FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION OF SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION

INTRODUCTION

 Education
Education is the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that make man do better. It is
not only a preparation for life but it is life itself.
Education is informal if the things learned are acquired outside the school system. It is formal
if the things learned are acquired within a formally organized school system.

 Foundation
Foundation is a base upon which any structure or system stands. A strong foundation makes
the structure or system firmly established and strong enough to be able to serve its purpose and to
survive calamitous events.

 Foundations of Education
Foundations of education are those systems or sciences upon which education stands and has
its roots, origins, or bases. Foundations of education are those from which education arose and came
into being. They are the factors that affected education so much, particularly, curriculum content.

 Components in the Educative Process

The components in the educative process are the learner, the teaching-learning process, the
teacher and the policy-maker.

6 Foundations of Education

1. Psychological
Psychology. It is the study of human behavior, of how a person acts and reacts under different
situations, consciously or unconsciously, mentally, physiologically physically, overtly, or covertly. It is
the study of man’s reactions to life stimulations.

2. Sociological
Sociology. It is the study of human beings living in groups, of how people act and interact
under different social situations, and how they relate themselves to one another.

3. Anthropological
Anthropology. It is the study of civilizations and cultures of people: their origins, customs,
traditions, beliefs, mores, folkways, and practices. Also included are languages, forms of writing, tools
and weapons, buildings and other physical structures.

4. Historical
History. It is the study of past events that makes us understand the present situation, and to
enable us to predict future events.

5. Philosophical
Philosophy. It is a systematized truth or principle that serves as a guide for conduct or
thinking. Philosophy is a fixed idea or principle arrived at after a very rigid scrutiny or study of the
state of things, situations, or events.

6. Legal Foundations
Legality. It refers to the conformity to the laws passed by the State to establish and guide the
conduct of an educational system. The Constitution is the most important legal document that
establishes and guides the conduct of an educational system. It contains the philosophy of the
country.

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PART I – PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS

CHAPTER 1: THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF EDUCATION

The fate of man depends on his heredity, environment, and learning process. Genes of both parents
are extremely important for the development of another human individual – their offspring. In choosing a
domestic and sexual partner, one has to consider some crucial points like intellectual and psychological
compatibility, social and emotional maturity, and determination in life. Besides, the environment or social
milieu in which an individual may live – from birth to old age – could affect his personality either for better
development or for worse regression. Both heredity and environment are essential factors for the
advancement and maturity of every individual through an enigmatic educational process.

This part focuses mainly on the essential features of psychological basis of learning or educational
psychology, in which the behavior of the learner and teacher, learning environment, and motivational factors
are accentuated.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

The Age of Enlightenment at the beginning of 17th century opened another horizon of interest that
emerged from centuries of darkness and ignorance into the new age of reason, science, and respect for
human person. Consequently, psychology gradually departed from its speculation to a more meaningful
discipline, which is based on empirical reality of an individual – that is – scientific method of discourse on
human behavior.

Educational psychology is old as its founder, Wilhelm Max Wundt (1832-1920), German
physiologist and psychologist, established his laboratory intended to the scientific study of psychology as an
independent discipline in 1879. He emphasized that the conscious mind should be observed rather than be
inferred. He propagated structuralism in psychology by which he dedicated his observation and study on
perceptions, feelings, volitions, ideas, and apperceptions. The methodology prescribed was introspection –
the process of observing the operation of one’s own mind by discovering the laws that govern the mind.

WILLIAM JAMES (1842-1910)

 He was an American philosopher and psychologist who initiated the principle of functionalism in
psychology in order to remove psychology from its traditional place as branch of philosophy and
establishing it among the laboratory sciences based on experimental method.

IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV (1849-1936)

 He was a Russian physiologist who sustained his celebrated experiment concerning the conditioned
and unconditioned reflexes in dogs that influenced the other field of training and learning.

HERMANN EBBINGHAUS (1850-1909)

 He was a German psychologist who performed several experiments regarding the measurement of
rote learning and memory applying the 2,300 three-letter nonsense syllables for measuring the
formation of mental associations. He also invented the Ebbinghaus completion method tests for
measuring the intelligence of children.

ALFRED BINET (1857-1911)

 He was a French psychologist who developed experimental methods to measure intelligence and
reasoning ability of an individual. He strongly believed that intelligence was a collection of mental
abilities and that the best way to evaluate intelligence was to measure a person’s ability to perform
cognitive tasks, such as understanding the meaning of words and ability to follow instructions.
Together with another psychologist, Theodore Simon, he devised a test to measure the mental
ability of children – the Binet-Simon Scale (1905). This test contained items arranged in order of
increasing difficulty. The items measured vocabulary, memory, common knowledge, and other
cognitive abilities.

JAMES MCKEEN CATTELL (1860-1944)

 He was an American psychologist and teacher who worked with Galton and formulated
standardized psychological tests for measuring personality and other behavioral traits. He focused
on measurements of sensory discrimination and reaction times. Cattell was the first psychologist
who studied individual differences through the administration of mental tests.
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ROBERT WOODWORTH (1869-1962)
 He was an American psychologist who designed the Personal Data Sheet for the U.S. military
soldiers to detect who among the combatants might break down. He postulated that behavior was a
function of both environment stimuli and personal responses. He elaborated that human behavior
is a combination of several theories of motivation, learning, perception, and thinking.

EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE (1874-1949)

 He was an American psychologist and educator who pioneered the theory of connectionism and
constructed various intelligence and aptitude tests for children. He pointed out as well that
stimulus and response are strictly connected. Thorndike proposed the two behavioral laws: the law
of effect and the law of exercise.

