolis
due to inadequate water supplies, while millions 4. Deep Groundwater: When the
or more suffer the consequent debilitating effect groundwater level is very deep,
(Wagner et all, 1996). constructing a hand-dug well became
impossible. Deep wells must be drilled into
The main contribution of water and sanitation to the ground. Generally, submersible pumps
human development is by improving health. are installed below he groundwater table to
Firstly, water elated diseases are the single lift water to the surface. They may be
largest cause of human sickness and health in the driven by an electric motor or a diesel –
World, and disproportionately affect poor people powered engine on the surface with a long
(DFID, 2001). Wethasinghe et all (1994) in their vertical shaft, or a submerged electric
studies have shown that provision of save water motor inside a water proof casing.
and basic sanitation accompanied by hygiene
promotion, can reduce the incidence of diarrheas 5. Surface Water: Surface water originates
by as much as 25%. Sanitation can also mostly from rainfall and is a mixture of
dramatically reduce the spread of worm surface run-off and groundwater. It
infections, while the use of increased quantities includes larger rivers, ponds and lakes and
of water for personal hygiene can reduce faeco – the small upland streams which may
oral transmission and prevent diseases such as originate from springs and collect the run-
scabies and trachoma. Good water resources off from the water sheds. The quantity of
management and drainage can prevent malaria depends upon a large number of factors, the
carrying mosquitoes from breeding. Water used most important of which are the amount
for food production also improves health, mainly and intensity of rainfall, the climate and
by improving nutrition and hence people’s vegetation and also, the geological,
ability to recover from these and other diseases. geographical and topographical features of
the area under consideration. It varies
General Sources of Water widely, from about 20% in arid and sandy
areas where the rainfall is scarce to more
1. Rain Water: The ultimate source of all than 50% in rocky region in which the
natural potable water on the earth is rain, annual rainfall is heavy. Of the remaining
which is rarely used as a direct source. portion of the rainfall, some of the water
percolates into the ground and the rest is
2. Ground Water: Groundwater is a vital lost by evaporation, transpiration and
source of water supply especially I area absorption. However, in most instances
where dry summers or extended droughts surface water is subject to pollution and
cause stream flow to stop. The main source contamination by pathogenic organisms
of groundwater is precipitation, which may and cannot be considered safe without
penetrate the soil directly to the treatment. It should be remembered that
groundwater or may enter surface streams clear water is not necessary fit for human
and percolate from these channels to the consumption and that one cannot depend
groundwater. wholly on self purification to produce
potable water (Wagner, 1959).
3. Shallow Groundwater: When the
groundwater lie within a few meters of the Water sources for different classes of
surface, exploitation is possible with consumers
shallow wells which are mostly dug by
hand. These wells normally have a Sources of water supply are varied from class to
diameter of 1 meter or more and are dug class as demand for water is also varied due to
below he ground water table. Water is living standard, population, climate, metering
pumped from these wells, often using and efficiency of water works.
human or animal power but, increasingly,
with small diesel powered pumps. The 1. High income consumers: The consumer in
amount of water that can be abstracted this case are able to meet their water
from shallow wells is limited and as a requirements at individual household level
result, the people who use that water are by being connected to the municipal water
limited. supply system or by installing their own
facilities such as wells, boreholes, or rain
water harvesting systems. The service level
Page 201
is usually in-house multiple taps. Water Collection of Data
demand management options applicable for
this group are in-house retrofitting and out- The questionnaire administered form the basic
of-house water saving measures (garden, source of data collect during the study. The
swimming pool). Water pricing measure information needed for proper analysis of the
may only be effective in combination with result or data were obtained in the format given
extensive raising campaigns as rich people below:
tend not to save water because of cost.
2. Middle income Consumers: They are the i. No of people in the household
majority of the customers of municipal ii. Source (s) of water supply
infrastructure services and hence the iii. The quantity of water consumed per
recipients of the usually heavy subside with capital per day
which water supply systems are operating. iv. Causes of water shortage at the area
Generally they are connected to the v. what can be done to improve or increase
municipal water supply system with the supply of water
individual house or yard connections. In vi. The situation of water supply source (s)
case they live in estate, these estates may on ground
have an autonomous piped system, either vii. Immediately after this questionnaire
connected to the municipal system or having was prepared, it was distributed
a separate source (well, borehole, rain water randomly to various household in the
collection) for the estate. The middle income area of interest to sample individual
category, operating between the high income opinions concerning water supply. The
category and the low income category. respondents varied from high income
3. Low – income consumers: They are rarely level to low income level with different
consumers at individual household level. number of people in the household.
The type of water supply system depend on
the type of settlement with regard to legal Analysis of Data
status and security of tenure, and the
location within or outside the city limits The linear regression method was employed for
(suitability of land, but also distance to the analysis of the data retrieved from the
existing urban infrastructure services). A questionnaire administered and oral interview.
description of the different types of The procedure this analysis is as followed.
settlement is given in table 2.4. Apart from
the types of low-income area within urban Domestic Demand Estimation
area, a distinction has to be made between
different sizes of cities and overall coverage The breakdown of the various water supply
of water supply in these cities. sources and the estimation of the total water
demand per day for each household considered
Data collection and analysis are as given in Table 3.1 – 3.4( see appendix)
The data collected in this study is based on Statistical analysis of the data
household information gathered from
questionnaire administered and direct oral The linear regression method was employed in
interview carried out during the research work at which the regression equations of yi on xi and the
various selected area of Ilorin. correlation coefficient were determined.
Result and Discussion areas is 816. The total water consumed by all the
households was estimated to be 39,036
Result of the Analysis litres/day. The average per capital water use of
each member of household was estimated as
The analysis of questionnaires revealed that the 471c/d and the percentage of respondents willing
major sources of water supply to the studied area to pay (ranging from N 500-N1500) was 26.25%
are well water and borehole water with very few per household.
people having access to tap water (pipe water).
The total number of people sampled in those four Based on further analysis on the result for
Olunlade area, the per capita water demand was
Page 202
estimated to be 551/c/d which fall short of the people of Ilorin are still not having access to the
W.H.O standard of 1201/c/d. during the dry W.H.O recommended standard of 1201/c/d,
season, it was observed that the supply is far instead the average water consumed per capita
below demand while the supply is more than the per day is 551/c/d which are in large variance to
demands in rain season. This shows that there is the recommended value. Based on the
inadequate supply of water during the dry information obtained through questionnaire, the
season. However, most of the respondents are water supply management in Ilorin metropolis is
not willing to pay for the water supply services far from being efficient. The results as shown in
and their view differs on the reason for not Table1 – 4 also revealed that despite all the
willing to pay. The major reason was that most houses being sampled having well or borehole or
of the households obtained their water supply even both to supplement the erratic supply of
through well and boreholes due to the erratic water from KWWC, the supply is still far below
water supply from the water works. More so, the demand particularly during dry season.
some of the respondents are not willing to pay
because of the belief that water supply is the sole The basic information required for estimation of
responsibility of the Government. future water demand needs are the future
population and per capita water demand. The
Discussion of the Results ability and efficiency of the engineering planner
to estimate the likely change or increase in
Potable water supply is a crucial need of any population over a given period of time goes a
society because of its role in public health and long way to determine how effective and lasting
economic development. Ilorin metropolis is the water supply management of the town can
blessed with large bodies of fresh water among stand the test of time. The forecasting water
which are Rivers Asa and Agba from which raw demand of the selected area based on the W.H.O
water is drawn for treatment and supplied to standard of 1201/c/d recommended and the
Ilorin and its environs. Despite these rivers forecasted population is given in table 4.1.
Table 4.1 forecasted water demand and population for the selected areas
Year Population Forecasted Water Demand (litres)
2003 38,042 4,565,040
2004 38,940 4,672,880
2005 39,875 4,785,000
2006 40,831 4,899,720
2007 41,811 5,017,320
2008 42,815 5,137,800
2009 43,842 5,261,040
2010 44,894 5,387,280
The result of analysis gives an insight into the amount of water required by the people of the studied area
for domestic uses.
Conclusion the available source meet up the demands at

