PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

for the Private Pilot

Book 4
Aviation Books Series

DR STEPHEN WALMSLEY
 Copyright © 2021 Stephen Walmsley

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, or stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without express written permission of the publisher.

Disclaimer
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information, the author does not give any guarantee as to its accuracy or otherwise.
Nothing in the contents of this book is to be interpreted as constituting instruction or advise relating to practical flying. Students preparing for their
relevant exam should consult training their syllabus published by the relevant authority to ensure they are studying towards the most up to date syllabus.
The author shall not be liable nor responsible to any person or entity concerning errors and omission, or loss or damage caused directly or indirectly by the
use of the information contained in this book.
 AVIATION BOOKS SERIES

The aviation books series provides the reader with an educational and enjoyable reading experience. A focus has
been placed on practical, hands-on aviation by linking science with the real world. Books in this series include:
Book 1: Human Factors
Book 2: Aviation Weather
Book 3: Flight Radio
Book 4: Principles of Flight
 CONTENTS

Principles of Flight
Copyright
Aviation Books Series
Preference
Introduction
Chapter 1: The Atmosphere
Chapter 2: Basic Aerodynamic Theory
Chapter 3: Lift
Chapter 4: Drag
Chapter 5: Flying Controls
Chapter 6: Secondary Flight Controls
Chapter 7: Straight and Level Flight
Chapter 8: Climbing and Descending
Chapter 9: Turning Flight
Chapter 10: Stalling and Spinning
Chapter 11: Stability
Chapter 12: Propellers
Chapter 13: Performance
Chapter 14: Range and Endurance
Chapter 15: Weight and Balance
Conclusion
About The Author
Books In This Series
 PREFERENCE

Pilots have so much control over the various forces acting on the aircraft, but flying an aircraft also comes with
responsibility. To avoid flying an aircraft beyond its limits, pilots must respect the principles of flight. Turning too
sharply, flying too slowly, or overloading an aircraft can all have dire consequences. Principles of flight is one of
the fundamental topics a pilot must master to operate an aircraft safely.

This book follows closely the syllabi of Principles of Flight (aerodynamics) from a range of aviation authorities
around the world, allowing the reader to obtain the required knowledge in Principles of Flight. This book goes
beyond these syllabi, with a particular focus on practical aviation, linking science with the real world. Each chapter
contains a range of visual figures in full color and mini case studies that will allow the reader to have a deeper
understanding of the wide range of components of Principles of Flight.
 INTRODUCTION

A ircraft can weigh millions of pounds, yet can leap into the sky with seemingly little effort. The basic principles
that allow today’s aircraft to fly are the same principles of aerodynamics used by the Wright brothers in 1903.
Principles of flight is one of the fundamental topics pilots must master to operate an aircraft safely. Principles of
flight tell us why an aircraft will plummet to the ground if it flies too slow or why an aircraft can break-up if a pilot
tries to turn too sharp. But this topic is more than avoiding undesirable flight conditions – it is also about flying
efficiently. How to climb higher or fly further requires knowledge of operating the aircraft with the greatest gains
for the smallest penalty.

You will start your principles of flight journey by exploring how air flows around the aircraft wing to generate an
aerodynamic reaction, known as lift, which is used to overcome the weight of the aircraft. But no matter how
efficient the aircraft is at generating lift, there is always a penalty to pay, which is drag. You will see drag is the
resistance force of moving through the air and comes from a range of sources. Next, you will explore the various
flight controls of the aircraft. The same aerodynamic principles that allow an aircraft to fly are used to move the
aircraft around, from pitching the nose up in a climb to rolling the wings in a turn. You will then take the aircraft for
a flight and see how the aircraft climbs, descends, turns, and flies straight and level. In each case, a delicate balance
of the main forces is required to ensure the aircraft is flown as desired. One of the most important chapters is
stalling and spinning. You will see these dangerous conditions are not limited to slow flight and are closely linked
to how the aircraft generates lift. The final few chapters will look at how to get the most performance out of the
aircraft; from flying further or longer, to taking-off and landing in the shortest distance.

Some of the concepts that you will explore may seem overwhelming at first, however, as you progress through each
chapter you will see many aspects of principles of flight are closely linked. You will see how the airflow over the
wing helps generate lift, but when this flow is disrupted, the aircraft can stall (insufficient lift). You will also see
how the atmosphere can have a considerable impact on your ability to fly, and how the higher you stray, the more
challenging it becomes. Principles of flight also helps explain why aircraft need to be flown in specific
configurations and speeds to achieve a desired outcome. For example, why lowering the flaps are a great tool during
take-off and landing, but not so beneficial in the cruise.

Although we are primarily concerned with how aircraft fly, just as important is to understand what can degrade
performance – and in some cases, very quickly. For example, you will see the disastrous consequences of trying to
fly with contaminate on the wing, such as a thin layer of frost or ice. The main focus of this book is on how general
aviation aircraft fly – primarily single-engine, propeller-driven aircraft. However, many of the aerodynamic
principles used in small aircraft can be applied to aircraft of all sizes. No matter what aircraft you fly, it is essential
you have a solid understanding of the principles of flight.
 CHAPTER 1: THE ATMOSPHERE

W hytheexplore the atmosphere when you are here to learn about aerodynamics? It’s simple – the characteristics of
atmosphere are a fundamental part of helping (or hindering) an aircraft’s ability to fly. The atmosphere that
you fly in is not constant, with temperature, pressure, and density changing. Unfavorable atmospheric conditions
may result in an aircraft struggling to get airborne in the first place, with take-off distance impacted considerably by
high temperatures and low pressure. Once airborne, how quickly (or slowly) your aircraft soars into the sky will be
influenced by the atmosphere. At some point, the aircraft will not be able to climb any further due to the thin air
found in the upper atmosphere. Fortunately, this is pretty high for even small aircraft but could be an issue if you
are trying to cross a high mountain pass.

The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surround the earth. Although the atmosphere stretches up to the boundary
of space, almost all flights operate in the tiny portion of the atmosphere near the surface. You will see that as pilots
stray higher in the atmosphere, various properties begin to change, with variations in air density the most important
for principles of flight.

Air Density
Air density is defined as the number of air molecules in a given volume, as shown in Figure 1.1. The more air
molecules per unit of air the higher the air density and vice versa. Air density is normally measured in grams (g) per
cubic meter (mᶟ) or kilograms (kg) per cubic meter, with an average air density at sea level of 1225g/mᶟ
(1.225kg/mᶟ). Aircraft will generally perform better in denser air due to improved engine performance and the
wing’s ability to generate more lift. The two key factors that influence air density are temperature and pressure.

Figure 1.1: Air density is defined as the number of air molecules in a given volume.

Temperature and Pressure

On average, the surface temperature at sea level is 15ºC (59ºF), and as we leave the earth’s surface, the air
temperature normally reduces at a rate of about 2ºC per 1,000 feet (3.6ºF per 1,000 feet). Most small aircraft operate
below 10,000 feet. If you popped outside at 10,000 feet you would find the air temperature had reduced to around
-5ºC (23ºF). A typical cruising level for a commercial airliner is about 35,000 feet, where the outside air
temperature would be around -55ºC (-67ºF), as shown in Figure 1.2. Air temperature has an inverse relationship
with air density; in cold temperatures, the air molecules are more compact, therefore the air density in a given
volume of air is higher. In warm temperatures, the air molecules are spaced further apart and as a result, the air
density is reduced.
Figure 1.2: Temperature and pressure trends in the lower atmosphere.

Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air above a certain point. In aviation, atmospheric pressure is usually
measured in hectopascals (hPa), with the average atmospheric pressure at sea level around 1013hPa. Pressure can
also be expressed in inches of mercury (inHg) and millibars (mb), which are respectively 29.92inHg and 1013mb.
Climbing higher in the atmosphere will result in less overlying air, reducing the atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric
pressure changes quickly near sea level, reducing to 700hPa by 10,000 feet. However, higher in the atmosphere, the
rate of pressure change slows. Half sea level pressure (500hPa) is found around 18,000 feet and quarter sea level
pressure (250hPa) is found around 34,000 feet. Pressure has a direct relationship with air density; higher pressure
results in more molecules packed together, therefore higher air density; whereas lower pressure results in fewer
molecules together and therefore lower air density.

If we consider an aircraft preparing for take-off, the ideal conditions would be a cold day with high pressure, as
shown in Figure 1.3. This means the aircraft engine(s) will produce more power and the wings will generate more
lift, allowing the aircraft to take-off quicker, and climb faster. The less ideal conditions would be a warm day with
low pressure. The aircraft would take longer to take-off and climb slower. In chapter 13 you will see these
unfavorable conditions can result in disastrous consequences, with some aircraft struggling to take-off, even from
very long runways.

Figure 1.3: Temperature and pressure will influence an aircraft’s performance.

Air density is not just an issue during take-off. As a pilot strays higher, they can expect air density to reduce.
Although the cooler temperatures at altitude should increase air density, the considerable reduction in pressure has a
greater effect, resulting in air density reducing with increasing altitude. You will see in chapter eight, this means an
altitude will eventually be reached in which an aircraft is unable to climb higher, or may even struggle to remain in
level flight.

International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

To help pilots easily assess if the conditions on the day are going to result in better or worse aircraft performance
than normal, the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) has been created. ISA provides a benchmark ‘standard
day’ that pilots can reference and is based on the approximate average values throughout the year for the entire
world. ISA values are:
Temperature: 15ºC (59ºF) at sea level, reducing by 1.98ºC (3.6ºF) per 1,000 feet (which is normally
rounded to 2ºC per 1,000 feet)
Pressure: 1013hPa (29.92inHg, 1013mb) at sea level, reducing by 1hPa per 30 feet near sea level
(one inch of mercury per 1,000 feet).
Density: 1225 g/mᶟ at sea level

A pilot can compare their actual weather conditions on the day to determine if their aircraft will perform better or
worse than ISA. For example, if a pilot checks the weather report and observes a temperature of 5ºC (41ºF) and
pressure 1025hPa (30.27inHg), they can expect the aircraft to perform better than ISA (assuming the aerodrome’s
elevation is close to sea level).

You can see that air density can change considerably during a flight. Throughout this book you will explore how the
atmospheric conditions play a key role in principles of flight, from lift generation, climbing, take-off performance,
and flying for maximum range. For now, it is time to get moving and see how the wing is designed to generate an
aerodynamic force, which helps overcome the weight of the aircraft.
 CHAPTER 2: BASIC AERODYNAMIC THEORY

T heflight.
basic aerodynamic principles that allow an aircraft to fly have not changed much since the early days of
As you will see in this chapter, the key component that allows an aircraft to fly is the aerofoil (also called
airfoil). An aerofoil is the cross-section shape you would find if you sliced open the aircraft wing, and it is designed
to create an aerodynamic force. Aerofoils are also used to help an aircraft roll into a turn or pitch the nose up. These
same principles can be exploited to allow the aircraft to fly safely at slow speeds when coming into land.

