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 345
Motion
Covariant Equations of
9 Relativistic Hamilton's Principle and

or

d
But dt
dt
Relativistic Hamilton's actual and neighbouring paths,
we have
and Covariant Principle If there is a little variation along the
ört = r; —ri (say)
Equations of Motion d dr' dri
d = ¯¯
(8rt ) = — (r; —q )
dt dt
9.1. HAMILTON'S PRINCIPLE IN CLASSICAL MECHANICS dt
drt
Accordingto Hamilton's principle, "The path actually traversed
by a dt
time tl and t2 is one over which the integral ofthe Lagrangian conservative, holonomicdynamical
between limits tl and t2 is stationary, paths.
thetime integral of
the Lagrangian is extremum. Here primes have been used for neighbouring
Analytically it can be represented as Using (3), (2) may be written as ...(4)
Ldt = J = extremum, rt.8rt=
dt

whereJ is the extremum value of the time integral of the Lagrangianand is known as Hamilton's Using above equation, ( 1 ) becomes
function for the path.
principle
Equation(1) may be represented as
Ldt -O, ö(ri) —
...(2) or 2

where 6 is the variation symbol.

Thisprinciplehelps us to distinguish the actual path from the neighbouring paths. or

Deductionof Hamilton's Principle

Letus consider that the conservative holonomic dynamical system moves from P to Q where P and or Fi •öri +ö =E
Qareinitial and final configurations of the system at times tl and t2 respectively. Let PRQbe the actual öri = BW(say).
pathand PR'O PR"Q the two neighbouring paths out of infinite number of .ouring gath But Fi .öri = work done by the forces Fi during displacements
possibilities. -Q
For the deduction of Hamilton's principle the following two conditions and —7thri = kinetic energy of the system—T.
must be satisfied : Actual

(i) öt must be equal to zero at end points, i.e., at h the particle must Therefore equation (5)becomes
beat P and at t2 the particle must be at Q. öW+öT=E —(r#i.öri).
dt
(ii) ör must be equal to zero at end points, i.e., the points P and Q are p
t2, we get
fixed in space.
Fig. 9.1 Integrating above expression between the limits tl and
Letthe system be acted upon by a number of forces represented by F. Let .öri)dt
J t2
ithparticleof the system acted upon by force Fi acquire acceleration ri, so t

that we have

FromD'Alembert's principle, we have = E [mfii.öril%

).öri
(Fi = 0 since bri = Oat the end points P and Q
For a conservative system, we know
(344) where V is the potential energy.
 and Cøvonant Faunttons of
346 RelnttvuticHotmltonfg Pnnople
PrlativigticMethotlits

Oat end ,
But -

J% V)dt •O
pnnopie.
Therefore (3)
d dL

which is prmop/e

'1b" fonefioti is %jvet'by

But are if and on}y'f

Jr/brief may wrjle //q, q, t)

the does depend time gupjjejfjy,we have

V)qw
V)qv

W}iigfi

+ 9.3. HAMILTON'S PRINCIPLE

01.
(2) According to Hamilton'S principJe, wc have

aeojrdjrj%fo J priruipje,
relation between Lagrangian and famijtonian i' given by
/.dt-(j
Jf(q; t),

"Iberiequation (J) becomes

H(q, p, t)) dtzO.
because q, and are independent
+ 9.4. DERIVATIONOF
PRINCIPLE(i.e., VARIATIONALPRINCIPLE)
01,
or åqkdl —O Consider two paths PRQ and PR 'Qout of infinite number of possibilities at shown in fig,91 In
case variation comprises independent variations of both and Pkat constant time t.
The difference between the two paths for the given value of t, may be described by introducing/
parameter common to all points of the path of integration in phase space.
Jf and are the values of and for the varied path PR'Q, we have
 349
Reiativcsttc Mechanics i Cevurtant Equattons of Monon
RetdtivuttcHamilton's Pnnciple and

But pelt = j
integrating by parts

[from
and
=lmnklh

Ifrom (5))

becomes
Then using (3) and (S),equation (7)

dt=O
t or

Fig. 92
or — % Sa— Pk+— nköa dt=0
öqk
and Pkare given by k
Thevariationsin OH
öqk= öa, OH
or
öPk= öa k
(from (4))
only when
each other; the integral (9) is satisfied
and (2).
from (1)