present and in future. The outcome of this study
The source of water supply to the studied area indicates problems encountered by the people in
have been duly identified and studied. Thus the these areas of interest. The linear regression
actual demand of household and situation of method used for the analysis of data gave the
water on ground at the time of study is also domestic water demand per capital per day of
known through questionnaire and direct oral those areas to be 55 litres. This 551/c/d can not
interview. The analysis of the data obtained from be used for planning because it is too low
the questionnaire enable the identification of compared with the 1201/c/d recommended by
some issues like sources of water at the area, W.H.O standard. Hence, the 1201/c/d
situation on ground, estimation f the available recommended by W.H.O can be sued by the
water source, actual demand of people, whether
Page 203
planner and the engineers for the development of Corporation through granting of loans by
water supply for the studied area. finance institutions and government.
Government should promote effective
Conclusively, the daily water usage per person information and transparency which are
depends on the type of water distribution system main factors that influence community
being used and community life style. Thus, interest and ability to involve in private
551/c/d requires by the people of studied area water supply scheme.
which has large variance to 1201/c/d The water works should also extend the pipe
recommended by W.H.O many be due to lack of network distribution to the area where there
water distribution system to all parts of the is not access to tap water.
studied area from KWWC, unavailability and
irregular supply of tap water. References
Recommendations 1. DFID (Department of International
Development) (2001), “Addressing the
The following recommendations are made based water Crisis, Healthier and More productive
n he outcome of the project lies for poor people”
The 55 1/c/d obtained from the study is 2. Lyonnaise des Eaux (1998). “Alternative
below the recommended value of 120 1/c/d Solution for water supply and sanitation in
by W.H.O standard, thus 120 1/c/d is hereby area with limited financial resources” Nan
recommend for the engineers and planners Terre, France.
for estimation of domestic water demand of 3. Murray, R.S and Larry, J.S (1999). “Theory
the users. and Problem of Statistic” Mc Graw-Hill
The people involved in the distribution of Book Company, USA.
water should start keeping proper record of 4. Ray, K.L and Joseph, B.F (1979). “Water
quantity of water been distributed to enable Resources Engineering” Mc Graw-Hill
the researchers have the correct data to work Book Company, USA.
on whenever there is need for it. 5. Sara Jennifer, M. Garn and T. Katz (1998)
The communities have to be involved in the “Some key message about the Demand
decision making process on the water supply responsive Approach”. The World Bank,
system base on their demands Washington, USA
Demand Responsive Approaches (DRA), 6. Wagner, E.G and Lanoik, JN (1996) “Water
which is based on the following principle Supply for rural Area and small community”
should be used World Health Organization, Geneva,
i. Water has to be managed as an Switzerland.
economic as well as a social good 7. Wegelin – Schuringa, M (1996)
ii. Management has to focus on the “Framework for Infrastructure Development
lowest appropriate level in Urban Low – income area”. The Hague,
iii. Women have to play a key role in IRC International Water and sanitation
the management of water Centre, The Netherlands.
Government should encourage the 8. Wethasinghe, C and Manickavasager, K.M
development of literacy level of the (1994). “Pollution and Environment” 20 th
communities. WEDC Conference, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Water supply should be made available and 9. Wijk, Christine van (1997). “Constraints and
as much as possible closer to the people Keys approaches in water supply and
through the provision of more stand pipe sanitation or low – income urban
and house connection. For example neighborhoods” . Hague, IRC International
- Provision of group taps Water and sanitation Centre, The
- Provision of a communal water point Netherlands.
- Provision of boreholes 10. World Bank (1998): “World Development
Effort should be made to resuscitate the Report” The world Bank Washington, USA.
water production capacities of Water

Page 204
Appendix
Table 1: Domestic water data from Household Questionnaire (Olorunsogo Area)
Household Population Source of water Amount No of litre /day Other Total

water Perr Water supply
No xi Tap Borehole Well willing to (1/d) (specify) consumed
Capita Sources
T B W pay=N= Rain Dry
yi(1/d) water
Season Season
Use1/d
001 7 - B W - 3200 1600 - 336

48 Borehole& Well
002 8 T B - - 3200 1920
- 384 48 Tap & Borehole
003 4 - B W - 1440 128 -
256 64 Borehole& Well
004 6 T - W 500 720 240 -
288 48 Tap & Well
005 10 - - W - 480 144
- 480 48 Well
006 7 T - - 1000 - - - 336 48
Tap
007 24 T - W - 240 160 - 554 23
Tap & Well
008 6 - - W - 240 128 - 384 64
Well
009 4 - B - - 240 200 - 256 64
Borehole
010 9 - B W - 4000 1600 - 320 32
Borehole & Well
011 6 - B - - 272 64 - 288 48
Borehole
012 16 T - W - 2880 800 - 512 32
Tap & Well
013 24 T - W 500 1200 480 - 1536 64
Tap & Well
014 8 - - W 1500 240 320 - 640 80
Well
015 7 T - W - 960 480 - 336 48
Tap & Well
016 15 T - - 500 - - - 960 64
Tap
017 10 T B - >1500 144 64 - 320 32
Tap & Borehole
018 6 - B W - 96 48 - 384 64
Borehole
019 6 - - W - 160 96 - 576 64
Well
020 6 T - - 1000 - - - 160 27
Tap
Total 189 9296 1010
The total population of the household sampled = 189
Total water consumed by all the household in 1/d = 9,296
Per capital water use of each member of household in 1/c/d = 49.185
% of respondents willing to pay = 35%

