Vitamins Merged Merged Compressed

Nutrition
- the series of processes by which an organism takes in and

assimilates food for promoting growth and replacing worn-out
or injured tissues
- science of feeds as they relate to the requirements,

production, and health of the animals
- sum of all the processes, which may be physical/biochemical,

that involves the transformation of food elements into body
elements…
Nutrition
 the science of the use of feed (food) as it relates to
health
 includes all the processes by which the living organism
ingests, digests, absorbs, and uses nutrients in feeds
(foods) for maintenance, growth, work and
reproduction
- Ensminger, 1990
Nutrition involves physiological
processes and chemical reactions
 prehension and ingestion
 digestion
 absorption of various nutrients
 metabolism
 excretion
Prehension
 eating behavior
Ingestion
 process of chewing and swallowing food and fluid that
then go in the stomach
Digestion
 process of breaking down feed particles to smaller
particles or suitable products for absorption
 Types of digestion:
1. mechanical
- includes prehension, mastication, swallowing
and mixing, and peristalsis
2. chemical
stomach - HCl
small intestine - bicarbonates
3. enzymatic
salivary amylase
pancreatic lipase
disaccharidases
4. Microbial (Bacterial)
- major types of digestion in ruminants
- main products of
fermentation: VFA, CO2 and CH4
Absorption
 Transfer of substances from gastrointestinal tract (GIT) to
the circulatory (blood or lymph) system
 Procedure that allows small molecules to pass through

membrane of the GIT into the blood or lymph system
Metabolism
 combination of anabolic and catabolic reactions
occurring in the body with liberation of energy
 enzyme-catalyzed reactions
 allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their
structures, and respond to their environment
Excretion
removal of unusable elements and waste products of
metabolism
Feed
- any naturally occurring ingredient or material, fed to
animals for the purpose of sustaining them
Food
- it is synonymous with feed (food-human; feed-animal)
Feedstuff
- any product, of natural or artificial origin, that has
nutritional value in the ration when properly prepared
Gross Composition of Feed/Food
Feed
Water Dry Matter
Inorganic Organic
Matter Matter
Carbohydrates Protein Lipids Vitamins

Functions of feeds/foods
 Supply the body with heat and energy
 Supply nutrients for the repair of worn out tissues
 Supply nutrients for the body to increase in size and
weight
 Supply nutrients for the production of offspring
 Supply nutrients to the body for some form of
production as milk, wool and work
Animal production costs:
• feeds
(usually account for more than half the total cost)
• stocks
• medicaments
• labor
• depreciation costs, etc.
Efficiency of animal raising as an enterprise:

- depends largely on proper nutritional management of the animals
• Philippines: located in the tropics
• type, quality and availability of feeds:
influenced by the characteristic climatic conditions

affecting the growth and development of plants
• growth and productive responses of animals:

affected by the prevailing climatic conditions
• potential productive capability of the animal:
determined by the effects of tropical climate on plants

and animals and the relationships between plants and
animals
Three main considerations in selecting the
right feed to use (Roxas):
• feed availability
• feed suitability to the animal
• feed economics
Feed availability
• an important factor that determines the type of feed the

farmer can offer to his animals
• consider whether the feeds to be included in the feeding

system are locally available, or must be obtained
elsewhere.
Feed suitability
• includes knowing the nutritional value of the feed in relation
to the needs of the animal
• considers the possible toxicity and presence of undesirable
components in the feed

Feed economics
• makes use of the existing price per unit of the feed in order
to arrive at the least possible cost without sacrificing
nutritional quality, thereby lowering the feed cost.
Feeding
- the activities that made up search and selection of
feeds
- most animals unlike plants, actively seek their food or
if they do not, they exercise some selection on that
which is presented to them
Ration Formulation for
Beef Cattle
Example:
Ration for a 250 kg steer gaining 0.75 kg/day.

Step 1. Write down the nutrient
requirements
Dry Matter TDN CP Ca P (total)
Kg Kg g g g
Amount 6.4 kg 3.8 kg 693 g 21 g 17g
Percent of DM 59.38% 10.83% 0.33% 0.27%

Step 2. List down the available feeds and
their nutrient composition (% dry matter basis)
DM TDN CP Ca P (total)
% % % % %
Napier 22 55 9.5 0.42 0.39
Rice bran D1 89 87.30 14.04 0.09 1.80
Ipil-ipil leaf 90 67 22.22 0.39 0.30

meal
Step 3. Calculate if napier grass alone
satisfies the TDN requirement
6.4 kg DM x 55 % TDN = 3.52 kg TDN

100
Since the amount of TDN from napier is less than the requirement, a concentrate is used to
replace part of the napier as an energy source. Assuming rice bran is available and cheap, the
proportion of napier and rice bran are calculated as follows
Napier, 55 % TDN 27.92 parts
59.38 % TDN
Rice bran, 87.3 % TDN 4.38 parts

32.3 total parts
27.92 / 32.3 x 100 = 86.44 %

4.38 / 32.3 x 100 = 13.56 %
86.44 % x 6.4 kg DM = 5.53 kg DM from napier

13.56 % x 6.4 kg DM = 0.87 kg DM from rice bran
Step 4. Determine if the combination of napier and rice bran
satisfies the requirement for crude protein.
Feeds DM TDN CP Ca P (total)

Kg Kg g g g
Napier 5.53 3.04 525.35 23.23 21.57
Rice bran D1 0.87 0.76 122.15 0.78 15.66

Total 6.4 3.8 647.5 24.01 37.23
Requirement 6.4 3.8 693 21 17
Balance -- -- - 45.5 + 3.01 + 20.23
The balance in CP of 45.5 g can be satisfied by replacing part of
rice bran with ipil-ipil leaf meal. The combination of rice bran
and ipil-ipil leaf meal should supply 19.27 % CP calculated as
follows:
693 g CP required
- 525.35 g CP from napier grass
167.65 g CP to come from rice bran and ipil-ipil leaf meal
167.65 g CP / (0.87 kg x 1000g DM) x 100 = 19.27 % CP
Rice bran, 14.04 % CP 2.95 parts
19.27 % CP
Ipil-ipil leaf meal, 5.23 parts

22.22 % CP 8.18 total parts
2.95 / 8.18 x 100 = 36.06 %

5.23 / 8.18 x 100 = 63.94 %
36.06 % x 0.87 kg DM = 0.31 kg DM rice bran

63.94 % x 0.87 kg DM = 0.56 kg DM ipil-ipil leaf meal
The final ration is as follows:
Feeds DM TDN CP Ca P (total)

Kg Kg g g g
Napier 5.53 3.04 525.35 23.23 21.57
Rice bran D1 0.31 0.27 43.52 0.28 5.58

Ipil-ipil leaf meal 0.56 0.38 124.43 2.18 1.66
Total 6.4 3.69 693.3 25.69 28.81
On as fed basis, the animal should receive the
following feed per day:
Napier grass 5.53 kg DM = 25.14 kg
22% DM
Rice bran D1 0.31 kg DM = 0.35 kg

89% DM
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 0.56 kg DM = 0.62 kg

90% DM
Other Example:
Hog Starter Ration
Requirements:
18.3% CP
3200 kcal/kg ME
0.85% Ca
0.52% P
Ingredients:
Yellow corn
SBM, US
RBD1
Molasses
Limestone
MDCP
Coconut Oil
Other Ingredients
Nutrient composition of ingredients
CP ME Ca P
(%) (kcal/kg) (%) (%)
Yellow corn 7.80 3350 0.07 0.08
Soybean meal 47.20 2950 0.53 0.20
Rice bran D1 12.40 3000 0.07 0.23
Molasses 2.90 2330 0.8 0.02
Coconut oil 7900
Limestone 38
MDCP 16 21
CP
12.5% RBD1 x 12.4% CP = 1.55 Amt. (%)
3.0% Molasses x 2.9%CP = 0.09 Yellow corn 7.80
SBM 47.20
1.55 + 0.09 = 1.64% CP from RBD1 and Molasses
RBD1 12.5 12.40
18.3% Req’d CP – 1.64 = 16.66% CP from yellow corn and SBM Molasses 3.0 2.90
12.5 RBD1 + 3.0 Molasses + 8 others = 23.5 Coconut oil
100 – 23.5 = 76.5
16.66
--------- x 100 = 21.78 %CP
76.5
25.42
Limestone
MDCP
Other
}
Ingredients
8
Corn, 7.8% ------- x 76.5 = 49.36 corn

39.4
21.78
SBM, 47.2%
13.98
------- x 76.5 = 27.14 SBM
39.4
Ing. Amt. CP
YC 49.36 3.85
SBM 27.14 12.81
RBD1 12.5 1.55 CP
(%)
Molasses 3.0 0.09
Yellow corn 7.80
Soybean meal 47.20

Total 18.3
Rice bran D1 12.40
Reqd. 18.3
Molasses 2.90
0
Coconut oil
Limestone
MDCP
Other
Ingredients
Ing. Amt. CP ME
YC 49.36 3.85 1654
SBM 27.14 12.81 801
RBD1 12.5 1.55 375
Molasses 3.0 0.09 70
Total 18.3 2900

Reqd. 18.3 3200 ME
(kcal/kg)
Diff. 0 300
Yellow corn 3350
Soybean meal 2950
Rice bran D1 3000

300
Coconut oil = ---------------- = 3.8 Molasses 2330
7900/100
Coconut oil 7900
Limestone
or
300 MDCP
Coconut oil = ------- x 100 = 3.8
7900
Ing. Amt. CP ME
YC 49.36 3.85 1654
SBM 27.14 12.81 801
RBD1 12.5 1.55 375
Molasses 3.0 0.09 70
Coconut 3.8 300
Oil
ME
(kcal/kg)
Total 18.3 3200
Yellow corn 3350
Reqd. 18.3 3200
Soybean meal 2950
Diff. 0 0
Rice bran D1 3000
Molasses 2330
Coconut oil 7900
Limestone
MDCP
Ing. Amt. CP ME Ca P
YC 49.36 3.85 1654 0.034 0.039
SBM 27.14 12.81 801 0.144 0.054
RBD1 12.5 1.55 375 0.009 0.029
Molasses 3.0 0.09 70 0.024 0.0006
Coconut Oil 3.8 300
Total 18.3 2900 0.211 0.1226
Reqd. 18.3 3200 0.85 0.52
0 300 0.639 0.397

Ca P
(%) (%)
Yellow corn 0.07 0.08
SBM 0.53 0.20
RBD1 0.07 0.23

0.397
Molasses 0.8 0.02
MDCP = ---------------- = 1.89
0.21 Coconut oil
Limestone 38
MDCP 16 21
YC 49.36 3.85 1654 0.034 0.039
SBM 27.14 12.81 801 0.144 0.054
RBD1 12.5 1.55 375 0.009 0.029
Molasses 3.0 0.09 70 0.024 0.0006
Coconut Oil 3.8 300
MDCP 1.89 0.302 0.397
Total 18.3 3200 0.513 0.52

0.5196
Reqd. 18.3 3200 0.85 0.52
Ca P
0 0 0.337 0 (%) (%)
Yellow corn 0.07 0.08
SBM 0.53 0.20
RBD1 0.07 0.23
Molasses 0.8 0.02

0.337
Coconut oil
Limestone = ---------------- = 0.89
0.38 Limestone 38
MDCP 16 21
YC 49.36 3.85 1654 0.034 0.039
SBM 27.14 12.81 801 0.144 0.054
RBD1 12.5 1.55 375 0.009 0.029
Molasses 3.0 0.09 70 0.024 0.0006
Coconut Oil 3.8 300
MDCP 1.89 0.302 0.397
Limestone 0.89 0.338
Total 98.58 18.3 3200 0.851 0.52

Ca P
Reqd. 100 18.3 3200 0.85 0.52 (%) (%)
Diff. 1.42 0 0 0 0 Yellow corn 0.07 0.08
SBM 0.53 0.20
RBD1 0.07 0.23
Molasses 0.8 0.02
Coconut oil
Limestone 38
MDCP 16 21
49.36 Yellow corn
27.14 SBM, US
12.5 RBD1
3.0 Molasses
3.8 Coconut Oil
1.89 MDCP
0.89 Limestone
Other Ingredients:
0.23 L Lysine
0.08 DL Methionine
0.3 salt
0.25 VPx
0.25 MPx
0.05 CuSO4
0.03 antimold
0.1 antitoxin
0.1 chlorine chloride
0.03 antioxidant
---------------------------
100
The use of spreadsheet formulation
• Spreadsheet programs (e.g. Excel®)

• -computer softwares that could facilitate the tedious operations
encountered in such methods as trial and error and
algebraic methods
Vitamins
 Organic substances needed in much smaller amounts, compared
to carbohydrates, fats and proteins
 Classifications:
1. Fat soluble vitamins
- stored in fatty tissues of the body and poorly excreted
>> long period of time on a deficient diet is needed for a
deficiency to occur
Vitamin A – retinol, retinal, retinoic acid

D – cholecalciferol (D3) ergocalciferol (D2)
E – tocopherols
k – phylloquinone, menaquinone
2. Water Soluble vitamins
- readily excreted in the urine (except vit. B12 which is
efficiently stored by the liver)
- rapidly become deficient if not provided in the diet because
they are poorly stored in the body
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
B2 (riboflavin)
B6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine)
B12 (cobalamin)
Niacin (nicotinamide, nicotinic acid, niacinamide)
Pantothenic acid
Biotin
Folic acid
Choline
Inositol
Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA)
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Differences between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins
Fat Soluble Water Soluble

Way of excretion Feces via bile Via urine
Toxicity Can cause serious Non-toxic

problems
Deficiency signs Related to function Less specific; difficult to

relate
Composition C,H,O C,H,O, N, Cobalt and

Sulfur
• Being organic substances, both fat soluble and water soluble vitamins contain carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen
• All of the B vitamins (except inositol) contain nitrogen
• Thiamine and biotin contain sulfur, while cobalamin has cobalt
Vitamin A (Retinol)
 Helps maintain normal vision in dim light
– prevents night blindness
 improves resistance to infection
 Deficiency symptoms:
 Night blindness (reduced ability to see in dim light)
 Xerophthalmia and conjunctivitis (excessive deficiency)
 Reproduction: infertility
incidences of retained placenta
birth of blind or weak neonates
 Carotene – precursor (synthesized by plants)
- ultimate source of all vitamin A
- first isolated from carrots over 100 years ago
 Sources:
 Green plants (grasses and legumes)
<high in carotene>
- may be lost during processing
Vitamin D
[Ergocalciferol (D2) Cholecalciferol (D3)]
 Antirachitic vitamins
 “sunshine vitamin”
 Functions:
 Aids in the assimilation and utilization of calcium and phosphorus
 Promotes growth and mineralization of the bones (incl. bones of
the fetus)
 Promotes sound teeth
 Maintains normal level of citrate in the blood
 Protects against the loss of amino acids through the kidneys
 Functions as a hormone
 Deficiency Symptoms
rickets (in young animals)
char. by: enlarged joints, bowed legs, knocked knees
osteomalacia (old animals)
- bones soften, become distorted and fracture easily
tetany
- char. by muscle twitching, convulsions, and low serum calcium
Chicks: reduced growth, soft bones (rickets), leg deformities

Hens: Poor eggshells and lowered hatchability
 Animals housed most of the time are bound to develop vitamin

deficiency because sunlight activates provitamin D (ergosterol).
 Animals in pasture rarely exhibit vitamin D deficiency
 Toxicity
 hypercalcemia
(increased intestinal absorption, leading to elevated blood Ca level)
characterized by:
 loss of appetite,
 excessive thirst,
 nausea,
 vomiting,
 irritability,
 weakness,
 constipation alternating with bouts of diarrhea,
 retarded growth in young animals
 weight loss in adults
 Sources for animals:
 Ultraviolet light from the sun
- most accessible and cheapest means of supplying vitamin D
- many forages - sources of precursor of vitamin D2 (ergosterol)

- eggs – good sources of vitamin D
- Fish liver oils – rich sources of vitamin D
Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
 Anti-sterility vitamin
 Also a natural anti-oxidant
-retards rancidification of fats in plant sources and in the
digestive tracts of animals
- protects body cells from toxic substances formed from the
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids
 As an essential factor for the integrity of red blood cells
 As an agent essential to cellular respiration, primarily in heart and
skeletal muscle tissues
 As a regulator in the synthesis of DNA, vitamin C and coenzyme Q
 As a sparer of selenium (Related to selenium, esp. in preventing
muscular dystrophy)
 Deficiency Symptoms:
 affects normal functioning of muscle tissue (skeletal and heart muscles
in most animals)
 Goats and sheep: skeletal muscle degenerates (stiff lamb disease)
 Calves: white muscle disease
 Poultry: muscular degeneration, exudative diathesis (leaking of the
capillaries), loss of blood protein, encephalomalacia, steatitis, and

reproductive failure in both the male and the female
 Rats, guinea pigs and hamsters: sterility
 Problems with fetal development can occur in animals

 Sources:
 Cereal grains and well prepared hays are excellent sources
 (barley and barley by-products; corn and corn by-products, oats
and oat by-products, rice and rice by-products, soybeans, wheat
and wheat by-products)
 Supplemental sources - rice polishings, wheat germ meal and
synthetic dl-alphatocopherol acetate
 Vitamin E is widely distributed in all natural feeds.

Vitamin K (Phylloquinone, menaquinone)
 Anti-hemmorhagic vitamin
 Required in blood clotting through prothrombin
formation
 Can be synthesized in the intestines and is seldom
deficient in livestock
 prolonged blood clotting time
 generalized hemorrhages
 death (severe cases)
 Toxicity: natural forms of vitamins K1 and K2 have not
produced toxicity even when given in large amounts
 Rich feed sources:
alfalfa meal, barley (whole), corn (whole), fish meal, hays (well
cured), milk, pastures (green), Peas (green) sorghum grain, soybean
meal, wheat.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
 Anti-beriberi, anti-neuritic or antipolyneuritis vitamin

 Functions: coenzyme in energy metabolism
coenzyme in the conversion of glucose to fats – the
process called transketolation
 Deficiency Symptoms: reduction in appetite (anorexia)
loss in weight
cardiovascular disturbances
lowered body temperature
chicks: polyneuritis (retraction of the head)
hens: lowered egg production
human: beriberi
 Toxicity: no known toxic effects from thiamine
 Sources: cereal grains
rice bran – raw material for the thiamin preparation,
known as “tiki-tiki”
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
 Functions in several enzyme systems related to protein

and energy metabolism
 Important for body growth
 Helps in red blood cell production
 Deficiency:
- retarded growth in most species
- reproductive failure in the sow
- slow growth , anemia, diarrhea, unthrifty appearance,
eye opacities, and an abnormal gait in the young pig;
- and curled-toe paralysis in birds
 Sources: Found in milk and milk products, green

forages and hay
Niacin (nicotinic acid, nicotinamide)
 Functions:
Principal role: constituent of two important coenzymes in the body:
- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
- nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)
- function in many important enzyme systems that are
necessary for cell respiration
NAD and NADP are also involved in the synthesis of fatty acids,
protein and DNA
 Niacin have a specific effect on growth and reduce the levels of blood
cholesterol
 Plays an imp. role in enzyme systems related to carbohydrate, protein, and fat
metabolism
reduced growth and appetite
Swine: diarrhea, vomiting , dermatitis,
unthriftiness, and ulcerated intestines
Chicks: poor feathering, scaly dermatitis and
spectacled eye (sometimes)
Dogs: darkening of the tongue
Humans: pellagra (char. by bright red tongue, mouth
lesions, anorexia and nausea)
 Toxicity: may result in vascular dilation, or flushing of

the skin, itching, liver damage, elevated blood glucose,
elevated blood enzymes, and/or peptic ulcer.
 Most feeds contain sufficient amounts of niacin,
although that niacin present in most cereal grains
is not available to the pig and other simple
stomached animals.
 Niacin can be synthesized in the body
from surplus tryptophan.
 Mature ruminants
do not need dietary niacin under most conditions
because of synthesis by rumen microflora.
However, high producing dairy cows
may require supplemental niacin for
maximum performance.
Pantothenic acid
 Function:
Part of two enzymes:
 coenzyme A (CoA)- needed in various activation reactions in
the metabolism of nutrients
 Acyl carrier protein (ACP) – required by the cells (along with
CoA) in the biosynthesis (the building up) of fatty acids
* CoA, without ACP, is involved in the breakdown of fatty acids
All species: reduced growth, loss of hair, and enteritis
Calves: rough coat, dermatitis, anorexia, loss of hair around eyes
Pigs: “goose-stepping” gait
Chicks: show dermatitis and embryonic death
 Sources:
Widely distributed in various feeds
(e.g. buttermilk, rice bran, safflower meal, skim
milk, wheat bran, whey)
Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxal,
pyridoxamine)
 Collective name for 3 closely related naturally occurring
compounds with potential vitamin B-6 activity
 Pyridoxine – found largely in plant products
 Pyridoxal - occur primarily in animal products
 Pyridoxamine - occur primarily in animal products
 Imp. as coenzyme in amino acid and fatty acid metabolism
 Dietary essential for pig, chick and dog
 Synthesized in the rumen
of cattle and sheep and perhaps in the cecum of the horses;
thus no deficiency symptoms in these species have
been reported
All species: convulsion
Pigs: anorexia and poor growth
Chicks: retarded growth and abnormal feathering
Hens: lowered egg laying and hatchability
 Toxicity: B-6 is relatively nontoxic
 Feeds of vegetable origin contain ample amounts

such that supplementation is normally not necessary
Biotin
 Functions:
- required for many reactions in the metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins
- functions as coenzyme mainly in decarboxylation-
carboxylation and in deamination
all animals: depressed growth
loss of hair and/or dermatitis condition
Pigs: cracks in the feet and dermatitis
Chicks: dermatitis and perosis
Hens: egg production is not affected but hatchability is
severely reduced
Avidin – protein in raw egg white
(when fed to animals, it produces biotin deficiency)
- binds to biotin and renders it unavailable to animals
- denatured when eggs are cooked, thus making biotin
available to the animal
 Toxicity: no known toxicity

 Normally synthesized in the intestines
 Sources:
- milk, peanut meal, rice bran, safflower meal, sorghum grain,
soybean meal, soybean seeds, wheat bran, whey
Folic acid (folacin, pteroylmonoglutamic acid )
 Involved in DNA and RNA synthesis , particularly in the
biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines
 Sources: cereals, milk, and yeast are common sources
 Prolonged administration of sulfa drugs could cause
folacin deficiency, because bacterial synthesis is affected
 Deficient animals develop anemia and growth retardation
 In poultry, poor egg production and hatchability is
observed
Choline
 Functions:
 vital for the prevention of fatty livers, metabolism of fat,
and in transmitting nerve impulses
 Poor growth and fatty liver (Most species except chickens
and turkey)
 Perosis (slipped tendons in chickens and turkeys)
 Abnormal gait (growing pigs) and reproductive failure
(adult female swine)
 Toxicity: no toxic effects have been observed
 Yeast, liver and cereals are common sources of choline
cobalamin (vit B12, cyanocobalamin
 Functions as coenzyme in various biochemical reactions, such
as propionic acid metabolism, and in red blood cell maturation
 Impt. Sources: feeds of animal origin (meat meal and

fish meal)
 Deficiency:
all animals: retarded growth
pigs: uncoordinated hind leg movements
reproductive failure in sows
hens: eggs fail to hatch
*Lack of cobalt ( component of cobalamin) >>> deficiency
 Toxicity: no toxic effects are known

inositol
 Functions: (not completely understood)
 Has a lipotropic effect (an affinity for fat, like choline)
>> aids in the metabolism of fats and helps reduce blood cholesterol
 Prevents the fatty hardening of arteries
 No characteristic deficiency symptom is attributed yet to inositol
 Sources:
Widely distributed in feeds
cereal grains ( barley, corn, oats, rice, sorghum, wheat) legumes,
liver meal, milk, rice bran, wheat bran
Vitamin C
(Ascorbic acid)
 Most unstable of all the vitamins
- Easily destroyed during storage and processing
- Water-soluble, easily oxidized and attacked by enzymes
 Functions:
 Anti-stress vitamin
 formation and maintenance of collagen (substance that binds
body cells together)
>> makes for more rapid and sound healing of wounds and burns
 Metabolism of amino acids ( tyrosine and tryptophan)
 Sound teeth and bones
 Strong capillary walls and healthy blood vessels
 Metabolism of folic acid
 In humans, it prevents scurvy
 Human: scurvy char. by:
 swollen, bleeding, ulcerated gums;
 loose teeth;
 malformed and big joints, such as the knees and hips;
 anemia;
 degeneration of muscle fibers, including those of the heart; and
 tendency of old wounds to become red and break open.
 In animals, no known deficiency symptom is described.
 Toxicity:
Adverse effects in humans reported of intakes in excess of 8g per day
(more than 100 times the recommended allowance) include:
 nausea, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea;
 absorption of excessive amounts of iron;
 destruction of red blood cells;
 formation of kidney and bladder stones;
 inactivation of vitamin B12
 rise in plasma cholesterol; and
 possible dependence upon large doses of vitamin C.
 Sources:
 Citrus pulp, liver meal, pastures (green), sweet potatoes, tomato pulp
Hypervitaminosis
- an abnormal condition resulting from the intake of an

excess of one or more vitamins (Ensminger, 1990)
Minerals
 inorganic substances needed in much smaller amounts, compared
Classifications
(based on the required amounts of the animals)
(based on the amount at which they are present in the body)
Macrominerals (Major minerals)