Aerofoil
An aerofoil is the main component required to help an aircraft fly, and it is a structure designed to obtain a reaction
when it moves through the air. Aerofoils come in a range of shapes and sizes, but all involve a curved surface, like
the one in Figure 2.1. The aircraft wing is the main aerofoil that we consider, but it is certainly not the only one.
The aircraft rudder, tailplane, and even the propeller are examples of aerofoils, which you will explore in various
chapters.

Figure 2.1: Aerofoil terminology.

Let’s take a closer look at a typical aerofoil and highlight some of the key characteristics, as shown in Figure 2.1.
The first thing you will notice is the upper surface is curved – which is also known as camber – whereas the lower
surface is relatively flat. You will see shortly that not all aerofoils have the same shape, but the example in Figure
2.1 is known as a general-purpose aerofoil, which is more likely to be found on smaller aircraft. The edge that
meets the airflow first is known as the leading edge, with the trailing edge on the opposite side. The leading edge
is rounded, whereas the trailing edge is quite narrow and tapered. If you drew a straight line between the leading
and trailing edge you would have the chord line – which effectively represents the width of an aerofoil. Another
line can also be drawn equal distance between the upper and lower surfaces, which is known as the mean (average)
camber line. The thickness can also be measured by the distance from the upper and lower surface, with the
maximum thickness normally found about 30% from the leading edge.
Figure 2.2: Examples of different aerofoils.

The aerofoil shape of the wing varies depending on the specific purpose of the aircraft, as shown in Figure 2.2. For
example, a thin aerofoil (small curvature on the upper surface) is generally better for high-speed flight (e.g. fighter
jets) but is not very efficient when flying slowly. A high lift aerofoil is better for aircraft that need to fly slowly but
is not well suited for flying fast. The wing is known as an asymmetric aerofoil, as the top and bottom surfaces are
not the same (the bottom surface is relatively flat, whereas the top surface is curved). An aerofoil could also be
symmetrical, which means the upper and lower surfaces are curved the same – that is, the chord line and mean
camber line would be in the same place. The tailplane is sometimes a symmetrical aerofoil.

Figure 2.3: Relative airflow (RAF) and angle of attack.

As soon as the aerofoil moves, air will begin to flow around it. What direction this airflow is coming from is very
important and is known as the relative airflow (RAF). The RAF is the airflow that is remote from the aircraft and
acts parallel with and directly opposite to the aircraft flight path, as shown in Figure 2.3. Note the flight path is not
necessarily in the same direction the nose of the aircraft is pointing, which is known as attitude. Attitude of the
aircraft is the position in flight relative to the horizon. For example, as you will see later on when the aircraft is
flying slowly, often the nose attitude is high, even though the aircraft is flying level. The angle between the chord
line and the RAF is known as the angle of attack (AoA). Angle of attack is extremely important and has a
considerable impact on an aerofoil’s ability to generate lift, and at very high angles of attack, this lift can suddenly
collapse (resulting in a stall).

Streamlined Flow
Ideally, when the air flows around the aerofoil, it will flow in a streamlined flow. This means the air is flowing
parallel with the aerofoil surface, with all the air molecules flowing in the same predictable direction (no flow
across or in the opposite direction to the streamline). A streamlined flow can be maintained provided any change in
direction is gradual and the surface is smooth. However, this is not always an easy task, especially if the airflow
changes direction abruptly. When air struggles to remain in a streamlined flow, it can have a considerable impact on
the aerofoil’s ability to generate an aerodynamic force. Let’s take a super close look at the air as it travels over the
aerofoil surface, as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Ideally air will remain in a streamlined flow over much of an aerofoil, but will likely become turbulent
at some point.

Despite the aircraft skin being very smooth, the air molecules directly in contact with the surface are virtually
motionless. The next layer of molecules will move a little faster than the one below, until the air is moving at the
same speed as the rest of the air moving around the aircraft – known as free-stream velocity. The area between the
free-stream velocity and the aircraft surface is known as the boundary layer and is very thin (about as thick as a
playing card). Normally this results in a smooth, uninterrupted streamlined flow of air, known as a laminar flow, as
shown on the left side of Figure 2.4. However, no matter how well designed the aerofoil is, the laminar flow
eventually becomes interrupted and results in a turbulent flow, which is shown on the right side of Figure 2.4. This
turbulent flow will have air molecules moving in unpredictable directions – which you will see in chapter four is
one of the sources of drag.

Generating Lift
The biggest obstacle to flight is overcoming the weight of the aircraft. An aerofoil moving through the air generates
an aerodynamic force, and you will see that the direction of this force is generally upwards and rearwards. The
vertical component of the aerodynamic force is called lift. Newton’s and Bernoulli’s theories have been used to
explain the complex process of generating an aerodynamic force. However, a little care is required with some of
these concepts, as neither were originally designed with flight in mind.

As air approaches the leading edge of an aerofoil, some air will head over the top surface, and some will move
along the bottom. The air traveling above and below the aerofoil will travel at different speeds. As the upper surface
of the aerofoil is curved, air will need to speed up to squeeze over the aerofoil. It can be difficult to visualize air
squeezing over the aerofoil but consider another fluid that behaves very similarly – water. Imagine a wide river,
with the water flowing at a leisurely pace. Up ahead, the river narrows, which means all the water needs to squeeze
through a narrow gap. The mass of water entering the narrow section must exactly equal the mass exiting. The only
way for the same amount of water to flow through the narrow gap is for it to travel faster. By traveling fast, the
same amount of water passes through the narrow gap, in the same amount of time. When the river widens again, the
speed of the water can return back to normal. This is known as a venturi effect (fluid flowing faster when traveling
through a constricted section or venturi tube), as shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5: The venturi effect.

A streamlined airflow around an aerofoil behaves in a similar way as the flow through a venturi. The aerofoil is
essentially a half venturi. Air needs to squeeze over the top of the aerofoil, therefore the airflow speeds up. In
contrast, the air flowing below the aerofoil moves in a straighter line, therefore the speed remains about the same.

Bernoulli’s theorem can help explain how the change in speed of the airflow helps generate an aerodynamic force.
Bernoulli’s theorem states ‘in the streamlined flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of the energy of position, plus the
energy of motion (dynamic energy), plus the pressure energy (static pressure), will remain constant’. In
aerodynamics we can ignore the energy of position as the change is very small, and reduce Bernoulli’s theorem to:
Dynamic energy + Static pressure = Constant
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem to a fluid, it can be said that an increase in the speed of a fluid (dynamic energy)
must result in a decrease in pressure (static pressure) for the total energy to remain constant. Likewise, a decrease
in the speed of a fluid must result in an increase in pressure. Air is not an ideal fluid, but Bernoulli’s theorem can
generally be applied to airflows below 250 knots with good accuracy.

Coming back to the aerofoil, in the previous section it was shown air flows faster over the curved top surface (due
to the venturi effect), which according to Bernoulli’s theorem will reduce the pressure, as shown in Figure 2.6. The
pressure reduction will vary as air flows around the aerofoil. Pressure reduces rapidly at the start of the upper
surface, due to the air accelerating, peaking at around 30% from the leading edge. But towards the rear of the
aerofoil, the pressure returns back to normal. Below the aerofoil, the pressure is usually a little higher, especially
when the aerofoil is flown at a positive angle of attack.
Figure 2.6: As the air moves faster over the upper surface, the pressure reduces.

Air has a natural tendency to move from high to low pressure. Consider the air inside a car or bike tire which is
normally kept at high pressure. If a hole develops in the tire the air rushes out to the lower pressure outside. At each
local point around an aerofoil, the pressure can be plotted to show a pressure distribution. When added together, the
pressure distribution creates a total reaction force, which acts upwards, in the direction of the lower pressure. Total
reaction can be shown as a single vector (arrow) of the direction and magnitude of the aerodynamic force, as shown
in Figure 2.7. Total reaction is split into two components; lift and drag. Lift is the component that acts perpendicular
to the flight path. But there is a penalty that is paid for creating lift, which is the rearward component – drag.

Figure 2.7: The pressure distribution around the aerofoil can be added together to produce a total reaction (TR)
which acts through the center of pressure (CP).

Center of Pressure
Total reaction acts through a point on the aerofoil known as the center of pressure (CP). The center of pressure
does not remain in a fixed position but will move with any change in angle of attack, as shown in Figure 2.8. As the
angle of attack changes, the local pressure at every point on the aerofoil also changes, therefore moving the center
of pressure. The center of pressure on a general-purpose aerofoil will move forward at higher angles of attack, but
when the angle of attack exceeds the critical (stalling) angle (about 16 degrees), the center of pressure moves
towards the rear.

Figure 2.8: Movement of the center of pressure (CP) and changes of total reaction (TR) with increasing angles of
attack (AoA).
The production of lift is much more complex than a different pressure between upper and lower aerofoil surfaces.
The pressure difference does not account for all the lift generated by an aerofoil. Imagine placing your hand out a
window of a moving car, if you put your hand on a slight incline, it will move upwards or downwards. Or consider
a paper plane that has a flat surface, but still produces an aerodynamic force. When air strikes the lower surface of
an inclined aerofoil (positive angle of attack), the air deflects downwards, which would result in an equal and
opposite reaction, contributing to the generation of lift (using Newton’s third law of motion). As a result, both
Bernoulli and Newton’s explanations can help understand how an aerofoil generates lift.

An aerofoil’s ability to generate an aerodynamic force allows an aircraft to leap into the air. Next, you will take a
closer look at the vertical component – lift, and see how pilots can control the amount of lift the aircraft generates.
 CHAPTER 3: LIFT

O utprevious
of all the forces that act on an aircraft during a flight, lift is by far the most important. As you saw in the
chapter, lift is the vertical component of the aerodynamic force generated as air flows around an
aerofoil. An aircraft needs sufficient lift to overcome the weight of the aircraft and thus is affected by a range of
factors. Some of these factors are outside of a pilot’s control (e.g. aerofoil design), whereas a pilot has some control
over others (e.g. airspeed). Furthermore, lift is not something that should be taken for granted. If the limits are
pushed too far, the lift generated by the wing can quickly disappear.

Lift Generation
During a flight, you do not need to pull out your calculator to work out how much lift the aircraft is currently
generating. But it is important to have an understanding of the different factors that affect an aircraft’s ability to
generate lift, which includes:
Area of the wing
Shape of the aerofoil
Angle of attack
Density of the air
Velocity

Let’s take a look at some of these factors in more detail. Not surprisingly, wing area has a considerable impact on
the lifting capability of a wing. Lift is proportional to wing area (the larger the wing area, the greater the amount of
lift). Interestingly the wing area can sometimes be changed by the pilot, such as lowering Fowler flaps.

The lifting capability of a wing can be represented with a value called coefficient of lift (CL). CL is simply a handy
number that can help show the lifting capability of a wing. CL is calculated by aircraft designers in aerodynamic
testing and is a combined effect of the shape of the aerofoil and angle of attack. CL is unique to an aerofoil but is
affected by a range of factors, including flap setting and contaminates on the aerofoil. Let’s start with a standard CL
curve for an aerofoil, as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: A typical coefficient of lift (CL) curve, comparing CL with angle of attack (AoA).