Page 205
Table 2: Domestic water data from Household Questionnaire (Tanke Area)

Capita Sources
yi(1/d) water
Season Season
Use1/d
001 13 T - W 500 800 50 - 520

40 Tap & Well
002 10 - - W - 420 100 - 480 48
Well
003 13 T - W - 250 15 - 390 30
Tap & Well
004 11 - - W - 1200 320 - 480 44
Well
005 6 - - W - 450 100 - 200 33
Well
006 8 T - W - 450 300 - 256 32
Tap & Well
007 10 T - W 500 720 100 - 320 32
Tap & Well
008 5 - - W - 500 200 - 300 60
Well
009 13 - - W - 480 65 - 388 26
Tap & Well
010 7 T - W 500 200 48 - 300 43
Tap & Well
011 6 T - W 500 200 - - 192 32
Tap & Well
012 13 T - W - 800 16 - 624 48
Tap & Well
013 6 T - W 500 120 35 - 300 50
Tap & Well
014 6 T - W - 500 100 - 300 50
Tap & Well
015 2 T - W - 50 30 - 200 100 Tap
& Well
016 7 T - W 500 240 180 - 448 64
Tap & Well
017 2 T - W - 240 200 - 160 80 Tap
& Well
018 10 T - W 1500 1200 32 - 480 48
Tap & Well
019 6 T - W - 800 32 - 384 64 Tap
& Well
020 8 T - W - 1200 50 - 512 64 Tap
& Well
Total 162 7184

Page 206
Table 3: Domestic water data from Household Questionnaire (Olunlade Area)

water Per Water supply
Capita Sources
yi(1/d) water
Season Season
Use1/d
001 8 - - W - 200 50 - 256 32

Well
002 5 - - W - 120 32 - 200 40
Well
003 3 - - W - 96 64 - 96 32
Well
004 5 - B W - 36 4 - 150 30 Borehole
& Well
005 6 - - W - 2400 480 - 480 80
Well
006 5 - - W - 720 16 - 240 48
Well
007 21 - - W - 1280 64 - 504 24
Well
008 5 - - W - 240 8 - 240 48
Well
009 5 - - W - 160 64 - 320 64
Well
010 3 - - W - 40 4 - 144 48
Well
011 8 - - W - - - - 400 50
Well
012 15 - - W - 960 80 - 1200 80
Well
013 5 - - W - 720 16 - 240 48
Well
014 16 - - W - 1200 32 - 768 48
Well
015 9 - - W - 1440 32 - 432 48
Well
016 10 - - W - 1440 32 - 320 32
Well
017 16 - - W - 720 48 - 1024 64
Well
018 6 - - W - - 48 - 162 27
Well
019 8 - - W - 500 64 - 200 25
Well
020 15 - - W - 1680 96 - 400 32
Well
Total 174 7856
% of respondents willing to pay = Nill

Page 207
Table 4: Domestic water data from Household Questionnaire (Ita- Alamu Area)

Capita Sources
yi(1/d) water
Season Season
Use1/d
001 8 T B - - 200 80 - 256 32

Tap & Borehole
002 8 T - W - - - - 256 32 Tap
& Well
003 7 T - W 500 240 80 - 336 48 Tap
& Well
004 40 - - W - 960 320 - 1440 36
Well
005 6 - B - - 1000 600 - 384 64
Borehole
006 10 - - W - 400 160 - 320 32
Well
007 10 T - W 500 2400 1152 - 320 32 Tap
& Well
008 12 T B W - 400 36 - 380 32
Tap,Borehole&Well
009 6 T - W - 64 32 - 192 32
Tap & Well
010 42 T - W - 1200 64 - 4032 96 Tap
& Well
011 4 T - W 500 64 32 - 192 48
Tap & Well
012 6 T - W 500 1200 32 - 288 48 Tap
& Well
013 24 T - W 500 1440 480 - 1152 48 Tap
& Well
014 8 - B W - 480 96 - 384 48
Borehole &Well
015 13 T - W - 1440 64 - 832 64 Tap
& Well
016 5 - - W - 960 64 - 320 64
Well
017 33 - B W - 960 80 - 1584 48
Well
018 25 T B - 500 320 20 - 1200 48
Tap & Borehole
019 4 T B W 1000 480 160 - 192 48
Tap,Borehole&Well
020 20 - B - - 1200 480 - 640 32
Borehole
Total 291 14,700

Page 208
Table 5: Linear Regression Analysis for Olunlade Area
xi yi xi2 yi2 xi yi
7 334 49 112896 2352
8 384 64 147456 3072
4 256 16 65536 1024
6 288 36 82944 1728
10 480 100 230400 4800
7 336 49 112896 2352
24 544 576 295936 13056
6 384 36 147456 2304
4 256 16 65536 1024
9 320 81 102400 2880
6 288 36 82944 1728
16 512 256 262144 8192
24 1536 576 2359296 36864
8 640 64 409600 5120
7 336 49 112896 2352
15 960 225 921600 14400
10 320 100 102400 3200
6 384 36 147456 2304
6 576 36 331776 3456
6 160 36 25600 960
189 9296 2437 6119168 113168
Table 6: Linear Regression Analysis for Tanke Area
xi yi xi2 yi2 xi yi
13 520 169 270400 6760
10 480 100 230400 4800
13 390 169 152100 5070
11 480 121 230400 58080
6 200 36 40000 1200
8 256 64 65536 2048
10 320 100 102400 3200
5 300 25 90000 1500
13 338 169 114244 4394
7 300 49 90000 2100
6 192 39 36864 1152
13 624 169 38936 8112
6 300 36 90000 1800
6 300 36 9000 1800
2 200 4 4000 400
7 448 41 20074 3136
2 160 4 25600 320
10 480 100 230400 4800
6 384 36 147456 2304
8 512 64 262144 4096
162 7184 2185 8761414 117072

Page 209
Table 7: Linear Regression Analysis for Olunlade Area
xi yi xi2 yi2 xi yi
8 256 64 65536 2048