- required in amounts ranging from a few tenths of a gram to one
or more grams per day
- present in animal carcasses at levels greater than 100 ppm
Microminerals (Trace minerals)
- required in minute quantities, ranging from a millionth of a gram
(microgram) to a thousandth of a gram (milligram) per day
- usually present in the carcasses at levels less than 100 ppm
Macrominerals Microminerals
calcium iron
phosphorus iodine
magnesium chromium
sodium cobalt
chlorine copper
potassium selenium
manganese
sulfur
fluorine
zinc
molybdenum
Major functions and primary concentration sites for mineral elements
in the body (Church,D.C.)
Calcium
 Most abundant mineral in the body (70% together with P)
- constituent of the skeleton
(99% - skeleton and teeth)
 Primary function: to build the bones and teeth and to maintain the bones
-gives strength and structure to bones and teeth
 Other functions:
 maintenance of acid-base balance
 Muscle contraction and relaxation (esp. the heartbeat)
blood Ca >> faster heartbeat
blood Ca >> slower heartbeat
 Blood coagulation
 Milk secretion and egg formation
Laying hens
calcium level in the feed is increased more than threefold
because of the need for calcium in the eggshell
 Sources:
 Animal products (including meat and milk, bone meal )
 Legume feeds
 Inorganic feeds (limestone, oyster shell, mono-, di- and tricalcium
phosphate)
 Calcium deficiency symptom (like Vit. D and P deficiency)
 Rickets
(characterized by softening and deformation of bones in young animals)
 Osteomalacia
(with increased porosity and brittleness of bones in old animals)
 Stunting of growth
 Osteoporosis
 Drop in milk production
 Tetany (hypocalcemia)
hypocalcemic tetany (milk fever, cow)
- slow heart rate >> cow loses control of her legs and will
>> coma and die (untreated)
 Kidney stones may form when dietary Ca is excessive

Phosphorus (P)
 Closely associated with Ca in nutrition
-a deficiency or an overabundance of one may very likely
interfere with the proper utilization of the other
 Also important in bone formation and maintenance
 Development of teeth
 More than 80% of P found in bones and teeth
 Other functions:
 Involved in various metabolic processes as component of high
energy compound (ATP), and in many enzyme systems
 Imp. role in maintaining acid base balance and in milk secretion
 Sources:
cereal grains and their by-products (e.g. wheat bran)
fish meal and other marine by-products
 Supplemental sources:
ammonium phosphate
bone meal
calcium phosphate
monosodium phosphate
phosphoric acid
Phytate phosphorus (presence in plants)

availability:
for animals (esp. monogastrics) very limited
ruminant better user
 P deficiency symptom
 “Pica” (depraved appetite)
- char. by animals chewing wood, soil and other materials
 Rickets
 Anorexia
 General weakness
 Muscle weakness
 Loss of appetite
 Demineralization of bone
 Loss of calcium
 Reduced egg production (poultry)
* Appropriate Ca:P ratio 1:1 and 2:1 (except in laying birds)

• If plenty of vitamin D is present (provided either by sunlight or through the ration),
the ratio of Ca to P becomes less critical. Likewise, less vit.D is needed when there is a
desirable Ca:P ratio.
Magnesium
 Mainly found in the skeleton (about half)
remainder: soft tissues and body fluids
 Closely associated with Ca in many functions esp. in the
formation of bone
 Activator of various enzymes involved in metabolic
transformations
 Involved in activating certain peptidases in protein
digestion
 Sources:
vegetable protein concentrates, yeast and brans
meat meal with bone
magnesium oxide (common ingredient to supply
magnesium in premixes)
magnesium gluconate
 Deficiency:
▪ hypomagnesemic tetany (grass staggers in ruminants)
-twitching of muscles (usually of head and neck)
- head held high
- accelerated respiration
- high temperature
- grinding of the teeth
- abundant salivation
 hyperirritability
Potassium (K)
 3rd most abundant element in the body (about 5%)
 Impt. in the osmotic regulation of body fluids and in
maintaining proper acid-base balance in the animal
 Involved in nerve and muscle excitability
 Relaxes the heart muscle – action opposite to that of
calcium, which is stimulatory
 Required for the secretion of insulin by the pancreas, in
carbohydrate metabolism and in protein synthesis
 Sources:
 Feeds of plant origin contain enough potassium except when the soil
level from where the plant grows is quite low
 Carrots
 Forages (K is not generally added to feeds for herbivores)
 Soybean seed by-products
 whey
 Deficiency symptoms: (rare)
 Poor growth
 Weakness (general muscle weakness)
 Lethargy
 Pica
 Diarrhea
 Emaciation ( loss of flesh)
 Hind leg stiffness
 Unsteady gait
 Hypertrophy (enlargement) of the heart and kidneys, (eventually death)
Sodium (Na)
 Impt. in maintaining acid base balance and osmotic
pressure of body fluids (along with chlorine)
 Chief cation of extracellular fluid
 Constituent of pancreatic juice, bile, sweat and tears
 Involved in nerve impulses and in absorption of sugars
and amino acids in the intestines
 Associated with muscle contraction
 Sodium chloride (NaCl, salt)
- form of most of the sodium in the diet
- impt. ingredient in animal feeds
 Fish meal – contains ample amounts of salt
 Locally prepared – contains high amount due to processing method involved, wherein salt
is added to prevent spoilage
 Deficiency symptoms/toxicity:
 Reduced growth and efficiency in growing animals
 Staggered gait
 Reduced milk production and weight loss in adults
 Lowered reproduction (infertility in males, and delayed sexual maturity in females)
 Craving for sodium, evidenced by such things as drinking urine
 Lowered production, loss of weight and cannibalism (laying hens)

Chlorine
 Needed for hydrochloric acid formation in the stomach
- necessary for proper absorption of vit B12 and iron
- activates the enzyme that breaks down protein
- suppresses the growth of microorganisms that enter the
stomach with feed and water
 Regulates osmotic pressure, water balance and acid base
balance
 Increased alkali formation and circulation in the blood
(alkalosis), characterized by:
- slow and shallow breathing
- listlessness
- muscle cramps
- loss of appetite
- convulsion (occasional)
 Depressed growth rate
 Chicks fed chloride-deficient diets exhibit nervous
symptoms induced by sudden noise
- legumes
- fish meal and other marine by-products
- meat meal
- milk and milk by-products
 Supplemental sources
- Potassium chloride
- sodium chloride (table salt)
Sulfur
 Essential in synthesis (component) of
sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine
as well as biotin, ( S is impt. in fat metabolism)
vitamins thiamin and hormone insulin ( impt. in carbohydrate metabolism)
and metabolite coenzyme A ( impt. In energy metabolism)
 As a primary component of hair, wool and feathers.
 Needed for bacterial synthesis of sulfur amino acids
 Soil with depleted sulfur may present problems especially in forage feeding
 Deficiency Symptom:
• Retarded growth, primarily due to not meeting the S-containing AA requirement for protein synthesis
• Excess salivation
• Weakness
• Dullness
• Pica
• Emaciation
• Anorexia
 Sources:
blood meal
feather meal
fish meal and other marine by-products
poultry by-product meal
soybean meal
whey
Wheat gluten meal
sulfate sulfur
yeast
Iron (Fe)
 Mainly present in the body in combination with proteins such as
hemoglobin and transferrin
 Component of enzymes
 Sources:
 Feeds of plant origin, together with fish meal and meat meal
 Suckling animals are provided with injectable iron preparations to
ensure adequate supply of iron , since the milk is poor source of this
mineral
 However, once adequate amount of iron is established in the body
tissues, it can be recycled; hence, the overall requirement for iron in
adult animals is much less.
 Deficiency:
 Anemia
 Unthriftiness
Iodine (I)
 Functions in the synthesis of hormones triiodothyronine and
tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine)
- these hormones increase the metabolic rate and promote faster
growth by accelerating biochemical reactions in cells and tissues
 Sources:
 Whey
 Fish meal and other marine by-products
 Poultry by-products
 Soybean meal
 Oats and oats by-products
 Wheat and wheat by-products
 Present in most foods, although in small amounts
inadequate dietary intake of iodine
>> thyroid gland cannot produce its hormones
Under the stimulus of a TSH from pituitary gland,
the thyroid gland enlarges in an attempt to
respond to the needs of the body.
 goiter - enlarged thyroid gland (“big neck” in calves)

 reduced rate of growth
 dry skin and brittle hair
 sparse and poor quality wool (sheep)
 affects the reproductive capability of the animal,
- stillbirths
- abnormal estrus in females
- reduced libido and poor semen quality in males
- sometimes resulting to birth of weak or dead offsprings
Copper (Cu)
Functions:
 Essential for the formation of hemoglobin, although it is not a part of hemoglobin as
such (with iron)
(hemoglobin - the red pigment in blood which carries oxygen)
 Facilitates the absorption of iron from the intestinal tract (and releases it from
storage in the liver and the reticuloendothelial system)
 Constituent of several enzyme systems
 Development and maintenance of the vascular and skeletal structures (blood
vessels, tendons, bones)
 Structure and functioning of the central nervous system.
 Required for normal pigmentation of the hair and wool.
 Component of important copper-containing proteins.
 Reproduction (fertility)
 Sources:
 Most feeds contain enough copper, except when the source is grown from copper
deficient soils
 Corn gluten feed
 Corn gluten meal
 Cotton seeds
 Distiller’s grains
 Liver meal
 Sardine meal
 Soybean meal
 Wheat bran
 Wheat germ
 Whey
 Supplemental sources:
- brewer’s yeast
- copper carbonate
- copper sulfate
 Deficiency Symptoms
 Poor growth , depigmentation of hair and wool, anemia as a
result of iron absorption problem
 Toxicity:
 Excess copper is toxic
>> accumulates in the livers
>> death may result
Manganese (Mn)
Functions:
 Formation of bone and growth of other connective
tissues
 Blood clotting
 Insulin action
 Cholesterol synthesis
 Important in the body as activator of various enzymes
involved in metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
 Sources:
 Corn fodder
 Grass/legume hays
 Rice/rice by-products
 Wheat/wheat by-products (pollard)
 Sorghum fodder/silage
 Manganese gluconate
 Deficiency
 Poor growth
 Lameness
 Shortening and bowing of the legs
 Enlarged joints
 Perosis, or slipped tendon disease, due to malformation of leg bones
(chicken)
 Knuckling over, congenital malformations in the newborn, abnormal
formation of bone and cartilage and impaired glucose tolerance (calves)
 Delayed estrus, poor conception, and decreased litter size in females,
and decreased libido and abnormal spermatogenesis in males
(mammals)
 Crooked legs and enlarged hocks (pigs)
 Crooked front legs (rabbit)
 Toxicity
 Not toxic to animals in moderate toxicity
Cobalt (Co)
 Essential constituent of vit B12, or cobalamin (essential
factor in the formation of red blood cells)
Microbial synthesis of cobalamin requires supply of
cobalt
Thus, ruminants are particularly sensitive to cobalt
deficiency, char. by emaciation, anemia,
unthriftiness
Non ruminants/ very young ruminants do not have a need
for cobalt, per se, but do require dietary sources of
vitamin B12.
Source: most feeds have enough cobalt to supply the
needs of the animal
 Corn
 Corn silage
 Poultry by-product meal
 Rice bran/hulls
 Sorghum grain
 Soybean meal
 Wheat grain/middlings
 Deficiency symptoms: (similar to vit B12 def. symp.)
 Rough hair coat
 Scaliness of the skin
 Absence of estrus
 Abortion
 Low milk production
 Rapid loss of weight
 Emaciation
 Anemia
 Death (continued deficiency)
Selenium (Se)
 Functions:
 Component of the enzyme glutathione peroxidase
(metabolic role: protect against oxidation of PUFA and
resultant tissue damage)
 Protect tissues from certain poisonous substances (arsenic,
cadmium and mercury)
 White muscle disease (calves)
 Liver necrosis ( pigs)
 Exudative diathesis (young chickens, poultry)
- char. by the walls of capillaries becoming highly permeable
 Toxicity
 Blind staggers or alkali disease (animals consuming forage or
grain produced on seleniferous soils)
 Char. by emaciation, loss of hair, soreness and sloughing of hoofs,
lameness, anemia, excess salivation, grinding of the teeth,
blindness, paralysis, and death
 Reduced egg production and hatchability (poultry and other
birds)
 Deformities ( lack of eyes and deformed wings and feet)
(poultry)
Molybdenum
 Functions:
 Component of different enzyme systems
which are involved in the metabolism of

carbohydrates, fats, proteins, sulfur-containing
amino acids, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and
iron
 Component of xanthine oxidase
- essential in the formation of uric acid

 Component of the enamel of the teeth
 Deficiency Symptom:
No known deficiency symptom has been described as attributed

to lack of molybdenum in the diet
 Toxicity:
 Molybdenosis (severe molybdenum toxicity)
- char. by severe scours, loss of weight, decreased production,

fading of hair color
Zinc
 Functions:
 Needed for normal skin, bones, hair and feathers
 As a component of several different enzyme systems which are involved
in digestion and respiration
 Required for :
 the transfer of CO2 in red blood cells;
 proper calcification of bones;
 the synthesis and metabolism of proteins and nucleic acids;
 the development and functioning of reproductive organs;
 wound and burn healing; and
 the functioning of insulin.

 Rough and thickened skin in various animal species, known as parakeratosis
 Stunted growth
 Bone problems
 Improper development of the male gonads
 Severe delays in wound healing
 Impairment of glucose tolerance
 Poor hair or feather development
 Toxicity:
 Anemia
 Depressed growth
 Depraved appetite
 Death (severe cases)
 Sources:
 Cereal grains
 Fish meal and other trace minerals
 Meat by products
 Poultry by-product meal
 Poultry feather meal
 Oatmeal
 Peanut meal
 Sesame seeds
 Sunflower seeds
 Wheat by-products
 Yeast
 Zinc carbonate
 Zinc sulfate
PHILIPPINE NATIONAL
STANDARD PNS/BAFS 163:2015
ICS 65.120
Animal feed ingredients
BUREAU OF PRODUCT STANDARDS*
Member to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

Standards and Conformance Portal: www.bps.dti.gov.ph
*BUREAU OF PHILIPPINE STANDARDS

PHILIPPINE NATIONAL STANDARD PNS/BAFS 163:2015
Foreword
This Philippine National Standard PNS/BAFS 163:2015 Animal feed ingredients aims
to provide guidelines for the quality and safety of feed ingredients used in animal
feeds intended for domesticated livestock and poultry animals.
The formulation of this Philippine National Standards (PNS) on Animal Feed

Ingredients was drafted and reviewed by the BAFS Technical Working Group prior to
its presentation for public consultations in Quezon City, Cebu, Davao, and Cagayan
de Oro with the major stakeholders of animal feed industry. Comments from the
stakeholders were carefully evaluated and inputted accordingly in this standard.
The Technical Working Group created by BAFS for this purpose (as per Special
Order No. 274), is composed of experts from the Animal Feeds Standardization
Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry, Philippine Society of Animal Nutritionists,
Philippine Association of Feed Millers, Inc, and Animal and Dairy Sciences Cluster of
the University of the Philippines, Los Baños.
PHILIPPINE NATIONAL STANDARD PNS/BAFS 163: 2015
Animal feed ingredients
1 Scope
This standard applies to the quality and safety parameters of feed ingredients,
including their classification, descriptions and purchase specifications, being used in
animal feeds intended for domesticated livestock and poultry animals.
2 References
The title of the standard publications and other references of this Code are listed on
the back cover.
3 Definition of Terms
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions shall apply.
3.1
Feed
is any single or multiple materials, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which
is intended to be fed directly to domesticated animals to meet the nutrient
requirements in order to maintain life, promote growth, production and reproduction
without any additional substance except water
3.2
Feed Additive
refers to an ingredient or combination of ingredients which is added to the basic
mixed feed to fulfill a specific need which include, but not limited to, acidifiers,
antioxidants, aromatics, deodorizing agents, flavor enhancers, mold inhibitors, pellet
binders, preservatives, sweeteners, toxin binders, etc. It is usually used in micro-
quantities and requires careful handling and mixing. A feed additive may have no
nutritive value but is added to the feed to improve its quality and efficacy.
3.3
Feed Ingredient
is a component part or constituent of any combination or mixture making up a feed,
whether or not it has a nutritional value in the animal’s diet, including feed
supplements and additives. Ingredients are of plant, animal or aquatic origin, or other
organic or inorganic substances.
3.4
Feed Supplement
refers to a feed ingredient or mixture of feed ingredients intended to supply the
deficiencies in a ration or improve the nutritive balance or performance of the total
mixture. For purposes of this standard, the following, such as but not limited to amino
acids, fatty acids, vitamins and minerals are considered as feed supplements.
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
4 Classification of Feed Ingredients
4.1 Energy Sources
4.2 Protein Sources
4.2.1 Animal and Marine Protein
4.2.2 Plant Protein
4.3 Non-Protein Nitrogen Sources
4.4 Milling and Factory By-products
4.5 Dairy Products
4.6 Fats and Oils
4.7 Feed Supplements
4.7.1 Mineral Supplements
4.7.1.1 Macro Mineral Supplements
4.7.1.2 Trace Mineral Supplements
4.7.2 Vitamin Supplements
4.7.2.1 Fat Soluble Vitamins
4.7.2.2 Water Soluble Vitamins
4.7.3 Amino Acid Supplements
4.8 Feed additives
5 Minimum requirements of commercial feed ingredients
5.1 Energy Sources
Below are the commonly used feed ingredients under this classification:
5.1.1 Banana (Musa sapientum) Meal, Peeled
It is the product obtained by chopping, drying, and grinding of peeled banana fruit.
This should have dusty texture, pasty and sticky when wet, off-white to light brown
color and fresh odor. The specifications should include:
2
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
Specification Limit
Moisture, max. 13.0 %
Ash, max. 2.0 %
Crude fiber, max. 5.0 %
Starch, min. 50.0 %
5.1.2 Banana (Musa sapientum) Meal, Unpeeled
It is the product obtained by chopping, drying, and grinding of unpeeled banana fruit.
This should have dusty texture, pasty and sticky when wet, light brown to tan color
with brown specks and fresh odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Ash, max. 6.0 %
Starch, min. 40.0 %
5.1.3 Barley (Hordeum vulgare), Hulled
It is a whole grain that is spindle-shaped in five angles and possessed a broad

shallow groove on the ventral side. This should be light gray to tannish gray in color
and should be fresh and free from mustiness. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Empty grains, max. 2.0 %
Impurities, max. 3.0 %
Starch, min. 45.0 %
5.1.4 Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Meal/Chips, Peeled
It is the product obtained by peeling, chopping, drying, and grinding of cassava

tubers that is dusty when dry and sticky when wet. This should be white to off-white
in color and should be sweet and free from mustiness in odor. The specifications
should include:
Specification Limit
Ash, max. 3.0 %
Hydrocyanic Acid (HCN), max. 15.0 mg/kg
Starch, min. 60.0 %
3
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
5.1.5 Cassava (Manihot esculenta) Meal/Chips, Unpeeled
It is the product obtained by chopping, drying, and grinding of whole cassava tubers
that is dusty when dry and sticky when wet. This should be brownish white in color
and have fresh odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Ash, max. 7.0 %
Hydrocyanic Acid (HCN), max. 30.0 mg/kg
Starch, min. 50.0 %
5.1.6 Corn (Zea maize)
A tooth-shaped kernel composed of bran, coat, endosperm and embryo of germ. The
color should be white, yellow or in variety and should have a sweet odor free from
mustiness. This should be free from infestation. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Spoiled and damaged grains, max. 3.0 %
Broken grains, max. 2.0 %
Starch, min. 60.0 %
5.1.7 Wheat Flour, Feed Grade
It is a product resulting from downgrading food grade flour. It is off-white to cream in

color, with characteristic smell of freshly milled flour with traces of wheat hulls. This
should be free from infestation. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Ash, max. 1.0 %
Crude protein, min. 10.0 %
Starch, min. 84.0 %
5.1.8 Oats (Avena sativa)
These are seeds that are usually rolled or flaked to enhance digestibility. They
should smell fresh and free from mustiness. This should be free from infestation. The
specifications should include:
4
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
Specification Limit
Spoiled and damaged grains, max. 3.0 %
Starch, min. 35.0 %
5.1.9 Rice (Oryza sativa) Middlings
Rice middlings/broken rice are small fragments of rice kernels with traces of awn
(“mata-mata”) that have been separated from larger kernels during rice milling.
Whole rice kernel may be included. They should be white or brown in color and smell
fresh, free from mustiness. This should be free from infestation. The specifications
should include:
Specification Limit
Starch, min. 55.0 %
5.1.10 Rice (Oryza sativa), Paddy or Palay
It is composed of lemma and palea, which have crosshatched markings on the

surface and are spinescently hairy. The non-flowering glumes are attached at the
base of the paddy and some varieties are awned or awnless at the apex. This should
be slightly yellow to brown in color, where dark color may indicate off-quality. This
should smell fresh and free from mustiness. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Ash, max. 15.0 %
Starch, min. 45.0 %
5.1.11 Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)
It is more or less rounded and bluntly pointed, with a black scar marking the point of
its attachment to a stalk at one end and shriveled remains of the two styles at the
other end. Color should vary from white, light brown to dark or reddish brown with
fresh smell and free from mustiness. The specification should include:
5
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
Specification Limit
Tannin, max. 1.0 %
Starch, min. 60.0 %
5.1.12 Cane Sugar, Brown (Sucrose)
This is unrefined cane sugar that should be brown to golden brown in color and
should have fresh and sweet smell, not musty or sour. The specifications should
include:
Specification Limit
5.1.13 Wheat (Triticum sativa)
Whole grain of wheat is oval, and blunt at the tip with tuft hairs. Soft wheat should
have a tan to light brown color while hard wheat should have brown to reddish brown
color. Odor should be fresh and free from mustiness. Quality varies depending on
the country of origin. The specifications should include:
Limit
Specification
Soft Hard
Moisture, max. 12.0 % 12.0 %
Crude protein 9. 0 % 12.0 %
Starch, min. 65. 0 % 62.0 %
Impurities, max. 2. 0 % 2. 0 %
5.2 Protein Sources
5.2.1 Animal and Marine Protein Sources
5.2.1.1 Blood Meal/Hemoglobin Powder
It is the coagulated blood which has been dried and ground into a meal that should
be reddish black in color and has a characteristic bloody odor. The specifications
should include:
6
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
Specification Limit
Pepsin digestibility*, min. 70.0 %
Salmonella(at 25 grams) Negative
* AOAC, Official Method of Analysis
5.2.1.2 Egg Powder, Whole, Spray dried
These are pasteurized, spray dried whole egg solids that should be cream to light
brown in color and with characteristic egg odor. The specifications should include:
Limit
Specification
High protein Low protein
Moisture, max. 10.0 % 10.0 %
Crude protein, min. 60. 0 % 45.0 %
Crude fat, min. 15. 0 % 28.0 %
Calcium, max. 0.25 % 0.25 %
Phosphorus, max. 0.75 % 0.75 %
Salmonella (at 25 grams) Negative Negative
5.2.1.3 Fish Meal, imported
These are clean, dried, ground tissues of undecomposed fish or fish cuttings, with or
without the oil extracted that should be light tan or light brown to reddish brown in
color depending on the species of fish with characteristic odor of cooked/dried fish
but should not be rancid. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Crude fat, max. 12.0 %
Salt (NaCl), max. 4.0 %
Calcium, max. 5.0 %
Phosphorus, min. 3.0 %
Histamine, max. 500 ppm
7
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
5.2.1.4 Fish Meal, Local
Local fish meals are dried, ground tissues of undecomposed fish or fish cuttings, with
or without the oil extracted. This should be light tan or light brown to reddish brown in
color and with characteristic odor of cooked/dried fish but should not be rancid.
The specifications should include:
Specification Min 45% CP Min 50% CP Min 55% CP Min 60% CP

Moisture, max. 12.0 % 12.0 % 12.0 % 12.0 %
Pepsin digestibility*, min. 60.0 % 60.0 % 60.0 % 60.0 %
Crude fat, max. 20.0 % 18.0 % 15.0 % 12.0 %
Salt (NaCl), max. 5.0 % 5.0 % 5.0 % 5.0 %
Calcium, max. 8.0 % 7.0 % 6.0 % 5.0 %
Phosphorus, min. 4.5 % 3.5 % 3.0 % 2.5 %
Salmonella(at 25 grams) Negative Negative Negative Negative
Histamine, max. 500 ppm 500 ppm 500 ppm 500 ppm
*AOAC, Official Method of Analysis
5.2.1.5 Fish Meal Analogue
It is a blend of animal by-products containing feather meal, blood meal, meat and
bone meal, poultry by product with or without fishmeal or fish soluble that is brown to
dark brown in color and with fresh and meaty but not burnt odor. The specifications
should include:
Specification Limit
Calcium, max. 5.0 %
5.2.1.6 Meat and Bone Meal
These are finely ground, dry rendered tissues and bones, exclusive of hair, hoof and
hide trimmings, blood and contents of digestive tract. Color may vary but should be
usually grayish brown with fresh and meaty but not burnt smell. The specifications
should include:
8
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
Specification Min 45% CP Min 50% CP