LEWIS MADISON TERMAN (1877-1956)

 He was an American psychologist who devised the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) which became a guide
of measurement of the intelligence level of both children and adults. Dividing a child’s mental age
(MA) by the child’s chronological age (CA) and multiplying the result by 100 compute Intelligence
Quotient (I.Q.). Besides I.Q., he developed the so-called Stanford-Binet intelligence tests to measure
the I.Q.

CLARK LEONARD HULL (1884-1952)

 He was an American psychologist who hypothesized that animals would learn quickly if there were
an immediate rewards or reinforcement. Hull conceptualized a formal theory of learning applying
postulates and theorems based on mathematical principles because he believed that psychology
had its own quantitative laws that can be stated in mathematical equations. Every individual
learner has an internal drive to learn if the external incentives or rewards offered to the learner are
satisfying and pleasurable.

EDWIN RAY GUTHRIE (1886-1959)

 He was an American behaviorist who developed the theory of contiguity, which emphasizes that the
only condition necessary for the connection of the stimuli and responses (S-R) is that there be a
close relationship between the two.

JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980)

 He was a Swiss psychologist who led the systematic study on the acquisition of understanding and
development of intelligence in children. He recognized the four different but interrelated stages in
which the mind of the child evolves through adulthood. In the sensorimotor stage (from birth-two
years), the child is concerned with mastering his own innate physical reflexes and extending them
into pleasurable or interesting action such as grasping and holding small objects. In the
preoperational stage (from ages 2-7), the child is preoccupied with verbal skills and can name the
objects around him. In the concrete operation stage (from ages 7-12), the child starts his logical
skills by classifying various objects according to its similarities and differences. In the final stage of
mental development, formal operational (from ages 12-15), the child learns to manipulate abstract
ideas, creates hypothesis, and see the consequence of his own thinking and that of others. Thus, the
teacher guides the learner’s own discovery of knowledge.

ERIK ERIKSON (1902-1994)

 He was a German-born American psychoanalyst who developed the concept of the “identity crisis”
that accompanies the growth of a sense of identity in late adolescence. An individual’s personality
development occurs through a series of crisis that must be overcome and internalized by a person
in preparation for the succeeding phase. Erikson found out that parental and social values affect
much the growth and development of a child.

BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER (1904-1990)

 He was an American psychologist who invented teaching techniques in which the student is
presented a series of ordered, discrete bits of knowledge, each of which he must understand before
proceeding to the next step in the series. The fundamental approach of his learning theory revolved
around the idea of reinforcement or reward.

ALBERT BANDURA (1925-present)

 He is a Canadian psychologist who emphasized that learning is a product of continuous reciprocal
interactions between the environment, behavior, and the person’s psychological processes.

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AVRAM NOAM CHOMSKY (1928-present)
 He is an American linguist, educator, and political activist who established transformational-
generative grammar or a system of language analysis that recognizes the relationship among the
various elements of a sentence. He asserted that the theory of language must account for universal
similarities between all languages and for the fact that children are able to learn language fluently
at an early age in spite of insufficient data that has no systematic logic.

THE SYSTEMS OR SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1. Structuralism. This is a point of view held by Wundt and Titchener. They contend that experience or
mental states are made of sensations, images or ideas, and feelings, as well as analysis of these
elements, their attributes, and their combinations.

2. Functionalism. It asserts that the mental processes should be regarded as functions or operations of
the organism in its adaptation to and modification of the environment. Functionalists are interested
in how an organism makes its adjustment to its environment.

3. Behaviorism. Behaviorism maintains that psychology can be scientific only if it deals with activities
that can be measured objectively. Founded by Watson, behaviorism considers the Stimulus-Response
hypothesis as its basic theory. This theory believes that a stimulus, physical or otherwise, creates a
response. Behavior is considered the result of various responses to stimulation and should be
controlled or directed by modifying either the stimulus or the response without regard to
consciousness or the nervous system. The Thorndike laws of learning were formulated by the
behaviorists and stressed the law of exercise as well as the importance of drill and repetition as a
mode of learning.

4. Gestalt Psychology. The central thesis of this school of psychology is that the conception of
experience at any given moment is determined by the totality of its related phases which constitute
an integrated pattern or configuration. According to this theory, the whole is more than the sum of all
its parts, meaning that the whole possesses qualities, attributes, or functions which the individual
component elements do not possess. The prevailing emphasis on insight, generalization, and
integration and their related principles is the result of Gestalt psychology.

5. Other psychological schools:

a. The “Hormic” or purposive psychology of MacDougall which emphasizes the function of
urges or purposes in behavior;
b. Woodworth’s “dynamic” psychology which regards the human individual as a dynamic
striving organism instead of passive one; and
c. The school of psychoanalysis founded by Sigmund Freud and developed further by Adler
and Jung which furnished explanations for mental and emotional maladjustments in terms of
the inability of the individual to satisfy his own desires, and popularized the value of mental
and emotional therapy as a cure for emotional cases.

THE ECLECTIC APPROACH

In applying the principles of the different schools of psychology to education, the eclectic approach
should be adopted. The desirable contributions of each school or system to the field of education should be
utilized more. The points of common agreement of the different schools should be used to determine the
validity or usefulness of an educational practice suited to the particular purpose on hand.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS THAT CONDITION THE INTELLECTUAL AND BEHAVIORAL

DEVELOPMENT OF AN INDIVIDUAL

1. Reflexes. These are inborn automatic responses to simple localized stimulation involving particular
muscles and parts of the body. An individual with quick reflexes learns fast action skills such as
dancing, calisthenics, games of volleyball, basketball, and the like.