öa=0, then öqk But the variations öqkand öPkare independent of

If of öPkand öPkvanish separately, i.e., when
the coefficients
that = and Pk = Pk, i.e., the varied path PR'Q conicides with the actual path PRQ.
and
Asthe times at end points are not varied so that Bpk
Pk+
öqk
OH • OH ...(10)
i.e., and
Bpk öqk
Intermsof parametera, Hamilton's principle becomes
which are required Hamilton's equations.
p, t) dt=0 + 9.5. HAMILTON'SPRINCIPLEIN RELATIVITY
The Lagrangianentering into Hamilton's principle
Asthe times at the end points are not varied and hence are not the fmctions of a so that the
viz., Ldt=O
and integration may be inter-hanged. Then equation (6)may be written as
differentiation
— = dqk
is a function of spatial coordinates 11k,their time derivative dt
and time t,
h act
...(2)
viz., L(tlk, t)
dt=o ...(7)
Oct qk + our Lagrange's
Oct öPk Da the Lagrange's equations are derived from Lagrangian of this form. If we want that
invariant
equationsbe covariant,the invariant parameter t in equation (2) must be replaced some
by
It is known that such a parameter in space-time coordinates is length-element ds
property of space-time.
givenby
 and Covariant Equations of Motion
350 RelativisticHamilton's Principle asi
RelativisticMechanics

ds 2 dt 2 —(dx 1 )2 —(dx 2 -(dx 3 It may be noted that vy =

d;
where dx l • =dx, dx2 = y and dx 3 = dz
Further the Lagrangian should also be the function of four-vector XP, its derivative with respect to up = d_d_
and
invariant parameters
dxg . Now
i.e, — = (s) and the parameters
ds
i.e., öL(xg C),

i.e., L= L ( XP (s), (s), s)

or +—öv g +—dF, d;
We now assume the existence of a covariant variadonal principle according to which the true 3*
trajectory of the particle in a four-dimensional world is given by requiring that the action integral disappears; we thus have
As dF,= 0 at end points, so third term
L(x g (s), v (s); s)ds ...(5)

be an extremum, i.e., d
dxg
Further dvg =ö (öxg )
L(xg (s), (s); s) ds=0 ...(6) d;

This equation is called the relativistic Hamilton's principle provided the variation is so defined So equation (3) becomes
that xy (Sl ) and xg (s2 ) are held fixed at end-points i.e., + ——(öx ß)
ö(S2 ) = 0 at end points. avg d;
Equation (6) however does not lead to Euler-Lagrange's equations since the four-velocity Integrating second term by parts, we have
ug (s) = xg (s) has to satisfy one subsidiary condition that J 2 ——(öx g ) — — öxg dF7
-J

In such a situation we must use some arbitrary invariant parameter in place of s. Accordingly the Butöxg = 0 at end points so first term is zero.
Hamilton's principle takes the form
Equation (2) gives
dxg (E) ...(8) öxg d;
d; As öxg are completely arbitrary so above equation is satisfied only if
h relat
+ 9.6. DERIVATION OF RELATIVISTICLAGRANGE'S EQUATION
Oxg dk.,
RelativisticHamilton's Principle is
This is relativistic Lagrange's equation.
+ 9.7. HAMILTON'S CANONICAL EQUATIONS
klthot
Hamilton's canonical equations in classical mechanics are
where C) = dxg
OH
and Pk
dxg (s) ds
Let where H = H(qk, m) is non-relativistic Hamiltonian.
ds •d;
+ 9.8. CONSTRUCTION OF HAMILTONIAN AND DERIVATION OF HAMILTONS
CANONICAL EQUATIONS IN COVARIANT FORM let
If we consider that Lagrangian of the system does not depend on variational parameter explicitly.
cartesian
*The subscripts I, 2, 3 in dx l , dx2 and d.r3 are not powers but they are contravariam indices for we have
coordinates.
 353
Relativistic Mechanics
Relativistic Hamilton's Principle and Covariant Equations of Morton

R'