Moisture, max. 12.0 % 12.0 %
Ash, max. 35.0 % 27.0 %
Crude protein, min. 45.0 % 50.0 %
Crude fat, max. 10.0 % 10.0 %
Pepsin digestibility*, min. 60.0 % 60.0 %
Salt (NaCl), max. 3.0 % 3.0 %
Calcium, max. 10.0 % 8.0 %
Phosphorus, min. 7.0 % 5.0 %
Salmonella(at 25 grams) Negative Negative
5.2.1.7 Plasma Protein
This is a product separated from blood cells and obtained by the addition of
anticoagulant to whole fresh animal blood to prevent clotting. It is dried and ground.
Color should be off-white to beige and should be odorless. The specifications should
include:
Specification Limit
5.2.1.8 Pork/Porcine Meal
It is made from pork/porcine by-products which have been cleaned, ground and
rendered. This should be light brown in color with fresh fried meat smell. The
Specification Min 45% CP Min 50% CP Min 60% CP

Moisture, max. 6.0 % 6.0 % 6.0 %
Ash, max. 35.0 % 33.0 % 23.0 %
Pepsin digestibility*, min. 60.0 % 60.0 % 65.0 %
Crude fat, max. 6.0 % 6.0 % 8.0 %
Calcium, max. 15.0 % 12.0 % 10.0 %
Phosphorus, min. 7.0 % 6.0 % 4.0 %
Salmonella(at 25 grams) Negative Negative Negative
NPN** Negative Negative Negative
** Non Protein Nitrogen
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5.2.1.9 Poultry By-product Meal
These are dried, ground tissues of undecomposed necks, heads, fats, carcass, and
traces of feathers of poultry with or without the oil extracted. This should be tan or
light brown to reddish brown in color with fresh and meaty but not burnt smell. This
should be free from any evidence of scorching and over heating or presence of foul
odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Crude Fat, max. 17.0 %
Calcium, max. 5.0 %
5.2.1.10 Hydrolyzed Feather meal
This is the product resulting from the treatment under pressure of clean,
undecomposed feathers from slaughtered poultry and free of additives. The
Specification Limit
5.2.1.11 Poultry Meal
These are ground, rendered and dried tissues of undecomposed meat and bone of
poultry. The color may vary but should be usually grayish brown with fresh and
meaty but not burnt odor. This should be free from any evidence of scorching and
over heating or presence of foul odor, as well as free of feathers. The specifications
should include:
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Specification Limit
Calcium, max. 5.0 %
5.2.1.12 Shrimp Meal
This is by-product of shrimp processing and contains either the exoskeleton or whole
shrimp that should be pink or orange in color and with characteristic smell of
cooked/dried shrimp. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Salt (NACl), max. 3.0 %
Calcium, max. 6.0 %
Histamine 500.0 mg/kg
5.2.1.13 Squid Meal
This is undecomposed whole, dried and ground squid that should be light brown to
black color and has a characteristic smell of cooked/dried squid. The specifications
should include:
Specification Limit
Crude fat, min. 15.0 %
NPN* Negative
* Non Protein Nitrogen
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5.2.2 Plant Protein Sources
5.2.2.1 Black Bean (Phaselous vulgaris)
A small black variety of the common bean that should be black in color with fresh
and nutty smell. This should be free from infestations. The specification should
include:
Specification Limit
5.2.2.2 Canola (Brassica spp.) Meal
A by-product after extraction of oil from canola seeds that should be yellow gold in
color and have fresh and nutty smell. This should be free from infestations. The
specification should include:
Specification Limit
5.2.2.3 Leucaena /Ipil-ipil(Leucaena spp.) Leaf meal
Dried ground Leucaena leaves with minimum amount of stems. This should be
greenish brown in color with fresh and free from musty odor. This should be free
from infestations. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Mimosine, max. 2 ppm
5.2.2.4 Rapeseed (Brassica napus) Meal
A by-product after extraction of oil from rapeseed that should be greenish brown to
brown in color and have fresh and nutty smell. This should be free from infestations.
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Specification Limit
5.2.2.5 Soybean(Glycine Max)Oil Meal, Soya or Soybean Meal
These are by-products after extraction of oil from soybean seeds that should be
bright yellow to yellowish brown in color and have fresh, sweet and nutty odor. This
should be free from infestations. The specifications should include:
Limit
Specification
Low protein High protein
Moisture, max. 12.0 % 12.0 %
Crude protein, min. 43. 0 % 46.0 %
Crude fiber, max. 7. 0 % 4.0 %
Protein Solubility in 0.2% KOH 73.0 – 88.0
Urease activity as change in pH 0.02 - 0.30
Ash, max. 7. 0 %
Anti-caking agent, max. 1. 0 %
5.2.2.6 Soybean (Glycine Max), Full Fat
These are processed (extrusion, toasting, expansion, microwaving, etc.) soybean

seeds with the purpose of removing much of the anti-nutritional factors. It should be
light yellow in color and with fresh and nutty smell. This should be free from
infestations. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Protein Solubility in 0.20% KOH 60.0 – 75.0 %
Urease activity as change in pH 0.02 – 0.30
5.2.2.7 Cowpea (Vigna sinensis)
It is a product obtained from drying cowpea seeds that should be brown in color and
should be odorless. This is locally called “paayap” or “kibal”. This should be free from
infestations. The specifications should include:
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Specification Limit
5.2.2.8 Dunn Peas (Pisum sativum)
This has greenish brown, wrinkled outer covering with yellow cotyledons where color
should vary from light green to greenish brown and has no odor. This should be free
from infestations. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
5.2.2.9 Feed Peas (Pisum sativum)
Dried peas intended for animal feed that should be grayish green in color and should
be odorless. This should be free from infestations. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
5.2.2.10 Green Peas (Pisum sativum)
Dried peas intended for animal feed that should be green in color and should be
odorless. This should be free from infestations. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
5.2.2.11 Lupins (Lupinus spp.)
Dried lupin seeds that should be cream/gray, speckled in color and have fresh and
not musty odor. This should be free from infestations. The specifications should
include:
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Specification Limit
5.2.2.12 Maple peas (Lathyrus niger)
It is also called black peas or parched peas. Round shaped seeds, either brown or
mottled varieties with yellow cotyledons. The color should be brown, black or
speckled and should be odorless. This should be free from infestations. The
Specification Limit
5.2.2.13 Mungbean(Phaseolus vulgaris)
This is dried mungbean seed that should be green or yellow in color and should be
odorless. This should be free from infestations. The specification should include:
Specification Limit
5.2.2.14 Pigeon Pea/Kadyos (Cajanus cajan)
This is dried whole pigeon pea seed that should be cream in color and should be
odorless. This should be free from infestations. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
5.2.2.15 Rice Bean/Tapilan (Phaseolous calcaratus)
This is dried whole or ground rice bean that should be cream/light brown in color and
should be odorless. This should be free from infestations. The specifications should
include:
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Specification Limit
5.2.2.16 Safflower (Carthamus tinctoruis) Seed
This is dried safflower seed that should be off-white in color and have fresh and nutty
odor. This should be free from infestations. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
5.2.2.17 Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) Seeds
This is dried sunflower seed that commonly should be black with white stripes or
plain black. This should be free from infestations. This should be odorless and
include the following specifications:
Specification Limit
5.2.2.18 Vetch (Vicia sativa) Seeds/Common vetch
This is pillow shaped seed with a mottled brown seed coat that when split, seed color
varies from white/ beige to orange, depending on the variety. This should be
odorless and should be free from infestations. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
5.2.2.19 White Peas/Yellow Peas (Pisum sativum)
Dried garden peas with wrinkled seed coat at maturity that should be white to yellow
in color and should be odorless. This should be free from infestations. The
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Specification Limit
5.2.2.20 Guar Meal
A co-product generated from the production of guar gum, an industrially important

commodity being widely used in industries such as food, textile, pharmaceuticals,
personal care, health care, nutrition, explosives, mining, and oil drilling. After the
extraction of the endosperm, the gum part, the remaining germ & husk form part of
guar meal. It should be cream to light brown in color and should be free from burnt
odor. This should be free from infestations. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Ash, max. 6.0 %
5.3 Non-protein nitrogen source
5.3.1 Urea
This is opaque, round or crystal granules containing high amount of nitrogen. This
should be white in color and have no characteristic odor. This should be for ruminant
use only. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
5.4 Milling and Factory By-products
5.4.1 Bakery By-Products
These are bakery products and by products blended, dried and ground into a meal
that should vary from white to dark brown in color and have fresh and not musty or
rancid odor. They should not be burnt, moldy or insect-damaged. The specifications
should include:
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Specification Limit
Starch, min. 35.0 %
5.4.2 Cassava Residue Meal/Pellet
This is a by-product of starch production.
Specification Limit
Ash, max. 7.0 %
Crude protein, min. 7.0%
Fiber, max. 13.0 %
HCN, max. 50.0 mg/kg
Starch, min. 40.0 %
5.4.3 Dried Spent Brewer’s Grain
This is a by-product from the brewing process of barley and other grains that should
be light to dark brown in color with dried fermented grain smell. The specifications
should include:
Specification Limit
5.4.4 Dried Brewer’s Yeast
This is dried by-product obtained from fermentation of grains that should be pale
brown in color and has fermented grain smell. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
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5.4.5 Copra Cake/Meal
A by-product after extraction of oil from copra that should be light brown to brown in
color and have nut-like and pleasant smell, one that resembles roasted coconut not
musty, burnt nor rancid odor. This is unpalatable at high inclusion rates and has
imbalanced amino acid profile. The specifications should include:
Specification Expeller Solvent

Moisture, max. 8.0 % 10.0 %
Crude protein, min. 18.0% 20.0%
Crude fat, max. 12.0 % 10.0%
Crude fiber, max. 10.0% 12.0%
Salt (NaCl) , max. 1.20% 1.20%
5.4.6 Corn Bran
The outer covering of the corn kernel with some starch that should be off-white to
light yellow in color and have fresh and free from musty odor. This should be free
from infestation and should include the following specifications:
Specification Limit
5.4.7 Corn Germ Meal
It is a by-product after oil extraction from corn germ by expeller or solvent processes
that should be golden yellow to brown in color and with fresh and nutty smell and not
musty or sour. This should be free from infestation. The specifications should
include:
Specification Expeller Solvent

Moisture, max. 12.0 % 12.0 %
Crude fat, min. 6.0 % 1.0%
5.4.8 Corn Gluten Feed
It is a by-product in the manufacture of starch from corn by wet-milling process. May

consist of corn gluten meal and corn bran with or without corn solubles and corn oil.
This should be tan to yellowish brown in color and smell fresh similar to that of
toasted cereals blended with a slight trace of dried fermented corn. This should be
free from infestations. The specifications should include:
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Specification Limit
5.4.9 Corn Gluten Meal
Dried corn residue after a large part of the starch, germ and bran have been
removed that should be golden yellow or brownish-yellow in color and with nutty and
not rancid smell. This should be free from infestations. The specifications should
include:
Specification Limit
5.4.10 Dried Distillers Grains with Solubles (DDGS)
A co-product of fermentation of cereals and grains, mostly corn, for the production of
alcohol. It is should be bright yellow to light brown in color and should be free of
burnt or smoky odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
5.4.11 Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) Molasses
It is a by-product in the manufacture of cane sugar that should be brown to dark

brown in color and should have typical sugar aroma. The specifications should
include:
Specification Limit
Brix, min. 78.0 degrees
5.4.12 Palm Kernel Meal
A by-product after extraction of oil from palm kernel that should be light to dark
brown in color with fresh and nutty but not musty, burnt nor rancid odor. This should
include the following specifications:
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Specification Limit
Ash, max. 5.0 %
5.4.13 Rice Bran, D1 or Cono
This consists primarily of pericarp or bran layer and germ of rice, with minimal
quantity of hulls that should be off-white to light brown in color and with fresh and not
rancid or musty odor. This should be free from insect infestations and foreign
materials. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Ash, max. 8.0 %
5.4.14 Rice BranD2 or Kiskis
This is also the pericarp or bran layer and germ of rice, but with higher quantity of
hulls than Rice Bran D1 that should be light brown in color with fresh and not rancid
or musty odor. This should be free from insect infestations and foreign materials. The
Specification Limit
Ash, max. 8.0 %
5.4.15 Scrap Noodles
These are pasta or rice noodles rejected for human consumption that should be
odorless. The specifications should include:
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Specification Pasta Rice noodles
Moisture, max. 5.0 % 5.0 %

Crude protein, min. 10.0% 6.0 %
Starch, min. 70.0% 70.0 %
5.4.16 Soya Hulls
These are by-products after dehulling soybeans that should be light yellow in color
with fresh and not musty odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Crude fiber, max. 38.0%
5.4.17 Wheat Gluten
This is by-product in the manufacture of starch from wheat that should be beige in
color and no characteristic odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
5.4.18 Wheat Pollard
This is by-product of wheat milling. It is the portion of wheat between the skin or the
bran and endosperm. It may either be soft or hard depending on the variety of wheat.
The soft pollard should be light brown in color while hard pollard should be light
reddish brown color. Both should smell fresh and not musty. This should be free from
insect infestations and should have the following specifications:
Specification Soft Hard

Moisture, max. 13.0 % 13.0 %
5.5 Dairy Products
5.5.1 Buttermilk Powder
It is by-product in the production of butter that should be yellowish white to cream in

color with a characteristic odor of sour milk. This should not contain burnt particles.
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Specification Limit
Ash, max. 11.0 %
Crude fat, min. 5.0%
Salmonella (at 25 grams) Negative
5.5.2 Lactose Powder
This is milk sugar where its sweetness is only about 1/5 of the sweetness of ordinary
sugar. This should be off-white in color with fresh and milky smell. The specifications
should include:
Specification Limit
Lactose, min. 98.0 %
5.5.3 Skimmed Milk Powder
It is a product resulting from the removal of water and fats from clean milk. This
should be white or cream in color with fresh and milky smell. The specifications
should include:
Specification Limit
Protein, min. 33.0 %
Calcium, max. 1.5 %
Phosphorous, min. 0.8 %
5.5.4 Skimmed Milk Replacer
It is a replacer for a regular skimmed milk that contains vegetable protein and
lactose. The specifications should include:
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Specification Limit
Protein, min. 25.0 %
Calcium, max. 1.5 %
5.5.5 Whey Powder, Sweet
It is the portion of milk which remains after most of the casein and fat have been
removed for the manufacture of cheese. This should be white or cream in color with
fresh and milky smell. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Asn, max. 8.5 %
Salt, max. 3.5 %
5.5.6 Whey powder, deproteinized
It is the product which results from the removal of protein from whey. The color
should be off-white to cream. The specifications should include the following:
Specification Limit
Ash, max. 11.0 %
Salt, max. 3.5 %
5.5.7 Whole Milk Powder
It is a product obtained by drying milk that should be white in color, have fresh and
milky odor. The specifications should include:
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Specification Limit
Calcium, max. 1.0 %
5.6 Fats and Oils
5.6.1 Acidulated Oil or Acid Oil
It is acid-treated by-product in the refining of crude coco oil that should be dark
brown in color and have acidic but not rancid odor. This should be free from foreign
materials. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Total free fatty acid:
as Lauric, max. 60.0 %
as Oleic, max. 65.0 %
Peroxide value, max. 10 meq/kg
5.6.2 Coconut Oil
It is crude or refined oil extracted from coconut meat using solvent or expeller
process that should be clear liquid, dark yellow to golden yellow in color, has fresh
and not rancid odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Peroxide value, max. 5.0 meq / kg
10.0 g iodine per100
Iodine value, max.
g oil
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5.6.3 Fish Oil
It is oil obtained from fish cannery that should be pale yellow in color and have fishy
odor but not rancid. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Peroxide value, max. 7.0 meq / kg
110-120 g iodine per
Iodine value, max.
100 g oil
5.6.4 Palm Kernel Oil, crude
It is crude oil extracted from palm nuts using solvent or expeller process. This should
be reddish brown in color and have fresh but not rancid or musty odor. The
Specification Limit
Total free fatty acid as Palmitic, max. 5.0 %
Peroxide Value, max. 7.0 meq / kg
23.0 g iodine per
Iodine value, max.
100 g oil
5.6.5 Palm Oil, crude
It is crude oil extracted from palm fruit using solvent or expeller process. This is dark
orange in color and has fresh but not rancid or musty odor. The specifications should
include:
Specification Limit
55.0 g iodine per
Iodine value, max.
100 g oil
5.6.6 Palm Olein
It is fractionated palm oil. This is light orange in color and has fresh but not rancid or
musty odor. The specifications should include:
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Specification Limit
55.0 g iodine per
Iodine value, max.
100 g oil
5.6.7 Soybean Oil
It is crude or refined oil extracted from soybean seeds using solvent or expeller
process. This should have brownish yellow color and fresh and not rancid or musty
odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Total free fatty acid as Oleic, max. 6.0 %
141.0 g iodine per
Iodine value, max.
100 g oil
5.6.8 Tallow
It is by-product of the rendering process of fat from cattle, carabao and sheep that
should be white to off-white in color and have fresh and not rancid or musty odor.
This requires heating before mixing to the feeds and is solid at room temperature.
Specification Limit
Total free fatty acid as Butyric, max. 5.0 %
38.0 g iodine per
Iodine value, min.
100 g oil
5.6.9 Cooking Oil, Used
This is residual oil after frying food products that should be yellow to brown in color
and have burnt oil smell. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Total free fatty acid
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5.7 Feed supplements and additives
5.7.1 Mineral supplements
5.7.1.1 Macro Mineral Supplements
5.7.1.1.1 Calcium and Phosphorous Sources
5.7.1.1.1.1 Bone Meal, Steamed
It is by-product of meat processing composed of bones sterilized by cooking with

steam under pressure, dried and ground. This should be light tan to gray in color and
have cooked meat and bone odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Calcium, max. 3.0 %
5.7.1.1.1.2 Dicalcium Phosphate, or Dicaphos
Dicalcium phosphate is a calcium salt of phosphoric acid. This should be beige to

light gray in color and have no characteristic odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Calcium, max. 24.0 %
Fluorine, max. 0.20 %
5.7.1.1.1.3 Monodicalcium Phosphate, or Monodical [Ca (H2PO4)2.H2O]
Monodical is a blend of dicalcium phosphate and monocalciumphosphate that should

be beige to light gray in color and should have no characteristic odor. The
Specification Limit
5.7.1.1.1.4 Monocalcium Phosphate CaH4O8P2
Monocalciumphosphate is a calcium salt of phosphoric acid. This should be beige to

light gray in color and have no characteristic odor. The specifications should include:
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Specification Limit
5.7.1.1.1.5 Tricalcium Phosphate or Tricaphos (Ca3O8P2)
This is the product obtained by heating rock phosphate deposits where color should
vary from grayish tan to brownish red and should have no characteristic odor. This
should be free from foreign materials. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
5.7.1.1.2 Calcium Sources
5.7.1.1.2.1 Limestone
This is also known as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and is available in fine powder or
coarse grits. This should be grayish white to off-white in color and should have no
characteristic odor. This should be free from foreign materials. The specifications
should include:
Specification Limit
Calcium, min. 36.0 %
pH, max. 9.0 %
Magnesium, max. 2.5 %
5.7.1.1.2.2 Oyster Shell
This is obtained by drying and grinding oyster shells that should be off-white to
grayish black in color and should have fishy odor. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Calcium, min. 3.0 %
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5.7.1.1.3 Sodium and Chlorine Sources
5.7.1.1.3.1 Salt (NaCl)
These are granular crystals or fine powder commonly known as “table salt”. This
should be white to off-white in color and should have no characteristic odor. This
should be free from lumps and/or foreign materials. The specifications should
include:
Specification Limit
Sodium, min. 37.0 %
Chlorine, min. 58.0 %
5.7.1.1.3.2 Iodized Salt
These are granular crystals or fine powder with iodine that should be white in color
and should have no characteristic odor. This should be free from lumps and/or
foreign materials. The specifications should include:
Specification Limit
Sodium, min. 37.0 %
Chlorine, min. 58.0 %
Iodine, min. 0.007 %
5.7.1.1.3.3 Sodium bicarbonate
These are white crystal or granules prepared from sodium carbonate, water and
carbon dioxide. This should be free from foreign materials and specifications should
include:
Specification Limit
Sodium, min. 26.0 %
“Oven drying at 1050C for all moisture value of feed ingredients
5.7.2 Amino Acids Supplements
5.7.2.1 Di-Methionine
It is a synthetic form of methionine that should have a typical odor, somewhat like
organic sulphur compounds. The forms, colors and specifications should be the
following:
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DL methionine - white to slightly yellowish/crystal powder
Specification Limit
Purity as DL-Methionine, min. 98.0 %
5.7.2.2 Methionine hydroxyl analogue (MHA)
It is a hydroxyl acid with four carbons and methyl-thio radical with pKa of 3.6. It can
be either liquid or powder.
Specification Limit
Purity as MHA liquid/powder, min. 85.0 %
5.7.2.3 L-lysine HCl
It is a synthetic form of lysine that should be odorless and should include the
following forms, color and specifications:
Specification Limit
L-lysine hydrochloride dirty white or cream
Purity as L- lysine hydrochloride, min. 98.0 %
5.7.2.4 Lysine sulfate
It is a light brown synthetic form of lysine and composed of pure lysine and other
amino acid.
Specification Limit
Purity as L-lysine sulfate, min. 87.0 %
5.7.2.5 L-threonine
This is synthetic amino acid produced by fermentation that should be off-white in

color and odorless. The specification should include:
Specification Limit
Purity as L- threonine, min. 98.0 %
5.7.2.6 L-tryptophan
L-tryptophan is also a synthetic amino acid produced by fermentation that should be

off-white in color and odorless. The specification should include:
Specification Limit
Purity as L- tryptophan, min. 99.0 %
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5.7.2.7 L-Valine
L-valine is also a synthetic amino acid produced by fermentation that should be

offwhite in color and odorless. The specification should include:
Specification Limit
Purity as L-valine, min. 95.0 %
5.8 Feed Additives
5.8.1 Acidifying Agents (Acidifiers)
Chemical products added to the feed to decrease the pH in the stomach, improving
digestion and modulating the microflora in the gastro intestinal (GI) tract.
5.8.2 Anti-Caking Agents
Chemical products used to prevent formation of lumps.
5.8.3 Antimolds (Mold Inhibitors)
Chemical preservatives added to the feeds and raw materials to prevent mold
development.
5.8.4 Antioxidants
Chemical products used to prevent rancidity in feeds and raw materials; protect the
polyunsaturated fatty acids and the fat-soluble vitamins from destruction by
peroxidation.
5.8.5 Dextrose Anhydrous
The anhydrous form of D-Glucose which is a natural monosaccharide and

carbohydrate. Dextrose serves to replace lost nutrients and electrolytes. It is also
use as sweetener.
5.8.6 Enzymes
Chemical products which are added to the feed to improve nutrient digestibility.
5.8.7 Flavorings/Sweeteners
Agents added to improve palatability of the feed.
5.8.8 Hormones
Substances used to alter metabolism in the body.
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5.8.9 Immuno Enhancers
Natural compounds that activate or prime the innate immune system (beta glucans,
etc.).
5.8.10 Nutritional Metabolites
Molecules that are intermediate products of metabolism which are involved in normal
growth, development and reproduction.
5.8.11 Pellet Binders
Used to improve pellet durability.
5.8.12 Pigmenters
Used to enhance yolk color and skin pigmentation in poultry.
5.8.13 Prebiotics
Non-digestible substances used to improve the gut environment for beneficial

bacteria.
5.8.14 Probiotics
Live microbial feed additives that beneficially affect the host animal by improving its
intestinal microbial balance.
5.8.15 Surfactants
Chemical agents that facilitate uniform dispersion of molecules in viscous liquid raw
materials.
5.8.16 Mycotoxin Binders
Chemical compounds which can bind or adsorb mycotoxins in feeds.
6 Hazards in Feeds (guidelines)
6.1 Biological Hazards
Bacteria, parasites, and prions.
6.2 Chemical Hazards
6.3 Heavy Metals
Commercial feed ingredients should comply with those relevant maximum residue
levels for heavy metals established by the Codex Alimentarius Commission and/or
competent authority for this commodity.
33
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
6.4 Radionuclides
6.5 Toxins (Mycotoxins, Plant toxins, Marine Toxins)
Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins, such as but not limited to aflatoxin, T2, zearalenone,
Deoxynevalinol(DON) or vomitoxin and ochratoxin should comply with the tolerable
levels set by international standardizing body or competent authority.
6.6 Pesticide Residues
Commercial feed ingredients should comply with those relevant maximum residue
limits established by the Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues and/or competent
authority for this commodity.
6.7 Veterinary Drugs
7 Hygiene
It is recommended that the product covered by the provisions of this standard be

prepared and handled in accordance with appropriate sections of Recommended
Code of Practice – Good Animal Feeding (CAC/RCP 54-2004).
34
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
ANNEX 1
( informative )
Table 1 - Sources of Trace Minerals
Content of
Trace Mineral Sources Purity pure element Color
(%)
Cobalt carbonate (CoCO3) - 49.6 Red
Cobalt sulfate, hydrated
Cobalt (Co) 98.99 34.1 Strong pink
(CoSO4.H2O)
Cobalt sulfate, hydrated
98.99 21.0 Orange
(CoSO4.7H2O)
Copper carbonate
- 51.4 Green to blue
(CuCO3)
Copper chloride
Copper ( Cu ) - 37.3 Blue
(CuCl2.2H2O)
Copper hydroxide
- 65.1 Light blue
(Cu [OH]2)
Cupric oxide (CuO) 78-79 79.9 Black
purity-not Copper Sulfate,

