THREE TYPES OF BONDING
* Hydrogen bonds
● COVALENT BOND
- Form between atoms that share electrons
rather than donating or receiving them.
- Single covalent bonds share a pair of electrons.
(H2)
- Double covalent bonds share two pairs of
electrons and are more rigid than single bonds
(O2)
- Polar Molecule - Results when a molecule is formed
between two atoms that have different electronegativity, or
ability to attract electrons.
- Nonpolar Molecule - Molecules formed when atoms have
similar electronegativity.
● IONIC BONDS: ELECTRON TRANSFER
- Formed when electrons are transferred
completely from one atom to another and are
not shared.
IONIZATION:FORMATION OF CHARGED PARTICLES
- IONIZATION - The formation of charged particles when
a molecule formed by ionic bonds dissolves in a
solvent.
● Cations - Positive charged ions
● Anions - Negative charged ions
● Electrolytes - Substance such as salts, acid,
and bases that release ions when dissolved in
water
● HYDROGEN TRANSFER
- Formed due to attractive forces between nearby atoms
or molecules.
- A weak type of bond that forms between a hydrogen
covalently bonded to one molecule and an oxygen or
nitrogen atom on the same molecule or on a different
molecule.
- This bond is temporary and easily disrupted.
* van der Waals forces
- weak attention between molecules that show polarity
- Neighboring groups with slight attractions will interact
and remain associated.
● CHEMICAL REACTIONS
- Exchange reactions - Reactants trade portions with
each other and release products that are the
combination of the two
Ex. AB + XY = AX + BY
- Catalysts - Substances that increase the rate of
reaction without being consumed in the process.
- Enzymes are catalysts in cells
● SOLUTIONS
- Hydrophilic - Molecules such as salt or sugar that
attracts water to their surface
- Hydrophobic - Nonpolar molecules such as benzene
that repel water
- Amphiphatic - Molecules such as phospholipids that
have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties
THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBON
● Inorganic chemicals
- Molecules that do not contain carbon and
hydrogen
- NaCl (Sodium Chloride)
- Mg3 (PO4)2 (Trimagnesium Phosphate)
- CaCO3 (Calcium Carbonate)
- CO2 (Carbon Dioxide)
● Organic chemicals
- Molecules with a basic framework of the
element of carbon bonded to other atoms
- Simplest: CH4 (Methane)
- Complex : Antibody molecules with a molecule
weight of 1,000,000
● Carbon is the fundamental elements of life
- Ideal atomic building block to form the
backbone of organic molecules
- Four electrons in the outer orbital can be
shared with four other atoms, including other
carbons.
● Functional Groups
- Molecular groups or accessory molecules that
bind to organic compounds.
- Help define the chemical class of organic
compound
- Confer unique reactive properties on the whole
molecule
- Reactions of an organic compound can be
predicted by knowing its functional group
Representative functional groups and classes of organic
compound
● HYDROXYL - Alcohol, carbohydrates
● CARBOXYL Fatty acids, proteins, organic acids
● AMINO - Proteins, nucleic acids
● ESTER - Lipids
● SULFHYDRYL - Cysteine (amino acids), proteins
● CARBONYL, TERMINAL END - Aldehydes,
polysaccharides
● PHOSPHATE - DNA, RNA, ATP
BIOCHEMISTRY
- Life’s origin may be explained chemically.
- With the idea of Big Bang, we had established the
formation of elements and later on, common gases like
water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, etc. These
gases occupied the primitive earth which were believed
to be the ingredients needed to form BIOMOLECULES
- In 1953, one of the most known evidences in the
formation of biomolecules was presented by Stanley
Miller and Harold Urey. They simulated the conditions
of the primitive earth in the laboratory to observe the
formation of these biomolecules.
MACROMOLECULES
● Biochemistry - Scientific field that explores the
compounds of life.
FOUR MAIN FAMILIES OF BIOCHEMICALS
- Carbohydrates - Proteins
 - Lipids - Nucleic Acid
MACROMOLECULES
● Functions of macromolecules Carbohydrates Description Example Notes
- Structural components s
- Molecular messengers
Monosaccharides 3-7 carbon sugar Glucose, Sugars involved in
- Energy sources Fructose metabolic
- Enzymes (biochemical catalysts) reactions; building
block of
- Nutrient stores disaccharides and
- Sources of genetic information polysaccharides

Disaccharides 2 Maltose Composed of 2

● CARBOHYDRATES: SUGAR AND monosaccharides (Malt glucose; as an
POLYSACCHARIDES sugar) important
breakdown
- Saccharide: a sugar product of starch
- Monosaccharide: A simple sugar containing
three to seven carbons Disaccharides 2 Lactose Composed of
monosaccharides (Milk glucose and
- Disaccharide: Combination of two sugar) galactose
monosaccharides
- Polysaccharide: Polymer of five or more Disaccharides 2 Sucrose Composed
monosaccharides (table,su glucose and
monosaccharides gar) fructose
- Monosaccharides and disaccharides are named
Polysaccharides Chain of Starch, Cell wall, food
with suffix-ose
monosaccharides cellulose, storage
- Hexose: Composed of six carbons glycogen
- Pentose: Composed of five carbons
EXAMPLES OF POLYSACCHARIDES
MACROMOLECULES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS ● Cellulose
CARBOHYDRATES - Long, fibrous polymer
- Gives strength and rigidity to plants and
microscopic algae
- One of the most common organic substances
on earth
- Digestible only by bacteria, fungi, and protozoa
EXAMPLE OF POLYSACCHARIDES - Fatty acids - Long chain hydrocarbons with a carboxyl
● Agar group at the end
- Important in preparing solid culture media FATTY ACIDS
- Natural component of seaweed ● Saturated fatty acid - All carbons in the fatty acid
- Polymer of galactose and sulfur-containing chain are single-bonded to two other carbons and two
carbohydrates hydrogens
● Chitin ● Unsaturated fatty acid - A fatty acid in which at least
- Polymer of glucosamine one double bond exists between carbon atoms
- Found in the cell walls of certain fungi
● Peptidoglycan PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- Polysaccharides are linked to peptide - Contain only two fatty acids attached to a glycerol
fragments - Third binding site holds a phosphate group bound to an
- Provides the main source of structural support alcohol.
to bacteria cell walls. - Have a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region
- Allows the molecule to form bilayers and membranes