The first thing you will note is CL increases with higher angles of attack. This means all other factors being equal,
the lift generated by an aerofoil will increase as the angle of attack increases. As Figure 3.1 shows, the aerofoil will
generate a small amount of lift at zero degrees angle of attack, which is due to the curvature of the aerofoil. In fact,
the aerofoil would need to be at a negative angle of attack for zero CL. Looking at the other end of the curve, CL
peaks around 16 degrees angle of attack, which is known as CL max. The exact angle of CL max will vary
depending on the aerofoil but generally is between 14-20 degrees. After CL max, the lifting capability of the
aerofoil rapidly reduces, which is why CL max also corresponds with the critical (stalling) angle. You will cover
stalling in more detail in chapter ten, but the important thing to note is the aerofoil stalls (reduces lift) when the
critical angle is reached, not at a set airspeed.

The CL curve in Figure 3.1 is for a typical, clean (no flaps), general-purpose aerofoil, but there is a range of factors
that will affect CL – some of which pilots have some control over. For example, in chapter six you will see when
flaps are extended (lowered), for the same angle of attack, CL will be higher. The roundness of the peak (CL max),
provides some clues to the stalling characteristics of the aerofoil. A rounded peak (like the one in Figure 3.1),
indicates a gentle and gradual stall.

Speed is a major factor that can influence lift. Lift is proportional to the square of the aircraft’s speed. For example,
an aircraft traveling at 150 knots generates four times the lift as the same aircraft traveling at 75 knots (if all other
factors remain equal). For this reason, if an aircraft was accelerating in level flight, at a constant angle of attack, the
aircraft would begin to climb if the pilot doesn’t adjust one of the other factors affecting lift (reduction in angle of
attack by pitching forward would be the normal response). However, we need to be a little careful when we refer to
‘speed’, as there are two main types of speed that we need to consider; IAS and TAS.
IAS (indicated airspeed) is the measure of dynamic pressure, typically displayed by the airspeed
indicator in the cockpit. This is basically the measure of the number of air molecules slamming into the
aircraft. IAS may be considered the ‘aerodynamic’ speed, as the aerodynamic forces generated on the
aircraft are influenced by IAS (including lift).
TAS (true airspeed) is the measure of the actual speed of the aircraft through the air. TAS is more
important during cross-country flying, as it will influence how far the aircraft will travel.
Lift is proportional to air density. However, if IAS is used as the lift speed reference, the density factor is
automatically taken care of. Both IAS and TAS sound similar and are very similar near sea level. However, higher
in the atmosphere the two diverge, which makes TAS less useful when determining the amount of lift being
generated. Higher in the atmosphere, where the air density is lower, there are fewer air molecules. This means in
order to maintain the same IAS (e.g. 100 knots) and therefore maintain a constant amount of lift, TAS will need to
increase (i.e. to get the same number of air molecules hitting the aircraft), as shown in Figure 3.2. If the same IAS is
maintained, the density the aerofoil reacts to is effectively constant, regardless of altitude.

Figure 3.2: At a higher altitude, an aircraft needs a faster true airspeed (TAS) to maintain an indicated airspeed
(IAS) and therefore generate a constant amount of lift.

Pilots Control of Lift

To summarise, pilots have some control generating lift by adjusting:
Shape of the aerofoil (e.g. lowering flaps)
Angle of attack
 Velocity (IAS)

For a pilot, this means these components can be adjusted to generate the same amount of lift. For example, during
an approach the aircraft travels slower, therefore to generate the same amount of lift, angle of attack needs to be
higher and/or flaps lowered (to change the aerofoil shape), as shown in Figure 3.3. During the cruise, the aircraft
usually travels faster and to generate the same amount of lift, the angle of attack can be reduced and flaps retracted.

Figure 3.3: Angle of attack and speed can be adjusted to generate the same amount of lift.

Wing Contamination
One of the main factors that can degrade an aerofoil’s lifting capability is contamination, such as ice, frost, snow, or
dirt. Contamination can have a considerable impact on an aerofoil’s CL max, as shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Contamination can reduce an aerofoil’s CL max.

As you explored in the previous chapter, lift is generated when air flows smoothly over the curved surface of an
aerofoil. When contamination is present, the smooth flow over an aerofoil can be disrupted, affecting the lifting
capability of the wing. This will result in the aircraft stalling at a much lower angle of attack than normal.
Practically, this also means an aircraft may struggle to generate sufficient lift during slow phases of flight – such as
on approach or take-off, as shown in the following case study:
On January the 17th 2004, a Cessna 208 Caravan took off for a short flight over Ontario, Canada with ten
people on board. Freezing precipitation, in the form of freezing rain and drizzle was falling, which resulted
in ice accumulating on the aircraft’s wing prior to departure. One observer estimated as much as 1/8 of an
 inch of ice had accumulated on the upper surface of the wing. The Cessna Caravan’s wing is very sensitive
to ice, and the loss of lift can be as high as 50 percent. Ice is also heavy, with an estimated 280 pounds
(120 kg) of weight added to the aircraft (about the weight of two adults). The aircraft was observed to
require most of the 3,300-foot runway for take-off, before climbing out at a very shallow angle. The
aircraft stalled shortly after take-off, most likely when the flaps were retracted. The aircraft was too low to
recover and collided with the frozen lake below. The aircraft was also 15% overweight which would have
further degraded performance.
The ability for an aerofoil to generate lift is incredible, especially considering the amount of lift required to haul the
weight of some large aircraft. Furthermore, pilots can control multiple variables, from adjusting the angle of attack
to changing speed, each resulting in a near instant change in lift. But there is a penalty to pay for producing all this
beneficial lift, a force that resists the aircraft’s movement through the air – drag, which you will explore next.
 CHAPTER 4: DRAG

D rag is the force that resists the movement of the aircraft through the air. During a flight, sufficient thrust is
required to overcome the drag of the aircraft. In the previous chapter, you saw the vast majority of lift is
generated by the wings. In contrast, a considerable amount of drag is produced by non-wing parts of the aircraft,
such as the fuselage. Drag will always be present during a flight, acting parallel to the relative airflow. Some drag is
formed as a consequence of creating lift, whereas other types of drag are due to moving an object (the aircraft)
through the air. Despite drag always being present, it varies considerably during different phases of flight,
especially at different speeds. Flying the aircraft in a way that produces a minimum amount of drag is a major goal
during some flights, such as a pilot trying to stay in the air for as long as possible (maximum endurance). As drag
and lift are interconnected, it is also important to explore flying with the maximum amount of lift for the minimum
amount of drag (the lift to drag ratio). This is the point at which the aircraft is flying efficiently, allowing the pilot to
fly further (maximum range) or glide longer (such as during an engine failure).

Drag is split into two main groups; induced drag and parasite drag, with parasite drag split into several sub-groups.
Note the grouping of drag can vary, for example, sometimes skin friction and form drag are placed under an
umbrella term profile drag.

Induced Drag
Induced drag is the penalty for producing lift. Let’s briefly pop back to chapter two and the pressure distribution
around the wing, as shown in Figure 4.2. Higher pressure is generally found below the wing, whereas lower
pressure is found above. This pressure distribution was one of the key aspects that created lift, but also tends to
cause issues near the wingtips. Remember high pressure wants to equalize with low pressure and as a result, the air
spills around the wingtips, creating vortices. These vortices can sometimes be visible when the air is humid.
Figure 4.2: Air spills around the wingtips creating vortices.

As the air spills around the wing, it flows upwards beyond the wingtip, and then angles downwards behind the
wing’s trailing edge. The downwards flow behind the trailing edge is known as downwash. Importantly, downwash
affects the airflow across the wing, tilting the aerodynamic force further backward, as shown in Figure 4.3. The
additional rearward component is known as induced drag.

Figure 4.3: Downwash affects the airflow across a wing, resulting in the lift vector tilting backward, creating
induced drag.

The greater the size and strength of the vortices, the greater the downwash, and therefore more induced drag is
produced. This occurs when the aerofoil is at a high angle of attack, as it creates a greater pressure difference above
and below the aerofoil. The amount of induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the airspeed. To put
this another way; at lower speeds, a higher angle of attack is required to generate sufficient lift to maintain level
flight. This higher angle will result in more induced drag. As the aircraft speed increases, the angle of attack can be
reduced to generate the same amount of lift, therefore less induced drag is produced.

Wingtip design and aspect ratio are the main features utilized to minimize induced drag. Aspect ratio is the span-to-
chord ratio of the wing. An aircraft with a long (span) and skinny (chord) wing, like a glider, has a high aspect ratio.
An aircraft with a short and stubby wing, like an aerobatic aircraft, has a low aspect ratio, as shown in Figure 4.4. A
high aspect ratio wing will produce less induced drag, as the overall size of the wingtip vortices are reduced.
However, in reality most aircraft cannot have a high aspect ratio (long and skinny wing). This may be due to issues
maneuvering on the ground with a long wingspan or structural issues (e.g. the wing would be too heavy). As a
result, most general aviation aircraft have a relatively low aspect ratio wing.
Figure 4.4: Aspect ratio (AR) is the measure of an aircraft span (wing length) and chord (wing width). A high
aspect ratio will reduce induced drag.

Other ways to reduce induced drag include wing taper and winglets. Wing taper means the chord (width) of the
wing reduces towards the wingtips. Less lift is generated near the tips and therefore less air flows between the two
surfaces. Winglets help reduce the leakage of airflow around the wingtip and limit the size of the vortices.

Parasite Drag
Parasite drag is the force trying to slow the movement of the aircraft through the air. It is the drag not associated
with the generation of lift. There are three types of parasite drag: form drag, interference drag, and skin friction.
Form drag, which may also be known as profile drag, is caused when a streamlined flow becomes
separated from an object (e.g. aerofoil). As we saw in chapter two, air tries to flow around the aircraft (or
any object) in a streamlined flow. However, no matter how well designed, the streamlined flow eventually
becomes interrupted and results in a turbulent flow, especially if it changes direction abruptly. A
streamlined flow creates much less drag than an unpredictable turbulent flow. For example, in Figure 4.5,
the air trying to flow around the flat plate will swirl around the edges until it eventually re-joins
downstream, producing a considerable amount of form drag. Whereas, if the design is streamlined, the
flow is more likely to remain attached for longer, reducing the turbulent flow and therefore form drag.
Many features on the aircraft are streamlined – such as fairing around the wheels – to reduce form drag.

Figure 4.5: Streamlining can reduce form drag substantially.

Interference drag is created at the intersections of airstreams around the aircraft, creating eddies and
 turbulent airflow. Interference drag is larger in areas where two surfaces meet at perpendicular angles (90
degrees). For example, the intersection of the wing and the fuselage at the wing root has a considerable
amount of interference drag. Air flowing over the wing collides with air flowing around the fuselage.
Fairings are used to help reduce interference drag, as they help soften the transition at the junction of two
aircraft components.