98-100 25.4 Dark blue
available in the hydrated (CuSO4.5H2O)
Philippines Copper Sulfate,
98-100 22.2 Sky blue
hydrated (CuSO4.7H2O)
Tribasic copper
98 58 Green powder
chloride (TBCC)
White
Calcium Iodate (Ca[IO3]2) 99 65.1
crystalline powder
Potassium iodide (KI) 99-100 76.4 White crystals
Iodine ( I )
Cuprous iodide (CuI) - 66.6 ?
Pentacalciumorthoperi
- 39.3 -
odate (Ca5[IO6]2)
Ferrous carbonate
- 48.2 Greenish gray
(FeCO3)
Ferrous Oxide (FeO) - 77.7 Jet-black
Iron ( Fe ) Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) 98 36.7 White to yellow

Ferrous sulfate,
95-98 32.9 White to yellow
hydrate (FeSO4.H2O)
Ferrous sulfate,
92-97 20.1 Light green
hydrate (FeSO4.7H2O)
Manganese carbonate
- 47.8 Pink
(MnCO3)
Manganese chloride
Manganese ( Mn ) - 38.2 Reddish
(MnCl2.H2O)
Manganous oxide
81 77.4 Brownish –black
(MnO)
35
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
Content of
Trace Mineral Sources Purity pure element Color
(%)
Manganese sulfate,
hydrated 95-98 22.8 Light pink
(MnSO4.5H2O)
Manganous sulfate,
99 32.5 Light pink
hydrated (MnSO4.H2O)
Sodium selenite
99-100 45.6 White
Selenium (Na2SeO3)
(Se) Sodium selenite
- 41.8 White
(Na2SeO4)
Zinc carbonate (ZnCO3) - 52.1 -
Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) - 48.0 White
Zinc (Zn) Zinc oxide (ZnO) 88-99 80.3 Chalky white

Zinc sulfate, hydrated
90-95 22.7 White
(ZnSO4.7H2O)
Zinc sulfate, hydrated White
95-98 36.4
(ZnSO4.H2O)
36
PNS/BAFS 163:2015
Annex 2
( informative )
Table 2 – Description and activity of commercial vitamins
Vitamin Source Description* Activity
orange brown to gray free-flowing

Vitamin A 1000 1,000,000 I.U./gram
coated beadlets
Vitamin A pale yellow to brownish free-flowing
Vitamin A 500 spray-dried powder; dispersible in 500,000 I.U./gram
water
cream to brownish, fine spray-dried
Vitamin D3 Vitamin D3 500 500,000 I.U./gram
powder
Vitamin A =
orange brown to gray free-flowing
Vitamin AD3 1,000,000 I.U./gram
Vitamin AD3 coated beadlets; contains both
1000/200 Vitamin D3 =
vitamin A and D3
200,000 I.U./gram
Menadionesodi white to brownish, slightly 51.5 % menadione
umbisulfite hygroscopic powder; soluble in water (as is)
Vitamin K3 43% menadione
Menadionenicot white to brownish powder; sparingly
and
inamidebisulfite soluble in water
31% nicotinamide
Thiamine white to yellowish fine granular
92% thiamine
mononitrate powder; sparingly soluble in water
Vitamin B1
Thiamine
white fine powder; soluble in water 89% thiamine
hydrochloride
Pyridoxine white to yellowish fine,
Vitamin B6 82% pyridoxine
hydrochloride free-flowing powder
9 to 11 mg B12 per
Vitamin B12 Vitamin B12 1% fine, reddish-brown powder
gram
crystalline, free-flowing white to
Niacin Niacin 99.5%
slightly yellowish powder
Pantothenic Calcium D- white to off-white, free flowing
90%
acid pantothenate crystalline or spraydried powder
white to cream white, very fine, free
Biotin 2% 2%
flowing powder
Biotin
off-white to slightly yellowish, free-
Biotin 10% 10%
flowing spray-dried powder
Folic acid Folic acid 95% yellow to yellow-orange powder 95%
Folic acid 80% yellowish to brownish freeflowing

80%
spray-dried spray-dried power
white to slightly yellowish powder
Vitamin C Coated vitamin C 97.5%
coated with ethylcellulose
Choline Phosphorylated
Beige, spray-dried powder 35%
chloride vitamin C
37
References PNS/BAFS 163:2015
Ad Hoc Codex Intergovernmental Task Force on Animal Feeding
Department of Agriculture – Administrative Order 1 Series of 2008 – Revised

Nutrient Standards for Animal Feeds
Department of Agriculture – Administrative Order 12 Series of 2007 – Revised

Implementing Rules and Regulations on the Registration of Feed Establishments
and Feed Products
Official Methods of Analysis of AOAC INTERNATIONAL, 19th edition, 2012
PHILSAN Feed Reference Standards, 4th edition – Philippine Society of Animal

Nutritionists, 2010
Department of Agriculture
Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards
Technical Working Group
Chair
Ma. Mercedes C. Buyoc

Philippine Society of Animal Nutritionists
Members
Marilou Estherlina D. Arifalo Javier P. Mateo

Herminia A. Tecson Agri-Specialist, Inc.
Esterlita Karganilla
Bureau of Animal Industry Filomena Sd. Pascual
Department of Agriculture Lipa Quality Control Center
Basilisa P. Reas Alma P. Jauhari

American Soybean Association Pilmico Animal Nutrition Corporation
International Marketing
Cesar C. Sevilla
Eloisa Carpena University of the Philippines Los Baños
Philippine Association of Feed Millers
Inc.
Secretariat
Alpha P. Mateo
Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards
Department of Agriculture
your partner in product quality and safety
BUREAU OF PRODUCT STANDARDS*
3F Trade and Industry Building

361 Sen. Gil J. Puyat Avenue, Makati City 1200, Metro Manila, Philippines
T/ (632) 751.3125 / 751.3123 / 751.4735
F/ (632) 751.4706 / 751.4731
E-mail : bps@dti.gov.ph
www.dti.gov.ph
* BUREAU OF PHILIPPINE STANDARDS

 requirement of an effective feeding system:
sufficient knowledge of the needs of the animal at
different stages of its life cycle.
stages: physiological phases of the animal
 nutritional requirements for each stage differ

>> should be met by properly feeding the animal with
diets containing the amounts of nutrients as specified in
feeding standards
 Maintenance requirements
• portion of absorbed nutrients used to
carry on essential functions, such as
body metabolism and maintaining body temperature
and the replacement and repair of body cells and tissues
 Reproduction requirements
• portion of the nutrients used for the development of the fetus
 Growth and Production requirements
• portion of digested feed used for
growth, fattening, or the production of milk, eggs, wool, work, etc.
Maintenance requirements
- may be defined as the combination of nutrients which are
needed by the animal to keep its body functioning
without any gain or loss in body weight or any
productive activity (Ensminger, 1990).
- refer to the amount of feed nutrients necessary to keep the

body functioning in an animal that does not grow,
produce, or work (Roxas, 2006)
 Heat to maintain body temperature
 Sufficient energy to keep vital body processes functional
(incl. energy for the work of the heart, the work of breathing, and
the work of other vital functions)
Basal metabolism – the vital functioning of the body
- heat production of an animal at rest or digesting no food
 Energy for minimal movement
>> energy is the primary nutritive need for maintenance

 Necessary nutrients to repair damaged cells and tissues and to replace
those which have become nonfunctional
Protein: for repair of worn out tissues

> constant breakdown of body tissue protein
> by-products are excreted largely in the urine
<< must be replenished, equivalent to the

maintenance requirement
Minerals: for replacement of mineral losses
> constant loss of all the essential minerals from the body
(incl. Ca and P from the bones)
<< must be replaced by maintenance rations containing

sufficient amount of minerals
- Most farm feeds contain adequate minerals for maintenance, except salt.
Vitamins
> constant destruction and/or loss from the body of all the different
vitamins
<< feeding programs must take into account that animals

must have constant source of vitamins even for
maintenance
- All of the vitamins are essential for life, even if only maintenance is involved
Water
> constant loss of water from the body through urine excretion, feces
excretion, perspiration and respiration
> an animal will die more quickly from lack of water than from lack of any
other nutritive factor
> water is required for all body functions

Certain Fatty Acids
- essential for maintenance of normal health
Incl. unsaturated fatty acids: linoleic
linolenic
arachidonic
: essential fatty acids

 Exercise
 Weather
 Stress
 Health
 Body size
 Temperament
 Individual variation
 Level of production
 Lactation
 The additional movement of animals increases the energy
requirements for maintenance
e.g.: animals in a confined or restricted lot have a smaller

maintenance requirements than those in a pasture or on
the range
 The maintenance requirements of animals increase as temperature, humidity, and air
movements depart from the comfort zone.
Heat loss from animals is also affected by these 3 items
 critical temperature – temperature at which the heat created by digestion and body
metabolism just equals that which the animal dissipates by convection, evaporation,
radiation and conduction.
 comfort zone – the range in temperature within which the animal may perform with little
or no discomfort.
temp. below c.z. >> additional nutrients need to be converted
to heat to keep the body warm
temp. above c.z >> nutrients are needed to help keep the animal
cool
 Optimum temperature – is the temperature at which the animal responds most

favorably, as determined or measured by maximum rate of gain or production, feed
efficiency, and/or reproduction
 Stress of any kind increases maintenance requirements.
 Stress is affected by:
• temperament
• excitement
• presence of strangers
• fatigue
• number of animals together,
• changing corral and corral mates
• previous training
• previous nutrition
• breed
• age
• management
 Greater economic losses (hidden losses) result from poor food
efficiency due to diseases and parasites
 Smaller animal has a higher rate of metabolism per pound of

body weight than a larger animal.
• e.g.: A 1,200 lb animal has less than twice the

maintenance requirements of an animal weighing
half that amount (600 lb)
 Nervous animals require more nutrients for maintenance than
docile animals.
Natural or induced nervousness has much the same effect on

nutrient utilization (both increase it).
 The maintenance requirement varies among individual animals, just as it
does in people.
A ‘hard keeper’ will require considerably more feed than an ‘easy keeper’.
e.g.
Racehorces
- prima donnas of the animal world
- mostly temperamental
- no two can be fed alike
- vary in rapidity of eating
- vary in the quantity of feed consumed
- vary in the proportion of concentrate to roughage taken
- vary in response to different caretakers
>> for best results, they must be fed individually

 Animals with accelerated rates of production tend to have
higher maintenance requirements than those with lower
levels of production.
 The maintenance requirements of lactating females of all
species are higher than those of dry, nonpregnant females.
• e.g.: maintenance requirement of lactating cows is

approximately 10% higher than that of dry,
nonpregnant cows
 Shearing sheep and goats
• Cool weather: maintenance req’ts. increased at shearing due to
decreased insulation
• Hot weather: shearing may decrease maintenance req’ts.
 Gestation
• Maintenance req’ts. of gestation do not include fetal growth , the lowered activity of
pregnant females generally leads to a lower maintenance requirement
 Mature size of breed
• Larger breeds grow more rapidly than smaller breeds; hence, they have a higher
maintenance requirement
 Sex
• Young males gain more rapidly and have a higher maintenance requirement than
young females.
The nutritional needs of the animal over and
above that of maintenance, are intended for
various purposes, such as:
 Growth
 Reproduction
 Production
Growth
- may be defined as the increase in size of
bones, muscles, internal organs, and other
parts of the body.
- the normal process before birth, and after
birth until the animal reaches its full, mature
size.
- influenced primarily by nutrient intake
 Age
 Breed
 Sex
 Rate of growth
 Health
 In comparison with older animals, young animals generally:
• consume more feed per unit of body weight
• utilize feed more efficiently, in pounds of feed eaten per
pound of body gain
• have a higher requirement for protein, energy, vitamins,
and minerals per unit of body weight
• require a more concentrated and more easily digested diet
• are more subject to nutritional deficiencies
 Larger breeds of all species grow more rapidly than smaller
breeds and have a higher nutrient requirement
 Growth studies involving young animals of both sexes and of all
species, reveal the ff.:
• males gain more rapidly than females and have a higher feed
requirement
• uncastrated males use feed more efficiently for body weight

gains than females,
because of the higher water and protein content and
the lower fat content of the increased body weight
• mature average size is larger in males than in females;
• females reach maturity faster than males

 Rapid gains call for more nutrients.
>> this necessitates high-energy, palatable, well-balanced

ration
For the most part, fast gains are efficient gains;

when animals grow at a maximum rates,
they require fewer nutrients and
fewer pounds of feed per pound of gain.
 fast gains may be fat gains
 fleshy feeder cattles may not be desirable
 rapid gains may be uneconomical
 rapid gains may impair reproduction in females

• rapid gaining young females
>> excessively fat
>> decreases the birth canal
>> difficult parturition and heavy birth losses

 Ill health (diseases and parasites)
>>> lack of thrift and poor development in young stock.
Severe causative factor

>>> stunted growth
Protein
- one of the major nutritive requirements for growth
- dry matter of muscle and connective tissue , and also to a

considerable degree that of bone, is primarily protein
- must be of good quality,
it must contain the proper proportion and amounts of amino acids at

the tissue level
Minerals
- Ca and P: especially essential for growth
> bone formation is a primary activity of growth
> bone is high in Ca and P
- Other minerals: involved in the digestion and utilization of other

nutrients needed for growth
Vitamins
- Vitamin D: essential for bone formation
- Certain other vitamins: function in various metabolic processes

related to nutrient utilization for growth
Water
- major requirement for growth
> fat-free muscle tissue is about 78-80% water
Livestock raisers should take advantage of the fact that growth,

esp. muscle growth, is largely water, and water is cheap.
 Being born (or hatched) and born alive
are the first and most important requisites of livestock production
for if animals fail to reproduce,
the breeder is soon out of business.
Fetal Development
 Fetal development is basically just prenatal growth
 Nutrient requirements for fetal development are qualitatively similar for
growth:
• Protein
• Ca
• P
• Vit. D
• Others ( indirect)
 ration deficient in Ca, P, protein and/or energy
>> animal may draw upon its own body for nutrients to develop the fetus
 Unbred animal is severely deficient in nutrients
>> she probably will not become in heat
 Animal is severely deficient in nutrients during early gestation
>> she may cease fetal development, through resorption or abortion
 Too liberal feeding
>> may result in oversized fetus and difficult parturition

 Liberal feeding for early sexual maturity
 Flushing
 Nutritional reproductive failure

 Study shows that size and weight, not age,
determine the time of sexual maturity
Flushing
- the practice of having females gain in weight just prior to
breeding.
Purpose: increase the number of ova shed during estrus
Belief: the practice will result in a 15 to 30% increase in

lamb and pig yield
females will breed earlier and more nearly at the

same time
>> offspring will be earlier and more

uniform in age and size
Reproductive difficulties:
 A small number of females in heat and bred early in the
breeding season
 The low conception rate at first service.
 The excessive losses at birth or within the first two weeks of
age.
Real cause of most reproductive failure:

deficiency of one or more nutrients just before or immediately
following parturition
 Overfeeding or underfeeding
• Overfeeding, accompanied by extremely high condition, or

underfeeding, accompanied by emaciated and run-down condition,
usually result in temporary sterility.
• Overfat females often experience birth difficulties.
• Excessive thinness result in low birth weights and weak young.
 Energy
• A low level of energy during the last third of pregnancy and

immediately following parturition will have a marked effect on
rebreeding –
fewer females will come in heat at the beginning of the
breeding season, and fewer will conceive
 Protein
• A low level of protein during gestation results in lowered production, lighter birth
weights, and delayed heat following parturition.
 Phosphorus
• Low phosphorus will markedly decrease the number of young born
 Iodine
• deficiency of iodine will cause impaired reproduction; weak or dead offspring at

birth; big-necked (goiterous) calves, lambs, and foals; and hairless pigs
 Vitamin A
• Low vitamin A will result in the birth of weak, malformed, partially blind, or dead
young
 Egg production involves feeding for:
• Number of eggs
• Egg quality
• Hatchability
• Control of molt and broodiness
 The nutritive needs for commercial egg production include those for:
• Maintenance of the birds
• Growth of the pullets
• Formation of eggs
 For high hatchability and good development of young,
breeders require greater amounts of:
• Vitamins A
• Vit. D
• Vit. E
• Vit. B12
• Riboflavin
• Pantothenic acid
• Niacin
• manganese
 Milk production – by-product of the reproductive process
 The lactation requirements of females of all mammalian
species for moderate to heavy milk production are much more
rigorous than the maintenance or pregnancy requirements
 Nutritive needs for milk production are exceeded only by
sustained, heavy, muscular exercise (like racing)
 Protein
• Animals will not produce milk low in protein
• If ration is deficient in protein, tissue reserves of protein may be used for milk
production
• Prolonged shortage of protein will limit milk production
 Energy
• May come from carbohydrates, fats or even excess protein in the ration
• An animal will not produce milk extremely low in energy
• If ration is low in energy, body reserves of energy may be used for milk
production
• While ration fat is not essential for milk fat, a small amount of ration fat helps
milk production
• Prolonged shortage of energy will limit milk production

 Calcium and Phosphorus
• May come from the feed or from supplemental sources
• Animals will not produce milk low in these minerals
• If ration is deficient in calcium and/or phosphorus, the

animal will draw upon its bones for calcium and
phosphorus to produce milk.
This will weaken bones and may result in broken bones.
• Prolonged shortage of Ca and P will limit milk production

 Vitamin A and Carotene
• May not be essential specifically for milk production
• Animal may produce milk low in these factors
• May come from the ration or body reserves
• Content in milk may be increased by increasing the amount in the

ration
 Vitamin D
• Essential for the assimilation of Ca and P for milk production
• Content of milk may be increased through vit. D feeding

 Sodium and Chlorine (Salt)
• Essential for digestion of nutrients for milk production
• Milk normally contain some salt
 Other minerals and vitamins

• Several are involved in nutrient utilization
• Most essential minerals and vitamins must come from feed,

from water or from rumen synthesis
Finishing
- the laying on of fat, esp. in the tissues of the abdominal cavity and in the
connective tissues just under the skin and between the muscles.
- the normal feeding practice followed prior to slaughter, for the purpose of
improving the flavor, tenderness, and quality of meat, better to meet
consumer demands.
 The higher the degree of finish, the higher the dressing percentage and the
lower the protein (red meat) content.
 It takes more nutrients to produce a pound of fat than a pound of lean;

hence, excess finish is wasteful and undesirable.
Fitting
- is the conditioning of animals, usually for show or sale, through careful

feeding, grooming, and exercising, to enhance their bloom and
attractiveness.
 Animals intended for show or sale should be fed so as to achieve a certain

amount of finish or bloom, but they should not be too fat.
 Wool and mohair
- high protein products
- rich in sulfur-containing amino acid, cystine
 Lack of energy in the ration of sheep

>>> lighter fleeces
and lower quality of wool
(including breaks, or tender spots, in the fiber)
protein deficiency
>>> lighter fleeces
 Copper deficient sheep produce:
‘steely’ wool
lacking in crimp,
tensile strength,
affinity for dyes,
elasticity
The primary nutritive requirement for wool production are:
 Protein – must be sulfur containing as fed or as

synthesized in the liver
 Energy – sheep must be provided with energy
over and above the required protein to produce
the yolk or grease in wool
 Potassium – essential component of wool
 Other minerals and vitamins
 Work
- movement of matter through space
 Types of work
a. Involuntary – such as that of heart and other vital organs
- essential for life
- essential part of maintenance
b. Voluntary – for recreation or economic production
 Energy – the primary nutritive requirement for work
• Must be in the form of net energy
• Must be over and above other needs
• May come from carbohydrates, fats and excess protein
 If ration is not adequate to meet the needs for work, fat stores
of the body may be used for this purpose
 Chief
sources of power in certain parts of the
world:
• horse
• oxen
• water buffalo
• camels
• reindeer
• dogs, etc.
Source:
Ensminger, M.E., J.E. Oldfield, and W.W.

Heinemann. 1990. Feed and Nutrition.
The Ensminger Publishing Company,
California, USA
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestive system
 the bodily system concerned with the

ingestion and digestion of food, absorption
of nutrients and the discharge of residual
wastes; and consisting of the digestive tract
and accessory glands (such as the salivary
glands and the pancreas) that secrete
digestive enzymes.
Digestive Tract
Ratio of body length to length of digestive tract:
cat 1:4
dog 1:6
sheep 1:27
chicken 1:4
* The development and anatomy of the alimentary tract

largely determine the type of food that is nutritionally useful
for a particular species.
Classification of Domestic Animals based
on Digestive Systems
• simple nonruminants (monogastrics)

• ruminants
• nonruminant herbivores
1. Simple nonruminants
 have a pouchlike, noncompartmentalized
stomach
 do not depend much upon microbial digestion in
any part of the gut
 digestion: digestive enzymes secreted into GIT
 often referred to as monogastric animals
e.g.: swine, poultry, dogs, cats, rats and human

2. Ruminant
 has a large, compartmentalized stomach
 compartments: rumen, reticulum, omasum and
abomasum
 much of the work of digestion is accomplished by
microbes that inhabit the large stomach, rather than
by enzymes the animal produces itself
eg.: cattle, sheep, goat, water buffalo, deer, etc.

3. Nonruminant herbivore
- have digestive tract modifications to facilitate microbial
fermentation, with many of the same functions performed as in
the rumen.
- intermediate between simple nonruminants and ruminants
(digestive physiology and nutritional requirements)
- herbivorous (forages and other vegetation)
e.g.: domestic: horse, rabbit, and guinea pig

wild species: zebra, elephant and hippopotamus
Swine
Digestive System
Mouth
 serves a valuable role for the consumption of food
 provides for the initial partial size reduction through
grinding
 teeth serve the main role in grinding to reduce food
size and increase surface area,
 the first action to begin the chemical breakdown of
food occurs when feed is mixed with saliva
 three main salivary glands:
 parotid, mandibular and sub-lingual glands
 Saliva secretion
- a reflex act stimulated by the presence of food in
the mouth.
 amount of mucus present in saliva
- regulated by the dryness or moistness of the food
consumed
 Saliva generally contains very low levels of
amylase (enzyme that hydrolyses starch to maltose)
 Once food is chewed and mixed with saliva, it passes
through the mouth, pharynx and then the esophagus to
the stomach.
 Peristalsis - the contraction and relaxation of muscles to
move the food (through the esophagus)
Stomach
 muscular organ responsible for storage,
initiating the breakdown of nutrients,
and passing the digesta into the small
intestine.
Four distinct areas/ regions of stomach:
 esophageal region
- located at the entrance of the stomach from the
esophagus
- does not secrete digestive enzymes
 cardiac region
- mucus is secreted here and mixed with the digested
food
 fundic region
- the first major portion of the stomach that begins the
digestive process
- gastric glands secrete hydrochloric acid, resulting in
a low pH (1.5 to 2.5)
- kills bacteria ingested with the feed
- Other secretions:
digestive enzymes
(specifically pepsinogen)
Pepsinogen
- broken down by the hydrochloric acid to
form pepsin (involved with the
breakdown of proteins)
 pyloric region
- responsible for secreting mucus to line the
digestive membranes to prevent damage from the
low pH digesta as it passes to the small intestine
pyloric sphincter - regulates the amount of

chyme (digesta) that passes into
the small intestine
*an important function not to

overload the small intestine with
chyme so proper and efficient
digestion and absorption of
nutrients occurs
Small Intestine
 major site of nutrient absorption
 three sections:
 duodenum
 jejunum
 ileum
1. duodenum
- approximately 12 inches long and is the portion
of the small intestine that ducts from the pancreas
and the liver (gall bladder)
Pancreas
 involved with both endocrine and exocrine
excretions
 secretes insulin and glucagon
 secretes digestive enzymes and sodium
bicarbonate
 serves as a vital organ in the digestive process for
producing and secreting enzymes needed for the
digestion of chyme and the prevention of cell
damage due to pH
digestive enzymes
- break down (hydrolyse) proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates in the chyme
sodium bicarbonate
- serves a vital role to provide alkalinity so chyme
can be transported though the small intestine
without causing cell damage because of the low
pH after leaving the stomach
Liver
 produces bile which is stored in the gall bladder and
secreted into the duodenum in addition to the secretions
of the pancreas
* Bile salts
- active portion of bile in the digestion process, primarily assist
in the digestion and absorption of fat but also help with
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and aids pancreatic lipase
in the small intestine.
- necessary for the absorption of cholesterol, which takes
place in the lower small intestine and are circulated to the
liver via the portal vein
2. jejunum
- middle portion of the small intestine
- involves both the further breakdown of nutrients
as well as the beginning of absorption of nutrients
3. ileum
- final section of the small intestine where nutrient
absorption continues
brush border (intestinal mucosa)
- area where absorption of nutrients in the jejunum
and the ileum occurs
- comprised of finger-like projection called villi,
which in turn contain more micro-size projections
called microvilli
glycocalyx - web-type structures formed by the
tips of the microvilli
 Amino acids and simple sugars
> released into the brush border membrane
> absorbed into the microvilli then into
the villi
> pass into the circulatory system
 Absorbed amino acids and simple sugars
- taken directly to the liver via the portal vein
 dietary fat that is broken down and absorbed into
the brush border
> enter the lymphatic system
> released into general circulation via the
thoracic duct
Large Intestine
 hindgut
* digesta from the small intestine passes into the
cecum (or caecum which has two sections)
 first section has a blind end, where material can not pass
through
 second portion connects to the colon, where digesta is
passed to the rectum and anus where the remaining
digesta is excreted
Main function of the large intestine:
absorption of water
 Limited microbial enzymes activity (forms volatile
fatty acids or VFA)
 Synthesis of B vitamins
* With the majority of water removed, the digesta is

condensed into a semi-solid material and is passed out
of the rectum and anus.
Chicken
Digestive System
Alimentary canal - a long tube-like organ that starts at the beak
and ends with the vent or cloaca in the abdominal region.
 Mouth
 Esophagus
 Crop
 Proventriculus
 Gizzard
 Pancreas
 Liver
 Small Intestine
 Ceca
 Rectum
 Cloaca
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Parts-of-the-digestive-tract-of-
a-chicken_fig5_316699373
Mouth
- absence of lips and teeth
- replaced by a horny mandible on each jaw forming the beak
tongue’s shape: barbed head of an arrow with the point

directed forward
- serve to force the food toward the esophagus
when the tongue is moved from front to back
- presence of salivary glands
- secrete a mucus saliva
- lubricates the food as it passes down the
esophagus
Esophagus
- a long tube which serves as a passage of food from the
mouth to the proventriculus
Crop
- pouch formed as a specialized area of the esophagus
- chief function: storage organ
* Crop - provides the capacity to hold

food for some time before further
digestion commences.
- enables the bird to take

its food as “meals” at
time intervals but
permits continuous digestion
Proventriculus
- appears as little more than an enlargement at the end of the
esophagus
- true stomach
- its wall secretes hydrochloric acid and an enzyme (pepsin) aiding
in protein digestion
Gizzard
- oval, with 2 openings on its upper side
- 1 from the proventriculus
- 1 opens into the duodenum
- composed of 2 pairs of red, thick, powerful muscles
covered internally with a thick horny epithelium
- muscles: very strong
- chief function: grind or crush food particles
- aided by the presence of grit or gravel taken in
through the mouth
* With uniformly ground rations,
grinding in the gizzard is probably relatively less important.
With whole grains, grinding in the gizzard is essential
before they can be properly digested
Pancreas
- located within the duodenal loop
- secretes pancreatic juice into the lower end of the

duodenum through the pancreatic ducts
- neutralizes the acid secretion of the proventriculus