2. Drives, needs, wants, urges. These are inborn urges and tendencies and wants. Some refer to these
instincts as drives. Drives include hunger, thirst, lust or sex, rest, etc. which create tensions in the
individual. These tendencies develop motives which determine the actions and reactions of an

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 individual towards certain situations. These tendencies also give rise to ambitions which motivate
individuals to exert efforts to attain their goals. The greater the urge or desire, the greater the effort
exerted and the possibility of success is greater.

3. Capacities and special aptitudes. These include all those latent potentialities that an individual
possesses which are developed through the process of education. Besides general capacity and
intelligence, an individual possesses certain special talents or aptitudes.

4. Temperament or emotion. This refers to certain emotional predispositions of an individual. Some

emotional patterns such as rage, some forms of fear, and lust (sex) are inborn. One with a poor
temperament, one who is easily irritated and emotionalized even with trivial matters, will have many
social as well as learning problems that may retard his learning progress. Emotional stability and
emotional maturity are important assets in the development of one’s capabilities.

CHAPTER 2: THE LEARNER

The learner is the most important component in the educative process and so he is the center of
attention in the whole educational system. Hence, it is necessary to study his characteristics, his capacities,
and the rest of his personality traits so that ways and means may be devised to enhance his ability to
assimilate learning.

Human formation should focus not only on a person’s character and intellectual aspects but it has to
touch the totality of an individual as human, cultural, spiritual, moral, and intellectual being.

1. HUMAN DIMENSION
The human dignity of an individual learner has to be considered as far as learning is concerned.

1.1. Genetic
 Complex characters and traits from both male and female parent are genetically inherited by
the offspring during the formative weeks from zygote to fetus.
 Classroom teachers should be matured and equipped enough to deal with different behaviors
of learners that most often than not challenge the patience of instructors.

1.2. Ego or self

 Every human individual is considered as a subject, not an object. He is a rational animal that is
always subjected to the laws of nature.
 Being a subject, an individual is free and responsible for he enjoys the prerogative and right to
choose any action that suits his capability.
 The teacher must help and guide the student to discover the uniqueness of self so that the latter
can gradually build strong principles and values.
 Let the students create their own way and build their own principles and philosophies in life in
the light of ethical standard that respects God’s creation.

1.3. Others
 A human person lives with others in society. This “others” look, think, behave, and live like him,
as far as humanity is concerned.
 The fundamental rights of man like life, liberty, and property are similar to every individual and
inviolable throughout the ages.
 The teacher has to remind the learner that he is not living alone in the environment, for there
are others, too.
 Thus, the student must know to respect others’ rights, principles, and values so that all
creatures may live harmoniously.

2. CULTURAL DIMENSION
The culture of an individual is learned and acquired from his parents and peers in society through
interaction.

2.1 Habit
 Habit is something that is done on such a regular basis that it becomes normal to act in this way
and can be difficult to stop.

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  In various classroom situations, the teacher may notice different attitudes of students such as
thumb-sucking, bullying others, writing or scraping on any surface like desk or armchair,
unreasonable screaming, and other exasperating conducts that challenge the wholesomeness of
the instructor.

2.2 Tradition
 Tradition is a body of long-established customs and beliefs viewed as a set of precedents that
were handed down from generation to generation, which are valued by a particular culture.

2.3 Culture
 Culture is a shared belief, customs, practices, and social behavior of certain community or
people acquired through education and exposure to different people.
 The teacher has the duty and responsibility to enrich and uphold a particular culture of his
pupils.

3. SPIRITUAL DIMENSION
Religious leaders taught their community that man is a composition of body, soul, and spirit that
cannot be separated as far as existence is concerned. The Christianized Filipinos embraced the belief that
the spiritual dimension of man is more important than his body that would die sooner or later.

3.1 Infused Belief

 Religious baptism among Filipinos is very significant in which the child is regularly introduced
into the faith of the family by instructing him concerning the fundamental elements of theology
like gods, demons, heaven, hell, prayer, good and bad actions, religious ministers, love offerings,
anitos, diwata, and so on.
 This religious education at home occurs at the first five crucial years of a child.

3.2 Acquired Faith

 When the child reaches his full maturity, he continues living with his infused faith, but others
surf and choose other religious beliefs by sharing with friends, attending bible study, or joining
charismatic movements. Then, an individual selects, definitively, if not temporarily, his own
religious group embracing its doctrines and principles through baptism.
 The teacher should exhibit fair treatment of students under the banner of education and not
beneath the placard of religious affiliation that in several instances divides people.

3.3 Eclectic Approach to the Divine

 There are individuals who behave much different from the existing religious beliefs and biases
perceiving that such doctrines are unattainable and far from the real human life here and now.
 Instead of observing and applying those prevailing dogmas, some Filipino theists structured
and created their own set of belief and morality which was originally adapted from the existing
trends with a little bit of addition and subtraction to fit their needs.

4. MORAL DIMENSION
The moral standard at home must go hand-in-hand with the ethical standard in school for a
harmonious way of doing of an individual learner.

4.1 Domestic Ethics

 Every student in the classroom belongs to their own family, which is guided by some sort of
ethical principles and moral practices inherited by his parents from both lineages over time.
 The teacher may possibly notice among his students that some of them behave differently from
one another.
 The concept of students concerning the “right” and “wrong” or “good” and “bad” is deeply
rooted in the values of his family.

4.2 Societal Moral

 The society, where different ethnic groups interact with one another, is the melting pot of
moral actions, right conduct, and good demeanor.
 The morality in which an individual may acquire from his social interaction have emerged from
various ethical behaviors of peers, parents, educational authorities, government officials, stage
and screen performers, media people, religious ministers, private entrepreneurs, and the like.