Skin friction is the drag from the air moving over the aircraft surface. As we discussed in an earlier
chapter, the air molecules touching the surface are virtually motionless, with the air above moving slightly
faster until it is moving at the free-stream velocity. Air flowing over an aerofoil will initially be in a
laminar flow, which is a very thin layer of smooth airflow, producing a low amount of skin friction drag,
as shown in Figure 4.6. When the flow becomes turbulent, more skin friction drag is created due to greater
interaction with the surface of the aircraft. The faster the aircraft is going and the larger the surface area,
the greater the skin friction. It increases with the square of the velocity (e.g. increases exponentially as the
aircraft increases speed). Aircraft designs can help reduce skin friction drag, for example, flush-mounted
rivets, and applying a smooth and glossy finish to surfaces. These features help delay the point that
laminar flow becomes turbulent. Contaminates on the surface, such as dirt will increase skin friction.

Figure 4.6: Skin friction is lower in the laminar flow compared to the turbulent flow.

Drag Curves
The two types of drag (induced and parasite) can be summarised on drag curves, as shown in Figure 4.7. The curves
help show at what stages of flight greater drag may be expected, and more importantly, how to fly the aircraft
through the air efficiently.

Figure 4.7: The drag curve.

Let’s start off by exploring each type of drag separately before combining them, as seen in Figure 4.7. At low
speeds, induced drag is fairly high. You may recall at low airspeeds, angle of attack is higher to generate the same
amount of lift. As airspeed increases, induced drag steadily reduces (as angle of attack can be reduced). Parasite
drag follows the opposite trend. At low speeds, parasite drag is low but increases rapidly with increasing airspeed.
When flying an aircraft, you do not have a choice of just one type of drag, therefore it is important to combine the
two, to create the total drag curve. You can see the total drag curve makes a ‘U’ shape. At low speed, drag is high,
largely made up of induced drag and at high speed, drag is also high, which is largely made up of parasite drag. As
you can see minimum drag occurs where the two curves intersect and correspond with a specific speed (not too fast,
not too slow).

Lift/Drag Ratio
Up to this point, you have explored lift and drag in isolation. But you require an understanding of both the amount
of lift being generated and the drag trying to hold the aircraft back. For example, in the previous section, minimum
drag was identified but what if the aircraft is generating very low amounts of lift at this point? To make this
comparison, a ratio of the lift generated to drag produced is used, known as the lift/drag ratio. Ideally, an aircraft
should generate a high amount of lift for a small amount of drag.

When making this comparison it is important that lift and drag are being compared in a similar way. To do this, a
coefficient of drag (CD) is required, which can be used with coefficient of lift (CL). Like CL, coefficient of drag is
a number that has been determined experimentally in wind tunnels, which is influenced by factors such as aircraft
shape and is compared against an angle of attack (just like CL).

Figure 4.8: Lift to drag ratio curve, indicating the most efficient angle of attack (AoA).

The lift/drag ratio is determined by dividing CL by CD. As shown in Figure 4.8, lift/drag ratio is maximum at about
4 to 6 degrees angle of attack, which means at this angle, the most amount of lift is obtained for the least amount of
drag. Any angle of attack lower or higher would result in an increased drag for a given amount of lift. The
maximum lift/drag ratio is very important, as this is the angle of attack that will allow an aircraft to be flown for
maximum range or maximum glide distance (e.g. during an engine failure). Through the last few chapters, the
importance of angle of attack has been stressed a number of times, however, most small aircraft do not have an
angle of attack indicator in the cockpit. As a result, pilots will normally fly specific speeds stated in the flight
manual that will correspond with an angle of attack, such as a specified speed to fly for maximum glide range.

You have now explored the main force keeping the aircraft airborne (lift) and what is trying to resist the aircraft’s
movement through the air (drag). But aircraft also need to maneuver, such as raising the nose to climb or rolling
onto the runway centreline on approach. Next, you will explore the aircraft flight controls, which you will see
operate using the same principles used in the generation of lift and drag.
 CHAPTER 5: FLYING CONTROLS

Y ouaircraft
have explored the key aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft – lift and drag – so now it’s time to take the
for a flight. During a flight you will want to maneuver the aircraft using various flight controls; from
pitching the nose up in a climb to rolling the wings in a turn. The flight controls use the same principles as the
previous chapters. By adjusting the lift or drag at localized points, it is possible to control the movement of the
aircraft. However, the movement of some flight controls can result in a secondary effect in another direction, which
pilots will need to counter to avoid any undesirable movement of the aircraft.

Center of Gravity
Before exploring the flight controls, we first need to touch on the center of gravity, as this is the point that the
aircraft moves around. Aircraft can be fairly heavy, with not only the aircraft, but fuel, pilot, and passengers all
contributing to the aircraft’s weight. Weight is the force that pulls the aircraft downwards and acts through the
aircraft center of gravity (CG). The CG can be considered a point at which all weight of the aircraft is concentrated.
If the aircraft could balance on the CG, it would remain in any attitude. For example, consider a seesaw, with two
people of equal weight, positioned an equal distance from the middle of the seesaw. The seesaw would be in
balance, moving in neither direction. Despite the weight of the two people at the extreme points of the seesaw, the
CG would in fact be in the middle. CG can move during a flight, for example when fuel is burned or passengers
move through the cabin. The CG location is very important as it affects the controllability of the aircraft, which you
will explore in more detail in chapter 15.

Aircraft Axes
The aircraft rotates around three axes, which are three imaginary lines that pass through the aircraft’s CG, as shown
in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Aircraft axes.

The axis that runs from the nose to the tail of the aircraft is known as the longitudinal axis. The
aircraft rolls around the longitudinal axis.
The axis that runs from wingtip to wingtip is known as the lateral axis, in which the aircraft pitches
around.
The axis that is at right angles to the other two is known as the vertical axis, in which the aircraft
yaws around. This axis may also be referred to as the ‘normal’ axis.
Primary Flight Controls
The three motions of the aircraft (pitch, roll, yaw) are controlled by three types of control surfaces, as shown in
Figure 5.2. Pitch is controlled by the elevator, roll by the ailerons, and yaw by the rudder. These are known as
primary flight controls, which are required to control an aircraft safely during a flight. In the next chapter you will
explore secondary flight controls, such as flaps, which help improve the performance of the aircraft or relieve the
pilot of excessive control forces.

Figure 5.2: The aircraft’s primary flight controls.

Each of the flight controls are small aerofoils (just like the wing). They operate by changing the airflow and
pressure distribution over and around the control surfaces, which in turn affects lift and drag, allowing the pilot to
control the aircraft around the three axes of rotation.

Ailerons control the roll of the aircraft around the longitudinal axis. Pilots move the ailerons by rotating the control
column left or right (a control column may also be called a yoke, control wheel, or control stick). The ailerons are
attached to the outboard section of the aircraft wing and move in the opposite direction to each other. For example,
consider an aircraft that is rolling to the right, as shown in Figure 5.3. When the pilot moves the control column, the
left aileron will move downwards whereas the right aileron moves upwards. The downwards deflection of the left
aileron increases the camber, resulting in more lift generated along the part of the wing that is fitted with the
aileron. The upwards motion of the right aileron reduces the camber, therefore reduces the lift generated on the right
wing. With greater lift on the left wing, the aircraft rolls to the right, around the center of gravity.

Figure 5.3: Ailerons deflect in opposite directions, allowing the aircraft to roll around the center of gravity (CG).
The elevator controls the pitch of the aircraft around the lateral axis, which means moving the nose of the aircraft
up or down. The pilot moves the control column forward and back to operate the elevator. Like the aileron, when
the pilot wishes to pitch the nose up or down, lift is changed on the elevator. For example, if the pilot wishes to
pitch down (e.g. to descend), they will move the control column forward, resulting in the elevator surface deflecting
downwards, as shown on the left side of Figure 5.4. A downwards position increases the camber, therefore
increasing lift on the tail surface. The aircraft rotates around the center of gravity, resulting in a nose down change
in pitch attitude. The opposite occurs with an aft (rearward) movement of the control column.

Figure 5.4: The elevator controls the pitch of the aircraft.

The elevator is attached to the end of the horizontal tailplane (also known as a conventional tailplane). A second
type of design to control pitch is known as an all-moving tailplane (also called a stabilator) whereby the whole
horizontal tail surface moves around a central pivot point, as shown in Figure 5.5. In terms of pitching, they operate
in a similar way (adjusting the lift on the horizontal tail surface), but you will see in the next chapter there are a few
differences in regards to the sensitivity of the control forces.

Figure 5.5: An elevator is attached to the horizontal tailplane, whereas the all-moving tailplane (stabilator) moves
around a pivot point.

The rudder controls the yaw movement of the aircraft around the vertical axis. Yaw basically means the aircraft’s
nose is not pointing in the same direction as the flight path. For example, the aircraft in Figure 5.6 is traveling up
the page, even though the nose of the aircraft is pointing towards the left (yawing left). The rudder is a moveable
control surface fixed to the vertical stabilizer or fin and is controlled by the rudder pedals in the cockpit. When the
rudder is deflected into the airflow, it creates a sidewards aerodynamic force that moves the tail to the left or right,
yawing the nose of the aircraft around the center of gravity. For example, if the pilot pushes down on the left rudder
pedal, the rudder moves to the left. This creates a sidewards force to the right, yawing the whole aircraft to the left,
as shown in Figure 5.6.

Figure 5.6: The rudder creates a sideways aerodynamic force, allowing the aircraft to yaw.

Further Effect
When the aircraft rolls or yaws, a cross-couple or further effect occurs. This means when the pilot wishes to move
around one of the aircraft axes (e.g. roll), there is an unintentional effect in another (e.g. roll creates yaw).
Further effect of roll: When the aircraft rolls, it will yaw in the opposite direction, known as adverse yaw.
As you saw earlier, when an aircraft rolls, the downward deflected aileron generates more lift, but more
lift will also produce more drag on the control surface. This extra drag results in the up-moving wing
slowing down slightly, causing the aircraft to yaw, as shown on the left side of Figure 5.7. This would be
like taxiing the aircraft on the ground with the right brake on slightly. From the pilot’s perspective, the
yaw is in the opposite direction of the roll – roll left = yaw right. Adverse yaw is more pronounced at low
airspeeds, as larger control inputs are required to control the aircraft (more on this shortly). Practically, this
means when you are rolling, you also need to apply rudder.

Figure 5.7: The further effect of roll, is to yaw in the opposite direction (adverse yaw). The further effect of yaw is
to roll in the same direction.

Further effect of yaw: When an aircraft yaws, it will roll in the same direction. For example, if an aircraft
yaw’s towards the left during straight and level flight, the right wing would be exposed to increased
relative airflow, therefore generate more lift, as shown on the right side of Figure 5.7. As a result, more lift
would be generated on the right wing and the aircraft will roll to the left (in the direction of the yaw).
 Practically an aircraft should not be yawing during normal phases of flight (e.g. straight and level), with
the nose kept aligned with the direction of flight.