5 200 25 40000 1000
3 96 9 9216 288
5 150 25 22500 750
6 480 36 230400 2880
5 240 25 57600 1200
21 504 441 254016 10584
5 240 25 57600 1200
5 320 25 102400 1600
3 144 9 20736 432
8 400 64 16000 3200
15 1200 225 1440000 18000
5 240 25 57600 1200
16 768 256 589824 11288
9 432 81 186624 3888
10 320 100 102400 3200
16 1024 256 1048576 16384
6 162 36 26244 972
8 200 64 40000 1600
15 480 225 230400 7200
174 7.856 2246 4741672 88909
Table 8: Linear Regression Analysis for Ita-Alamu Area
xi yi xi2 yi2 xi yi
8 256 64 65536 2048

8 256 64 65536 2048
7 336 49 112896 2352
40 1440 1600 2073600 57600
6 384 36 147456 2304
10 320 100 102400 3200
10 320 100 102400 3200
12 380 144 144400 4560
6 1012 36 36864 1152
42 4032 1764 16357024 169344
4 192 16 36864 768
6 288 36 82944 1728
24 1152 576 1327104 27648
8 384 64 147456 3072
13 832 169 69224 10816
5 320 25 102400 1600
33 1584 1089 2509056 52272
25 1200 625 1440000 30000
4 192 16 36864 768
20 640 400 409600 12800
291 14700 6973 48482624 389280

Page 210
Table 9: Linear Regression Analysis for Olorunsogo Area(Per household)
xi yi xi2 yi2 xi yi
7 48 49 2304 336
8 48 49 2304 384
4 64 16 4096 256
6 48 36 2304 288
10 48 100 2304 480
7 48 49 2304 336
24 23 576 529 552
6 64 36 4096 384
4 64 16 4096 256
9 32 81 1024 288
6 48 36 2304 288
16 32 256 1024 512
24 64 576 4096 1536
8 80 64 6400 640
7 48 49 2304 336
15 64 225 4096 960
10 32 100 1024 320
6 64 36 4096 384
6 64 36 4096 384
6 27 36 729 162
189 1010 2437 55530 9082
Table 10 Linear Regression Analysis for Tanke Area (Per household)
xi yi xi2 yi2
13 40 169 1600 520

10 48 100 2304 480
13 30 169 900 390
11 44 121 1936 484
6 33 36 1089 198
8 32 64 1024 256
10 32 100 1024 320
5 60 25 3600 300
13 26 169 676 338
7 43 49 1849 301
6 32 36 1024 192
12 48 169 2304 624
6 50 36 2500 300
2 100 4 10000 200
7 64 49 4096 448
2 80 4 6400 160
10 48 100 2304 480
6 64 36 4096 384
8 64 64 4096 512
162 988 1536 55322 7187

Page 211
Table 11 Linear Regression Analysis for Olunlade Area (per household)
xi yi xi2 yi2 xi yi
8 32 64 1024 256
5 40 25 1600 200
3 32 9 1024 96
5 30 25 900 150
6 80 36 6400 480
5 48 25 2304 240
21 24 441 576 504
5 48 25 2304 240
5 64 25 4096 320
3 48 9 2304 144
8 50 64 2500 400
15 80 225 6400 1200
5 48 25 2304 240
16 48 256 2304 768
9 48 81 2304 432
10 32 100 10243 320
16 64 256 4096 1024
6 27 36 729 162
8 25 64 625 200
15 32 225 1024 480
174 900 2016 45842 7856
Table 12 Linear Regression Analysis for Ita-Alamu Area (per household)
xi yi xi2 yi2 xi yi
8 32 64 1024 256
8 32 64 1024 256
7 48 49 2304 336
40 36 1600 1296 1440
6 64 36 4096 384
10 32 100 1024 320
10 32 100 1024 320
12 32 144 1024 384
6 32 36 1024 192
42 96 1764 9216 4032
4 48 16 2304 192
6 48 36 2304 288
24 48 576 2304 1152
8 48 64 2304 384
13 64 169 4096 832
5 64 25 4096 320
33 48 1089 2304 1584
25 48 625 2304 1200
4 48 16 23204 192
20 32 400 1024 640
291 932 6723 48400 14704

Page 212
Olunlade Area
Table 13 Mean, Standard deviation and variance for variables at Olunlade Area
xi x = xi – x x2 yi y = yi – y y2 xy
8 -0.7 0.49 32 -13 169 9.1

5 -3.7 13.69 40 -5 25 18.5
3 -5.7 32.49 32 -13 169 74.1
5 -3.7 13.69 30 -15 225 55.5
6 -2.7 7.29 80 35 1225 -94.5
5 -3.7 13.69 48 3 9 -11.1
21 12.3 151.29 24 -21 441 -258.3
5 -3.7 13.69 48 3 9 -11.1
5 -3.7 13.69 64 19 361 -70.3
3 -5.7 32.49 48 3 9 -17.1
8 -0.7 0.49 50 5 25 -3.5
15 6.3 39.69 80 35 1225 220.5
5 -3.7 13.69 48 3 9 -11.1
16 7.3 53.29 48 3 9 21.9
9 0.3 0.09 48 3 9 0.9
10 1.3 1.69 32 -13 169 -16.9
16 7.3 53.29 64 19 361 138.7
6 -2.7 7.29 24 -18 324 48.6
8 -0.7 0.49 25 -20 400 14.0
15 6.3 39.69 32 -13 169 18.9
174 502.2 900 532 189.8
Ita-Alamu Area
Table 14: Mean, Standard deviation and variance for variables at Ita-Alamu Area
xi x = xi – x x2 yi y = yi – y y2 xy
8 -6.55 42.90 32 -14.6 213.16 95.63

8 -6.55 42.90 32 16.6 213.16 108.73
7 -77.5 57.00 48 1.4 1.96 -10.57
40 25.45 647.70 36 -10.6 12.36 -269.77
6 -8.55 73.10 64 17.4 302.76 -148.77
10 -4.55 20.70 32 -14.6 213.16 66.43
10 -4.55 20.70 32 -14.6 213.16 66.43
12 -2.55 6.50 32 -14.6 213.16 37.23
6 -8.55 73.10 32 -14.6 213.16 124.83
42 27.45 753.50 96 49.4 2440.36 1356.03
4 -10.55 111.30 48 1.4 1.96 -14.77
6 -8.55 73.10 48 1.4 1.96 -11.97
24 9.45 89.30 48 1.4 1.96 13.23
8 -6.55 42.90 48 1.4 1.96 -9.17
13 -1.55 2.40 64 17.4 302.76 -26.97
5 -9.55 91.20 64 17.4 302.76 -166.17
33 18.45 340.40 48 1.4 1.96 25.83
25 10.45 109.20 48 1.4 1.96 14.63
4 -10.55 111.30 48 1.4 1.96 -14.77
20 5.45 29.70 32 -14.6 213.16 -79.57
291 2738.6 932 4968.8 1156.50