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 4.3 Prevailing Morality
 Through social interaction of the learner at home and in school, he gradually structures his own
personal morality to suit his necessity at the moment.
 Personal morality implies adaptation of attributes and behavior from the screen idols or other
models.
 The kind of morality that prevails among the majority of young learners and adults are
subjective and relative that answers only their own wants and pleasure.

5. INTELLECTUAL DIMENSION
The intellectual capability of an individual is very important for the progress and development of a
particular country or nation. Intelligent people shape intelligent government to form a rational nation.

5.1 From Preschooler to Grade-schooler

 The child develops his physical, intellectual, social, and emotional aspects that occur from birth
to adolescence.
 During this stage, a dependent, susceptible infant grows into a capable young person who has
mastered language, is self-aware, can think and rationalize, has a distinctive personality, and
socializes with others.
 Several educational psychologists believe that the mind of a child is a blank sheet or tabula rasa
that can be provided with new knowledge, skills, and experiences from different sources.
 The first five years of a child’s existence is crucial for whatever he acquires during these
formative years will serve as his foundation for adulthood.
 The parents are the fundamental springboard of knowledge through which the child acquires
ad learns, while the teacher is only an alter ego of parents in terms of educational formation.

CHAPTER 3: TEMPERAMENT
Another characteristic of the learner is temperament which refers to certain emotional
predispositions of an individual. Experiences affect our emotions to varying degrees thereby rendering our
emotional state pleasant or unpleasant.

THEORIES OF EMOTION

1. Evolutionary Theory. Emotion is the primitive matrix from which all later mental powers are
developed.

2. James-Lange Theory. According to this theory, bodily changes are antecedents of the mental state.
Bodily changes occur before emotional reactions.

3. Cannon-Dana Theory. Emotion is the result of the action and reaction of the cerebral cortex and the
diencephalon. Bodily changes are not antecedents or consequents of conscious mental states.

4. Emergency or Conflict Theory. This theory states that emotion is a mechanism that enables an
individual to meet conflicts or emergencies.

IMPORTANCE OF EMOTIONS
1. Generally, emotion shapes up the personality of a person.
2. Emotion either makes us strong to do action or prevents us from doing any action during
emergencies.
3. Emotion enables us to cope with conflicts and emergencies.
4. Emotion dominates our lives.

METHODS OF ERADICATING UNDESIRABLE EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR

1. Disuse
2. Frequent application of the stimulus
3. Ridicule or scorn
4. Social imitation
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 5. Verbal Appeal
6. Reconditioning

MEANS OF INDIRECT ADJUSTMENT TO FRUSTRATION

1. Sublimation and Substitution. Sublimation is an indirect but socially acceptable expression of

emotion or drive. Substitution is replacing an activity for another in which the individual fails to
excel.

2. Compensation and Overcompensation. Compensation is a socially acceptable means of adjustment

to make up for deficiency or inferiority, physical or otherwise. Overcompensation is an extreme form
of compensation less rational and often antisocial.

3. Fantasy or Introversion. Act of imagining success and satisfactions that are not attained. This
consists of two types:
a. The conquering hero type – one who imagines himself to be the victorious hero.
b. The suffering hero or martyr type – one who believes that the world is sympathetic to his
cause.

4. Rationalization. Act of giving some socially acceptable reasons for one’s frustrations. There are
three methods involved on this way of adjusting to frustrations:
a. Sour grapes mechanism – one finds fault in a motive which he fails to attain.
b. Sweet lemon mechanism – one finds satisfaction in his failure because it is a blessing in
disguise.
c. Projection – act of blaming somebody or something for one’s failure.

5. Simulation of physical ailments. This is composed of two types:

a. Hysteria – simulation of localized ailments. Usually, it is a combination of screaming and crying.
b. Neurasthenia – simulation of generalized bodily ailments. A nervous breakdown is evident.

6. Nomadism. Act of wandering aimlessly.

7. Regression. Act of submerging into the subconscious state or forgetting.

8. Delusions. These are strong beliefs in things opposite to reality.

9. Regression. Act of seeking infantile expression of motives.

10. Escape through alcohol and drugs. Act of excessive drinking of liquor and taking of prohibited
drugs to forget or ease up frustration.

CHAPTER 4: PERSONALITY
Personality is the sum total of the traits and characteristics and patterns of adjustment of an
individual that sets him apart or makes him different from other individuals. An attribute of the learner,
personality connotes individual differences.

COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY
1. Physical or biological traits and characteristics
2. Capacities
3. Psychosocial traits
4. Spiritual and moral values
5. Temperament

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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

A. Type Theories
1. Physique: Body Types (bodily constitution, health and vigor associated with temperament)
a. Kretschemer’s Classification
 Asthenic – tall, thin body associated with schizophrenia or schizothyme temperament, a
mental disorder characterized by splitting of personality, dissociation, emotional
deterioration, and out of ideational content.

 Pyknic – short, fat body with cyclothymic temperament, a mild manic-depressive

psychosis involving recurring cycle of exhilaration and depression.

 Dysplastic – bodily defective and handicapped.

 Normal – have only mild forms of asthenic and pyknic characteristics and have bodies
and temperaments that are appropriate and accepted as normal by the majority.

b. Sheldon’s Classification
 Endomorphic – prominence of the intestines and other visceral organs, round in body
but weak muscles and bones.

 Mesomorphic – athletic type with strong and rippling muscles, broad-shouldered and
narrow-hipped.

 Ectomorphic – tall, thin, stoop-shouldered, with delicate skin, fine hair and sensitive
nervous system.