Control Effectiveness
The effectiveness of the controls will be influenced by how quickly the air is flowing over the control surface. This
can be affected by airspeed and power settings. At higher airspeeds, the air is moving across all control surfaces
quickly, meaning only a small input on the controls is required for the desired movement of the aircraft. At slow
speeds, some of the controls are less effective, requiring larger control inputs for the desired movement of the
aircraft, often making the aircraft feel sluggish. However, some controls can still be very effective at low speeds if
they are affected by the slipstream of the propeller. The propeller (which is discussed in a later chapter), accelerates
air rearwards at high power settings (e.g. on take-off), as shown in Figure 5.8. The slipstream remains in the area
directly behind the propeller, flowing over the rudder and elevator. This means even at low speeds, if the aircraft is
at high power (e.g. take-off, go-around), these controls will remain effective, as the air is still traveling over these
surfaces quickly. However, the ailerons are outside of the slipstream, therefore only influenced by the aircraft
speed. Note the location of the engine(s) will influence the position of the propeller slipstream, with a single-engine
propeller providing the greatest benefit to the elevator and rudder.

Figure 5.8: The propeller slipstream increases the rudder and elevator effectiveness at high power settings.

The primary flight controls allow the pilot to set a range of flight attitudes, such as climbing and turning. Each flight
control surface is relatively small, yet by adjusting the lift and drag by a small amount can swiftly move the aircraft
around the three axes. Some of these same principles can be used to improve an aircraft’s performance and make it
easier to fly the aircraft, which will be explored in the next chapter.
 CHAPTER 6: SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROLS

A ircraft have secondary flight controls that are designed to improve aircraft performance and relieve excessive
control loading. Even small aircraft have a range of secondary controls, with flaps the most common. You will
see the flap offers the best of both worlds, extra lift at low speed, allowing the aircraft to leap off the runway
quicker, but no drag penalty at high speed, once the flaps are retracted. One of the smallest secondary controls can
offer the greatest benefit to the pilot – the trim and balance tabs. These small devices are attached to the end of
some control surfaces, making it easier to fly the aircraft. The larger the aircraft, the more complex the secondary
controls, ranging from slats, slots, and spoilers.

Flaps
Lift enhancing devices can be found on aircraft of all sizes, with the flap the most common system. During the take-
off and landing phase, generating a greater amount of lift is hugely beneficial, allowing the aircraft to land and take-
off at a slower speed. This will also mean less runway is required for both take-off and landing. But as noted in an
earlier chapter, there is a penalty to pay when generating more lift – more drag. This extra drag can be helpful to
bring an aircraft to a swift stop during the landing roll, but not so helpful in the cruise, which is why flaps can be
retracted when they are not required.

Flaps are located on the inner trailing edge of the wing, as shown in Figure 6.1. They are operated from the cockpit,
either with a lever or an electrical switch. Most flaps can be extended (lowered) in stages. Generally, a small flap
setting is used during take-off (more lift for small drag penalty), whereas a larger flap setting is used on landing
(full flap extension), as the larger amount of drag helps fly a steeper approach and lowers the aircraft stall speed.

Figure 6.1: Flaps are located on the inner trailing edge of the wing and can usually be extended (lowered) in
stages.

Before exploring the different types of flaps, let’s take a look at how they improve the lifting capability of the wing.
As touched on in the lift chapter, the coefficient of lift (CL) for a plain aerofoil (no flaps) steadily increases at
higher angles of attack, until the critical (stall) angle is reached (about 16 degrees). When flaps are extended, the
aerofoil changes shape, increasing the effective camber (curvature), resulting in more lift generated along the part of
the wing that is fitted with flaps. The increased camber has a considerable effect on the CL, with CL increasing for
all angles of attack, as shown in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2: When flaps are extended (lowered), coefficient of lift (CL) is higher for a given angle of attack (AoA)
and CL max is higher.

Importantly, flap extension also increases CL max, which is why you can travel slower on approach while
generating the same amount of lift (compared to a flapless approach). The critical angle is usually smaller when
flaps are extended – but the angle may vary for different types of flaps. There are four main types of flaps: plain,
split, slotted, and Fowler flap, as shown in Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: The four main types of flaps (plain, split, slotted, and Fowler).

The plain flap is the simplest of the four flaps. As shown in Figure 6.3, the plain flap is hinged to the back of the
wing and pivots down when extended. The plain flap increases the aerofoil’s camber, which increases the
coefficient of lift at a given angle of attack but also greatly increases drag.
The split flap is deflected from the lower surface of the aerofoil and generates slightly more lift than a plain flap.
However, it also creates more drag due to the turbulent airflow produced behind the aircraft. When fully extended,
both the plain and split flap produce a high amount of drag for very little extra lift.
The most common type of flap found on small aircraft is the slotted flap. The slotted flap significantly increases lift
compared to a plain or split flap. The slotted flap is similar to the plain flap, however, has a gap between the flap
and the wing. High pressure air from below the wing flows through the slot and then over the upper surface of the
flap. This high energy air helps to delay the separation of the airflow, therefore improving the lifting capability of
the wing.
The Fowler flap is a type of slotted flap, but as well as increasing the wing’s camber and adding energy to the
airflow, the Fowler flap also increases the wing area. You may recall wing area was one of the components
affecting lift (larger the wing area, more lift). Instead of rotating on a hinge, the Fowler flap slides backwards on
tracks, therefore increasing the wing area. The first stage of Fowler flap will increase lift significantly for very little
drag penalty.

When pilots are operating the flaps, they need to be aware of the tendency for the aircraft’s nose to pitch up or
down, in some cases considerably. The pitch change can vary between different aircraft types and is due to the
movement of the center of pressure (CP) and changes to the line in which drag acts. During flap extension, the CP
will move aft (rearwards), which can result in the aircraft’s nose pitching up or down. The actual change will
depend on whether the CP is in front or behind the center of gravity (CG). You will explore the positioning of the
CG and CP in more detail in the next chapter. The effect of increased drag depends on whether the aircraft has a
high or low wing, as shown in Figure 6.4. When flaps are extended on a low-wing aircraft, the increased drag acts
below the CG, therefore a nose pitch down change may be encountered. On a high-wing aircraft, the increased drag
acts above the CG, therefore a nose pitch up is more likely.

Figure 6.4: When flaps are extended, the aircraft may pitch up or down due to drag and lift changing.

If a pilot does not remain alert to the pitch change when extending or retracting the flaps, the aircraft can quickly
enter an undesirable attitude. The strength of the pitch change depends on a number of factors, such as the aircraft
speed and the amount of flaps extended (or retracted). The quicker the aircraft and greater the flap extension (or
retraction) will normally result in a greater pitch change.

Extra care is required when flying with full flaps extended. When flaps are fully extended, there is a considerable
increase in drag for very little lift benefit. Full flap extension is normally only used during the approach/landing,
aiding the aircraft to stop swiftly on the runway. During take-off, a smaller flap setting (stage) is normally used, as
it provides increased lift, but not too much extra drag. However, it is important pilots follow the correct flap
retraction procedure after take-off, as the aircraft can sink if flaps are retracted too early. When flaps are retracted
lift is reduced (due to lower CL), and if the same nose attitude is held constant, altitude will be lost (or reduced rate
of climb), especially if flying at low speeds. Practically, this means it is important that the aircraft has accelerated
sufficiently after take-off to compensate for the reduced lift during flap retraction.

Flaps are not the only lift enhancing device, which can include slots, slats, and leading-edge flaps. These are less
common in small aircraft and beyond the scope of this book. These devices are mainly concerned with improving
the airflow characteristics at the leading edge of an aerofoil. Interestingly, there is also a device to reduce lift and
increase drag, known as the spoiler. The spoiler is a device found on the upper surface of a wing, that spoils the
smooth airflow. These can be found on gliders, helping the pilot control the rate of descent. On larger aircraft,
spoilers are also used for roll control, with the main advantage of minimizing adverse yaw.

Trim and Balance Controls

Imagine you have pulled back on the control column to put the aircraft into a steady climb. Ideally, the force
required to move the control column is not too heavy (or light) – you don’t want to have to lift weights at the gym
just to move the control column. Next, once you have put the aircraft into your desired climb attitude, ideally the
aircraft will stay there. In reality, the aircraft will have a tendency to move away from your desired attitude. This
means you would need to constantly hold back pressure on the control column. Clearly, this would become quite
tiring, holding the aircraft in the desired position for much of the flight. As a result, aircraft have trim and balance
controls that assist in the movement and positioning of the primary flight controls. These are part of secondary
flight controls and broadly sit into three areas:
Trim controls are used to hold a control surface at a desired deflection and are controlled in the cockpit
(e.g. hold the elevator in a position for a steady climb).
Balance controls are design features to help reduce stick force (e.g. make it easier to move the controls)
and usually work automatically when the control surface moves.
Anti-balance controls are designed to make it harder to move a control surface. Some controls can be too
sensitive; therefore, an anti-balance control helps prevent pilots from overcontrolling the aircraft.

Trim Tab
Trim systems are possible on all three primary flight controls (elevator, aileron, rudder), however, in small aircraft
they tend to be limited to the elevator (pitch) and rudder (yaw). A trim device is designed to hold a control surface
at a set deflection, which relieves the pilot from having to constantly hold pressure on the control column. A trim
tab is the most common trim system found on small aircraft. The trim tab moves in the opposite direction to the
primary control surface, creating a force in the opposite direction to the main force, replacing the pressure the pilot
must exert on the control column to keep the attitude stable. For example, imagine you are holding forward pressure
on the control column during a descent, meaning the main elevator control surface will be in the down position, as
shown in Figure 6.5. To keep the aircraft in this attitude, the pilot can either hold the control column in a forward
position or have a trim tab do the work for them. In Figure 6.5, the trim tab moves up (in the opposite direction to
the elevator), therefore holding the elevator in the desired position.

Figure 6.5: A trim tab moves in the opposite direction to the main control surface, to relieve the constant pressure
on the controls.

Most trim systems are adjustable, meaning the trim setting can be changed from the cockpit. Despite being small, a
trim tab is a very powerful device that reduces a pilot’s workload. Although the trim tab moves in the opposite
direction to the control surface (e.g. elevator), the trim controls in the cockpit move in a natural way. If the pilot
needs to hold constant back pressure on the control column (e.g. hold the aircraft nose up), there is a need for nose
up trim. The normal trim procedure is: first set the desired attitude, ensure airspeed and power setting is constant.
Then trim in the desired direction until the aircraft is balanced. If the power setting or speed changes, the trim
setting will need to be reset.

Balance Controls
Sometimes a control surface may be too sensitive or require excessive force to move them. This means a pilot may
need a lot of force to pitch the aircraft up, or just a tiny force is required, which can send the aircraft skywards if the
pilot misjudges. When a control surface deflects, it moves around the hinge-line and generates an aerodynamic
force acting through the center of pressure of the control surface, as shown in Figure 6.6. The greater the distance
between the hinge-line and center of pressure, the higher the stick force that will be required to operate the control
surface.

Figure 6.6: The distance between the hinge-line and control surface center of pressure (CP) will affect how easy it
is to move the controls.