Page 213
Evaluation of Quality characteristics of Commercially Available
Brand of Sachet-Water Using Refractive Index
1
Sangotola, T.M and 2 Egbetade, S.A
1
Department of Civil Engineering, The Polytechnic, Ibadan.
2
Department of Maths and Statistics, The Polytechnic, Ibadan
Abstract
This paper compares the quality of some brands of commercial sachet water, available in Ibadan and its
environment, with NAFDAC approved standard, by the use of refractive index. Refractometer was used
along with real and apparent depth methods to ensure accuracy of refractive index of water. The results
shows that the refractive index of the water sample varies from one brand to the other.
Keywords. Evaluation, water, index, refractometre, and apparent depth.
Introduction Analytical Procedure

Water is colourless, odourless, tasteless and The method adopted is the real and apparent
transparent liquid. Water wxhibit a blursh tinge depth method. The coin was washed very well
in large quantity and forms the basic universal and placed at the bottom of a measuring cylinder.
solvent. Water is primary and indispensable Each of the samples was poured successfully
natural resources. Its sources is widely into the cylinder. A search pin attached to a
distributed and are classified into three groups pieces of cork clamped on a retort stand was
namely: underground water, surface water and moved up and down until it coincides with the
atmospheric water (Odiure and Adeniyi, 2001). apparent position of the coin as seen from above
Underground water include well water, deep- the water. Ink marks were made on the cylinder
well water and borehole, surface water include corresponding to the position of the image of the
river, streams, lakes, ocean and seas. coin. The water is reduced in steps by 10cm.
The experiment was repeated five times for each

sample and the results are present in table 1 (a-
e).
Results
Table 1(a)
Refractive index (Napp)

Sample Band Code Real depth Apparent depth
= Real depth apparent depth
30 22.1926 1.3518
40 29.5901 1.3518
A 50 36.9877 1.3518
60 44.3852 1.3518
70 51.7828 1.3518
Table 1 (b)
= Real depth/apparent depth
30 21.9715 1.3654
40 29.2932 1.3654
B 50 36.6193 1.3654
60 43.9431 1.3654
70 51.2670 1.3654
Sangotola, T.M and Egbetade, S.A Evaluation of Quality characteristics of Commercially Available Brand of Sachet-Water, Using Refractive Index.
Table 1 (c)
30 21.9122 1.3518
40 29.2144 1.3518
50 36.5201 1.3518
C
60 44.3819 1.3518
70 51.7828 1.3518
Table 1 (d)
30 21.9122 1.3691
40 29.2144 1.3692
D 50 36.5203 1.3691
60 43.8148 1.3694
70 51.1284 1.3691
Table 1 (e)
30 22.1926 1.3518
40 29.5901 1.3518
50 36.9877 1.3518
E 60 44.3852 1.3518
70 51.7828 1.3518
In addition the refractive index of normal water by Nabb, we compare the theoretical value of refractive
index of normal water with the data obtained by the real/apparent depth method in table 1. The refractive
index of water was being put at 1.33 to study the effectiveness of the real and apparent depth method. See
table 2 for the comparison of the values obtained with the theoretical index of normal water.
Table 2
Sample
S/No Uapp Uabb Difference % Error
Brand Code
1 A 1.3518 1.3300 0.0218 1.64
2 B 1.3654 1.3300 0.0354 2.66
3 C 1.3518 1.3300 0.0218 1.64
4 D 1.3691 1.3300 0.0391 2.94
5 E 1.3603 1.3300 0.0303 2.28
Where;
% Error = Uapp-Uabb/ Uabb x 100
By using refractometer, we obtain in table 3, the refractive index, Urer and compare it with the refractive
index obtained by the use of real and apparent depth method.
Table 3
S/No Sample Brand Code Uapp Uabb Difference % Error
1 A 1.3534 1.3518 0.0018 0.12
2 B 1.3696 1.3654 0.0042 0.31
3 C 1.3536 1.3518 0.0018 0.13
4 D 1.3753 1.3691 0.0062 0.45
Page 215
5 E 1.3625 1.3603 0.0022 0.16
Where;
% Error = Uref-Uapp/ Uapp x 100
In table 4, we compare retractive index from refractometer with the theoretical refractive index of water.
Table 4
Sample
S/No Uapp Uabb Difference % Error
Brand Code
1 A 1.3534 1.3300 0.0234 1.76
2 B 1.3696 1.3300 0.0396 2.98
3 C 1.3536 1.3300 0.0236 1.77
4 D 1.3753 1.3300 0.0453 3.41
5 E 1.3625 1.3300 0.0325 2.44
where
% Error = Uref-Uabb/ Uabb x 100
Table 5(a)
Sample %Uref %Uabb
S/No
Brand Code error error
1 A 1.64 -
2 B 2.66 1.76
3 C 1.64 2.98
4 D 2.94 3.41
5 E 2.28 2.44
Table 5(b)
Sample
S/No % Uref error
Brand Code
1 A 1.76
2 B 2.98
3 C 1.77
4 D 3.41
5 E 2.44
Discussions refractive index very close the theoretical

refractive index water. It could also be noted that
The results of the analysis are shown in Table 1- refractive index of sample D appears to be the
5 the refractive index of sample D appears to be highest which suggests a high presences of
the highest with the use of refractometer machine impurities in the packaged water. The higher the
and the various water samples varies. By the use refractive index, the higher the impurities and
of refractometer, the refractive index of the subsequently the higher the turbidity [4]
sample (A-E) are respectively 1.3534, 1.3696,
1.3536, 1.3753, 1.3625 as against by the However, there are other parameters (apart form
real/apparent depth method which are 1.3518, refractive index) that are used by NAFDAC to
1.3654, 1.3518, 1.3691 and 1.3603. From the assess the quality of drinking water. These
analysis, sample A and C appear to have parameters can be summarized as follows [5].