2. Temperament Types (Physiology: types based on body chemistry and endocrine balance)
a. Sheldon’s temperament types are:
 Viscerotonic – predominantly endomorphic, loves to eat, seeks bodily comfort, sociable,
relaxed in posture and movement, and slow in reactions.

 Somatotonic – predominantly mesomorphic, energetic, likes exercise, direct in his

manners, and loves competitive aggressiveness.

 Cerebrotonic – predominantly ectomorphic, sensitive and emotional, worries much, does

not like groups and loves solitude.

b. Greek classification usually attributed to Hippocrates. Temperament is dependent upon the

predominant body fluid.
 Sanguine – warm-hearted, pleasant, quick to react, balanced emotional excitement.
Predominant body fluid is blood.

 Melancholic – suffers from depression and sadness, unpleasant, calm emotion.

Predominant body fluid is black bile.

 Choleric – easily angered and quick to react, easily excited emotionally. Predominant
body fluid is the yellow bile.

 Phlegmatic – listless, slow, apathetic, calm emotion, weak. Predominant body fluid is the
phlegm.

3. Behavior: Psychological Types (These are Jung’s theories)

 Introvert – prefers to be alone, shy, withdrawn but may be a leader in a discussion if his
level of intelligence is high.

 Extrovert – tends or prefers to be amidst people, very sociable, conventional, orthodox,

well-dressed, outgoing, chooses an occupation that deals with people like sales or
promotional work.

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  Ambivert – the normal who is in-between the two extremes of introversion and
extroversion.

B. Trait Theories
A trait theory describes a personality by its position on a number of scales, each of which
represents a trait. A person may be placed on a scale of intelligence and he may be called an
intelligent personality. One may be placed on a scale of ascendance-submissive and he may be called
a submissive personality if he is found to be submissive.

1. Allport’s Personal Dispositions. These are traits that are unique for a person called by Allport
as personal dispositions, and hence, cannot be used in an exact way in comparing one person
with another. These traits are organized in some kind of hierarchy as follows:

a. Secondary Traits – when the traits are so many that they merely express isolated
interests or modes of responding and are better characterized as attitudes than traits.

b. Central Traits – when the traits are too few to describe a person.

c. Cardinal Traits – when a person is dominated by a single outstanding trait that makes
him stand out and he becomes a reference personality whose characteristic we expect
others to know.

2. Cattell’s Theory of Surface and Source Traits

a. Surface Traits – These traits are found by cluster analysis. They are mostly learned or
acquired values that make man acceptable or not socially.
b. Source Traits – These are traits are found by factor analysis. They are more innate or
inborn.

C. Developmental Theories
1. Psychoanalytic Theory
 The theory holds that we undergo a maturational scheme of psychosexual stages and at
each stage, psychosocial crises occur which if successfully met lead to maturity of
psychological development; if unsuccessfully met, they leave a neurotic residue.

 Two forms of personality under this theory are as follows:

a. Compulsive Personality – characterized by excessive cleanliness, orderliness,
obstinacy, stinginess, and punctuality. Excessive cleanliness may be the result of
excessive cleanliness training in early period of life.

b. Authoritarian Personality – characterized by “highly conventional behavior,

superstition, destructiveness and cynicism, desire for power, concern over sex.” This
is the result of parental rejection or domination in childhood resulting in repressed
hostility that finds expression in adult life.

2. Learning Theories
 According to learning theories, personality is the result of learning through reward and
punishment.
 We tend to repeat experiences in the past that worked for us satisfactorily and avoid
those that worked out unsatisfactorily.

3. Role Theories
 Role theories “describe personality according to the manner in which the individual
meets the various demands that society makes upon in his roles as child, parent, man,
woman, worker, citizen.”

 Role behavior depends on the role positions that society establishes:

a. Age-sex positions – a child should act like a child, a man acts like a man, and a woman
as a woman
b. Occupational positions – a farmer develops a farmer personality, a doctor, a doctor
personality, etc.
c. Prestige positions – a millionaire has a millionaire personality, a President has a
President personality, etc.

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 d. Family, clan, household – a father has a breadwinner personality, a child is
subservient to the parents
e. Position in association groups based on congeniality or common interest

D. Theories of Personality Dynamics

1. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

a. The Id
 This consists of innate instinctual drives of sexual and aggressive in nature which seeks
immediate gratification of primitive, irrational pleasure seeking of drives.

b. The Ego
 This is a personality responsible for controlling behavior in socially approved ways;
there is rational thinking.

c. The Superego
 This is conscience, the sense of right and wrong, that works according to the ideal.

2. Lewin’s Field Theory

 According to this theory, the individual is embedded in a field called his life space, which
is actually his environment, in which conflicts arise and the alternatives open to the
individual to resolve the conflicts.

E. Overcompensation Theory
 This is trying to excel in something to compensate a weakness or deficiency.
 Children with some weakness or handicaps develop inferiority complex but when they
grow up they become ambitious and aggressive in a destructive sense and develop
superiority complex.

F. Need Theories of Personality

1. Karen Horney’s Theory of Personality
 According to Horney, a child may resolve conflicts in a harsh environment in one of three
ways:

a. Moving toward people

 This is to satisfy the need for love, affection, and approval of other people so the
child or individual tries hard to please people to win their love, affection, and
approval.

b. Moving against people

 This is to satisfy the need for power, dominance, prestige, admiration, financial
and sexual success.
 The individual works hard to attain these ends to the point of becoming ruthless
and unscrupulous.

c. Moving away from people

 This is to satisfy the need for independence and self-sufficiency.
 The individual hates to be tied down and so he avoids being too close to others.