An insert-hinge, horn balance, and balance tab are design features that help reduce the required stick force to move
a control, as shown in Figure 6.7. These features are normally required when the hinge-line is too far from the
control surface center of pressure, therefore aim to bring them closer together. A horn balance is usually used on the
rudder and elevator, with the horn ahead of the hinge-line. By having more control surface ahead of the hinge-line,
the distance to the CP is reduced. A balance tab looks very similar to a trim tab, as shown on the right side of Figure
6.7. However, a pilot has no direct control of the tab, which moves automatically, whereas the trim tab that was
explored earlier in this chapter, only moves when the pilot adjusts the trim setting. A balance tab is a small control
device at the end of the normal control surface that moves in the opposite direction. This opposite deflection creates
an aerodynamic force, helping move the main control surface. Some aircraft have a combined trim and balance tab.

Figure 6.7: An insert hinge-line (left side), horn balance, and balance tab(right side) are all designed to reduce the
stick force required to move the controls.

An anti-balance tab (also called anti-servo tab) is used on an all-moving tailplane (stabilator) and moves in the
same direction as the main control surface, as shown in Figure 6.8. An all-moving tailplane is extremely sensitive to
control inputs as the hinge-line and center of pressure of the control surface are relatively close. An anti-balance tab
helps reduce the sensitivity, by increasing the force required to move the all-moving tailplane and can also function
as a trim device.

Figure 6.8: An anti-balance tab (anti-servo tab) is used on an all-moving tailplane (stabilator). It moves in the
same direction as the main control surface.

Secondary flight controls greatly enhance a pilot’s ability to fly an aircraft. These secondary controls can either help
generate more lift when the pilot needs it the most (e.g. on approach) or improve the controllability of the aircraft.
Now it is time to take the aircraft out for a flight and explore how the different forces vary during different phases,
starting with straight and level.
 CHAPTER 7: STRAIGHT AND LEVEL FLIGHT

Y ouexplored
are finally ready to take the aircraft for a flight, starting with straight and level. Up to this point you have
the main forces in isolation, but flying straight and level is not as simple as throwing the four forces
together. Each force normally acts through different points on the aircraft, creating a tendency for the nose to pitch
up or down. Fortunately, the tailplane is designed to help keep all the forces acting on the aircraft in balance. In this
chapter you will also explore the power curves, which show the maximum and minimum speeds an aircraft can
maintain, and how an aircraft’s ability to fly level becomes more difficult with increasing altitude and weight.

Let’s start with recapping the four forces acting on an aircraft in flight, as shown in Figure 7.1:
Lift is the force generated by the aerofoil and opposes weight, acting through the center of pressure (CP).
Weight is the force that pulls downwards due to gravity. It opposes lift and acts through the aircraft’s
center of gravity (CG).
Thrust is the forward force generated by the powerplant/propeller which opposes drag. The point that
thrust acts through depends on the powerplant location.
Drag is the rearward force opposing thrust. The point drag acts through will depend on the aircraft
characteristics.

Figure 7.1: The four

main forces.

During straight and level flight, the sum of the forces acting on the aircraft needs to be in equilibrium. There can be
no unbalanced force (Newton’s first law of motion). Lift must equal weight, otherwise the aircraft would gain or
lose altitude. Thrust must equal drag, otherwise the aircraft would gain or lose speed.

Pitching Moment
During unaccelerated level flight, the lift/weight forces are equal and the thrust/drag forces are equal. However, as
noted at the start of this chapter, the four forces do not act through the same point. Lift acts through the CP, which
for all practical purposes can be considered the CP of the wing (as the rest of the aircraft generates very little lift).
Weight acts through the CG, which is usually located in front of the CP, as shown in Figure 7.2. As the two are not
acting through the same point, lift and weight create a pitching moment (turning force around a point).
Figure 7.2: Pitching moments in flight.

Thrust and drag also do not act through the same point, creating a nose up or down pitching moment. Aircraft are
designed so the pitching moment of lift/weight and thrust/drag oppose each other (pitch the aircraft in opposite
directions). However, it is rare that the two pitching moments balance each other (act equally in opposite
directions). This is where the tailplane becomes very useful, by producing the necessary stabilizing force to
maintain straight and level flight. For example, if the lift/weight moment was too strong on the aircraft in Figure
7.2, the aircraft would have a tendency to pitch the nose down. The tailplane can support the thrust/drag moment,
ensuring the aircraft remains in balance.

Straight and level flight can be maintained at a wide range of speeds with the aid of a combination of angle of attack
and power settings (thrust). At low speeds, angle of attack must be relatively high to ensure lift balances weight
(due to a larger CL at high angles of attack), as shown in Figure 7.3. As airspeed increases, lift will also increase,
therefore angle of attack can be reduced to maintain level flight.

Figure 7.3: Straight and level flight can be maintained at a wide range of speeds by adjusting the angle of attack
(AoA).

As an aircraft accelerates (e.g. increases power), to maintain level flight the pilot will need to coordinate the
required change in angle of attack, by progressively lowering the nose. The opposite applies when an aircraft slows
down in level flight. As speed reduces, the nose will need to be progressively raised to generate sufficient lift.

Power Curves
Before leaving straight and level flight, let’s see how quickly or slowly an aircraft can fly, which is linked with the
amount of power needed to overcome the drag of the aircraft. A word of caution first. We often use the terms
‘power’ and ‘thrust’ interchangeably but they are different concepts. Thrust is the force exerted on an object, in our
case the force to overcome the drag of the aircraft, which is usually measured in pounds (lb) or newtons (N).
Whereas power is work done per unit of time, usually measured in horsepower (hp) or kilowatts (kW). For our
purpose, we can say to maintain level flight, the engine must produce enough power for the propeller to generate
thrust to overcome the drag of the aircraft.

Power available is the amount of power the engine and propeller produce. In most cases, full power is not required
to remain in level flight. Power required is the amount of power needed to overcome the drag of the aircraft. As
you saw in the drag chapter, there are two main types of drag – induced and parasite. Drag is high at high speeds,
largely due to parasite drag. To overcome parasite drag, more power is required (e.g. a higher power setting). But
there does come a point that the drag is too great for the power available, which is the maximum airspeed an aircraft
can maintain in level flight. At low speeds, due to the high levels of induced drag, more power is required to
maintain level flight. If the speed becomes too slow, the aircraft will not have enough power to overcome drag
(minimum airspeed). In most aircraft, the stall is likely to be reached before this point (due to the angle of attack
exceeding the critical angle). The power available and power required can be plotted, known as power curves, as
shown in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4: Power available and power required curves.

You will note the power required curve looks much like the total drag curve. This makes sense, as power required is
the amount needed to overcome the drag of the aircraft. Power available is a relatively flat curve but does increase
slightly as the propeller is a little more efficient at higher speeds (e.g. produces a little more power).

The combination of these curves can tell us a lot about the flight you want to take. We have already touched on the
two ends of the curves (minimum and maximum speeds for level flight), but a few points in between are also of
interest. The minimum power required point will provide the speed for maximum endurance (to stay in the air the
longest), as this is the minimum power required to stay in level flight – therefore the lowest fuel flow. You will
explore endurance and range in a later topic. You will also see in the next chapter these same curves are used to
determine how well an aircraft can climb.

The power curves can change, especially when weight and altitude vary. Let’s start with weight. If the weight of the
aircraft increases (e.g. you take on more passengers), the power available will remain the same. The available power
from the engine does not change just because extra people jumped into the aircraft. However, more power is
required, as the aircraft now requires a higher angle of attack to generate sufficient lift to maintain level flight at a
given speed. A higher angle of attack will result in increased drag and therefore more power is required to move.
This results in the power required curve rising with increasing weight, affecting the previously mentioned speeds
(minimum and maximum speeds for level flight), as shown in Figure 7.5.
Figure 7.5: Power required (PR) and power available (PA) changes as weight and altitude increase.

Flying higher will impact both power curves. First, power available reduces, as the air is less dense at altitude,
meaning the engine does not produce as much power (assuming the engine is not supercharged, which is the case in
most small aircraft). The power required increases, as you need more power to move through the thinner air. This
means the two curves converge on each other, as shown in Figure 7.5. The minimum and maximum speeds for level
flight change, and the higher you fly, the narrower the zone you can operate within to maintain level flight. This can
be an issue when flying in mountainous areas.
You can see maintaining level flight requires a careful balance of the forces acting on the aircraft, along with a little
help from the tailplane. But there is more to flight than flying straight and level, so in the next chapter you will
explore how the aircraft climbs and descends.
 CHAPTER 8: CLIMBING AND DESCENDING

B efore flying straight and level in the cruise, you first need to climb, and at some point, you will need to head
back down in a descent. Although the same four forces are in play when going up and down, the weight
component plays a key role when exploring the forces, which can either hinder or help a climb or descent.
Furthermore, there are different types of climbs and descents. Imagine you are preparing to take-off and notice tall
trees just beyond the end of the runway. After take-off, should you climb in the shortest forward distance or gain
altitude as quickly as possible? Although both these options sound similar, practically one of these climbs will see
you comfortably clear the trees, the other may not be so comfortable. What about when one of the forces suddenly
disappears – like an engine failure requiring a glide. You will revisit the lift/drag ratio to work out how to glide the
furthest.

Climbing
There is a common misconception that when an aircraft is in a climb, lift must be greater than weight. Once an
aircraft is established in a steady climb, the amount of lift generated will in fact be slightly less than level flight.
This may seem a little odd, but all forces acting on the aircraft need to be in equilibrium during a steady climb, just
like flying straight and level. The weight component plays a key role when exploring the forces during a climb, as
shown in Figure 8.1. Imagine driving a car on a flat road when you approach a steep hill. As you begin to drive up
the hill you will need more gas to maintain the same speed. The reason is linked to the direction weight is acting,
and also affects an aircraft’s ability to climb.

Figure 8.1: Forces in a steady climb.

Weight will always be acting downwards (due to gravity), but in the climb a component of the aircraft’s weight acts
in the same direction, and parallel to the drag of the aircraft. This is commonly known as the rearward component
of weight. To have all the forces in equilibrium during a steady climb, thrust must equal drag as well as the
rearward component of weight. If you wish to maintain the same speed as before the climb, thrust needs to increase.
The amount of extra thrust required depends on the climb angle. The steeper the angle, the more thrust is required,
due to the larger rearward component of weight. If the climb becomes too steep, not enough thrust will be available
and the aircraft will begin to slow down. Lift must equal the component of weight which is perpendicular to the
flight path (dotted green line in Figure 8.1). Lift is marginally less than the total weight of the aircraft.

Any climb will be a compromise between altitude gained and relative distance travelled across the ground, as
shown in Figure 8.2. If we pop back to the scenario at the start of this chapter, and imagine you are ready to take-
off:
To clear the large trees at the end of the runway, you will want to climb as steep as possible in the shortest
horizontal distance, this is known as the maximum angle of climb (which is also known as Vx).
Now you have cleared the trees, the next thing you want to do is gain altitude as quickly as possible, which
is known as the maximum rate of climb (Vy).
Finally, you are at a safe altitude but still need to climb further, but are in no hurry to gain altitude, as a
result a cruise climb would be recommended.

Figure 8.2: Examples of the three main types of climbs, comparing altitude gained and distance along the ground
in a given time.