Page 216
Turbidity 1.21 NTU

Suspended solid 8.5 mg/L
Total dissolved salt (TDS) 130 mg/L
Total hardness -11 mg/L
Cl- -250mg/L
SO24 -420mg/L
If the above parameters have concentration ensure good manufacturing practice is
above these permissive level, there is every maintained in all spheres of production without
tendency of an increase in the refractive index minding the cost implication as the safety of
and the water is not safe for human consumption. human lives must take priority over profit
making.
Conclusion
References
For all the packaged water considered, only 1. lippy, CE and wattrip, S.C. (1984) ,
samples A and C with refractive index very close waterborn disease and outbreak. American
to the refractive index of normal water as safe for water works Association 76, 60-677.
drinking. The remaining brands of sachet water 2. Oluwande, PA (1983), Guide to tropical
do no concur with NAFDAC regulation. There is environmbental health and engineering
a significant presence of dissolved particles in 3. Pontinus, F.W. (1990), water quality and
them which resulted in higher turbidity and treatment. A handbook of community
consequently increasing their refractive index. water supplies, 4th edition, mc-Graw Hill,
new York.
In the light of the result of the present work, 4. Thresh, J.C. Beale,J.f. and sucking E.V.
NAFDAC should intensify its efforts at ensuring (1933), The examinaitonof water and water
strict compliance with water safety guidelines by supplies, 4th edition, J.A.Churchill,
the manufacturers to prevent outbreak of water London.
borne diseases. 5. Udigure, J.A. and Adeniyi, J.O. (2001),
Analysis of water quality in Minna
Monitoring of water produced through regular metropolis. Journal of Enginee5ing
and unscheduled inspection of all water Teeechnology and Industrial application,
production sites both at rural and urban areas 5(1), 37-44.
should be vigorously pursued. Investors too must

Page 217
The Menace of Urban Bus Stop and the Way Out: Case of Federal
Urban Roads in Ibadan
Fasanmade, P. A.
kayofas@yahoo.com
Deparment of Civil Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan
Abstract
This Paper has examined the menace of urban bus-stops within the context of the bus-stops system in our
urban areas with Ibadan city as a case study. The aim was to examine the existing bus-stops facilities, such
as the infrastructures, maintenance and users, in coping with the ever-increasing demands for such
facilities. On-spot assessment through physical visits to several bus-stops, unscheduled interviews of the
users and the ministry staff responsible for this aspect of our road system were made. Gross inadequacy in
the infrastructures and lack of foresight by the designers of the road network system coupled with lack of
maintenance of the scarcely available ones are responsible for the menace caused by the users especially
the commercial drivers. Recommendations for improvement which include drastic reconstruction of the
few existing ones, making use of the law enforcement agents to ensure strict compliance and adequate
supervision by the ministry responsible for the good maintenance are made.
Keywords: Urban, infrastructures, maintenance, assessment and enforcement.
Introduction Research Methodology
In Nigeria today, there is a very rapid growth in Primary data were collected through interview
the demand for transportation. In spite of the with the Federal Ministry of Works Staff, The
fact that most parts of the urban centres are Federal Road Maintenance Staff (FERMA) who
facing serious road maintenance problems, are involved in the maintenance of the highway.
especially the terrible hold-ups in our cities, due While the road users like the commercial drivers
to lack of adequate provision of the bus-stop were interviewed on the behavioral attitudes,
infrastructure in terms of space and other how well the existing bus-stop infrastructures
amenities, coupled with inadequate funding for could be reasonable utilized.
the maintenance of the available ones. There is
therefore the pressing need for close The secondary data and infrastructure sources
coordination, efficient decision making include relevant published and unpublished
machinery and enforcement of policies and research findings, relevant journal articles and
clearly defined responsibilities. This study seeks dissertations.
to explain the fundamental importance of
Institutional development and the need for a Comparative Analysis Road Conditions
serious look at operating system of our in other Countries
commercial bus operators in solving the menace
of the inherent hardship involved in the In World Bank Report, it was pointed out that
transportation system in our urban centers. between 1975 and 1985, out of 21,000KM of
paved roads in Nigeria, Federal Trunk road
Proper maintenance of the infrastructure system, 30% constructed or reliabilities in 1975,
enhances the safety of people and goods moving - 80 and another 24% in 1981-85. As a result
on our roads. It is also very important to 62% of the network is rated good, 15% fair and
recognize that the development of sound and 23% poor. Neglect of unpaved network has
viable road infrastructure is more important than rendered an estimated 90% of unpaved roads in
just providing a new road project involving poor condition.
construction of physical facilities without
maintaining the available existing ones.
Fasanmade, P. A. The Menace of Urban Bus Stop and the Way Out: Case of Federal Urban Roads in Ibadan
This is due mainly to poor maintenance. most of them are not constructed to the standard
However if this analysis is compared with the expected in terms of space and infrastructure.
condition of roads in Brazil about the same time
in 1975-1980, the table below reveals the General Situations of Bus Stops in Ibadan
situation of the roads. Study Area Existing Infrastructural
Capacity
Condition KM Percentage The existing infrastructural capacity such as
Good 10,000 24 stopping space in terms of space, pavement
Fair 23,000 58 construction and commuter shelter are scarcely
Poor 7,000 18 seen along the roads in the metropolis. Through
Table 1: Road conditions in Brazil in 1979. the findings of the author, it was observed that
the few stops where shelter are provided have
been taken over by hawkers and petty traders.
Also the bus stops that have pavement are not
adequately maintained. Most of the asphaltic i.e.
Condition KM % of network pavement provided have either worn out or not
Good 14,000 30 provided in the first instance. None of the bus
stop has any traffic signal.
FAIR 19,000 42
POOR 13,000 28 The Uses of Infrastructural Facilities
Source: Havral & Raiz (1988)
The infrastructural facilities to be provided for an
Table 2: Road conditions in Brazil in 1984. efficient smooth traffic system include
i. Stopping space
ii. Shelter
Bus Stop Design iii. Pavement construction.
The officially constructed bus-stops along the

Federal Roads round the town are very few and
Fig. 1 Showing the Typical Standard Bus Stop along a dual carriage way

Page 219
Fig. 2. Section through a Standard Flexible Pavement
Fig. 3. Road Infrastructure Planning
Findings The second aspect i.e. the Traffic engineering

which deals with the movement of various
The Main Causes of Menace at the Bus-Stops modes of transport and to control and maximize
in Ibadan Metropolis traffic efficiency, capacity and safety. This
second aspect is most relevant to this paper.
Fact 1: Traffic planning determines the demand on a
particular zone. It deals with trip attraction, how
Lack of Adequate Planning to distribute trips between zones and to be able
to assign trips. This technique is known as “end
The Encarta dictionary defines planning as a state planning”. An alternative technique known
scheme of achieving objective i.e a method of as “incremental planning:” It is a processes
doing something that is worked out usually in whereby public facilities are added incrementally
some details before it is begun. to an existing system in an optimal manner (the
latter most probably derives from observation
Before a roadway is embarked upon the two that political decision making body to provide
main topics, are to be planned for are: solutions to immediate problems and high degree
i. Highway Engineering and of uncertainties associated with long range
ii. Traffic Engineering. forcasting, Aderinola (2001).
The first aspect i.e. The highway engineering, Fact 2:

which deals with geometric design, pavement
design, earthworks and bituminous materials or The second reason for poor bus stop operation is
surface design. “lack of fund for maintenance” most of the