2. Erich Fromm’s Isolation Theory

 According to this theory, man has been isolated from nature and from other men and this
has given rise to five basic needs which if not satisfied would result in frustration and
problems.

a. Relatedness
 Man has lost his nearness to nature and so he has to relate himself to others
based on love and affection.

b. Transcendence
 Man has to submerge his animal nature of greed so that he becomes cooperative
and productive.

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 c. Rootedness
 Man has to satisfy his need for belongingness to a group by brotherly love and
affection and so he associates himself with other people.

d. Identity
 Man needs to feel that he is different from others and so he tries hard to do or
create something that would give an identity to him.

e. Frame of orientation
 Man needs an environment that is stable and with consistent events to be able
to understand it.

3. Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory

 According to this theory, man is innately good and self-actualization or achievement is his
goal. Blocking this goal gives frustration and neurosis to man.
 To Maslow, man’s needs are as follows:

a. Biological Needs
 These needs give comfort to the body, such as food, clothing, and shelter.

b. Psychological Needs
 These are needs for love, affection, belongingness, safety, cooperation,
companionship, etc.
 These needs push people to associate with others.

c. Self-Actualization Needs
 These are needs for exceptional and ideal achievements and creativity.

CHAPTER 5: THE LEARNING PROCESS

The nature of the learner has been thoroughly discussed in the previous chapter. This chapter
presents the nature of how the learner learns, that is, the nature of the learning process.

THE NATURE OF LEARNING

Learning is the acquisition, through maturation and experience, of new and more knowledge, skills,
and attitudes that will enable the learner to make better and more adequate reactions, responses, and
adjustments to new situations and conditions.

TYPES OF LEARNING

1. Cognitive Learning
 This is the acquisition of knowledge, facts and information, principles, ideas, concepts,
understanding, reasoning, etc.
 There are two types of cognitive learning:

a. Associative Learning
 This is establishing the relationship between words or ideas and their meanings,
between words or ideas and the things they refer to, between principles and the
situations and conditions they are applied to, etc.
 This involves an accurate understanding of the relationships of things or
situations.

b. Problem-solving Learning
 Problem-solving is the process of overcoming difficulties that hinder the
attainment of a goal by using knowledge and skills gained from associative
learning and other types of learning.
 In this type of learning, reflective, analytical, and constructive thinking are very
much needed.
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 2. Attitudinal or Affective Learning
 This type of learning is the formation of good and acceptable attitudes, judgments,
appreciations, and values.

a. Aesthetic Learning
 The appreciation of what is good and abhorrence of what is bad.

b. Intellectual Learning
 This may be developed by reading good and classical literary pieces, the Bible and
the Koran, and other similar reading materials.

3. Psychomotor Learning
 This involves the use of the muscles in bodily movement.
 The reflexes are especially important because the activities are usually responsive to certain
stimuli.

a. Bodily movement coordination

 The harmonious functioning of the different parts of the body in order to attain
the desired performance of the activity.

b. Manipulative dexterity
 The skillful use of the hands and feet.
 Precision and accuracy are necessary in both basic and complicated activities
such as writing, typing, handling and operating gadgets, etc.

THE FIVE EDUCATIONAL LEARNING THEORIES

Today, much research, study, and debate have given rise to the following five learning theories:

THEORY EXPLANATION APPLICATION

Learning is based on a system of
routines that “drill” information
“Behaviorism is only concerned into a student’s memory bank, as
with observable stimulus-response well as positive feedback from
Behaviorism behaviors, as they can be studied in teachers and an educational
a systematic and observable institution itself. If students do an
manner.” excellent job, they receive positive
reinforcement and are signaled out
for recognition.
Developed in the 1950s, this theory
moves away from behaviorism to
focus on the mind’s role in learning.
According to the International
Learning relies on both external Bureau of Education: “In cognitive
Cognitivism factors (like information or data) psychology, learning is understood
and the internal thought process. as the acquisition of knowledge: the
learner is an information-processor
who absorbs information,
undertakes cognitive operations on
it and stocks it in memory.”
Constructivism states that learners
The learner builds upon his or her
construct meaning only through
previous experience and
Constructivism active engagement with the world
understanding to “construct” a new
(such as experiments or real-world
understanding.
problem solving).”
With the understanding that people
A “learner-centric approach” in are inherently good, humanism
which the potential is the focus focuses on creating an environment
Humanism
rather than the method or conducive to self-actualization. In
materials. doing so, learners’ needs are met
and they are then free to determine

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 their own goals while the teacher
assists in meeting those learning
goals.
Strongly influenced by technology,
connectivism focuses on a learner’s
Informed by the digital age,
ability to frequently source and
connectivism departs from
Connectivism update accurate information.
constructivism by identifying and
Knowing how and where to find the
remediating gaps in knowledge.
best information is as important as
the information itself.

OTHER THEORIES IN EDUCATION

 Transformative learning theory: This theory is particularly relevant to adult learners. It posits
that new information can essentially change our worldviews when our life experience and
knowledge are paired with critical reflection.
 Social learning theory: This theory incorporates some of the tacit tenets of peer pressure.
Specifically, students observe other students and model their own behavior accordingly.
Sometimes it’s to emulate peers; other times it’s to distinguish themselves from peers. Harnessing
the power of this theory involves getting students’ attention, focusing on how students can retain
information, identifying when it’s appropriate to reproduce a previous behavior, and determining
students’ motivation.
 Experiential learning theory: There are plenty of clichés and parables about teaching someone
something by doing it, although it wasn’t until the early 1980s that it became an official learning
theory. This approach emphasizes both learning about something and experiencing it so that
students can apply knowledge in real-world situations.