- contains enzymes that hydrolyze proteins, starches, and fats
(absence→ little digestion)
Liver
- big, dark brown organ which produces bile
- necessary for proper absorption of fats from the small

intestine
- conveyed to the lower end of the duodenum by two bile
ducts
- stored in the gallbladder
- contracts to empty bile

into the intestine (signal:
presence of food in the
duodenum)
Small intestine
distinct parts:
- duodenum
- lower small intestine (jejunum and ileum)
(enzymes present in the pancreatic juice

- act on starches, fats, and proteins)
enzymes produced in the intestinal wall

- complete the digestive process
• small fragments of protein molecules
(peptides) > amino acids
• disaccharides (sucrose and maltose)
> simple sugars
❑ digestion and absorption of food
takes place primarily in the small intestine
❑ mucosa lining the small intestine

characterized by a series of folds, villi, and crypts
greatly increase the surface area of the epithelial lining
❑ epithelial cells lining the villi

have finger-like projections
(microvilli)
that also increase the absorptive
surface
* This extensive surface area, along with the

blood flow to and from the intestine,
makes it possible for a meal to be digested
and absorbed in less than 3 hours by
domestic fowl
Ceca
❑ two blind pouches at the

juncture of the lower small
intestine and the rectum
❑ usually 4-6 inches long and
filled with fecal matter
❑ have little function in
digestion
❑ may have some digestion
taking place (in adult birds
fed highly fibrous ration) by
action of microorganisms
Rectum and Cloaca
Large intestine
- short and consists of a short rectum leading to the cloaca
Not more than 3 or 4 inches long (adult chicken)
chamber common to the digestive,

urinary, and reproductive passages,
which opens externally at the vent
* The urine is discharged into the cloaca

and excreted with the feces. White pasty
material in chicken droppings is largely uric
acid that has precipitated from urine.
Ruminant
Digestive System
Cattle Digestive System
Mouth
 place where the process begins
 cattle grazes by wrapping their tongues around
plants and tearing, pulling them into their mouth for
mastication.
 cattle chew first with the lower jaw incisors, working
against a hard dental pad on the front part upper
palate, then second with the molars, grinding plant
material down further
 chewing stimulates saliva production and the saliva
mixes with plant matter before the animal swallows
 saliva contains enzymes capable of breaking down
fats and starches and helps to buffer the pH levels in
the reticulum and rumen segments of the stomach
Esophagus
 plant material and saliva mix >> will travel down the esophagus to the
rumen.
 performs the swallowing action through waves of muscle contractions,
moving the feed down.
 has a bidirectional function
- can move feed from the mouth to the
stomach or from the stomach to the mouth
- needed to regurgitate “cud” (or the under-
chewed plant matter and grain, back up to
the mouth for further grinding)
 cow again swallows the matter back down to
the stomach once it is finished chewing the cud
Stomach
 General function: to further break down
plant matter and grain.
Four compartments of the stomach:

 rumen
 reticulum
 omasum
 abomasum
A. Rumen
also known as the “paunch,”
first area of the cow’s stomach,
connected to the cattle’s esophagus.
acts as storage or holding vat for
feed
 forms balls of cud
cud - consists of large, non-digestible pieces of plant
matter that must be regurgitated, chewed a second time
and swallowed before continuing through the process
 can hold 25 gallons or more of material depending on the

size of the cow
 also serves as a fermentation vat
 rumen’s environment favors the growth of microbes
Microorganisms:
 digest or ferment feed within the rumen and make volatile
fatty acids (VFAs)
 responsible for digesting cellulose and complex starches, as
well as synthesizing protein, B vitamins and vitamin K
 makes up 84% of the volume of the entire stomach
(combined with the reticulum)
B. Reticulum
 referred to as the “honeycomb,”
 attached to the rumen with only a thin tissue
divider (*rumino-reticulum)
 holds heavy or dense objects (metal pieces and
rocks) and traps large feed particles that are not
small enough to be digested
 facilitates regurgitation
 holds about 5 gallons of material
*
hardware disease
 common health issue involving the reticulum
 occurs when cattle ingest heavy or sharp objects —
like nails, screws or wire (swept into the reticulum and
may puncture the stomach wall)
 preventable by putting magnets on feeding
equipment to catch any metal, or cured by the
placement of an intraruminal magnet that traps
already swallowed objects
 may also be corrected through surgery
 may lead to infection and possibly death when left
untreated
C. Omasum
 globe-shaped structure containing leaves of tissue (like pages
in a book)
 nicknamed “manyplies”
 absorbs water and other substances from digestive contents
(Feed material [ingesta] between the leaves will be drier than
ingesta found in the other compartments)
 smaller than the rumen and reticulum, making up about 12%
of the stomach’s total volume
 can hold up to about 15 gallons of material
D. Abomasum
 last compartment of the stomach
 often known as the “true stomach”
 similar to a nonruminant stomach
 only compartment of the stomach lined with glands
 glands release hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes
needed to breakdown feeds
 representing about 4% of the total stomach volume and
only holding about 7 gallons of material.
Small Intestine
 small intestine has three main sections
 duodenum
 jejunum
 ileum
duodenum
- the section connected to the stomach where the
secretions from the gallbladder and pancreas mix with
the partially digested matter.
This process balances the pH in the intestine, ensuring the
digestive enzymes work correctly.
jejunum
- the section lined with small, finger-like projections
known as villi, which increase the intestinal surface
area and absorb nutrients.
ileum
- absorbs vitamin B12, bile salts and any nutrients that
passed through the jejunum.
• secretions from the pancreas and gallbladder
aid in digestion within the small intestine
• small intestine completes most of the digestive

process and absorbs many nutrients through
villi (small finger-like projections)
• from the villi, the nutrients enter into the blood

and lymphatic systems
Small Intestine
 may be up to 150 feet long (about 20 times the length
of the animal) and has a 20-gallon capacity
 muscular contractions move the matter forward
throughout the small intestine, .
valve (at the end of the ileum)

- prevents any backward flow of materials
Cecum
 sitting between the small and large intestines (
large area where the small and large intestine
meet)
 has little function besides providing storage and
a transition between the two intestines
 has about a two-gallon holding capacity
Large Intestine
 last section of the tract that undigested feedstuffs pass
through
 microbes digest some undigested feed here, but the main
digestive function is to absorb water
Calf Digestive System
 rumen, reticulum and omasum - remain
undeveloped at birth and during the first few
weeks of life
 abomasum - calf’s largest stomach
compartment
 rumen doesn’t function and thus some feeds
that mature cows can digest, calves can not
at this stage of life
Esophageal Groove
 Milk bypasses the rumen and directly enters the
abomasum via the esophageal groove during
nursing or bucket feeding
 Reflex action (e.g. when the calf nurses) closes the
groove to form a tube-like structure.
- prevents milk or milk replacer from entering
the rumen.
some milk may overflow into the rumen If the
calf drinks milk rapidly
Rumen Development
 rumen - will remain undeveloped as long as the calf
stays on milk
 microbial population will develop in the rumen and
reticulum once the calf begins eating grain and
forage
 end products from microbial fermentation are
responsible for developing the rumen
 feeding grain with or without forage during the first

few weeks of life will result in larger and heavier
papillae growth in the rumen
 rumen will begin functioning like the adult’s when
the calf is three months old
Non-Ruminant Herbivore
Digestive System
Rabbit Digestive System
Parts of the digestive system:
Mouth
 first part of a rabbit’s digestive system
 lips - to grab food and pass it back to the teeth to cut
and grind the plant material.
 teeth
 function to tear and grab the food
 function to grind the food to a smaller particle size to
allow for the food to be swallowed
 saliva
 secreted into the mouth to moisten the food to help with
lubrication and movement through the gastrointestinal
tract.
Esophagus
 a tube that transfers food from the
mouth to the stomach
Stomach
 relatively large stomach
 food begins to be broken down through hydrolytic
and enzymatic digestion
 primary secretions:
- mucus
- hydrochloric acid
- pepsin
Mucus
- important to protect the stomach lining from the
acid and enzymes and to help moisten the food
Hydrochloric acid
- important in decreasing the pH of the stomach to
allow enzymes to work, and it kills or inhibits
bacteria found in the food
Pepsin
- a proteolytic enzyme, which breaks down
proteins.
* muscles of the stomach - churn or mix the food with

stomach secretions (chyme or digesta- term for
the mixture of food and secretions)
Small intestine
 pyloric sphincter – regulates the flow of
chime into the small intestine
 place where the majority of digestion
and absorption of nutrients occurs.
 divided into three sections
 duodenum
 jejunum
 ileum
duodenum
 first section and is the site of most digestion
 Buffers are secreted from the pancreas into the
small intestine to increase the pH to a more
neutral level, as the stomach acids would make
the digested food have a low pH level.
 variety of enzymes are secreted by and into the
small intestine to break down the food
 proteolytic, lipolytic (fat digesting), and amylolytic (starch
digesting) enzymes
jejunum
 middle section of the small intestine
 section where many nutrients, such as amino
acids, fatty acids, and glucose, are absorbed
Ileum
 last section of the small intestine
 section where the remaining digested nutrients
are absorbed, as well as the B vitamins
cecum
 is a blind sac, or pouch, that comes off the junction
of the small and large intestines
Large intestine
 the section that continues from the small intestine to
the anus of the animal.
 any undigested food and all the fiber from the rabbit’s diet
will pass from the small intestine to the large intestine
 rabbit’s digestive system is able to sort the materials into
two portions:
1. materials which cannot be further broken down and
used (such as indigestible fiber)
- passes directly into the large intestine
- water is reabsorbed in the large intestine and the
material is passed, making up the round droppings
indigestible fiber is important in the diet of the rabbit

as it helps to stimulate intestinal contractions, which
keeps the chyme moving through the gastrointestinal
tract
2. materials which can be further broken down and used
(primarily soluble fiber and proteins)
- moves into the cecum, a large blind sac
cecum
- may be the most important part of the digestive system of
the rabbit
- has 10 times the capacity of the stomach of the rabbit
- massive quantities of microorganisms reside here
- ferment, or digest, the material that passes into the

cecum and use it to produce their own cells, proteins,
and vitamins.
- turn the indigestible fiber into digestible nutrients – some
of which are directly absorbed across the wall of the
cecum for use by the animal, while others are excreted
 cecotrope - small moist pellet, packaged from the
material from the cecum, about eight hours after a meal
 a signal is sent to the rabbit’s brain when the rabbit is
ready to pass the cecotrope, causing the cecotrope to
be consumed by the rabbit as it is being
expelled (process: cecotrophy)
- allows the material to go through the entire
digestive system again and let the rabbit get
additional nutrients from the plant material
- allows rabbits to utilize high-fiber plant material
that other animals may not be able to
ANIMAL FEEDS/FEEDSTUFF,
THEIR CLASSIFICATION
AND CHARACTERISTICS
Feed Groups
Concentrates
- those that are relatively high in digestible nutrients
- low in fiber (less than 18%)
Roughages
- those that are low in digestible nutrients
- high in fiber
Concentrates
Concentrates:
1. Energy feeds
2. Bulky feeds
3. Plant protein feeds
4. Animal protein feeds
5. Liquid supplements
6. Synthetic vitamins and amino acids
7. Minerals
8. Additives
Energy feeds
- feeds used primarily to provide high amounts of utilizable energy
main energy feeds used locally:

• cereal grains
• tubers or root crops
Bulky feeds
have medium amounts of energy
(since they have higher fiber content than the energy feeds)
* Some bulky feeds could also supply high amounts of protein,

in contrast to high energy feeds.
Examples:
brans
pollards
Plant protein feeds
- plant parts that contain high concentrations of protein
Examples:
legume seeds
oil extraction residues

Animal protein feeds
• come from animal tissues,
prepared commercially as animal feed ingredients
• Examples:
- fish meals
- shrimp meals
- meat meal
- meat and bone meal, and other rendering products
Skimmilk powder (a dairy by-product)
- an important ingredient in calf and suckling piglet diets

Liquid supplements
- are added to the diet in liquid form
Examples:
molasses
oils
fats
(Although fats are normally solid at room temperature,

they are liquefied by heating to facilitate mixing)
Synthetic vitamins and amino acids
- special ingredients added to adjust the vitamin and amino acid
levels of the formula, such as when the natural ingredients
could not meet the specifications
- are added to the diet to insure that it contains optimal levels of
vitamins and amino acids
(Synthetic vitamins are also used in preparing premixes.)

Minerals
- substances which provide minerals that are lacking in the main
ingredients
- also used to prepare mineral premixes
Examples:
limestone, oyster shell, monodicalcium phosphate

Additives
- do not usually supply specific nutrients,
but their inclusion in diets may improve animal performance
Examples:
growth promotants
antimolds
antibiotics
antioxidants
probiotics
prebiotics
(other ingredients that are added in the feeds for different purposes)
Energy Feeds
Cereal grains
Cereals
- plants belonging to the Graminea species
- the most important sources of energy feeds for both human and
animal consumption
- (seeds) contain mostly starch,
with variable amounts (8-12%) of protein
- the grain is a good source of polyunsaturated oils
(oleic and linoleic acids), mostly found in the germ

Corn (Zea mays)
• possibly the most popular feed ingredient being used in animal
production, especially as feed for swine and poultry, in the Philippines
and elsewhere
• very palatable
• highly relished by both monogastrics and ruminants
• metabolizable energy content:
3400 kcal/kg for poultry
3300 kcal/kg for swine

Corn
- contains only 8-10% crude protein
(however, because it is included in the diet in larger amounts,
it contributes significant amounts to the total protein)
- its protein zein is notably low in lysine content
(thus, the protein ingredient in the diet must contain enough
lysine to insure that the optimum lysine required is met )

Yellow corn
- contains high amounts of carotene
White corn
- normally used for human consumption
- may be fed to animals
Note: However, this results to pale coloration of broiler skin
and shanks, as well as egg yolk of layers.
Inclusion of well-prepared leaf meals or synthetic
coloring pigments may be necessary to solve this
problem.
Rice (Oryza sativa)
• principally grown for grains to supply the energy needs of humans
• some forms are not fit for human consumption, but may still be fed
to animals
Examples:
broken rice
rice middlings
old stocks
rice damaged by improper drying

Rice
• provides energy to animals
• protein content: similar to corn at 8-9%

(although the value could be slightly higher depending on the
amount of bran left during processing)
Rough rice
- the term for whole grain ground for animal feeding
- includes the hulls

(thus, the energy and protein are lower compared to polished rice)
Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare)
▪ was introduced in the 1960's as alternative to corn in areas where
climate and soil conditions do not give appreciable corn grain yield
▪ known to be drought tolerant
(total volume of grains harvested in the country is not sufficient for
commercial feed mills to depend on sorghum as a replacement
for corn )
(sorghum was also imported into the Philippines)

Sorghum
▪ feeding value: about 90% that of corn
▪ contain significant amounts of tannin that affects the nutritive value of

the grain (some sorghum varieties)
(Plant breeders developed relatively high tannin varieties
to make sorghum bird resistant, but the corresponding feeding
value of the grain also decreased.)

Cassava (Manihot esculenta)
▪ common root crop being cultivated in many areas of the tropics
▪ suitable especially in low fertility soils, and in areas frequently
visited by typhoons
▪ high yield per hectare of cassava bio-mass
>> makes it an economical animal feed

▪ problem: processing ,
• easily deteriorates after harvest due to high moisture content
• big sized root that needs to be chopped for more efficient drying
▪ feeding value as an energy feed: about 80% that of corn
▪ marketed as cassava chips, and needs to be ground before mixing with

nonruminant feed
▪ care should be taken when grinding (becomes too dusty when ground finely)
▪ cassava meal
• the product obtained by peeling, chipping, drying and grinding cassava

tubers
• can be used as partial substitute for corn
• dusty when dry and sticky when wet
Cassava meal (peeled)

suggested Inclusion Rate (IR): 0-35%
Cassava meal (Unpeeled)

IR: 0-20%
▪ major problem: high content of cyanide
(both in free and bound forms)
• bitter varieties contain higher cyanide than the
sweet varieties
• most of the cyanide can be removed by
processing, such as drying and cooking

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas)
• another important root crop usually grown for human consumption
• like cassava, its biomass yield per hectare may be higher than that of
corn
• an excellent alternative crop in areas being frequently visited by

storms
• also deteriorates easily;

>> immediate attention to drying is needed
• feeding value: about 80% of corn

Other major root crops found especially in tropical countries:
▪ yam (Dioscorea spp.)
▪ taro (Colocasia, Alocasia and Xanthosoma spp.)
- potential has not yet been fully exploited
- constraints why yam and taro and other root crops are not utilized fully as
feed ingredients:
• small volume available in the market
• supply inconsistency
• toxic factors (Examples: oxalates, phytates, trypsin inhibitors, amylase inhibitors,

tannins, cyanide)
• processing problems
Plant protein feeds
Soybean and its by-products
Soybean (Glycine max)
• a temperate crop
<< some varieties grow well under tropical conditions
• soybean seed: contains 18% oil and 32% crude protein
(therefore, its energy is very high when used as feed)
<< its oil is high in quality,

and is extracted for use in various purposes
soybean oil meal (or soya meal)

- residue when the oil is extracted from soybean
- an excellent animal feed, due to its high protein content (44%)

• it is possible to further remove the hulls from soya meal during processing
>> raises the protein content to 48% (hi-protein soya meal)

• Some high protein soybean varieties had been developed but not cultivated
commercially because the biomass yields are low
• Soybean meal being used in the Philippines are usually imported from:
US
China
India
Argentina
Coconut and its by-products
Coconut (Cocos nucifera)
• abundant in the tropics
• important export crop (Philippines)
form: dried meat called copra

• Full fat copra
- has 60% oil, but low protein (6-8 %)

• Copra meal (or cake)
- the residue when the oil is extracted from copra
- has 18-21% crude protein and 8% fat,

(since the expeller process used in extraction
does not completely remove the oil)
- IR: 0-10%
• The high fiber content (12%) and low protein quality of copra
meal limits its use in higher amounts for nonruminants
• in some cases, improper drying of copra may result to

accumulation of mycotoxins produced by molds
(since copra is a rich medium for mold development)

“sapal“ coconut pulp
- the residue in preparing coconut milk for use in cooking
- contains variable but higher fat than copra meal,
due to incomplete extraction
>> The corresponding protein is therefore lower (12%)
- commonly fed together with other kitchen wastes, to pigs raised in
the backyard
coconut paring meal
- another by-product which comes from the manufacture of desiccated

coconut
- obtained after removal of oil from the portion between the meat and
the shell of coconut by solvent or extraction methods
- also high in protein (18%)
- available volume in the market,

<< not as much as that of copra meal
Corn by-products
Corn
- a raw material in starch manufacturing
process: separation of starch from the other substances in the grain
> resulting by-product: corn gluten feed (IR: 0-20%)
contains 22% protein
further separation of fibrous materials (cobs, coat, bran)

> yields corn gluten meal (IR: 0-25%)
contains 40% protein
<< low lysine content: prevents incorporation of cgf and cgm

in nonruminant diets in higher amounts
Other legume seeds
Most common legumes which may be used as plant protein sources in
the tropics:
▪ cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) a.k.a. blackeyed pea
▪ mung bean (vigna radiata)
▪ tapilan (Vigna umbellata) a.k.a. rice pea
(at present, these are grown in small quantities and mainly
for human consumption, such that the corresponding price
per kilo is prohibitive as feed ingredient)

Animal protein feeds
Commercially prepared seafood meals
Fish meal
• the clean, dried, ground tissues of undecomposed fish or fish
cuttings, with the oil extracted
• the most common animal protein source
• IR: 0-10%
• most fish meals are imported from:

Peru
Panama
China, etc.
- this type has about 60-65% protein

- calcium and phosphorus contents are also fairly high
• Locally produced fish meals are also available in the market.
main setback in
local fish meal quality: high salt content
(owing to the processing methods involved)
Salt is added to prevent putrefaction,

thus facilitating sun drying.
the type of fish used is also different from those of imported
fish meal, so the corresponding protein is lower (55%)

Shrimp meal
• may be composed of whole shrimp that are unfit for human consumption,
or heads and scales from processing
• IR: 0-15%
• has lower protein content (30%) than fish meal
• about 10-15% of its protein is chitin,
- an almost indigestible protein
• an excellent source of choline

Slaughtering by-products
Carcass parts that result from cutting and trimming the meat are collected and
processed, together with those that are unfit for human consumption.
The materials undergo either wet or dry rendering process.
Fat is separated, and the material is dried to 12% moisture using

an oven, then ground; the resulting product is called
meat meal.
• Depending on the amount of bones included in processing, the product may be

called meat and bone meal.
Dairy by-products
Philippine dairy industry is not developed
(dried and powdered dairy by-products are imported
mainly from temperate countries and used for animal feeding)
Skimmilk powder
- the product resulting from the removal of water from clean and
defatted milk
- excellent source of amino acids and energy for young baby pigs,
- used mainly in swine creep (booster) and pre-starter diets
- inclusion in diets for older animals is limited by high price,
and in some species, lactose intolerance

Whey
- the resulting liquid by-product in cheese manufacture
- consists mainly of milk sugars (lactose, 70%) and minerals,

and is therefore high in energy, calcium and phosphorus.
Price: limiting factor on the use of whey.

Bulky Feeds
Rice Bran
• In polishing rice grain, the bran (pericarp and aleurone) layer is
removed, together with some of the germs.
• Rice bran is categorized in the Philippines as:
D1 or D2
RB D1
• the pericarp or bran layer and germ of the rice, with only a
small quantity of hull fragments, chipped, and broken
• from the cono type rice mill.
(In the milling process, the hull (outermost seed cover) is removed,
followed by the bran, thus separating the bran from the hull.)
• IR: 0-40%
• D1 rice bran has lower fiber and higher crude protein than D2.
D1 D2
Fiber (%) 7 12
CP (%) 12 9
D2 rice bran
- the pericarp or bran layer and germ of the rice, with more hull
fragments.
- produced using a smaller capacity rice mill.
- produced using the "kiskis" (abrasion) type of rice mill.
- its fiber is higher than that of D1 because of inclusion of rice hull.
(Some rice middlings are included.)
• IR: 0-20%
• Rice bran may be defatted
Defatted rice bran is higher in protein (up to 16 %)

but lower in energy value due to extraction of oil.
Corn Bran
- outer covering of the corn kernel with little or none of the starchy part
of germ
- the resulting by-product after polishing corn
• Protein: 8%
• Fiber: 10%
• IR: 0-35%
Wheat bran
• the portion of wheat between the skin or the bran and white interior
(endosperm) It may either be soft or hard depending on the variety of wheat
• available because the Philippines imports wheat to supply the needs of
bakeries for flour.
• Its feeding value is similar to rice bran, although it has higher protein (16%).
(Because of the resulting high volume of wheat bran in the
Philippines, it becomes readily available and is used regularly as
feed ingredient for both monogastrics and ruminants)
• IR: 0-35%
Liquid Supplements
Molasses
- one of the most important by-products of sugarcane industry
- has no fiber content, but mainly highly digestible carbohydrates for

animal feeding
- has 3% protein
- commonly called "liquid concentrate" because of its consistency
- moisture content: high at 25%

Molasses
- adds to the palatability of the diet
- top dressed on feeds with low palatability, such as rice straw, corn
stover and other crop residues
- checks the dustiness of the feed mixture

sugarcane juice
• may alternatively be fed to pigs (when the price of sugarcane
drops)
• mainly an energy supplement, and it adds to the palatability of the
feed
Coconut oil
• Is added during mixing to boost the energy level of mixed feeds
• common grade: crude coconut oil
(refined coconut oil - more expensive and used for cooking
purposes)
palm oil – available and used in other tropical countries such as
Indonesia and Malaysia

pork fat, or lard
- another by-product of the rendering process
- consistency: varies according to the type of diet
the animal received
- heated to melt it just before mixing with other feed ingredients
Tallow, or beef fat (also, grease)

- more solid than lard
[ due to a high proportion of saturated fat, (notably stearin) ]
- has to be melted by heating (like lard) before mixing with other

ingredients
Synthetic/Purified feeds
Synthetic amino acids
- used to adjust the amino acid content of a mixed feed,
without necessarily adding other nutrients
• most common synthetic amino acids available in the market:
lysine
methionine
threonine
tryptophan
(Since they are very expensive ingredients, they are added only to
bring the amino acids to minimum levels required by the animal,
if the natural ingredients could not provide such levels)
Synthetic Vitamins
• It is difficult to maintain the vitamin level according to the requirement

because vitamin quantity and availability in feeds are so variable as a
result of a number of factors such as processing losses.
To ensure the availability of vitamins in the mixed feed, vitamin

premixes are included.
Some premixes may include minerals and antibiotics.