Page 220
contractors handling road projects were not paid

as at when due. iii. Health Hazard
Fact 3: The hardship caused to the drivers at traffic

hold ups is usually a catastrophe. This is
Thirdly, lack of political will to embark upon also cumulated with traffic accidents either
drastic approach in overhauling the existing fatal or minor. Some fatal accidents
entire system, unwillingness to pay causing deaths of many people have also
compensation for imminent demolition to give affected many families. Juvenile
room for enough space for expansion to cope delinquency as most of the underage
with the ever-increasing volume of traffic on our hawkers take advantage of the traffic jam
roads. to hawk their products.
Fact 4:
Another reason is the lack of discipline on the Conclusion

part of the drivers. In most of the acclaimed bus
stops. In most cases, more than half of the main Transportation is the backbone of any national
road are being used as bus stops. This process economy, hence adequate maintenance of road
has always caused artificial traffic calming. infrastructural materials on the roads, such as bus
stop enhance the efficiency of transportation.
To worsen the situation, most of the traffic In 1922, the then administrative head of Nigeria,
circle‟ around the town have been disturbed by Lord Laggard, said that materials development of
the spread of vehicles from „bus stop‟ areas to Africa may be summed up in one word –
these facilities thereby causing heavy traffic hold transport.
ups. Despite its numerous important uses in the
society, transportation in Nigeria has not been
Fact 5: accorded with proper management, funding and
provision of adequate staff to man its most
No traffic signal in any bus-stop in the study crucial aspects including road maintenance and
area. This has caused a lot of dangerous driving infrastructural facilities. As rightly noted by
for most drivers who stop suddenly at an Ikya, (1993, transportation is an essential
undefined stop. element in the functioning of any society.
Therefore, the administration and maintenance of
transport infrastructure is very crucial , if state is
Effect of Poor State of Bus-Stops to functions socially, politically and
economically to a very high level of
i. Economic performance.
It is therefore necessary to re-orientate the mode
The negative effect on the economy in of construction and maintenance process in the
terms of man-hour loss due to traffic hold Federal Ministry of works by shifting from
up at these bus stops is unquantifiable. incremental planning to end state planning
Commuters spend hours at traffic hold up process in order to have a long-lasting
at the peak periods. This often causes a lot infrastructural facilities that are reliable. Also,
of negative effect on the national economy. strict monitoring and enforcement of law and
order should be pursued more vigorously to
ii. Social Activities achieve a productive society, and enhance a
higher efficiency in the social and economic
In most urban areas, especially the study activities of the Nation.
area, Ibadan, social activities are almost
non-existent. The reason is not far-fetched,
a worker who closes at 4 or 5pm and could Recommendation
not get home before 9.00p.m has no time of
any social/relaxation time before going to i. It is highly imperative that, adequate
bed. provision of funds are made for the purpose
of construction and maintenance of road

Page 221
infrastructure especially the bus-stop References

infrastructural material such as good
pavement, adequate shelter and road signals.
Adesanya A.O. (1991), “Administration and
ii. Funds should be targeted for specific provision of Roads in Ogun State,” NISER
purpose such as repairs, erosion control and Monograph series No. 7
pothole mending.
Aderinola, O.S. (2001), “Transportation
iii. Adequate long term planning should be Engineering Lecture Notes”, Civil Engineering
encouraged. Department Federal University of Technology,
Akure.
iv. Good and thorough job should be done with
very good engineering materials to have Adeyemi, G.O. (1992), “Highway Geotechnical
long lasting pavement. properties of literati residual Soils in Ajebo-
Isara geological transition zone of southern
v. Traffic laws must be enforced and official Nigeria”. Unpublished PhD Thesis submitted to
corruption and bribe taking by the warden Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife.
should be reduced.
Adeyemi, G. O ,Opeyemi, F (1998),
vi. Sales of drugs and alcoholic drinks should “Geotechnical basis for failure of sections of the
be discouraged at the bus stop areas. Lagos- Ibadan expressway”,South western
Nigeria.
vii. Traffic signal should be introduced to the
bus stop areas. Adewoye A. O Adeyemi G. O (2004),
“Geotechnical Properties of Soils Along the
viii. More clearly defined bus stop should be
Lagos- Ibadan Expressway”, Nigeria.
provided at each of the junctions on the
main roads. Microsoft Encarta: Premium suite 2004:
Planning – Microsoft Corporation
ix. No vehicles should be allowed to block the
main roads near the bus stop areas National Trasport Policy (1993) Federal Ministry
of Transport. Main Document National Rolling
Plan (1994-96), Lagos.
Harval, Cr and Raiz, A (1988), “Road

Deterioration in Developing Countries: Causes
and Remedies”. The World Bank, Washington
D.C.

Page 222
Improvement on the Development of Melon Shelling Machine for
Small-Scale Outfits
Adesokan S. G ., Oriolowo K. T. and D. B. Oke

anisak1@yahoo.com
Department of Mechanical Engineering. The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Nigeria.
Abstract
Melon seeds are rich in protein and oil, and have found extensive application in Nigeria and many other
tropical countries. Ground melon seeds are used as ingredient for cooking stew or soup. Due to the
importance of Melon in the society, research works are being carried out in various places and by different
people to reduce the problems encountered in Melon Shelling. The machine employed the principle of
impact in shelling melon seeds. The impact action discouraged much breakage of melon seeds. The melon
velocity of the seeds against the impact surface provides the energy to split the melon shell while the
tangential component of the velocity supplies the rubbing and shear forces; and also shake the cotyledon
from the shell. The blower separates the Cotyledon from the shell. Water system was incorporated into the
machine to improve on the existing one, so that it will aid the separation of husk from juicy flesh and to
enhance mass production. The previous machine impeller arm was made with very solid mild steel, but in
this particular one, a very thin plate is being introduced to minimize breakages. The machine was tested and
its performance after shelling selected quantities of melon was found to be about 72%.
Keywords: Improvement, Design, Construction, Melon Shelling, Performance.
Introduction centrifugal device based on impact force to shell