THEORIES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING

1. Mental Discipline:
This theory came to existence in 20th century. It is philosophical in nature. Mind is the central
position which is composed of several facilities. These faculties are to be trained through muscular
and physical training. This facility psychology developed during 1734.

2. Identical Elements:
E.L. Thorndike has developed this theory. It goes from on learning situation to other
situation. Two identical factors or activities or common factor transfer to total situation where
maximum transfer of learning or total learning can be taken place. It goes from matter to mind.

3. Generalization:
This theory is developed by C. Judd. In this theory transfer of learning takes place primarily
through generalization and degree of transfer depends upon the extent to which experiences in the
first situation are understood and consolidated into generalization.

4. Transposition:
It is advocated by Gestalt psychology. Transfer starts in understanding the fact and
perception of similarity by the learner. It is known as pattern of relationship. It is not the specific
skills or facts or even underlying principles which are important, but the understanding of
relationship between facts, process and the principles are the real basis of transfer.

5. Ideals:
It was propounded by W.C. Bagley. When ideas are stressed are perused then transfer of
learning can be taken place. Ideas like honesty, truthfulness, love etc. can be transferred in this
theory.

6. Learning to Learn:
After practicing a series of related or similar tasks then learner learns the capacity to learn
the same thing. It is found that whenever learner comes in contact with various learning materials
then he learns efficiently and effectively. Learning to learn means when learning starts from one
method then it goes to another method.

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FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE LEARNING

A. Factors associated with learner:

1. Motivation: It is the most important factor influencing the learner. If the learner has no
motivation to learn, any amount of force will be futile. More the motivation better will be the
learning. In addition to motivation, the learner should have a definite goal. It will direct the
individual appropriately and help him to achieve the goal.

2. Readiness and will power: If the learner is ready to learn, he will develop motivation to learn.
Along with readiness a strong willpower is also essential to overcome hurdles and problems.
Readiness will help to develop a positive attitude in learner.

3. Ability of the learner: This refers to the level of intelligence, creativity, aptitude and such other
abilities necessary for learning. Intelligence enables the learner to learn better and understand
things and relationship between them. It includes both general and specific intelligence related to
specific area of learning.

4. Level of aspiration and achievement: Learning depends upon the level of aspiration to achieve. If
the aspiration level is high, the learner will work hard and achieve more. However, the aspiration
level should be in accordance with the ability of the learner. Otherwise, it may affect negatively
leading to feelings of inferiority. At times the learner may not realize his ability and keep low
level of aspiration resulting in low achievement, which is also a tendency to be rectified.

5. Attention: Learner must learn to concentrate his attention on learning. Attentiveness helps to
grasp learning material.

6. General health condition of the learner: The general health includes the physical and mental
health of the learner. The learner should have good physical health. Organic defects like
blindness, myopia, hypermetropia, deafness, paralysis, mutism, severe handicappedness, etc., will
affect learning. Problem in sense organs will lead to improper perception. Chronic illnesses may
lead to fatigue and lack of interest.

7. Maturation of the learner: Maturation and learning go hand in hand. We learn things only
according to maturity of our body. For example, a child of 6 months cannot learn to ride a bicycle
even after vigorous training, because it requires muscular or physical maturity.

B. Factors Related to Learning Process:

1. Methods of learning: Effective learning depends upon the methods of study also. There are certain
methods which save the energy and time of the learner. These are called ‘economic methods of
learning’. They are:

a. Part vs whole method

Smaller and shorter lessons may be learnt at a stretch-called whole method. If the
material is too lengthy, it must be divided into parts, so that it will be easy for learning.
After reading in parts the learnt material should be connected or associated with each
other.

b. Spaced vs un-spaced method

Learning continuously without gap leads to interference in memory called
inhibition. Hence, it is always advisable to keep small interval between each reading.

c. Recitation vs repetition:
Just repetition of lessons becomes rote learning in which chances of forgetting are
more. In recitation the learner will check the weak points which may be forgotten and put
more emphasis on those points. This process will help to overcome missing of points from
the memory.

2. Over learning: It is experimentally proved that over learning helps better learning and memory.

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 3. Knowledge of results as feedback: It is essential to know the amount of material grasped, so that
changes may be made in process of learning. Knowledge of results refers to getting feedback by
means of testing, examination, interview, etc.

4. Good physical atmosphere: Sufficient light and ventilation, calm and clean place, normal
temperature, some minimum furniture will help learning processes.

CHAPTER 6: MOTIVATION (The Driving Force behind Human Actions)

There are several definition of motivation but they all amount to the arousal of interest that directs
the learner towards a goal. It is the process of arousing and sustaining interest in an activity in order to
achieve a goal. It is also the creation of a desire on the part of the learner to perform an activity to satisfy a
need.
In everyday usage, the term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does
something. It is the driving force behind human actions. Motivation includes the biological, emotional, social,
and cognitive forces that activate human behavior.

IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION
 Increase your efficiency as you work toward your goals
 Drive you to take action
 Encourage you to engage in health-oriented behaviors
 Help you avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors, such as risk-taking and addiction
 Help you feel more in control of your life
 Improve your overall well-being and happiness

TYPES OF MOTIVATION

1. Extrinsic motivation arises from outside of the individual and often involves external rewards such
as trophies, money, social recognition, or praise.

2. Intrinsic motivation is internal and arises from within the individual, such as doing a complicated
crossword puzzle purely for the gratification of solving a problem.

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION

1. Activation is the decision to initiate a behavior.
2. Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist.
3. Intensity is the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal.

MOTIVATION CYCLE
 Motivation cycle is a transition of states within an organism that propels the organism toward the
satisfaction of a particular need.