Any type of climb is only possible if there is excess power available compared to power required. The maximum
rate of climb (Vy) is one of the most common types of climbs, as gaining altitude swiftly is very beneficial. Vy can
be determined if we look back at the power curves that were explored in the previous chapter. Vy is the speed that
corresponds with the greatest excess power, as shown in Figure 8.3. In most aircraft, this is not at the lowest point
on the power required curve, but rather a little to the right due to the shape of the power available curve.

Figure 8.3: Vy (maximum rate of climb) speed corresponds with the greatest excess power.

An aircraft’s ability to climb will be influenced by any factor that will eat into the excess power; which includes
weight, altitude, and aircraft configuration (e.g. flaps). Increasing weight, lowering flaps and landing gear, and
higher altitude will all result in poorer climb performance.
Weight has a considerable impact on climb performance – and aircraft performance in general. Increased
weight results in more drag, therefore greater power is required during any phase of flight. This will mean
 less excess power is available to help the aircraft climb.
Increasing altitude will affect both the power required and power available, as discussed in the previous
chapter, resulting in less excess power and therefore poorer climb performance. As altitude increases, the
two curves will converge to a point known as the absolute ceiling. At this altitude, there is no excess
power to climb, therefore the aircraft is only able to maintain steady, level flight. The absolute ceiling is
the altitude where the rate of climb is 0 feet per minute, however, practically service ceiling is more
relevant. Service ceiling represents the altitude at which the aircraft’s rate of climb is less than 100 feet per
minute. The danger of trying to climb at high altitudes is shown in the following case study:
On August 7th 2006, a pilot flying a Piper PA28 Arrow (single-engine small aircraft) was returning to
California. It was a warm summer’s day and the pilot chose a route over mountainous terrain, with some
peaks up to 14,000 feet. The pilot inadvertently flew the wrong way into a box canyon, with a dead-end
(steep terrain on both sides of the flight path). The pilot likely tried to outclimb the terrain, but due to the
high altitude, coupled with high temperatures, the aircraft was operating close to its limits, and was only
able to climb at about 130 feet per minute. The aircraft was unable to outclimb the terrain and crashed at
an elevation of about 12,000 feet.

Descending
Now that you have climbed, it is time to head down. You will explore two types of descents; a powered and a glide
descent. Like the climb, the weight component plays a key role when exploring the forces during a descent.
Consider a car placed on a steep hill. Even with the engine turned off, the car will start rolling down the hill. Like
the forces in a climb, the reason is linked to the direction through which weight is acting, and just like the car on the
hill, influences an aircraft during a descent.

Once an aircraft is established in a descent, the lift generated is similar to straight and level. Weight still acts
vertically downwards, but this time also acts in the same direction as thrust, opposing drag, known as the forward
component of weight. During a glide, the forward component of weight is the only force opposing drag, as shown in
Figure 8.4. Practically, a descent will be conducted with some power, which means thrust and the forward
component of weight are acting in the same direction. This means the descent angle can be reduced to maintain a
given speed.

Figure 8.4: The forces in a glide.

Glide Angle
Imagine flying along and suddenly your single-engine goes quiet. After a brief panic, your training kicks in and you
spot a good field in the distance to conduct an off-field landing. You place the aircraft into a glide, but the field is
quite a distance away. What speed will help you glide the furthest; should you aim for minimum drag or maximum
lift? Neither, in fact, your speed should correspond with the best lift/drag ratio, which was touched on in the
previous chapter. You may recall this represents the speed when the aircraft is generating the most amount of lift for
the minimum amount of drag. The best lift/drag ratio will correspond with a specific angle of attack (normally
around 4 degrees), as shown in Figure 8.5.
Figure 8.5: Flying at the best lift/drag ratio angle of attack will allow an aircraft to glide the furthest.

As we have mentioned a few times, small aircraft do not normally have an angle of attack indicator and as a result,
aircraft will have a recommended glide speed that represents the most efficient angle of attack. Flying at the correct
glide speed is very important, as shown in the following case study:
On the evening of the 24th of August 2001, an Airbus A330 airliner was flying across the Atlantic with 306
people on board. The aircraft developed a fuel leak due to improper maintenance conducted prior to the
flight, which the pilots were initially unaware of. About halfway across the Atlantic, the aircraft began to
run out of fuel and the pilots decided to divert to an aerodrome in the Azores. At about 65 nautical miles
(120km) from the aerodrome, the aircraft completely ran out of fuel at 33,000 feet, turning the airliner into
a glider. The aircraft was placed into a glide, descending at about 2,000 feet per minute. The pilots
calculated they had about 15 to 20 minutes of glide time to find the aerodrome before they had to ditch in
the ocean. The pilots spotted the aerodrome with just a few minutes to spare, where they made a safe
landing.

You are descending at the best glide speed, but you need to extend the glide to make the field. What else can you
change to help glide further?
Let’s start with weight. You have a large heavy suitcase on board, surely throwing it out of the aircraft
will help extend the glide? Unfortunately, changing weight will not extend your glide; this may sound a
little odd but it comes back to the forces in the glide. If the aircraft is lighter, the weight vector is a little
smaller. A lighter aircraft also means less lift is required, and less drag is produced, as shown in Figure
8.6. All that has happened by throwing out the heavy suitcase is all the forces are a little smaller. The glide
has not been extended as there is no impact on the lift/drag ratio. The only result is you are now heading
towards the ground a little slower (a smaller forward component of weight) and at a slower rate of descent
– but you will still hit the same spot without your suitcase. The same concept applies if weight increases.
A heavier aircraft means the aircraft glides faster and at a higher rate of descent, but you still glide to the
same spot.
Figure 8.6: An aircraft’s weight will not affect glide range, with the lift (L), weight (W), drag(D), and the forward
component of weight all changing size by a similar amount.

Wind can have a considerable impact on an aircraft’s glide range. A strong tailwind will push the aircraft
further, whereas a headwind will hold you back, as shown in Figure 8.7.

Figure 8.7: An aircraft in a glide will travel further across the ground with a tailwind (and less with a headwind).
Speed control is very important. Any speed above or below your best glide speed will mean you are no longer
flying at the best lift/drag ratio, reducing glide range.

The final item is flaps and landing gear. When flaps are lowered, the glide range will be reduced due to the
increased drag. Although flaps will increase lift, there is a greater increase in drag, which reduces the lift/drag
ratio. This is especially apparent at the higher flap settings. When the landing gear is lowered drag will also
increase, further degrading the lift/drag ratio.

An aircraft can climb or descend at a range of speeds and angles, but to achieve the desired aircraft performance
you need to fly the aircraft accurately. This can be critical if you are trying to outclimb a large obstacle at the end of
the runway or glide during an engine failure.
 CHAPTER 9: TURNING FLIGHT

Y ouuseshave gone up and down, stayed level, and now it’s time to explore how an aircraft turns a corner. Turning
the same forces that you have touched on in the last few chapters, however, this time it is lift that plays a
key role when turning a corner. During a turn you also need to consider g-force, which if not respected can result in
the aircraft stalling at a much higher speed than normal, affecting a pilot’s ability to stay conscious, and
compromising the integrity of the aircraft structure.

As we saw in chapter seven, during straight and level flight, lift equals weight. When an aircraft rolls into a turn, the
lift vector will be tilted towards the center of the turn, as shown in Figure 9.1. The tilt of the lift vector will be the
same as the aircraft’s bank angle (e.g. 45 degree bank angle will tilt the lift by the same amount). The lift
component can now be split into two; a vertical component that opposes weight and a horizontal component that is
helping the aircraft turn. The horizontal component acting inwards is also known as centripetal force, which
affects how quickly the aircraft turns.

Figure 9.1: When an aircraft turns, lift must be increased to ensure the vertical component of lift equals weight.

Now that the aircraft is in a steady turn, there is another issue – the vertical component of lift no longer equals
weight, which would result in the aircraft descending. To maintain a level turn, more lift is required which is
achieved by increasing the angle of attack. As a result, to fly a level turn you will use ailerons to maintain your
desired bank angle, and at the same time apply back pressure on the control column to ensure the vertical
component of lift equal’s weight. But like we have seen in previous chapters, there is a penalty to pay for generating
more lift – more drag. To overcome the extra drag and maintain a constant airspeed in a level turn, extra thrust is
required. The amount of extra thrust is proportional to the bank angle; the larger the bank angle, the more thrust is
required to maintain a steady airspeed. The bank angle limit of most general aviation aircraft is about 60 degrees. At
this bank angle most, if not all, the thrust of the aircraft is required to remain in level flight.

Turn Rate and Radius

Imagine you have just flown into a valley with steep terrain on either side of the aircraft. The end of the valley is
fast approaching, so you need to make a 180 degree turn to head back to safety. Do you want a fast or slow airspeed
to keep the turn as small as possible? To answer this question, you need to explore turn radius and turn rate. Turn
radius is how large the turn is (e.g. how much space is required for the turn). Turn radius is proportional to speed;
the quicker the aircraft speed, the larger the radius, and vice versa, as shown in Figure 9.2
Figure 9.2: For an aircraft flown with the same bank angle, the radius of the turn will be influenced by the speed of
the aircraft.

How quickly you are turning is known as the rate of turn (e.g. number of degrees turned in one minute). Rate of
turn is interlinked with aircraft speed. For a given bank angle, as speed increases, the rate of turn decreases, and
vice versa (e.g. the quicker the aircraft, the longer it takes to complete a turn). Sometimes a pilot may be required to
conduct a rate one turn, especially during some instrument flying maneuvers. A rate one turn means a 360-degree
turn is conducted in two minutes (3 degrees per second) and may be used in various phases of flight. For example,
if air traffic control needs to provide extra separation between you and another aircraft, they may ask you to conduct
a rate one turn (also known as an orbit).

Figure 9.3: The bank angle required for a rate one turn will vary with speed.

The bank angle required to conduct a rate one turn will depend on the speed you are flying, as shown in Figure 9.3.
As a general rule, the approximate bank angle required for a rate one turn can be calculated by dividing true
airspeed (TAS) in knots by 10 and then adding 7. For example, an aircraft flying at 90 knots would require a 16-
degree bank angle (90 ÷ 10 + 7 = 16) and 200 knots would require a 27-degree bank angle (200 ÷ 10 + 7 = 27).

Load Factor
When flying a level turn, a pilot also needs to be aware of load factor, also known as g-force. During a steep turn,
load factor can be considerable, potentially exceeding the limits of both the aircraft and the pilot. Load factor is the
ratio of lift to weight, generally measured in Gs (acceleration of gravity). In straight and level flight, lift equals
weight, therefore you can say you are being exposed to 1G, just like standing on firm ground. 1G means if you
dropped an object, it would fall to the ground at the normal acceleration rate of gravity (accelerate towards the
ground at 32 feet per second). When an aircraft is in a level turn, more lift is required. As the lift is now greater than
weight, you will be exposed to more than 1G. For example, if the amount of lift required is twice as much as level
flight, you can say you are being exposed to 2G. If you dropped an object, it would fall to the ground twice as fast
as normal.