Euler-Lagrange equation of motion is

öxß d;
write go
Fig.
wecan

lhen = H +6xg

Rearranging
d 01. and 00
dk av g .(7)

where and EP =
Thus Hamiltonian
The variation in .xg and are given by
H = vp - PE —L
öxg = re
In classical mechanics, the corresponding value of H obtained in this way is

If öa=0, then öxg

so that and
andit corresponds to energy. i.e., varied path coincides with the actual path PRQ.
In relativistic mechanics the parameter is invariant. Also as the form of the Lagrangian is the same
As the value of does not vary at end points, so
forall E,but with different numerical values, the only way equation (4) is satisfied is that
.. (10)
H = L-v g
and
Although H is identically zero, still we can derive the Hamilton's canonical equations in covariant In terms of variational parameter a, Hamilton's principle becomes
form. .(11)
pg —H(xg , Pi ,
Introducingthe generalised momentum
—— , we write As is not varied at the end points, so it is not the function of a. so that the differentiation and
integration may be interchanged; so equation (11) may be expressed as

and their values on 6aJ

Let and be the coordinates at any point on actual path PRQ and
neighbouringpath PR'Q corresponding to a given value of
pu OH OH
or
 Relativistic Mechanics
354
10
But Chapter

Oxa The General Theory of Relativity

Oxo

But bu = Oat end potnts and + 10.1. INTRODUCTION been oi great importance In
fundamental theories in physics which have
42 ... (13) The two
So behaviour of matter are : describes the behaviour of one mass pointon
of gravitation—which
Oxa
Using (13), equation (12) becomes (i) Newtonian theory
other and
describes the behaviour of charged matter in the presence
Oxa Oxß Ox
u Oct (ii) The electrodynamics—which
electromagnetic fields.
had its origin in the development of eledrodynamics,whiletyr
The special theory of relativity
or relativistic theory of gravitation.
general theory of relativity is the
accounts for inertial systems, in the region of free space,where
The special theory of relativity only
60 - those systems the law of inertia holds good and thephystcal
or gravitational effects can be neglected. In
theory of relativity does not account for non-inertial
laws retain the same form. The special
and 'universal phenontenon of gravitation'could
OH accelerated systems). For example the 'clockparadox'
we wish to extend the principleof relativity
or be accounted by special theory of relativity. Thus naturally
consequently the extended theorvmav
g in such a way that it may hold even for non-inertial systems and
As variations and are independent, so this equation ISsatisfied only if coefficientsof 8x explain the non-inertial phenomena like clock paradox and particularly the phenomenon of gravitatm
and vanish separately, i.e., The extended theory is known as the general theory of relativity. In developing the generaltheoryof
-—0 and
OH relativityit is helpful to analyse the predictions of special 'theory of relativity with respecttothe
phenomenon of gravitation. On the generalisation of special theory of relativity with respect to
gravitational phenomenon, the theoretical predictions led to small deviations from the observed
x with phenomenon in the following cases :
... (14)
(1) Advance of Perihelion of planets : The special theory of relativity of gravitationleadsto
OH
and and precession of the perihelion of planets; but the precession of a planet observed and that accounted by
special theory of relativity are not in the same amounts. For example in the case of planetmercury the

lhese are required Hamilton's canonicalequations in covariant form. special theory of relativity accounts a retardation of perihelion at the rate of 72 secondsofarc
century; while observations show that the perihelion of mercury advances at the rate of 43seconds oi
UESTIONS AND PROBLEMS arc per century; thus the effect observed is six times greater in rnagnitude as accounted by specialtheon
of relativity.
(2) Shift in spectral lines : The special theory of relativity of gravitation predictsno shift
I. What is Hamilton's principle ? What is its covanant form. spectral lines emitted by atoms even in powerful gravitational fields; while observations indicateash
2. Use Hamilton's pnnciple to derive relativistic Lagrange's equations. of spectral lines towards red.
3. Gwe relauvtstic formulation of Hamiltonian and hence derive canonical equations of motion in covariant
(3) Deflection of light rays due to gravitational field : The special
theory of relativity
that when the light rays pass close to the sun, they are
4. State Hamilton's pnnciple. How will you derive equations oi motion from it deflected by' an amount 0.88 second of an arc.
observations show that the deflection is 1.75 seconds of
arc; which is twice the result of special
relativity of gravitation.
o