PHY2001 CLASSICAL MECHANICS

Formula Sheet

1 Basic concepts
1. universal time: t ∈ R in seconds [s]
2. universal space1 r in meters [m],
Cartesian 3D: r = [x, y, z] ∈ R3 , basis: {i, j, k};
Polar 2D: r = [r, φ] ∈ R3 , basis: {r̂, φ̂};
Polar 3D: r = [r, φ, ϑ] ∈ R3 , basis: ˆ
p {r̂, φ̂, ϑ};
2 2
Cartesian 2D ⇔ Polar 2D: r = x + y , tan φ = y/x;
Polar 2D ⇔ Cartesian 2D: x = r cos φ, y = r sin φ.
3. velocity v = [vx , vy , vz ] ∈ R3 in [m/s];
v = ṙ = dr
dt ;
speed v = ||v||.
4. acceleration a = [ax , ay , az ] ∈ R3 in [m/s2 ];
a = v̇ = r̈.
5. - angular position φ,
- angular velocity ω = dφdt = φ̇,
- angular acceleration α = ω̇ = φ̈,
- orbital angular velocity in circular motion with radius R: v = ωR,
- centripetal acceleration in circular motion with radius R: a = ω 2 R
6. Point particle:
zero size, no internal structure, only intrinsic properties:
- mass m in [kg],
- electric charge q in Coulomb [C],
- (hypercharges),
- intrinsic spin s ∈ R3 .
7. force F = [Fx , Fy , Fz ] ∈ R3 in Newton [N];
force can - in general - be a function of space and time: F(r, t) .
- normal force N always perpendicular to surface,
- friction force R always opposite to motion,
1 Bold face characters indicate vectors: r ≡ ⃗
r.

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 - for surface with coefficient of friction f : R = −f N .
- Hooke’s law: spring with spring constant C and extension x has restoring
force: F = −Cx.
- constant gravitational field: weight = F = −mgk, with g ≈ 9.81[m/s2 ].
- gravitational force between two point particles P1 and P2 of masses m1
and m2 at distance r: F = −Gm1 m2 /r2 , according to line P1 P2 , with
G ≈ 6.67.10−11 [Nm2 kg−2 ].

2 Derived concepts
1. momentum: p = [px , py , pz ] ∈ R3 in [kg.m/s], p ≡ mv.

2. work: W ∈ R in Joules [J];

RB Rt
WA→B = A F(r, t) · dr = tAB F(r(t), t) · v(t)dt;
power P = dW
dt = F · v in [Watt].

3 Newton’s Laws
1. An inertial frame of reference is a coordinate system in which the motion
of a particle not subject to forces and in a straight line at constant speed.

2. Newton’s first law: when the vector sum of all forces acting on a body is
zero, the body is in equilibrium and has zero acceleration. If the body is
initially at rest, it remains at rest; if it is initially in motion, it continues
to move with constant velocity. This law is valid only in inertial frames of
reference.

3. Newton’s second law: the rate of change of the momentum p a particle is

equal to the net force F that is applied on it: dp
dt = F.

4. Newton’s third law: when two bodies interact, they exert forces on each
other that at each instant are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
These forces are called action and reaction forces.

4 Energy
p2
1. Kinetic energy: T = 12 mv 2 = 2m in [J];
2. Potential energy function: V (r) ∈ R defined for r ∈ R3 in [J];

3. Conservative force, 1D: F (r) = − Vdr

(r)
, 3D: F(r) = −∇V (r)

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 4. Mechanical energy: E = T + V = constant.
5. Potential energy function V (x) of a spring with spring constant C and
extension x: V (x) = 12 Cx2 .

5 Momentum and Impulse

1. Impulse J of a force F acting on a particle for a time interval [t1 , t2 ] is:
Rt
J = t12 Fdt = p(t2 ) − p(t1 ).

2. Conservation of momentum: if the net external force on a system of N

particles
PN is zero, the total momentum of the system is constant: P =
n=1 n = constant.
p

3. Elastic collisions: In collisions of all kinds, the initial and final total mo-
menta are equal. In an elastic collision between two bodies, the initial and
final total kinetic energies are also equal, and the initial and final relative
velocities have the same magnitude. In an inelastic two-body collision,
the total kinetic energy is different after the collision than before. If the
two bodies have the same final velocity, the collision is completely inelastic.

4. Rocket equation of rocket with mass m = m(t) in a uniform field of gravity

g is: m dv
dt = −ṁu − mg, with constant thrust u relative to the rocket.

6 Rotations: Angular Momentum and Torque

1. Oriented angle θ is a vector perpendicular to the plane of rotation, directed
according to the Right-Hand-Rule, of length equal to the angle made with
a given direction in the plane (normally the x-axis).
Angular velocity ω is a vector equal to: ω = θ̇.
Angular acceleration α is a vector equal to: α = ω̇.

2. Angular Momentum L of a point particle of mass m with a relative posi-

tion vector r rotating about an axis through the origin with a velocity v
is: L = r × p = r × mv.

3. Torque K (a.k.a. τ ) of a force F acting on a point particle of mass m

with a relative position vector r relative to an axis through the origin is:
K = r × F.

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 4. Conservation of angular momentum: if the net external torque Ktot on a
system of N particles
PNis zero, the total angular momentum of the system
is constant: Ltot = n=1 Ln = constant.

5. Rotational dynamics: The rotational analog of Newton’s second law says

that the net torque acting on a body equals the rate-of-change of the total
angular momentum: dLdttot = Ktot

7 Rotations: Rigid body rotations

1. Moment of inertia: The moment of inertia I of a body about a given axis
is a measure of its rotational inertia: The greater the value of I, the more
difficult it is to change the state of the body’s rotation. The scalar mo-
ment of inertia can be expressed as a sum over the particles mi that make
up the body, eachPof which is at its own perpendicular distance ri from
N
the axis, as: I = i=1 mi ri2 .

2. The angular momentum L of a rigid body with moment of inertia (tensor)

I, rotating about a fixed axis with angular velocity vector ω is: L = Iω.

3. The rotational kinetic energy T of a rigid body rotating about a fixed

axis depends on the angular speed and the moment of inertia tensor I for
that rotation axis as: T = 21 ω T Iω. For a scalar moment of inertia this
becomes: T = 12 I|ω|2 .

4. The moment of inertia tensor I depends on the shape and the axis of ro-
tation: when needed it will be provided in an exercise.

5. The parallel-axis theorem relates the moments of inertia of a rigid body

of mass M about two parallel axes: an axis through the center of mass
(moment of inertia ICOM ) and a parallel axis a distance d from the first
axis (moment of inertia Ipa ) as: Ipa = ICOM + M d2 .

8 Rotations: General rigid body rotations and

Euler Equations
1. The orbital velocity v of a point particle with a relative position vector r
rotating about an axis with momentary angular velocity ω is: v = ω × r.

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 2. Governing equations of motion:
- translational: M dVCOM
dt = Ftot
dLCOM
- rotational: dt = KCOM
3. Precession occurs when the rotational axis itself rotates, e.g. due to a
rotating external torque.

4. Nutation is a harmonic oscillation superimposed on precession.

5. Euler’s equations for a dynamical unsymmetrical rigid body with principal

components of the Inertia tensor A, B, C under the action of a torque K
are:
Aω˙1 − (B − C)ω2 ω3 = K1 ,
B ω˙2 − (C − A)ω3 ω1 = K2 ,
C ω˙3 − (A − B)ω1 ω2 = K3 .

9 Mathematical Equations
Triple vector product: a × (b × c) = b (a · c) − c (a · b).