Minerals
Salt
Common table salt -
- added to diets as source of minerals sodium (39%) and chlorine (59%)
- improves feed palatability
(The level of addition may vary according to
the amount and quality of salt containing feeds (such as fish meal)
* Too much salt in the diet causes wet feces

Limestone
- cheap and widely available source of inorganic calcium
- should contain NLT 36% Ca (in the form of calcium carbonate)
Ground oyster shell

- an excellent source of calcium
because of its being cheap and high calcium availability
- should contain NLT 33% Ca

Common mineral ingredients which provide both calcium and phosphorus:
Dicalcium phosphate
- NMT 24% Ca and NLT 18% P
Monodicalcium phosphate
- blend of monocalcium and dicalcium phosphate
Tricalcium phosphate
- also known as rock phosphate
* Although these are more expensive than limestone and oyster shell,
they are used to increase both calcium and phosphorus levels
Trace mineral ingredients are provided by a number of chemical substances.
Examples:
Cobalt sulfate 34.1% Co
Copper carbonate 57.5% Cu
Calcium iodate 65.1% I
Ferrous sulfate 36.8% Fe
Manganese carbonate 47.8% Mn
Sodium selenite 45.6% Se
Zinc carbonate 56.05% Zn

Additives
Feed additives
- substances that are added to feeds
to improve production response parameters, such as feed intake,
live weight gains, and feed conversion efficiency.

Enzymes
- protein molecules with the ability to catalyze biochemical reactions
- used to increased the digestibility of some feedstuffs under certain
conditions
Cellulase
- an enzyme that attacks fiber in feeds,
resulting to increase in available carbohydrates,
as well as liberation of nutrients bound by fiber in plant tissues.

Protease
- helps in digesting proteins, thus increasing the availability of amino

acids in protein ingredients.
Phytase
- liberates phytate phosphorus, the form of phosphorus in plants,

so that it becomes more available to the animal.
Multi-enzyme preparations
- contain several enzymes acting in unison to improve nutrient

digestion of feeds.
Acidifiers or acidulants
- lower the stomach pH
>> prevents the growth and proliferation of pathogenic

microorganisms
>> promotes better feed efficiency
Examples :
propionic acid, lactic acid, formic acid
phosphoric acid, citric acid, fumaric acid,
acetic acid
Food enhancing substances
- additives that don't improve nutrient availability; however, they are

used to produce feeds with more desirable appearances.
Examples: food coloring agents
carotenoids
Antioxidants
- used to prevent rancidity in feeds
- should be added:
• to feeds containing 12% or more moisture and feeds containing

fat or oil.
• if the mixed feed is not intended for immediate consumption

Most common antioxidants:
ethoxyquin,
butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)
Others: santoquin, propyll gallate, calcium carbonate,

phosphoric acid, citric acid
Vitamin E - regarded as a natural antioxidant

* increase in vitamin E level is known to improve animal performance
Appetite enhancers
- are known to improve feed intake
- may disguise the presence of unpalatable ingredients
E.g. : feed sweeteners and other flavoring agents

Mold inhibitors (or antimolds)
- chemical preservatives that protect the feeds from decomposition

by microorganisms
- prevent the proliferation of molds that cause toxins in feeds
e.g.: propionic acids and its salt
calcium and sodium propionate
formic acid, sorbic acid, fumaric acid and citric acid

Toxin binders
are used to bind the toxins and
minimize their potential harmful effects on the animal.
e.g. : polyvinylpyrrolidone
aluminum silicate
(Mycotoxin binders or adsorbents are substances that bind to

mycotoxins and prevent them from being absorbed through the gut
and into the blood circulation.)
Antibiotics
- is a substance produced by an organism that is used to control the
growth of other organisms
• Antibiotics work not only to kill pathogenic microorganisms, but
also to favor growth of beneficial microorganisms in the
digestive tract.
• For several years, animal raisers have been using antibiotics
not just to treat animals, but also as growth promoting
substances.
Antibiotics used as growth promotant:
bacitracin
erythromycin
chlortetracycline
oxytetracycline
tylosin
lincomycin
Evidence indicates that antibiotics improve rate and efficiency of gain
through the following actions:
1. They reduce the incidence of subclinical levels of bacterial infections

in the digestive tract;
2. They stimulate appetite and have a nutrient sparing effect.
3. They stimulate certain enzyme systems.

Chemotherapeutic agents
- are not antibiotics but they function in similar manner
- are of pure chemical origin,

unlike antibiotics that are produced using live organisms
Examples: arsanilic acids
nitrofurans
sulfamethazine
• Some preventive and therapeutic drugs such as anthelmintics and

coccidiostats are added to control parasites of animals.
Probiotics
- are preparations containing beneficial microorganisms.
- live microbial feed supplements which beneficially affect the host

animal by improving its microbial balance.
- could prevent colonization of harmful microorganisms in the gut,

due to antagonistic effects against specific groups of
microorganisms.
The numbers of pathogenic microorganisms subsequently

decrease.
>> results to improved growth and feed utilization

of farm animals.
Among the organisms used:
• Lactobacillus casei
• Streptococcus faecium
• Saccharomyces cerevisea
• Bacillus spp.
• Bifidobacterium sp.
Prebiotics
• are substances that promote the establishment and growth of
beneficial microorganisms, while suppressing that of the harmful
microorganisms.
• Some herbal extracts are being identified as having the capability to

increase the number and type of useful microorganisms in the gut.
• Prebiotics could also possibly stimulate the immunological system of the
animal to help fight off infections.
• The administration of antibiotics to treat a specific disease could cause

harmful effects on ruminal microorganisms in ruminants.
The use of prebiotics could help in reestablishing these microorganisms
Examples: inulin, lacticol, lactulose, cereal fiber

Anticaking agents
- used to improved the flowability of grains and feeds by preventing
feedstuffs from adhering on surfaces (on the inside walls of silos,
bins, conveying systems and mixers)

- chemical products used to prevent formation of lumps
- also used to improve the packaging and transportation of feeds
Example: silicates
Antimalarials
- used in the prevention and treatment of malaria
Examples: phyrimethamine and chloroquin diphosphate
-
Dewormers (Anthelmintics)
- used against internal parasites of the animals
Examples: flubendazole, mebendazole, piperazine
Coccidiostats
- prevent and control coccidiosis
Examples: alkomide, amprolium, clopidol, robenedine, maduramycin, and
salinomycin.
-
Pellet Binders
-used to improve the texture and firmness of pelleted feeds
Examples: gelatin extract derivatives, calcium lignosulphonate, galactomannan
Surfactants
- chemical agents that facilitate uniform dispersion of molecules in feeds or
feed mixtures
Repartitioning Agents
-used to increase lean-muscle and reduce fat deposition in carcasses when
added in the diet during the finishing period
Examples: chromium and hormones
Roughages
Roughage feeds
- contain higher amount of fiber
- mainly given to ruminants and herbivorous nonruminants
- generally classified as grasses or legumes
Grasses - those plant species belonging to the Family Gramineae
Legumes - belong to the Family Leguminosae

• Grass and legume forages
• generally the cheapest sources of nutrients on a per unit weight, dry
basis.
* However, the physiological capacity of the animal's digestive tract,
and stage of maturity that influences fiber digestibility, limit their use.
• Young and succulent forages may be sufficient for maintenance and
even part of growth requirement, while older ones need
supplementation with concentrate feeds.

Legume plants
• noted for their high protein content, and their ability to fix
nitrogen.
• some species may have toxic factors (such as alkaloids)
• others have high tannin content, thus affecting palatability.
• Dry matter digestibility varies from 35-75%, but the decrease in
digestibility with age is less dramatic compared to that of grass.

shrub and tree legumes
• sometimes called "multipurpose trees" (MPT) because aside from
being used for forage, they also serve as shade to animals, they
also provide building materials and fuel to human
• commonly used in alley-cropping systems

Groups of Roughages:
1. Grasses and legumes for pasture and cut and carry
2. Processed grasses and legumes
3. Tree fodders and shrubs
4. Crop residues
5. Agro-industrial products
1. Grasses and legumes for pasture and cut and carry.
• Some grass species are grown in pastures and non-arable areas
to be used as fodder sources, either for grazing or cut and carry
system.
• Native pastures: predominantly cogonal areas
- require minimum maintenance,

but the dry matter yield is quite low.
• Improved grasses (napier, guinea and mixed grass/legume stands)
- provide more biomass; however, the areas must be properly

managed including proper and regular fertilization, rotational
grazing, replanting, etc.
• Cut-and-carry system (or zero grazing)
- very common in feeding draft animals, in feedlot fattening of

cattle, and in forage trading especially near the metropolitan
areas.
2. Processed grasses and legumes
• Intensive pasture systems:
forages are grown with intention of processing and

storing them, for use during the dry season
• Rainfall is a major factor affecting the availability of forage in humid

tropics.
(There is normally surplus of forage in the rainy season

and deficit in the dry season.)
Most common methods of processing roughages:
▪ haymaking
▪ silage making
Haymaking
Hay
- forage harvested during the growing period and preserved by

drying for later used in animal feeding
• Drying could decrease the vitamin A content of fresh forages by 80%.
Methods of drying:
• drying under the sun
- cheaper, however it could only be performed when there is

ample sunlight
• drying by using a forage drier

silage making
• ferments forages in a suitable container, called silos
• Fermentation involves packing the forage tightly in a silo,

evacuating the air (oxygen) and promoting the growth of
anaerobic microorganisms responsible for producing fermentation
acids.
Fermentationt acids (mainly lactic acid)

- prevent the proliferation or aerobic microorganisms
that are putrefactive in action.
(Thus the forage material is preserved for longer periods of time,

becoming available for feeding especially in the dry season)
* Nutrient losses may occur in the process, such as leaching of
silage juices.
However, these effects may be offset by the advantages of

forage year round availability, as well as increasing the
palatability of fermented forage.
3. Tree fodders and shrubs
Trees and shrubs

- important components of plant ecology in the tropics
- provide a multitude of purpose

- provide food and building materials for humans
- serve as shade tree for animals
- serve as forage for animals
(In the dry season, the leaves, fruits and flowers

become excellent sources of nutrients for ruminants)
4. Crop residues
most common crop residues:
• rice straw
• corn stover
Straw
- term applied to plant part with hollow stem
Stover
- plant part with solid stem
• Crop residues are much lower in quality compared to fresh grasses
and legumes, since they are mature plant parts, and considerable
amounts of lignin have already accumulated.
• The value of rice straw and other crop residues is most appreciated
during the dry season and drought periods.
• Ruminants are fed straw even after the onset of rainy season, as the
available grasses are still too young, causing watery feces.
Sugarcane tops
- common crop residue in farms with access to milling areas
- better in feeding value compared to rice straw, since a large

portion of the plant part is composed of growing point, and the
stem still contains readily available carbohydrates.
- can be ensiled whenever there is surplus

5. Agro-industrial by-products
- residues of processing agricultural products
- abound in areas near plantations and milling companies

pineapple (Ananas comosus) pulp
- has considerable amount of sugars, and is very prone to
fermentation
- can be processed into silage
- used as roughage to feed the beef cattle
- called pineapple bran when dried to 85% dry matter.

banana (Musa sapientum) pulp and reject
• another potential agro-industrial by-product
• plenty can be found in Mindanao (site of large plantations for banana

export)
Banana pseudostems and leaves
- used by smallholder farmers as ruminant feeds during the dry

season
Sugarcane bagasse
- results from processing sugarcane for sugar
- has a very low feeding value, since it is composed mainly of

fiber from mature portion of the plant
Some commonly used grasses, legumes,
shrubs and trees in the tropics:
Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) -
• probably the most common and widely cultivated grass species
in improved pastures.
• has high dry matter yield, although it also has high moisture
content at harvest.
• cut and used as fresh feed to ruminants, and is seldom grazed
• found even in marginal areas and

in places with high rainfall.
• a good material for ensiling
• farmers let it wilt before feeding because of its high moisture

content
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)
• tall and vigorously tufted grass
• compared to napier grass,

its stalk is smaller even at the same height
• highly palatable and well relished by animals
• combines well with other legume species for a mixed stand

Para grass (Brachiaria mutica )
• trailing grass with succulent stems
• commonly found in waterlogged areas, but also grows well on dry
soils with sufficient rainfall

Other grass species that have been introduced in the Philippines:
star grass (Cynodon pleclostachyus)

ruzi grass (Brachiaria ruziziensis)
Cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica)
• most common species in native pastures
• hardy and drought tolerant,
but it easily matures into tough unpalatable grass
(Overgrown cogonal areas are burned to allow regrowth of more nutritious
and palatable young grass stand)
(Some approaches to improve native cogon grass pastures include
oversowing with improved legume cover crop species such as
calopogonium and centrosema.)

Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala )
• deep-rooted perennial legume, which has high dry matter yield
• grows in areas not suitable for cultivation
• the forage has high protein content (24%, dry basis)
• can be topped about 1 meter high, and the resulting young leaves
and stems are highly digestible
• has mimosine, -
- an amino acid that causes alopecia (falling hair)
and sometimes, reproductive problems in pigs and horses
given high amounts of the forage
* Ruminants can tolerate the high mimosine content of ipil-ipil.
( It was found out that certain microbial species residing in the
rumen are able to detoxify mimosine.)

Gliricidia (Gliricidia septum)
• another tree legume, like ipil-ipil
• aside from providing high protein forage,

it is used as live fence
• not as palatable as ipil-ipil

Centrosema (Centrosema pubescens )
• a fast-growing cover crop
• seeds freely once established, thus maintaining the stand for years
• makes a good grass-legume mixture

Calopogonium (Calopogonium mucunoides )
• also introduced as a cover crop
• less palatable compared to centrosema

Tropical kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides )
• very vigorous and aggressive legume that grows best at
warmer elevations
• was also introduced in the

Philippines as a cover crop
Siratro (Macroptilium atropurpureum )
• fast growing legume that produces
succulent forage
• sustains good leafy growth even
during the dry season
* However, during heavy rainfall, it
is susceptible to fungal damage,
losing much of its leaves.

Stylosanthes (Stylosanthes humilis)
• palatable annual legume,
with a recumbent, spreading
growth habit
• tolerates poorer soils and hotter areas

FEED FORMULATION
Feed formulation
- process by which different feed ingredients are proportionally combined
to give the animals the proper amount of nutrients they need.
Requirements in balancing a ration :
1. feeding standard
- states the amount of nutrients

that should be provided in rations for farm animals
to obtain their desired performance.
2. feed composition tables

- provide information on nutritive composition of feeds
Reasons why there is a wide variation in the composition of

traditional feed ingredients:
• rampant adulteration practices
• poor processing techniques
• poor quality of raw materials
balanced diet (or ration)
- ration that provides the necessary nutrients
in such a proportion to properly nourish an animal
according to its type and level of production.
Important Considerations in Feed Formulation
1. Acceptability to the animal
2. Digestibility
3. Cost
4. Presence of anti-nutritional factors and toxins
(e.g. anti-trypsin factor, mimosine)
5. Other factors (texture, moisture, processing the feed has to undergo)

STEPS IN FEED FORMULATION
General steps:
1. Characterize very well the animal (type or species, production level)

in order to match it with the corresponding nutritional needs.
2. Determine the nutrient requirement of the animal to feed,

using the appropriate feeding standards table.
3. List the feeds to be used in feed formulation.

Factors to consider in Selecting Feed Ingredients
• Palatability
• Economics
• Availability in the market
• Availability of nutrients
• Presence of toxic factors/metabolic inhibitors
(e.g. tannic acid in sorghum, soyin in soybean)
STEPS IN FEED FORMULATION (cont.)
4. Preferably, use the local feed composition table

to determine the nutritional characteristics of the feeds
to be included in the formulation.
5. Apply one of the various methods of feed formulation.

Methods of feed formulation
Variables being considered:
• number of feed ingredients to be used

• number of nutrients to include in formulating
• constraints (limits of usage) in using the ingredients
Square method
- suitable only when very limited number of ingredients and nutrients will be used
in formulating diets.
Example 1. Formulate a concentrate mixture of feed containing 16% crude
protein using corn and soybean meal.
Corn, 8.0% 31.0 parts corn

---------------------- x100 = 79.49 % corn
39.0 total parts
16%
SBM, 47.0% 8.0 parts SBM

--------------------- x100 = 20.51% SBM
39.0 total parts
Corn 79.49 x 0.08 = 6.36% CP

SBM 20.51 x 0.47 = 9.64% CP
----------------
16.00 % CP
⚫ The parts of each ingredient can be expressed as a percentage of the total
and these can be applied to any quantity
Corn, 8.0% 31.0 parts corn

-------------------- x100 = 79.49 % corn
39.0 total parts
16%
SBM, 47.0% 8.0 parts SBM

------------------ x100 = 20.51% SBM
39.0 total parts
For 1000 kg ration:

79.49% x 1000 kg = 794.9 kg corn
20.51% x 1000 kg = 205.1 kg SBM
Check:
794.9 kg corn x 8.0% CP = 63.6 kg CP

205.1 kg SBM x 47% CP = 96.4 kg CP
------------------- ------------------
1000 kg ration 160 kg CP
Example 2. A 1000 kg ration having 16% CP
and containing 10% fixed ingredients .
Step 1. Determine the percentage of protein

to be used in the center of the square.
• Non-fixed portion (corn-SBM combination):

= 1000 kg x 90% = 900kg
-will have to supply all the

protein (1000 x 16% = 160 kg protein)
• calculate what percent protein will be needed in the corn-

SBM combination to provide 160 kg of protein per 900 kg:
160
------ x 100 = 17.8% CP
900
Step 2. 17.8% CP
is then used in conjunction with the Pearson Square
29.2
Corn, 8.0% ------- (100) = 74.87% corn
39.0
17.8
SBM, 47.0%
9.8
------- (100) = 25.13% SBM
39.0
900 kg x 74.87% = 673.83 kg corn

900 kg x 25.13% = 226.17 kg SBM
Step 3. Check:
673.83 kg corn x 8.0% = 53.91 kg protein

226.17 kg SBM x 47.0% = 106.30 kg protein
100.0 kg fixed ing. x 0% 0 kg protein

-------------------------------- = -----------
1000 kg ration 160.21 kg protein
Three very important considerations
in order to make the square work consistently (Wagner and Stanton):
• The value in the middle of the square must be intermediate between the two
values that are used on the left side of the square.
• Disregard any negative numbers that are generated on the right side of the
square.
• Subtract the nutrient value from the nutritional requirement on the diagonal and
arrive at a numerical value entitled parts.
Algebraic equation method
- employs x and y representing the ingredients to be mixed.
(Using the same example as in the square method)

X represents the amount (%) of corn
Y represents soybean meal
X + Y= 100; then Y=100-X
Using the CP contents of corn (8%) and soybean meal (47%),

and the desired CP (16%) of the mixture:
0.08X + 0.47Y = 16; Substituting Y by the value Y = 100-X,

0.08X + 0.47(100-X) = 16;
0.08X + 47 - 0.47X =16;
-0.39X = 16 - 47;
-0.39X = -31; or 0.39X = 31;
x= 31/ 0.39
x= 79.49;
therefore X = 79.49 % corn;

Y=100-X;
Y = 100 – 79.49 = 20.51% soybean meal
Trial and error method
- most popular method of formulating rations for swine and poultry
- formulation is manipulated until the nutrient requirements of the animal are met
Example 1
Formulate a broiler finisher ration using

▪ ground yellow corn
▪ soybean meal,
▪ fish meal,
▪ first class rice bran,
▪ ipil-ipil leaf meal,
▪ Vegetable oil
▪ molasses,
▪ limestone
▪ other ingredients
Step 1. List down the nutrient requirements of broiler finisher.
CP : 18.5
ME: 2,900
Ca: 0.8
P, : 0.4
Step 2. List down the nutrient composition of ingredients to be used:
CP ME Ca Total P
(%) (kcal/kg) (%) (%)
Ground yellow corn 8.00 3400 0.07 0.25
Soybean meal 47.00 2500 0.40 0.68
Fish meal 60.00 2800 4.40 2.65
Rice bran D1 12.50 2400 0.08 1.60
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 20.00 800 0.35 0.27
Molasses 2.90 1960 0.80 0.08
Vegetable Oil - 8600 - -
Limestone - - 38.00 -
Other ingredients - - - -
Step 3. Make your own proportions on the different ingredients and calculate first for the
ME and CP contents of the ration summing up the product of each of the ingredients.
CP ME
Amount
(%) (kcal/kg)
Ground yellow corn 48.00 8.00 3.84 3400 1632
Soybean meal 17.00 47.00 7.99 2500 425
Fish meal 6.00 60.00 3.60 2800 168
Rice bran D1 16.00 12.50 2.00 2400 384
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 4.75 20.00 0.95 800 38
Molasses 4.00 2.90 0.12 1960 78
2.0349
Vegetable Oil 2.05 - - 8600 176
Limestone - - - -
Other Ingredients - - - - -
TOTAL 97.8 18.50 2901

Step 4. Calculate the calcium and phosphorus levels. If calcium is deficient and
phosphorus is sufficient, add limestone or oyster shell to meet the requirement. If
phosphorus is deficient add tricalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate or bone
meal.
Amount Ca Total P
(%) (%) (%)
Ground yellow corn 48.00 0.07 0.034 0.25 0.120
Soybean meal 17.00 0.40 0.068 0.68 0.116
Fish meal 6.00 4.40 0.264 2.65 0.259
Rice bran D1 16.00 0.08 0.013 1.60 0.256
Molasses 4.00 0.80 0.032 0.08 0.003
Vegetable Oil 2.05 - - - -
Limestone 1.00 38.00 0.380 - -
Other Ingredients 1.2 - - - -
TOTAL 100.00 0.808 0.767

ANIMAL FEEDING
FEEDING SWINE
• most common approach: phase feeding system
(different diets are given to pigs according to their stage of
growth and production)
• most pigs are given dry feeds; however, some small scale
producers practice slop feeding
• roughages are seldom given in significant amounts to pigs
raised commercially
• about 5-10% in dry weight of animals' intake may come
from roughages
• corn - ranks as the principal energy source for pigs
• preweaned piglets may be fed cooked or extruded corn (has higher

nutrient availability due to predigestion)
• other energy feeds that may partially replace corn:

sorghum, feed wheat, sweet potato meal,
cassava meal, etc.
• vitamin A supplements should be provided whenever cereal grains

other than corn are used
• leaf meal - given as extra source of carotene
• protein sources commonly used:

soybean oil meal and fish meal
• by-product meals (like copra meal and corn gluten feed)

- given during the growing, finishing and other
stages of the mature pig
Sucklings
• suckling gets all of its nutrition from the milk of the sow during
the first week or two after birth
• ensure that the piglets are able to get the colostrum from
the sow
• colostrum - known to contain high antibody titer that will
improve suckling’s survival
• Booster (or creep) formula
- given to piglets starting in the second week
- contains high quality feed ingredients (esp. skimmilk
powder) and other milk by-products (like lactose and whey)
- ME: 3200 kcal/kg CP: 22-24%
- lower quality feeds (like copra meal and rice bran) are
not normally included
• feeding booster mash
- helps the piglet get accustomed to solid feeding
• towards the latter part of the suckling stage,

booster mash provides additional nutrients as the sow's milk
output begins to decline
• higher quality booster diets are given to piglets weaned early
• some farms use cooked, or extruded feeds (such as yellow corn

and soybean meal) to increase nutrient availability of the diet
Weanlings
• Weaning at 28 days (about 5-6 kg live weight)
• prestarter diet
- has lower nutrient levels compared to booster diet
- contains milk by-products
- fish meal is normally used to boost the protein quality
• starter diet (given when the piglets reach 10 kg LW)
- has lower amount of nutrients
- low quality feeds are included sparingly
Grower pigs
• growing phase
- may be divided into two stages:
20-35 kg LW
35-60 kg LW
• pigs at the grower stage shows the highest daily live weight gains
(700-800 g)
• milk by-products are no longer being included

• quite expensive
• high lactose feeds may not be efficiently utilized because of the
decline in the capability to utilize lactose (lactose intolerance)
• by-product feeds (e.g. rice bran, wheat pollard, copra meal) are also
used at lower levels (up to 15%)
• fish meal is used at lower levels at this stage (depend on price)