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 The state of motivation is further comprised of four different states, which takes place in an
organism to drive him towards each action. Each action is first initiated because of a particular need. The
need drives the person into taking actions. Positive results, caused due to the actions, further acts as
an incentive motivating a person towards the goal. But the individual can never stop after achieving a certain
goal, and this phenomenon continues on and on.

MAJOR THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1. Instincts
 The instinct theory of motivation suggests that behaviors are motivated by instincts, which are
fixed and inborn patterns of behavior.

2. Drives and Needs

 Many behaviors such as eating, drinking, and sleeping are motivated by biology. We have a
biological need for food, water, and sleep. Therefore, we are motivated to eat, drink, and sleep.
The drive reduction theory of motivation suggests that people have these basic biological
drives, and our behaviors are motivated by the need to fulfill these drives.

 Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is another motivation theory based on a desire to fulfill
basic physiological needs. Once those needs are met, it expands to our other needs, such as
those related to safety and security, social needs, self-esteem, and self-actualization.

3. Arousal Levels
 The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors
that help them maintain their optimal level of arousal.
 A person with low arousal needs might pursue relaxing activities such as reading a book, while
those with high arousal needs might be motivated to engage in exciting, thrill-seeking
behaviors such as motorcycle racing.

CHAPTER 7: THE TEACHER AND THE POLICY MAKER

The teacher and the policy maker are key factors in the educative process. Without them there can be
no formal education. Therefore, a study of their functions is important.

THE TEACHER
The teacher is a key person in the teaching-learning situation. Hence, he must be a good model to all
his students in all aspects of life. Children are good imitators and they usually make their teachers their role
models.
The teacher is the manager of the teaching-learning situation, the facilitator of learning, and the
evaluator of the students’ achievements. Hence, he must possess the following:

1. Mastery of the subject matter

2. Mastery of the methods and tools of teaching
3. Mastery of the psychology of learning or educational psychology
4. Mastery of the medium of instruction and the art of communication
5. Mastery of lesson planning and subject matter organization
6. Mastery of the national philosophy, goals and objectives as well as instructional goals and objectives
7. Mastery of classroom management
8. Mastery of measurement and evaluation of achievement
9. Mastery of spiritual and moral values
10. Mastery of good human relations
11. Mastery of grooming techniques
12. Mastery of leadership techniques
13. Health
14. Missionary spirit
15. Basic knowledge of guidance and counseling
16. Punctuality and enthusiasm
17. Loyalty and commitment
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 18. Respect for authority
19. Ability to evoke analytical and critical thinking
20. Clean sense of humor

Tips for an Effective Teaching-Learning Situation

1. The learner must see his goal clearly.
2. The learner must be ready to learn psychologically and physiologically.
3. The learner must be motivated and guided either intrinsically or extrinsically.
4. The learner must learn by doing.
5. The learner must concentrate on the learning task.
6. The learner must integrate the related parts of the learning task into a whole to make the task more
meaningful and understandable.
7. The strategy of teaching must suit the learning situation.
8. The learner must be able to see the significance, meanings, implications, and applications of the
learning task.
9. The learner must often use the law of exercise to enable him to remember and retain what he has
learned.
10. If at first the learner fails to attain his goal, he must use his insight and understanding to discover the
right solution to his problem.

THE POLICY MAKER

The educational policy maker is a very important component of the learning process. Without it,
there can neither be an educational system nor a learning process. The policy maker referred to here is
composed of the following:

1. The government
 The government, acting through its proper agencies, is the chief policy maker. The lawmaking
body, the Congress, enacts educational bills and passes them to the Chief Executive, the
President, to be signed into laws.
 These laws provide for the financing and operation of the whole educational system.

2. The administrations of private and state schools

 They make educational policies that should not violate any law or policy of the State.

3. The people
 The people also have a hand in the formulation of educational policies. Proof is the approval by
the people of the Constitution, which contains provisions expressing the educational
philosophy, policies, goals, and objectives of the country’s whole educational system upon
which other educational laws and policies are based.

The Scope of Educational Laws or Policies

1. Framework for the educational system
 The lawmaking body lays down the framework of the whole educational system of the country.
2. Goals and objectives
 These are the purposes that the educational system aims to achieve.
3. School personnel
 This concerns the recruitment, qualifications, development, promotion and advancement,
rights and obligations, duties and functions, remuneration, and other benefits of school officials
and teachers.
4. Students
 This concerns the admission, rights and obligations, duties, honors, financial assistance,
promotion and retention, graduation of pupils and students, guidance and counseling, and
discipline.
5. Curriculum and curricular years
 This concerns the selection of subjects, time frame for each course, specializations, academic
and technical, etc.
6. Facilities
 These include campuses, buildings, and instructional facilities such as textbooks, references,
laboratory equipment, audio-visual aids, or educational media.

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 7. Organization of private and state schools
 There are laws and policies concerning the organization of private and state schools especially
regarding facilities, administration, qualifications of personnel, capitalization, profit, taxation,
tuition and other fees, quality of instruction, etc.
8. Promotional standards
 Policies on promotions are very important. If promotional standards are low, the school
graduates are weak, inefficient, incapable, unemployable, and become the so-called educated
illiterates.
9. Parents
 There are policies concerning the rights and obligations, duties, and functions of parents.

ACTIVITIES FOR PRELIMS

Answer the following questions diligently:

1. What are the main interests of today’s learner as far as high technology or “digital world” is concerned?
(10pts.)
2. Explain the methods of eradicating undesirable emotional behavior by giving examples. (5pts. each)
3. How will you know that a person/student has learned? (10pts.)
4. If you are one of the policy makers, what educational policy will you suggest/create? Explain your
answer. (10pts.)

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