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12. Work and Potential Energy: ∆UF = −WF where WF is the work done by force F~ and ∆UF is
the change in the potential energy function associated with the force F~ .
• Spring Potential Energy: Us = (1/2)kx2 where x is displacement relative the spring’s relaxed
length.
(F/A)
13. Young’s Modulus: Y = (∆L/L) = kdi where F/A is the applied force per area, (∆L/L) is the
fractional change in length, ki is the interactomic spring constant, and d is the interatomic spacing.
14. Simple Harmonic Oscillator: The equation m(d2 x/dt2 ) = −kx p has the solution x = A cos(ωt + φ)
or equivalently x = A sin(ωt + θ) where A is the amplitude, ω = (k/m) is the angular frequency,
and φ or θ is the phase angle.