Finisher pigs
• finisher diet
- given when pigs reach 60 kg
- uses the highest amounts of lower quality feeds to take advantage
of the animals' capability to digest them
>> lowering the feeding cost
>> but feed conversion efficiency is also lower, compared
to pigs at earlier stages
>> live weight gains also begin to decrease
• at finisher stage, adjustments for the quality of oil being used should
made, since highly unsaturated oils in the diet could cause oily carcass
• the more saturated oils (such as coconut oil)

result in more firm carcasses
• finisher diets are used up to the time of slaughter

- about 80-90 kg LW)
- few farms: 110 kg slaughter weight
Breeder pigs
• breeder diets – provided to pigs that are selected for breeding purposes
• boars and gestating gilts and sows are fed brood sow diets
• controlling energy intake of gestating gilts is necessary
(overly fat condition may contribute to reproductive failures)
• pigs should be given higher plane of nutrition at the third trimester of gestation
- because of the faster development of the fetus occurring at this
stage, and also in preparation for the stress of parturition and
forthcoming lactation period
• active boars are provided with a higher plane of nutrition in order to ensure
their satisfactory reproductive performance
• products of reproduction contain high amounts of protein, and their synthesis
require sufficient energy that must come from the feeds
Lactating pigs
• sows are given only small amount (about 1 kg) of dry lactating diet
for the first 24 hours after farrowing
• thereafter, the amount of feed is gradually increased until the daily

intake reaches about 4-6 kg, depending on litter size.
• sows should be fed to capacity if possible (this level is maintained for

one week)
• sows are fed twice daily
• the burden of the sow to provide nourishment to the piglet is

lessened as the piglets begin to eat booster diet
Types of Feeds
• Pre-starter Feed (Pig Booster)
- contains 20-22% CP
- recommended from 1 week to 8 weeks old
• Starter Feed
- given to 10 to 20 kgs weaners until the pigs are about three months old and weigh 30 to 35 kgs
- contains 18 percent crude protein (CP) and 3,250 kilocalories (Kca/j) of digestible energy (DE)
- given to pigs from 8 to 12 weeks old
• Grower Feed
- given until the pigs reach a weight of 60 kgs
- contains 16 percent CP and 3,200 Kcal DE
- given to pigs from 12-20 weeks old
• Finisher Feed
- given to 60 kg pigs’ ration
- given to finish pig up to 80 to 90 kgs ready for the market
- contains 14 percent CP with 3,200 Kcal DE
- fed to pigs from 20 weeks old until they attain market weight
• Gestating ration
• formulated for replacement gilts and boars above 8 months of age, dry
and pregnant sows, and service boars
• Contains 12-14% CP
• Lactating ration
• Contains 13-15% CP
• For feeding sows during their nursing period
• Breeder ration
• For all pigs of breeding age replacement gilts and boars, sows (dry,
pregnant, nursing) and service boars)
Feeding Methods
Restricted Feeding
• the amount of feed given is controlled or limited to

a certain amount just to satisfy the appetite of the
pig
Advantages
• better feed conversion ratio (FCR) (lower feed cost and

better performance)
• good carcass quality
• better health control
• less digestive problems
Disadvantages
• lower Average Daily Gain

• unequal growth especially if feed trough is not long
enough to accommodate all pigs
• more laborious
• less chance of coping up with higher market price
Ad libitum Feeding
• feeding without restrictions and feed is made available

anytime
• should be practiced if pigs finished have high growth
potentials and they are in good health
• dry feed should always be used for this feeding method
• continuous supply of fresh and clean water is important
(water intake increases when this method is practiced)
Advantages
• higher ADG is achieved

• less feed competition
• less laborious
Disadvantages
• thicker backfat
• higher feed conversion ratio (higher feed cost)
• more digestive problems in younger pigs
• less control on health problems
Combination of Ad libitum Feeding and
Restricted Feeding
• pigs are fed ad libitum until they reach the weight of 50 kgs
and fed restricted until they are marketed
• restriction is practiced to reduce backfat thickness with a
corresponding increase in lean cut yield
Advantages
• higher ADG with good carcass qualify

• lower feed cost
• better use of good feed (better FCR)
Disadvantages
• higher possibility of digestive problems if shifting is not

properly done
• less control of health problems and feed intake at the
start
Wet vs. Dry Feeding
Wet Feeding
• mixing the dry feed with two to three times its weight to
water (1: 2-3)
• water should be added just before feeding
• only suitable for feeding regimen where the pigs are able to
consume the feed given, otherwise, the feeds will likely
ferment and attract flies and vermin
Comparison Between Wet and Dry Feeding
Wet Feeding Dry Feeding
• Reduces feed wastage • Higher amount of feed wastage

• Increase digestibility • Lower digestibility
• Higher feed intake • Lower feed intake
• Laborious • Less labor
• Spoilage if not consumed • Less spoilage
immediately • Needs separate feed
• Attract more flies trough and waterer
Floor Feeding
• floor feeding is not recommended for suckling and

weanling pigs
small pigs should be given feeds all the time in self

feeders or feeding troughs
Floor Feeding
Advantages
• eliminates expenses for feeding troughs or self feeders

• saves labors for cleaning and maintenance
• provides more floor space to the pigs because of the
removal of feeding troughs
• all animals are given equally fair chance of getting their
feeds during feeding time
Disadvantages
• if too much feed is given, excess will be wasted and washed
away after being contaminated with fecal matter
• if too little feed is given to minimize wastage, the
performance of the pigs will be affected
• as time goes by the floor is slowly eroded and will need
resurfacing
Self Feeding vs. Hand Feeding
• self-feeding: the pig decides when and how much to eat

per day
• hand-feeding: the raiser decides when and how much the
pig will eat per day
• growing-finishing pigs may be self fed or hand fed
• self fed animals performed as good as those animals hand-
fed twice a day
• hand feeding growing finishing pigs regularly twice a day is
recommended better than self feeding for backyard
swine raisers
• self feeding proves to be more practical and economical

than hand feeding for commercial raisers
Pellets
Advantages
• increased bulk density (require less storage area)

• less bridging/hang-up in bins
• less dust
• reduced ingredient segregation
• less feed waste
• increased nutrient density
• improved palatability
• increased nutrient availability
• decreased microbiological activity
Disadvantages
• decrease eating time, creating more boredom
• increase the cost of the feed due to the pelleting
process
• poor-quality feed ingredients can be hidden in a pellet
• excessive heat during the pelleting process may
decrease the availability of amino acids such as lysine and
may destroy some vitamins
• greedy eaters may be more prone to choke, colic or
other digestive disorders
FEEDING POULTRY
Feeding broilers and meat-type poultry
• booster diets (0-2 weeks)

• starter diets (2-4 weeks)
• grower diets (4-6 weeks)
• booster diets contain feed ingredients of high digestibility
(e.g.: corn and soybean meal)
• fish meal at 8-10% may be added to boost protein quality
• use of by-product concentrates such as rice bran and copra meal is very
limited
• as the birds are shifted to starter and grower diets, by-product feeds are
incorporated at higher levels, mainly to cut feed costs
• fish meal is used sparingly at grower stage, not only due to cost, but also
to prevent fishy flavor development of broiler meat
• in cases wherein white corn or cassava meal is used as main energy
feed, it is necessary to include carotene sources, such as leaf meals at
5% to maintain acceptable degree of meat color.
Feeding Layers
• successful poultry breeding has produced layers that

are small in body size, but with high egg output
since the voluntary feed intake is consequently

reduced, satisfying the nutritional requirement to
sustain high egg output becomes an important
concern in feeding these modern breeds/strains of
layers
• feed intake is largely governed by energy level of the diet
(birds eat less as the energy level of the diet increases,
and vice-versa)
• reasons for a large variation in feed intakes of laying hens:

- variation in age at sexual maturity
- differences in live weights,
- variations due to existing environmental condition
(heat stress)
• heat stress is an important concern in raising layers in the tropics.
• high temperature and humidity cause more stressful conditions
than high temperature alone
- results to decrease in feed intake
- the birds resort to panting in attempts to dissipate heat
- decreased feed intake means lower intakes of energy
and other nutrients, causing drop in egg production
• increasing nutrient specifications may be the best approach to
maintain egg production during heat stress conditions
• phase feeding using layer rations I and II
• Layer Ration I
• fed at the start of egg laying up to 5-6 months of the laying
period
• contains higher CP (17-18%) with 3 - 3.5% Ca
• Layer Ration II
• fed after the first 6 months or when the layers have reached
post peak production
• contains lower CP (16-17%) but higher Ca (3.5 - 5%)
* egg size increases as layers mature, which require higher

amount of Ca for bigger egg size
FEEDING CATTLE
Feeding Beef Cattle
• beef cattle in the Philippines is raised either for draft or

for fattening purposes
• most of the cattle are raised in small hold farming
systems
• ranches are common sources of feeder cattle for
fattening; however, the number is so low that feeder
stocks continue to be imported from Australia
• cattle in small farms are used for draft purposes and
slaughtered later at older age
• smallhold farmers engaged in cow-calf operation raise
their calves to serve as replacement for old draft
animals
• some farmers buy calves from auction markets and
raise them solely for fattening
Feeding Beef Cattle
Feeding Systems
• All-Roughage Feeding System
• Roughage-Concentrate Feeding System
All Roughage Feeding System
• in extensive cattle production system (ranch-type), cattle

are usually fed all roughage ration in the form of pasture
grasses with or without legumes particularly during the
wet season when grasses and legumes are abundant
• in intensive or backyard production system, roughage is

usually supplied in the form of soilage or green chop or
tethering the animals
*during summer months when pasture grasses or green

chop are scarce, roughage is fed in the form of silage,
hay or whatever crop residues available
Roughage Concentrate Feeding System
• the amount of concentrate to be incorporated in the ration

depends on the availability and quality of the roughage,
price of the concentrate and production level of cattle to be
fed
• high level concentrate in the total ration is recommended

during summer months when grasses are scarce and crop
residues are often utilized as feed
• concentrates can be fed separately from the roughage

Factors Influencing the Choice of the Feeding System
• availability of roughage
• cost of concentrate
• type of production system
• productive stage of the animal

• feeding systems involved in different production systems vary
considerably
• feeding is very organized in commercial cattle fattening systems

(wherein a herd of cattle weighing 30-350 kg LW are grown
intensively up to 400-450 kg LW)
• roughages and concentrates are given regularly at definite

proportion, in accordance with perceived ADG
• while the commonly observed ADG figures for cattle being fattened
under small hold systems would be around 200-700 g/day,
commercial farmers have 1-1.3 kg/day
big discrepancy in weight response is due to two main factors:

nutrition and genetics
• most commercial feedlot farms don’t even have large
pastures intended for intensive forage growing
• a number of farms depend on grasses growing alongside
roads and highways, uncultivated areas, and even in
unoccupied subdivision lots and housing for their daily
forage supply
• use of crop residues such as rice straw and corn stover is
very common in small hold farms
• regular feeding of concentrates is not common, and the type
and amount concentrates also depend on the type and
amount of crop the farmer raises
• most common concentrate feeds are rice bran and copra
meal
• corn with cobs is given to work animals and those that are
about to be disposed off as fattened cattle
Feeding Dairy Cattle
• Philippine dairy industry still remains underdeveloped

• main reason: abundance of cheaper milk products in the form of
powdered milk and UHT (ultra high temperature) treated fresh milk
imported from temperate countries
efforts of the government to develop the dairy industry are

being carried out by:
• National Dairy Administration
• Philippine Carabao Center
• Dairy Training and Research Institute of UP Los Baños serves as the
main research and development center for dairy industry
• feeding young, growing and dry dairy type cattle would be
similar to that of beef cattle and carabao
• for lactating dairy cows, the amount and quality of feed is
increased considerably in accordance with the milk
production and milk fat concentration
• calf is weaned early from the dam, and given milk replacers
to sustain its growth
• good quality milk replacer ensures desirable calf growth,
especially the one that will be intended for use as replacement
heifer later
FEEDING CARABAOS
• practically all of the carabaos in the Philippines are in the hands of smallholder farmers
• only about 10% of the carabaos are raised in commercial farms
• carabaos are given formulated diets regularly in commercial farms;

smallholder raisers use no such formulation
• feeding programs are dependent on native grasses and legumes that may be
found in and around the farm area
• big bulk of the diet is composed of fibrous crop residues
• carabaos are tethered in marginal and uncropped areas, on crop lands being
fallowed, and even on roadsides
• local scientists have not really developed a feeding system based on

established nutrient requirements for carabaos
Carabao feeding systems
• most common feeding system using forages: cut-and-carry method
while the carabao is being used for draft purposes, another member of
the family goes out to gather whatever standing green grasses and
legume could be found
• during rest periods, the carabao is allowed to graze on fallow lands and
marginal areas
• animals that are not used for work are tethered the whole day
• towards the end of the day, carabaos are given irregular amounts of
concentrates, depending on availability
• most common concentrates are corn, rice bran and copra
meal
• salt is also provided
• salt blocks are seldom given to the animals
• amount of concentrate feed given depends on the size of the
carabao
• priority is given to work animals and animals in their

reproduction phase
Feed resources for carabao feeding
• most farmers know the important varieties and species of forage
grasses and legumes, especially the native ones
• when improved grasses were introduced, farmers were able to
appreciate the high yield and nutritional quality of the forages
however, since these improved forages have to be maintained
with costly inputs such as commercial fertilizers, farmers had
to forego establishment of forage grasses
• forage species such as napier and guinea grasses abound in
marginal areas can be utilized
FEEDING GOATS
AND SHEEP
• sheeps are slowly gaining popularity because they are easier
to handle than goats
• although normally raised in temperate areas, sheep can adapt
well to tropical environment
• wool is not being used commercially in the Philippines, so the
prospect of raising sheep is more for mutton production
Feeding habits of goats and sheep
goats - known to be finicky eaters
- will accept a wide variety of feeds at one time, and

reject them at other times
- could be very selective when there is plenty of
vegetation around, but would thrive on
by-products and low quality forages too
- tend to be destructive as they eat the bark of trees
as their playful habit
• farmers usually hang a bunch of forage waist high
when feeding a goat
* because goats are known to be good browsers,

while sheep are more of grazers
* however, goats have been shown to adapt well to

feeding on bunks or troughs, with proper training
• ability of goats and sheep to thrive in conditions
wherein poor quality forages are predominantly
available could not be attributed to their ability to utilize
these roughages more efficiently
* their capability to select the more nutritious

portions of the forage enables them to get better
nutrition than other ruminants
• goats are observed to be even more tolerant of forages

containing bitter substances
Feedstuffs for goats and sheep
• both native and improved forages are relished by goats

and sheep, although they tend to select the leaves and
young shoots over the stems
* thus, such forages as napier and sugarcane tops

are likely to be less utilized than when these are
given to large ruminants, even in chopped form
• during the dry season, multipurpose trees, with their
leaves and fruits provide maintenance diets for goats and
sheep
• most common trees are leucaena, gliricidia, jackfruit, etc.
• acacia pods are important nutrient sources for these

animals during this period
• goats and sheep are provided with common concentrate
feeds such as corn, rice bran, copra meal and molasses
these concentrates are given mainly to growing

animals, as well as lactating does and ewes,
especially during the dry season
• during periods of lush forage growth, no concentrate is

given to these animals
• goats and sheep are known to withstand long periods of
water deprivation, and goats are more tolerant of this
situation
* this is partly explained by the fact that the young

shoots and leaves contain more water than the more
mature plants parts
* however, it is important to provide goats and sheep

ample amounts of drinking water, especially if the
forage is dry and if the animals are lactating
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Digestive system
 the bodily system concerned with the

ingestion and digestion of food, absorption
of nutrients and the discharge of residual
wastes; and consisting of the digestive tract
and accessory glands (such as the salivary
glands and the pancreas) that secrete
digestive enzymes.
Digestive Tract
Ratio of body length to length of digestive tract:
cat 1:4
dog 1:6
sheep 1:27
chicken 1:4
* The development and anatomy of the alimentary tract

largely determine the type of food that is nutritionally useful
for a particular species.
Classification of Domestic Animals based
on Digestive Systems
• simple nonruminants (monogastrics)

• ruminants
• nonruminant herbivores
1. Simple nonruminants
 have a pouchlike, noncompartmentalized
stomach
 do not depend much upon microbial digestion in
any part of the gut
 digestion: digestive enzymes secreted into GIT
 often referred to as monogastric animals
e.g.: swine, poultry, dogs, cats, rats and human

2. Ruminant
 has a large, compartmentalized stomach
 compartments: rumen, reticulum, omasum and
abomasum
 much of the work of digestion is accomplished by
microbes that inhabit the large stomach, rather than
by enzymes the animal produces itself
eg.: cattle, sheep, goat, water buffalo, deer, etc.

3. Nonruminant herbivore
- have digestive tract modifications to facilitate microbial
fermentation, with many of the same functions performed as in
the rumen.
- intermediate between simple nonruminants and ruminants
(digestive physiology and nutritional requirements)
- herbivorous (forages and other vegetation)
e.g.: domestic: horse, rabbit, and guinea pig

wild species: zebra, elephant and hippopotamus
Swine
Digestive System
Mouth
 serves a valuable role for the consumption of food
 provides for the initial partial size reduction through
grinding
 teeth serve the main role in grinding to reduce food
size and increase surface area,
 the first action to begin the chemical breakdown of
food occurs when feed is mixed with saliva
 three main salivary glands:
 parotid, mandibular and sub-lingual glands
 Saliva secretion
- a reflex act stimulated by the presence of food in
the mouth.
 amount of mucus present in saliva
- regulated by the dryness or moistness of the food
consumed
 Saliva generally contains very low levels of
amylase (enzyme that hydrolyses starch to maltose)
 Once food is chewed and mixed with saliva, it passes
through the mouth, pharynx and then the esophagus to
the stomach.
 Peristalsis - the contraction and relaxation of muscles to
move the food (through the esophagus)
Stomach
 muscular organ responsible for storage,
initiating the breakdown of nutrients,
and passing the digesta into the small
intestine.
Four distinct areas/ regions of stomach:
 esophageal region
- located at the entrance of the stomach from the
esophagus
- does not secrete digestive enzymes
 cardiac region
- mucus is secreted here and mixed with the digested
food
 fundic region
- the first major portion of the stomach that begins the
digestive process
- gastric glands secrete hydrochloric acid, resulting in
a low pH (1.5 to 2.5)
- kills bacteria ingested with the feed
- Other secretions:
digestive enzymes
(specifically pepsinogen)
Pepsinogen
- broken down by the hydrochloric acid to
form pepsin (involved with the
breakdown of proteins)
 pyloric region
- responsible for secreting mucus to line the
digestive membranes to prevent damage from the
low pH digesta as it passes to the small intestine
pyloric sphincter - regulates the amount of

chyme (digesta) that passes into
the small intestine
*an important function not to

overload the small intestine with
chyme so proper and efficient
digestion and absorption of
nutrients occurs
Small Intestine
 major site of nutrient absorption
 three sections:
 duodenum
 jejunum
 ileum
1. duodenum
- approximately 12 inches long and is the portion
of the small intestine that ducts from the pancreas
and the liver (gall bladder)
Pancreas
 involved with both endocrine and exocrine
excretions
 secretes insulin and glucagon
 secretes digestive enzymes and sodium
bicarbonate
 serves as a vital organ in the digestive process for
producing and secreting enzymes needed for the
digestion of chyme and the prevention of cell
damage due to pH
digestive enzymes
- break down (hydrolyse) proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates in the chyme
sodium bicarbonate
- serves a vital role to provide alkalinity so chyme
can be transported though the small intestine
without causing cell damage because of the low
pH after leaving the stomach
Liver
 produces bile which is stored in the gall bladder and
secreted into the duodenum in addition to the secretions
of the pancreas
* Bile salts
- active portion of bile in the digestion process, primarily assist
in the digestion and absorption of fat but also help with
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and aids pancreatic lipase
in the small intestine.
- necessary for the absorption of cholesterol, which takes
place in the lower small intestine and are circulated to the
liver via the portal vein
2. jejunum
- middle portion of the small intestine
- involves both the further breakdown of nutrients
as well as the beginning of absorption of nutrients
3. ileum
- final section of the small intestine where nutrient
absorption continues
brush border (intestinal mucosa)
- area where absorption of nutrients in the jejunum
and the ileum occurs
- comprised of finger-like projection called villi,
which in turn contain more micro-size projections
called microvilli
glycocalyx - web-type structures formed by the
tips of the microvilli
 Amino acids and simple sugars
> released into the brush border membrane
> absorbed into the microvilli then into
the villi
> pass into the circulatory system
 Absorbed amino acids and simple sugars
- taken directly to the liver via the portal vein
 dietary fat that is broken down and absorbed into
the brush border
> enter the lymphatic system
> released into general circulation via the
thoracic duct
Large Intestine
 hindgut
* digesta from the small intestine passes into the
cecum (or caecum which has two sections)
 first section has a blind end, where material can not pass
through
 second portion connects to the colon, where digesta is
passed to the rectum and anus where the remaining
digesta is excreted
Main function of the large intestine:
absorption of water
 Limited microbial enzymes activity (forms volatile
fatty acids or VFA)
 Synthesis of B vitamins
* With the majority of water removed, the digesta is

condensed into a semi-solid material and is passed out
of the rectum and anus.
Chicken
Digestive System
Alimentary canal - a long tube-like organ that starts at the beak
and ends with the vent or cloaca in the abdominal region.
 Mouth
 Esophagus
 Crop
 Proventriculus
 Gizzard
 Pancreas
 Liver
 Small Intestine
 Ceca
 Rectum
 Cloaca
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Parts-of-the-digestive-tract-of-
a-chicken_fig5_316699373
Mouth
- absence of lips and teeth
- replaced by a horny mandible on each jaw forming the beak
tongue’s shape: barbed head of an arrow with the point

directed forward
- serve to force the food toward the esophagus
when the tongue is moved from front to back
- presence of salivary glands
- secrete a mucus saliva
- lubricates the food as it passes down the
esophagus
Esophagus
- a long tube which serves as a passage of food from the
mouth to the proventriculus
Crop
- pouch formed as a specialized area of the esophagus
- chief function: storage organ
* Crop - provides the capacity to hold

food for some time before further
digestion commences.
- enables the bird to take

its food as “meals” at
time intervals but
permits continuous digestion
Proventriculus
- appears as little more than an enlargement at the end of the
esophagus
- true stomach
- its wall secretes hydrochloric acid and an enzyme (pepsin) aiding
in protein digestion
Gizzard
- oval, with 2 openings on its upper side
- 1 from the proventriculus
- 1 opens into the duodenum
- composed of 2 pairs of red, thick, powerful muscles
covered internally with a thick horny epithelium
- muscles: very strong
- chief function: grind or crush food particles
- aided by the presence of grit or gravel taken in
through the mouth
* With uniformly ground rations,
grinding in the gizzard is probably relatively less important.
With whole grains, grinding in the gizzard is essential
before they can be properly digested
Pancreas
- located within the duodenal loop
- secretes pancreatic juice into the lower end of the

duodenum through the pancreatic ducts
- neutralizes the acid secretion of the proventriculus

- contains enzymes that hydrolyze proteins, starches, and fats
(absence→ little digestion)
Liver
- big, dark brown organ which produces bile
- necessary for proper absorption of fats from the small

intestine
- conveyed to the lower end of the duodenum by two bile
ducts
- stored in the gallbladder
- contracts to empty bile

into the intestine (signal:
presence of food in the
duodenum)
Small intestine
distinct parts:
- duodenum
- lower small intestine (jejunum and ileum)
(enzymes present in the pancreatic juice