melon seeds, using three types of impellers,
Melon is a leguminous and proteineous seed which was discovered that the efficiency is low.
served as food supplement globally. The seed is
embedded in flat oval shaped walled husk. Description of the Machine and Operational
Getting the whole seed from a specie called Principle
“Bara” which is abundantly grown in Nigeria.
There is need to process out the seed out of the There is an hopper in which the seed is lowered
husk, to have the needed product in pure form, into the machine. The Electric motor transmits
which now called for “melon shelling machine”. the driving motion to the impeller shaft that
rotates the impeller arms which apply the
Melon Shelling rubbing and shear force to the melon seed
against the stator for proper removal of the husk
This is the art of removing the thin husk of the from the seed. The mixture of husk and the
melon seed without breakages. Some works have shelled seed filled the air blowing chamber
been done by various engineers in to ensure the which blows away the husk from the seed during
availability of the melon seeds in fleshy form at centrifugal motion in the chamber. The seed then
easy mechanically. Makanjuola (1978), used packed through a collector attached.
Improvement made over the existing seeds from contamination and breakages. This
Melon Sheller sheller in quest is of higher shelling capacity
compared to the existing ones with incorporation
It was noted that the previous machine designed of water compartment which softened the seeds
has an impeller arm made up with very thick and enhance the removal of husk from it at
solid mild steel, but this present one is made up higher rate.
of thin plate made of stainless steel to prepare the
Adesokan, Oriolowo and Oke Improvement on the Development of Melon Shelling Machine for Small-Scale Outfits
Testing and Performance Evaluation
1kg of dried seed was tested on the machine at three different times. Below is the data obtained.
Table 1: Testing and Performance Evaluation
Time
Test No Shelled Unshelled Broken
[secs]
1 406 192 52 180
2 448 166 36 160
3 395 195 57 165
Total 1249 553 145 505
Table 2: Data for shelling of mildly wet melons
Time
Test no Shelled Unshelled Broken
(secs)
1 463 143 44 160
2 487 116 47 155
3 454 145 51 166
Total 1404 404 142 475

Page 224
Adesokan, Oriolowo and Oke Improvement on the Development of Melon Shelling Machine for Small-Scale Outfits
Discussion
Creamer, R. H. (1998) “Machine Designs”
The efficiency of the present melon Sheller is Anderson – Wesley Publishing company, Inc.
higher than the previous one. It takes lesser time Canada.
to shell out the husk from the equal amount of
the seeds. There is a reduction in unshelled and Makanjuola, G.A. (1979) “An Evolution of some
broken quantity of the melon seeds. Mechanics of shelling melon seed” Nigerian
Journal of Technology Vol. 2, September 1978.
Conclusion
Oyenuga, U.A (1975): “Nigeria’s food feeding
stuff. Their composition and Nutritive value”
Designing the melon Sheller with water
Ibadan University Press.
compartment using the stainless steel material is
an improvement over existing ones since its
Mott, R. L. (2001) “Machine Elements in
operation is easy without any contamination
mechanical Design” Charles E Meril Publishing
waste reduction with higher efficiency in the
company Ohio.
course of design.
Baril ,R. ( 1980), “ Modern Machining
References Technology” Delmal Publishers Incorporation.
New York.
Chapman, W.A.J (1998): “Work shop
Technology” The English language and Edward
Arnold Ltd., London, 6th Edition.

Page 225
View publication stats

Proceedingsof NECTHEPOLY2009

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Proceedingsof NECTHEPOLY2009

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

Building Quantum Computer by using Simulation Approach

Conference Paper · June 2009

Olutola Olaide Fagbolu

Facebook Messenger Chatbot View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

1st National Engineering Conference

Appropriate Engineering Practices and Cultural Barriers

1st National Engineering Conference Papers as

Date: 9th - 11th June, 2009

The Book of Proceedings

Local Organizing Committee (LOC)

Chairman Engr. A. Olaniyan Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. The Poly., Ibadan

Secretary Engr. A. O. Oyebode Dept. of Elect/Elect. Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan

Finance Team Engr. J. A. Akintayo Dept. of Elect/Elect. Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan

Welfare Team Engr. M. O. Ashim Dept. of Elect/Elect. Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan

Prof. Layi Fagbenle Dept. of Mech. Engr’g. O.A.U Ile- Ife

Prof. A. O. Olorunisola Dept of Agric. Engr’g. University of Ibadan

Engr. B.O. Akinsete Dept. of Civil Engr’g. The Poly., Ibadan

Engr. S.A. Oladejo Dept. of Elect/Elect. Engr’g. The Poly.,Ibadan

Dr. G.A. Aderounmu Director INTECU O.A.U. Ile-Ife

The Book of Proceedings

Continuing Education Centre (CEC), The Polytechnic, Ibadan, The Management of

other made invaluable contributions to the successful holding of this National

Engineering Conference of the Faculty of Engineering, The Polytechnic, Ibadan. Our

always be remembered and blessed.

Engr. Abolade Olaniyan

The Book of Proceedings

machines in our industries and in the resources

1. The conference recognised the perpetual and worsening phenomenon of under-development in

The following recommendations were made.

1. Production and dissemination of innovation and context should be promoted on development

3. Enhancing engineering education should be targeted towards industrialisation and

9. Inventory model is recommended to firms so as to optimize use of raw materials.

The Book of Proceedings

The Book of Proceedings

Conference Background and Objectives

Table of Contents xviii-xx

Section [A] Energy and Power Sector

1. Cultural and institutional Barriers under developing Nigeria’s Energy Sector

3. Electrical Safety Techniques in Industrial Installations

4. Fire Resistance Potentials of Structural Timber

6. Failure Analysis of Fired Corrugated Brass Connectors

Section [B] Agricultural and Manufacturing

1. Assessment of the Kwara State Tractor Hiring Unit

2. Design and Construction of Sheanut Cracker

3. Skill Acquisition Methodology in Indigenous Aluminium Industries in Nigeria

4. Comparative Analysis of Carburizing Atmospheres on 1030 Steel Components

5. The Effect of Calibration on the Performance of Farm Machinery: Case Study of

6. An Assessment of Capacity Utilization of Iron and Steel Industries in Nigeria

The Book of Proceedings

8. Effective Line -Balancing Activities in Coca Cola Production

9. Application of Fluidization Technique in Designing Batch Dryer for Agricultural Products

Section [C] Curriculum Development and Human Capacity Building

2. Inadequacies in Engineering Professional Activities in Nigeria

3. Cooperative Education as a Tool in Producing Good Engineering Personnel

4. Factors Affecting the Low Performance of Engineering Students in Citizenship Education.

5. Cultural Barriers to Engineering Education and Practices in Nigeria

Section [D] Computer Modeling, Information and Communication Technology

1. Application of a Model Process in Solving Engineering Computational Problems

2. Predictive Model for Regulating Flow of Water in Open Channels

3. Embracing Integration of Numerical Packages to the Teaching of Engineering Courses

4. Building Quantum Computer by using Simulation Approach