LIPIDS: Fats, Phospholipids, and waxes MEMBRANE LIPIDS

- Membrane formation in an aqueous solution
- Polar heads of phospholipids attracted to the water
● Lipid phase
- Operational term for substances that are not soluble in - Nonpolar tails repelled from the water phrase
polar solvents such as water but are soluble in - Membranes and lipid bilayer
nonpolar solvents such as benzene and chloroform ● Hydrophilic face orients itself toward the
- Long or complex hydrocarbon chains that are solution
hydrophobic. ● Hydrophobic tails immerse themselves in the
bilayer
● TRIGLYCERIDES
● These characteristics allow selective
- Storage lipids permeability and fluidity
- Fats and oils
- Composed of a single molecule of glycerol bound to STEROIDS AND WAXES
three fatty acids ● Steroids
- Glycerol - 3 carbon alcohol with three OH groups that - Ringed compounds commonly found in cell
serve as binding sites membranes and animal hormones
- Cholesterol: Reinforces cell membranes in
 animal cells and cell wall-deficient bacteria ergosterol eukaryotes and
(mycoplasmas) some bacteria
- Ergosterol: Found in the cell membranes in
fungi
● Wax
- Ester formed between a long-chain alcohol and
a fatty acid Proteins: Sharpers of life
- Soft and pliable when warmed, water resistant ● Predominant organic macromolecule in cells
when cold - Determine structure, behavior, and unique
- Natural waterproofing of skin, fur, feathers, etc qualities of organisms
- Bacteria that cause tuberculosis and leprosy ● Amino Acids
produce a wax that repels ordinary laboratory - Building blocks of proteins
stains and contributes to their damaging effects - Exist in 20 different naturally occurring forms
on the body. - Linked by peptide bonds

PROTEINS DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES NOTES

MACROMOLECULES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:
Amino acids Enzymes, part Serve as
LIPIDS of cell structural
membrane, components
cell wall, and perform
LIPIDS DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES NOTES ribosomes, metabolic
antibodies reactions
Triglycerides Fatty acids + Fats, oil Major
Glycerol components of
cell
● Basic structure of amino acids
membranes; - A (alpha) carbon
storage - Amino group (NH2)
- Carboxyl group (COOH)
Phospholipids Fatty acids + Membrane - Hydrogen atom (H)
glycerol + components - R group: Imparts unique characteristics to the
phosphate amino acid
Waxes Fatty acids + Mycolic acids Cell wall of PEPTIDES
alcohol mycobacteria
● Peptide - Molecule composed of short chains of
Steroid Ringed structure Cholesterol, Membranes of amino acids
● Polypeptide - Has more than 20 amino acids
 - Not all polypeptides are large enough to NUCLEIC ACID STRUCTURE
be considered proteins - DNA and RNA are composed of repeating
nucleotide subunits - Phosphate
- Nitrogen base
- Pentose (5 carbon) sugar
PROTEINS STRUCTURE PURINES AND PYRIMIDINES
● Primary (1) Structure - The type, number, and order ● Purines
of amino acids - Nitrogen bases composed of two rings
● Secondary (2) Structure - Arises when functional - Adenine and Guanine
groups on the outer surface of the molecule interact ● Pyrimidines
with each other
- Nitrogen bases composed of one ring
- a helix
- b pleated sheet - - Thymine, cytosine, and uracil
● Tertiary (3) Structure - Torsion caused by interaction
between functional groups. Covalent disulfide bonds DNA versus RNA
● Quaternary (4) Structure - Large multiunit proteins ● DNA
formed by one or more than polyprotein - Contains all of the nitrogen bases except uracil
- Nitrogen bases are covalently bonded to
ENZYMES AND ANTIBODIES
deoxyribose
● Enzymes
- Catalysts for chemical reaction in cells ● RNA
- Specificity comes from the unique patterns in - Contains all of the nitrogen bases except
enzyme binding sites thymine
● Antibodies - Nitrogen bases are covalently bonded to ribose
- Complex glycoproteins with specific attachment
regions for bacteria, viruses, and other
RNA: Protein Synthesis and Regulation
microorganisms
● Long, single strand of nucleotides
NUCLEIC ACIDS ● Three major types or RNA:
● Deoxyribonucleic (DNA) - Contains a special coded - mRNA - Copy of a gene (messenger)
genetic program with detailed and specific instructions - tRNA - carrier that transports the amino acids to
for each organisms heredity the ribosome for protein assembly (transfer)
● Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) - Helper molecules - rRNA - major component of ribosome
responsible for translating and carrying out the (ribosomal)
instructions of DNA
ATP: Energy Molecule
● Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
- Adenine
- Ribose
- Three Phosphates
ATP: Energy Molecule
● Releases energy when the bond is broken between the
second and the third phosphates