- act on starches, fats, and proteins)
enzymes produced in the intestinal wall

- complete the digestive process
• small fragments of protein molecules
(peptides) > amino acids
• disaccharides (sucrose and maltose)
> simple sugars
❑ digestion and absorption of food
takes place primarily in the small intestine
❑ mucosa lining the small intestine

characterized by a series of folds, villi, and crypts
greatly increase the surface area of the epithelial lining
❑ epithelial cells lining the villi

have finger-like projections
(microvilli)
that also increase the absorptive
surface
* This extensive surface area, along with the

blood flow to and from the intestine,
makes it possible for a meal to be digested
and absorbed in less than 3 hours by
domestic fowl
Ceca
❑ two blind pouches at the

juncture of the lower small
intestine and the rectum
❑ usually 4-6 inches long and
filled with fecal matter
❑ have little function in
digestion
❑ may have some digestion
taking place (in adult birds
fed highly fibrous ration) by
action of microorganisms
Rectum and Cloaca
Large intestine
- short and consists of a short rectum leading to the cloaca
Not more than 3 or 4 inches long (adult chicken)
chamber common to the digestive,

urinary, and reproductive passages,
which opens externally at the vent
* The urine is discharged into the cloaca

and excreted with the feces. White pasty
material in chicken droppings is largely uric
acid that has precipitated from urine.
Ruminant
Digestive System
Cattle Digestive System
Mouth
 place where the process begins
 cattle grazes by wrapping their tongues around
plants and tearing, pulling them into their mouth for
mastication.
 cattle chew first with the lower jaw incisors, working
against a hard dental pad on the front part upper
palate, then second with the molars, grinding plant
material down further
 chewing stimulates saliva production and the saliva
mixes with plant matter before the animal swallows
 saliva contains enzymes capable of breaking down
fats and starches and helps to buffer the pH levels in
the reticulum and rumen segments of the stomach
Esophagus
 plant material and saliva mix >> will travel down the esophagus to the
rumen.
 performs the swallowing action through waves of muscle contractions,
moving the feed down.
 has a bidirectional function
- can move feed from the mouth to the
stomach or from the stomach to the mouth
- needed to regurgitate “cud” (or the under-
chewed plant matter and grain, back up to
the mouth for further grinding)
 cow again swallows the matter back down to
the stomach once it is finished chewing the cud
Stomach
 General function: to further break down
plant matter and grain.
Four compartments of the stomach:

 rumen
 reticulum
 omasum
 abomasum
A. Rumen
also known as the “paunch,”
first area of the cow’s stomach,
connected to the cattle’s esophagus.
acts as storage or holding vat for
feed
 forms balls of cud
cud - consists of large, non-digestible pieces of plant
matter that must be regurgitated, chewed a second time
and swallowed before continuing through the process
 can hold 25 gallons or more of material depending on the

size of the cow
 also serves as a fermentation vat
 rumen’s environment favors the growth of microbes
Microorganisms:
 digest or ferment feed within the rumen and make volatile
fatty acids (VFAs)
 responsible for digesting cellulose and complex starches, as
well as synthesizing protein, B vitamins and vitamin K
 makes up 84% of the volume of the entire stomach
(combined with the reticulum)
B. Reticulum
 referred to as the “honeycomb,”
 attached to the rumen with only a thin tissue
divider (*rumino-reticulum)
 holds heavy or dense objects (metal pieces and
rocks) and traps large feed particles that are not
small enough to be digested
 facilitates regurgitation
 holds about 5 gallons of material
*
hardware disease
 common health issue involving the reticulum
 occurs when cattle ingest heavy or sharp objects —
like nails, screws or wire (swept into the reticulum and
may puncture the stomach wall)
 preventable by putting magnets on feeding
equipment to catch any metal, or cured by the
placement of an intraruminal magnet that traps
already swallowed objects
 may also be corrected through surgery
 may lead to infection and possibly death when left
untreated
C. Omasum
 globe-shaped structure containing leaves of tissue (like pages
in a book)
 nicknamed “manyplies”
 absorbs water and other substances from digestive contents
(Feed material [ingesta] between the leaves will be drier than
ingesta found in the other compartments)
 smaller than the rumen and reticulum, making up about 12%
of the stomach’s total volume
 can hold up to about 15 gallons of material
D. Abomasum
 last compartment of the stomach
 often known as the “true stomach”
 similar to a nonruminant stomach
 only compartment of the stomach lined with glands
 glands release hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes
needed to breakdown feeds
 representing about 4% of the total stomach volume and
only holding about 7 gallons of material.
Small Intestine
 small intestine has three main sections
 duodenum
 jejunum
 ileum
duodenum
- the section connected to the stomach where the
secretions from the gallbladder and pancreas mix with
the partially digested matter.
This process balances the pH in the intestine, ensuring the
digestive enzymes work correctly.
jejunum
- the section lined with small, finger-like projections
known as villi, which increase the intestinal surface
area and absorb nutrients.
ileum
- absorbs vitamin B12, bile salts and any nutrients that
passed through the jejunum.
• secretions from the pancreas and gallbladder
aid in digestion within the small intestine
• small intestine completes most of the digestive

process and absorbs many nutrients through
villi (small finger-like projections)
• from the villi, the nutrients enter into the blood

and lymphatic systems
Small Intestine
 may be up to 150 feet long (about 20 times the length
of the animal) and has a 20-gallon capacity
 muscular contractions move the matter forward
throughout the small intestine, .
valve (at the end of the ileum)

- prevents any backward flow of materials
Cecum
 sitting between the small and large intestines (
large area where the small and large intestine
meet)
 has little function besides providing storage and
a transition between the two intestines
 has about a two-gallon holding capacity
Large Intestine
 last section of the tract that undigested feedstuffs pass
through
 microbes digest some undigested feed here, but the main
digestive function is to absorb water
Calf Digestive System
 rumen, reticulum and omasum - remain
undeveloped at birth and during the first few
weeks of life
 abomasum - calf’s largest stomach
compartment
 rumen doesn’t function and thus some feeds
that mature cows can digest, calves can not
at this stage of life
Esophageal Groove
 Milk bypasses the rumen and directly enters the
abomasum via the esophageal groove during
nursing or bucket feeding
 Reflex action (e.g. when the calf nurses) closes the
groove to form a tube-like structure.
- prevents milk or milk replacer from entering
the rumen.
some milk may overflow into the rumen If the
calf drinks milk rapidly
Rumen Development
 rumen - will remain undeveloped as long as the calf
stays on milk
 microbial population will develop in the rumen and
reticulum once the calf begins eating grain and
forage
 end products from microbial fermentation are
responsible for developing the rumen
 feeding grain with or without forage during the first

few weeks of life will result in larger and heavier
papillae growth in the rumen
 rumen will begin functioning like the adult’s when
the calf is three months old
Non-Ruminant Herbivore
Digestive System
Rabbit Digestive System
Parts of the digestive system:
Mouth
 first part of a rabbit’s digestive system
 lips - to grab food and pass it back to the teeth to cut
and grind the plant material.
 teeth
 function to tear and grab the food
 function to grind the food to a smaller particle size to
allow for the food to be swallowed
 saliva
 secreted into the mouth to moisten the food to help with
lubrication and movement through the gastrointestinal
tract.
Esophagus
 a tube that transfers food from the
mouth to the stomach
Stomach
 relatively large stomach
 food begins to be broken down through hydrolytic
and enzymatic digestion
 primary secretions:
- mucus
- hydrochloric acid
- pepsin
Mucus
- important to protect the stomach lining from the
acid and enzymes and to help moisten the food
Hydrochloric acid
- important in decreasing the pH of the stomach to
allow enzymes to work, and it kills or inhibits
bacteria found in the food
Pepsin
- a proteolytic enzyme, which breaks down
proteins.
* muscles of the stomach - churn or mix the food with

stomach secretions (chyme or digesta- term for
the mixture of food and secretions)
Small intestine
 pyloric sphincter – regulates the flow of
chime into the small intestine
 place where the majority of digestion
and absorption of nutrients occurs.
 divided into three sections
 duodenum
 jejunum
 ileum
duodenum
 first section and is the site of most digestion
 Buffers are secreted from the pancreas into the
small intestine to increase the pH to a more
neutral level, as the stomach acids would make
the digested food have a low pH level.
 variety of enzymes are secreted by and into the
small intestine to break down the food
 proteolytic, lipolytic (fat digesting), and amylolytic (starch
digesting) enzymes
jejunum
 middle section of the small intestine
 section where many nutrients, such as amino
acids, fatty acids, and glucose, are absorbed
Ileum
 last section of the small intestine
 section where the remaining digested nutrients
are absorbed, as well as the B vitamins
cecum
 is a blind sac, or pouch, that comes off the junction
of the small and large intestines
Large intestine
 the section that continues from the small intestine to
the anus of the animal.
 any undigested food and all the fiber from the rabbit’s diet
will pass from the small intestine to the large intestine
 rabbit’s digestive system is able to sort the materials into
two portions:
1. materials which cannot be further broken down and
used (such as indigestible fiber)
- passes directly into the large intestine
- water is reabsorbed in the large intestine and the
material is passed, making up the round droppings
indigestible fiber is important in the diet of the rabbit

as it helps to stimulate intestinal contractions, which
keeps the chyme moving through the gastrointestinal
tract
2. materials which can be further broken down and used
(primarily soluble fiber and proteins)
- moves into the cecum, a large blind sac
cecum
- may be the most important part of the digestive system of
the rabbit
- has 10 times the capacity of the stomach of the rabbit
- massive quantities of microorganisms reside here
- ferment, or digest, the material that passes into the

cecum and use it to produce their own cells, proteins,
and vitamins.
- turn the indigestible fiber into digestible nutrients – some
of which are directly absorbed across the wall of the
cecum for use by the animal, while others are excreted
 cecotrope - small moist pellet, packaged from the
material from the cecum, about eight hours after a meal
 a signal is sent to the rabbit’s brain when the rabbit is
ready to pass the cecotrope, causing the cecotrope to
be consumed by the rabbit as it is being
expelled (process: cecotrophy)
- allows the material to go through the entire
digestive system again and let the rabbit get
additional nutrients from the plant material
- allows rabbits to utilize high-fiber plant material
that other animals may not be able to
Nutrients
- substances that, when taken into the digestive system, are

digested, absorbed and utilized to sustain animal body
processes
- are contained in the feeds, the amount of which vary

according to the type and origin of such feed
- any feed constituent, or a group of feed constituents of the

same general chemical composition that aids in the
support of life
- chemical compounds used by the animal for growth,

maintenance, production and reproduction.
 Not all animals require the same nutrients
e.g. Ruminants have simple nutrient requirements in

comparison to non ruminants (monogastric) species
Key Nutrients in Animal Nutrition
 Protein
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Minerals
 Vitamins
 Water
Protein
 found in highest concentration (other than water) in
organs and muscle tissues
 young, growing animal has the highest requirement
(when expressed as a percentage of the diet)
 production functions (gestation and lactation) greatly
increase the protein requirement
Protein
 components of muscle, cell membranes, skin, hair and
hooves
 metabolically important proteins:
blood serum proteins, enzymes, hormones and
immune antibodies
Protein
 symptoms of protein deficiencies:
 poor growth rate
 poor feed conversion
 lowered birth weights
 reduced milk or egg production
 infertility
 Insufficient protein will most noticeably affect young,
rapidly growing animals and lactating females
Protein
 composed of amino acids
 several hundred known amino acids in plants
 20+ amino acids make up animal proteins
essential amino acids
- are essential to the animal and must be provided in the diet
because the animal cannot synthesize them fast enough to meet
its requirement
non essential amino acids

- are essential to the animal but are normally synthesized or
sufficient in the diet and need not be supplemented
Essential Amino Acids
 Phenylalanine
 Valine
 Threonine
 Tryptophan
 Isoleucine
 Methionine
 Histidine
 Arginine
 Leucine
 Lysine
Nonessential Amino Acids
 Alanine
 Asparagine
 Aspartic acid
 Cysteine
 Cystine
 Glutamic acid*
 Glutamine
 Glycine*
 Hydroxyproline
 Proline*
 Serine
 Tyrosine
Carbohydrates
 composed of C, H, and O with the proportion of H and O
similar to that of water (H2O)
 includes starches, sugars and fibers
 products of photosynthesis in plants
 monosaccharides (glucose) – basic unit of carbohydrate
structure
 About 75% of the plant dry matter are carbohydrates
 Fiber components are low at a younger stage, increasing
as the plant matures
Carbohydrates
 major ingredient in livestock rations
 nearly all feedstuffs contain ample carbohydrates so
specific deficiency symptoms have not been associated
with low dietary intake
 seeds and tubers – principal storage portions of the plants and
contain lots of digestible carbohydrates
 animal body: carbohydrate is less than 1% of the
dry weight
mostly in the form of glycogen (animal starch)
Classification based on the number of sugar molecules:
a. Monosaccharides
pentoses – ribose, ribulose, xylose, xylulose, arabinose
hexoses – glucose, fructose, galactose, mannose
b. Disaccharides – two simple sugars
sucrose – glucose and fructose
lactose –glucose and galactose
maltose – glucose and glucose
c. Oligosaccharides – less than 10 simple sugars
d. Polysaccharides – many sugar molecules
starch –repeating units are maltose
amylose – straight chained (unbranched)
amylopectin – branched
glycogen – animal starch
cellulose – repeating units are cellobiose; fiber
e. Mixed polysaccharides – hemicellulose, pectins
f. Compound or conjugated polysaccharides

glycolipids – carbohydrate and fat
glycoprotein – carbohydrate and protein
Principal function of carbohydrates:
provide energy to the animal for various metabolic activities
Others:
important components of genetic materials (deoxy ribose in DNA and
ribose in RNA)
glycogen - is a temporarily stored carbohydrate in animal tissues

Lipids
 group of compounds with C, H, O (more carbon and hydrogen
than oxygen)
 insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents (petroleum
ether, hexane, etc. )
 high energy materials
supplies 2.25 more energy than carbohydrates and proteins
 Oil bearing plants: coconut,, sunflower, soybean etc.
 Lard – pork fat tallow or grease – beef fat
Fat – term used to denote lipid that is solid at room temperature
Oil – liquid
Melting point – temperature when fat liquefies

Solidifying point – temperature when oil solidifies
Fats and Oils
 Fatty acid esters of glycerol
 Fatty acids
- common constituents of plant and animal lipids and
usually occur in straight chains with an even number of
carbon atoms
Saturated f.a. : no double bonds

Unsaturated f.a. : containing one or more double bonds
Fatty acids most common in plant and animal tissues
Functions:
 generally used to provide energy (stored in body fats like adipose,
subcutaneous and mesentery)
 Provide cushioning effect on various organs of the body
 Have important roles as carriers of fat soluble vitamin group
 as a source of some fatty acids which are required in the diet
 Practical nutrition: used to reduce dustiness of feeds, to aid in
the passage of feeds through pelleting dies and to improve the
palatability of feeds
Vitamins
 Organic substances needed in much smaller amounts, compared
 Classifications
Fat soluble
Vitamin A – retinol, retinal, retinoic acid
D – cholecalciferol (D3) ergocalciferol (D2)
E – tocopherols
k – phylloquinone, menaquinone
Water Soluble vitamins
Vitamin B1 – thiamine
B2 – riboflavin
B6 - pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine
B12 – cobalamine
Niacin – nicotinamide, nicotinic acid, niacinamide
Pantothenic acid
Biotin
Folic acid
Choline
Inositol
Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA)
Vitamin C- ascorbic acid
Vitamins
 Primary functions:
- Most water soluble vitamins - serve as coenzymes
- Fat soluble vitamins

Vit A. – concerned with vision
D – imp. in absorption and metabolism of
Ca and in bone metabolism
E - functions as a metabolic antioxidant
K - concerned with the blood clotting mechanism
Minerals
 inorganic substances needed in much smaller amounts, compared
Classifications
(based on the required amounts of the animals)
(based on the amount at which they are present in the body)
Macrominerals (Major minerals)

- required in amounts ranging from a few tenths of a gram to one
or more grams per day
- present in animal carcasses at levels greater than 100 ppm
Microminerals (Trace minerals)
- required in minute quantities, ranging from a millionth of a gram
(microgram) to a thousandth of a gram (milligram) per day
- usually present in the carcasses at levels less than 100 ppm
Macrominerals Microminerals
calcium iron
phosphorus iodine
magnesium chromium
sodium cobalt
chlorine copper
potassium selenium
manganese
sulfur
fluorine
zinc
molybdenum
Major functions and primary concentration sites for mineral elements
in the body (Church,D.C.)
Water
 cheapest and an abundant important component of the feed
 ranges from less than 10% in very dry feeds such as the mineral sources,
to 75% or more in fresh plants
e.g. molasses (liquid concentrate feed): 25% water
most cereals and other air-dried feeds: 12-14% water
freshly harvested water hyacinth (aquatic plant): 90% moisture

Water
 one of the largest constituent of the animal body
fat hogs (40%); newborn pigs (80%)
1,000 lb steer (50%); newborn calf (70%)
fat lamb (50%); newborn lamb (80%)
 Percentage of water in the bodies of animal varies with species,

condition and age.
 The younger the animal, the more water it contains.
 The fatter the animal, the lower the water content.
 Living animal can lose most of its fat, about half of their protein, and
many other constituents of their body tissues, but a 10% water loss is
fatal
Functions:
 serves as a universal solvent (ideal solvent for a wide variety
of compounds)
 transports substances in the body
 necessary to the life and shape of every cell and
is a constituent of every body fluid (e.g. synovial and
cerebrospinal fluid, blood plasma, lymph, etc.)
 moves nutrients to and wastes from tissues
(extra cellular fluid)
 plays important roles in various biochemical reactions
 responsible for body temperature regulation, dissipating
heat produced during the metabolism of other nutrients
 structural constituent of the body and maintains body form
Water Balance
 Total body water remains reasonably constant in healthy
animals.
▪ An increase or decrease in water intake brings about an
appropriate increase or decrease in water output to maintain
the balance.
Compensatory mechanisms to provide
enough water for maintenance
 Urine excretion is reduced as is the water content of the
feces.
 The animal oxidizes much of its tissue reserves to provide
metabolic water (results in a loss of body weight)
 Animals become sedentary, seeking shade whenever
possible to reduce the loss of water from surface
evaporation and sweating.
 There is a reduction in feed consumption except for feeds
that are high in moisture.
Some Effects of Water Deprivation/Deficiency
 reduced feed intake
 reduced palatability
 weight loss due to dehydration
 thirst
 reduced production
Factors affecting the amount of water a
particular animal will consume:
 Age
 Body weight
 Production
 Weather (temperature and humidity)
 Type of ration
Sources of Water
1. Drinking water
2. Water in feeds
3. Metabolic water
Sources of Water
1. Drinking water
 Water quality is as important as availability
Water Quality
 Water should contain less than 2,500 mg/L of total solids
 Water containing more than 1% NaCl is generally not considered

good quality
 Levels of 100-200 ppm nitrates are potentially toxic and 1g of

sulfate/ liter results in diarrhea
2. Water in feeds
 very impt. esp. for animals which do not have ready access to
drinking water
succulence – refers to the property of feeds whereby the
composition of the feed is relatively high in
water compared to the amount of dry matter
3. Metabolic water
 produced from the catabolism of nutrients
estimates: 60g H2O from 100g oxidized carbohydrates
42g H2O from 100g oxidized proteins
110g H2O from 100g oxidized fats (wetter than H2O)

Water Excretion
Water losses from the animal body :
 as Urine (kidneys)
 in the Feces
 as Water vapor from the lungs and as Sweat from
the sweat glands or skin (Insensible Perspiration)
Urine
 provides a means whereby water soluble products of
metabolism can be excreted
 generally, when rations are high in protein or mineral
content, urine flow is increased
Feces
 Amount of water is highly dependent on species
(e.g. fecal pellets of sheep contain much less water
than the feces of cattle)
 When production demands are high (e.g. lactation),
water can be a limiting nutrient,
thereby necessitating conservation
efforts within the animal.
 Insensible perspiration
- is the loss of water through the:
* lungs (water vapor during the exhalation
process of respiration); and
* skin (sweat)
 Animals that do not have sweat glands rely on the
cooling effect of panting.
Composition of the animal body
Water
found in every part of the body
plasma - 90-92%
muscles - 72-78%
bones - 45%
teeth - 5%
Protein
 Found in every cell of the body
- muscles
- tendons
- connective tissues
Fats
 Found in adipose tissues
 Under the skin
 Around the kidneys
 Muscles
 Other organs
Carbohydrates
 Liver
 Muscles
 Blood
Mineral
 Calcium - bones and teeth
 Sulfur - throughout the body
 Sodium, potassium and chlorine - (various fluids)
 Magnesium - bones
Vitamins
 Liver – major storage site (most vitamins)
 Kidney, spleen and other tissues or organs
General functions of nutrients
 To provide energy for various processes in the body
- all animals require sources of energy
e.g.
*energy is used for locomotion and thermoregulation

(regulation of body temperature)
*muscle proteins – synthesized from absorbed amino acids
chemical energy is required to form the bonds

between them that join them together to form a protein
 To serve as structural component
- muscle tissue (meat) is largely composed of protein

and water
- proteins are the main constituents of connective

tissues (such as arteries, veins, ligaments and tendons)
- bone is composed of a cartilaginous protein matrix

that becomes mineralized with calcium and
phosphorus
 To supply raw materials for synthesis of body
substances
 To perform regulatory functions
- regulation of cellular metabolism
- vitamins and most minerals function as cofactors or

activator of enzymes, which catalyze the thousands of
chemical reactions that occur in animal tissues
e.g. Vitamin A function in enzymatic reactions in

vision; thus, a vitamin A deficiency causes blindness
Trial and error method
- most popular method of formulating rations for swine and poultry
- formulation is manipulated until the nutrient requirements of the animal are met
Example 1
Formulate a broiler finisher ration using

▪ ground yellow corn
▪ soybean meal,
▪ fish meal,
▪ first class rice bran,
▪ ipil-ipil leaf meal,
▪ Vegetable oil
▪ molasses,
▪ limestone
▪ other ingredients
Step 1. List down the nutrient requirements of broiler finisher.
CP : 18.5
ME: 2,900
Ca: 0.8
P, : 0.4
Step 2. List down the nutrient composition of ingredients to be used:
CP ME Ca Total P
(%) (kcal/kg) (%) (%)
Ground yellow corn 8.00 3400 0.07 0.25
Soybean meal 47.00 2500 0.40 0.68
Fish meal 60.00 2800 4.40 2.65
Rice bran D1 12.50 2400 0.08 1.60
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 20.00 800 0.35 0.27
Molasses 2.90 1960 0.80 0.08
Vegetable Oil - 8600 - -
Limestone - - 38.00 -
Other ingredients - - - -
Step 3. Make your own proportions on the different ingredients and calculate first for the
ME and CP contents of the ration summing up the product of each of the ingredients.
CP ME
Amount
(%) (kcal/kg)
Ground yellow corn 48.00 8.00 3.84 3400 1632
Soybean meal 17.00 47.00 7.99 2500 425
Fish meal 6.00 60.00 3.60 2800 168
Rice bran D1 16.00 12.50 2.00 2400 384
Ipil-ipil leaf meal 4.75 20.00 0.95 800 38
Molasses 4.00 2.90 0.12 1960 78
2.0349
Vegetable Oil 2.05 - - 8600 176
Limestone - - - -
Other Ingredients - - - - -
TOTAL 97.8 18.50 2901

Step 4. Calculate the calcium and phosphorus levels. If calcium is deficient and
phosphorus is sufficient, add limestone or oyster shell to meet the requirement. If
phosphorus is deficient add tricalcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate or bone
meal.
Amount Ca Total P
(%) (%) (%)
Ground yellow corn 48.00 0.07 0.034 0.25 0.120
Soybean meal 17.00 0.40 0.068 0.68 0.116
Fish meal 6.00 4.40 0.264 2.65 0.259
Rice bran D1 16.00 0.08 0.013 1.60 0.256
Molasses 4.00 0.80 0.032 0.08 0.003
Vegetable Oil 2.05 - - - -
Limestone 1.00 38.00 0.380 - -
Other Ingredients 1.2 - - - -
TOTAL 100.00 0.808 0.767

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Nutrition

- the series of processes by which an organism takes in and

- science of feeds as they relate to the requirements,

- sum of all the processes, which may be physical/biochemical,

 Procedure that allows small molecules to pass through

Water Dry Matter

Carbohydrates Protein Lipids Vitamins

Efficiency of animal raising as an enterprise:

• type, quality and availability of feeds:

influenced by the characteristic climatic conditions

• growth and productive responses of animals:

• potential productive capability of the animal:

determined by the effects of tropical climate on plants

• an important factor that determines the type of feed the

• consider whether the feeds to be included in the feeding

• includes knowing the nutritional value of the feed in relation

to the needs of the animal

• considers the possible toxicity and presence of undesirable

components in the feed

Ration for a 250 kg steer gaining 0.75 kg/day.

Amount 6.4 kg 3.8 kg 693 g 21 g 17g

Percent of DM 59.38% 10.83% 0.33% 0.27%

Napier 22 55 9.5 0.42 0.39

Rice bran D1 89 87.30 14.04 0.09 1.80

Ipil-ipil leaf 90 67 22.22 0.39 0.30

6.4 kg DM x 55 % TDN = 3.52 kg TDN

Napier, 55 % TDN 27.92 parts

Rice bran, 87.3 % TDN 4.38 parts

27.92 / 32.3 x 100 = 86.44 %

86.44 % x 6.4 kg DM = 5.53 kg DM from napier

Feeds DM TDN CP Ca P (total)

Napier 5.53 3.04 525.35 23.23 21.57

Rice bran D1 0.87 0.76 122.15 0.78 15.66

Rice bran, 14.04 % CP 2.95 parts

Ipil-ipil leaf meal, 5.23 parts

2.95 / 8.18 x 100 = 36.06 %

36.06 % x 0.87 kg DM = 0.31 kg DM rice bran

Feeds DM TDN CP Ca P (total)

Napier 5.53 3.04 525.35 23.23 21.57

Rice bran D1 0.31 0.27 43.52 0.28 5.58

Rice bran D1 0.31 kg DM = 0.35 kg

Ipil-ipil leaf meal 0.56 kg DM = 0.62 kg

Hog Starter Ration

Yellow corn 7.80 3350 0.07 0.08

Soybean meal 47.20 2950 0.53 0.20

Rice bran D1 12.40 3000 0.07 0.23

Molasses 2.90 2330 0.8 0.02

Coconut oil 7900

3.0% Molasses x 2.9%CP = 0.09 Yellow corn 7.80

12.5 RBD1 + 3.0 Molasses + 8 others = 23.5 Coconut oil

100 – 23.5 = 76.5

Corn, 7.8% ------- x 76.5 = 49.36 corn

Soybean meal 47.20

Total 18.3 2900

Soybean meal 2950

Rice bran D1 3000

Coconut oil 7900

YC 49.36 3.85 1654 0.034 0.039

SBM 27.14 12.81 801 0.144 0.054

RBD1 12.5 1.55 375 0.009 0.029

Molasses 3.0 0.09 70 0.024 0.0006

Coconut Oil 3.8 300

Total 18.3 2900 0.211 0.1226

Reqd. 18.3 3200 0.85 0.52