Aircraft are designed to withstand the highest load factor that can be expected under normal flight conditions – plus
an extra safety buffer. For example, an aerobatic aircraft will have a higher load factor limit (e.g. 6G) compared to a
non-aerobatic aircraft (e.g. 4G). If the aircraft is flown beyond its maximum load factor, structural damage may
occur, as shown in the following case study:
On 11th April 2002, a Beechcraft G35 Bonanza (single-engine, small aircraft) was seen approaching a
motorsports park in California at high speed, at about 1,200 feet. The aircraft circled the park in a sharp,
level turn before beginning to climb away to the east. However, shortly afterwards the tail separated from
the aircraft, followed by the left-wing, and the aircraft crashed into the ground. Investigators found the
airframe had suffered structural failure, consistent with a high load factor. The limiting load of the aircraft
was 4.4G, but at the speed the aircraft was traveling and the tightness of the turn, the load factor may have
been as high as 6.6G.

Turning is one of the main flight maneuvers that can very quickly increase load factor. At small bank angles, load
factor remains relatively low but increases rapidly as bank angle increase. For example:
In a 30-degree level turn, the load factor is 1.15G, which means the wings need to generate 15% more
lift.
In a 60-degree level turn, the load factor is 2G, which means the wings need to generate twice the
amount of lift.
Just over 70-degree level turn, the load factor is 3G, needing three times the lift.

Figure 9.4: The steeper the bank angle, the greater the load factor (G).

Load factor also has a significant impact on the aircraft stall speed. You will explore stalling in more detail in the
next chapter, where you will see an aircraft stalls at a critical angle of attack, normally about 16 degrees. During a
level turn, the angle of attack is increased to ensure the vertical component of lift equal’s the weight of the aircraft,
resulting in an increase in load factor. If the angle of attack exceeds the critical angle during the turn, the aircraft
will stall. For example, if an aircraft has a 1G stall speed of 50 knots, at 4G it will stall at 100 knots.

Climbing and Descending Turns

During a flight, a pilot may combine turns as described in this chapter with climbing and descending as previously
discussed. In both cases, the aircraft has a tendency to not remain at the pilot’s desired bank angle.

During a climbing turn, the aircraft has a tendency to overbank (continue to bank into the direction of the turn). The
outside wing travels a greater distance during a climbing turn, therefore is faster than the inside wing. The higher
speed generates more lift on the outer wing, resulting in a tendency to continue to roll into the turn, as shown in
Figure 9.5. Once you are established in a climbing turn, it may be necessary to ‘hold off bank’. This means once
you have rolled into your desired bank angle, the aileron input is reduced slightly.

Figure 9.5: During a climbing turn, the outer wing generates more lift, leading to overbanking. During a
descending turn, the inside wing generates more lift, leading to underbanking.

During a descending turn, the inner wing travels down a steeper descent path, which results in the inner wing
meeting the relative airflow at a higher angle of attack than the outer wing. This counters the effect of the outer
wing traveling faster, and in some cases reverses the overbanking tendency, resulting in the aircraft underbanking.
This means the aircraft will have a tendency to roll back to wings level, requiring the pilot to hold aileron pressure
on the control column to maintain a desired bank angle.

You have now covered all the normal flight maneuvers. You have climbed, flown straight and level, conducted a
few turns, and descended. But from time-to-time, a pilot may lose control of the aircraft, such as in a stall or spin.
This can be a very alarming situation, especially if you are low to the ground. Next, you will explore stalling and
spinning, with a focus on how to avoid and recover from them.
 CHAPTER 10: STALLING AND SPINNING

I magine you are racing down the runway on a clear day, you use most of the runway and eventually lumber into
the sky. All seems to be going well but after a few hundred feet the aircraft begins to shake. To your horror, the
aircraft is no longer climbing but descending, despite the aircraft’s nose pointing skywards. Your natural instinct is
to pull back on the control column, but you will see in this chapter that is the worst thing you could do. The aircraft
has stalled, and it is critical you reduce the aircraft’s angle of attack by easing forward on the control column.
Although a stall is often associated with slow flight, you will see a stall can occur at any airspeed.

A stall is a rapid reduction in lift that is caused by exceeding the critical (stalling) angle. When the wing is flown
beyond the critical angle, there is a separation of the airflow over the wing, as shown in Figure 10.1. During a
stalled state, the aircraft is still generating lift, but it is not enough to sustain level flight. As well as a reduction in
lift, there is also a significant increase in drag.

Figure 10.1: A stall occurs when the critical (stall) angle is exceeded, which results in the separation of airflow
over the upper surface of the wing.

An aircraft does not have a fixed stall speed, but rather will stall at the same critical angle, regardless of airspeed,
weight, load factor or altitude. The critical angle will vary depending on the aerofoil, but typically occurs around 16
degrees in light aircraft. It can be up to 20 degrees depending on the aerofoil design. Aircraft will have a stall speed
(Vs) stated in the flight manual, but this speed is only valid for 1G, unaccelerated flight at a fixed weight. There are
three main situations in which the critical angle may be exceeded: low speed, high speed, and turning.
Low Speed: When airspeed reduces, the angle of attack must be increased to generate sufficient lift to
maintain level flight. A speed will eventually be reached where the increasing angle of attack will exceed
the critical angle, resulting in the airflow over the wing being disrupted and therefore stalling, as shown in
Figure 10.2.
High speed: A stall can occur at high speed when the critical angle is exceeded. One situation in which
this can occur is pulling out of a dive. When the pilot pulls back sharply on the control column, initially
the flight path is unaltered due to inertia, but the angle of attack changes quickly from fairly low to very
high, resulting in a high speed stall.
Turning: As explored in the previous chapter, a level turn can result in the stall speed increasing rapidly.
During a level turn, the angle of attack is increased to ensure the vertical component of lift equal’s the
weight of the aircraft. If the angle of attack exceeds the critical angle during the turn, the aircraft will stall.
For example, during a 60-degree level turn, the stall speed will be 1.4 times the level flight stall speed
 (e.g., an aircraft with a level stall speed of 50 knots will stall at 70 knots in a 60-degree turn).

Figure 10.2: An aircraft can stall at a range of airspeeds.

Flap setting and contaminates on the wing could result in an aircraft stalling at a different critical angle than normal.
When flaps are lowered an aircraft will usually stall at a lower critical angle, but the actual change will vary
depending on the aerofoil’s design. If the surface of the aerofoil is contaminated, such as with snow or ice, this will
cause a separation of the airflow sooner than normal, resulting in the aircraft stalling at a lower critical angle.

Stall Warning
Due to the serious nature of a stall, especially at low level, aircraft are designed with various warning features. As
just discussed, low speed is not the only situation that a stall can occur in (although it is the most common), and as a
result, speed alone is not a reliable stall warning. Most aircraft will have a stall warning system, which in a general
aviation aircraft will activate a sound (buzzing noise) as the critical angle is approached. Some aircraft will
experience buffeting as the critical angle is approached (you will feel the controls vibrating). A pre-stall buffet is
caused by the streamlined flow starting to break away and becoming turbulent, flowing back over the horizontal
stabilizer (the tail). If level flight is being maintained, the aircraft nose attitude may provide some pre-stall warning.
A high nose attitude in level flight is a potential sign of an approaching stall. It is important to note that each aircraft
has a unique set of pre-stalling signs (e.g. not all aircraft will experience significant buffeting), therefore it is
important to be aware of the stalling characteristics for the aircraft you fly.

At the stall, these symptoms may continue or even intensify, along with a few more characteristics. Most aircraft are
designed to encourage a nose drop during a stall, reducing the angle of attack and therefore ‘unstalling’ the aerofoil.
This nose drop is due to the center of pressure usually being located behind the center of gravity (CG), therefore a
sudden drop in lift will allow the weight of the aircraft to pull the nose down. This is one of the reasons why it is
important to ensure the aircraft’s CG is within the required limits during a flight. If an aircraft was flown with the
CG outside of limits, it may be more difficult to recover from a stall.

Wing Drop Stall

A stalled aircraft is not an ideal situation, but what is worse is a wing drop stall, which can lead to a spin. If one
wing stalls before the other, there will be a sudden reduction in lift on one wing, leading the aircraft to roll rapidly
towards the stalled wing. Using ailerons near the stall may induce a wing drop, as shown in Figure 10.3. As an
aircraft approaches the critical angle, the down-going aileron can cause one wing to exceed the critical angle before
the other wing.
Figure 10.3: The use of ailerons near the stall can cause one wing to stall before the other, resulting in a rapid roll
(wing drop) towards the stalled wing.

A wing drop stall may set off a chain of events leading to a spin. The down-going wing will stall even further due to
an increasing angle of attack. The imbalance of lift and drag between the two wings will cause the aircraft to yaw
and roll automatically, leading to a state called autorotation. We will discuss more on spinning shortly. A few
design methods are used to avoid a wing drop by encouraging the wing root (close to the fuselage) to stall first,
including:
a ‘twisted’ wing, whereby the wing root has a higher angle of attack than the wingtip
a stall strip (flow strip) at the wing root, which encourages the wing root to stall first.

Stall Recovery
Recovering from a stall is simple; the angle of attack must be reduced to less than the critical angle by easing
forward on the control column. The technique is the same for all the stall situations (e.g. low speed, high speed, or
turn). At low levels, this may seem frightening, but without a reduction in angle of attack, the smooth airflow over
the aerofoil cannot be regained. If a wing drop stall develops, it is important to first ease forward on the control
column to reduce the angle of attack. Once the wings are unstalled, the aircraft can be rolled wings level.

Spin
A spin is an aircraft in a stalled state, rotating about the vertical axis in a downward spiral path, as shown in Figure
10.4. A spin is an advanced stage of autorotation that was touched on earlier, with the aircraft yawing and rolling. A
spin can be quite frightening, especially if it is entered unintentionally, with the aircraft losing a significant amount
of altitude in a short period of time. During a spin both wings are stalled, however, one wing is in a deeper stall than
the other. This results in greater drag being generated on that wing, leading to the autorotation. The spin will result
in a high rate of descent, with the aircraft following a corkscrew like downward path. Typically, the aircraft will
have a high angle of attack and low airspeed.
Figure 10.4: An aircraft in a spin to the left.

A spin should not be confused with a spiral dive. During a spiral dive, the aircraft is not stalled but is descending at
a high rate of descent, a low angle of attack, and often with a high and increasing airspeed. Basically, a spiral dive is
a steep descending turn.

Neither a spin nor spiral dive is a pleasant situation, but following the correct recovery will help you return to a
normal state of flight. The recovery from a spin is similar to a stall, in that the wings need to be unstalled. The
PARE recovery is one technique that can be used:
power to idle
ailerons to neutral
rudder applied opposite to the spin direction (to stop the spin rotation – then center
rudder)
elevator forward (to unstall the wings).

It can sometimes take a few rotations before the opposite rudder and forward elevator take effect. The spin recovery
technique can vary between different aircraft, therefore ensure you are aware of the appropriate spin recovery
technique for the aircraft you fly. A spiral dive recovery is similar, however, as the aircraft is not in a stalled state,
forward elevator pressure is not required, but rather you can ease out of the dive (gently pull up) once the wings are
level.

A stall, spin, and spiral dive can take you by surprise. You should act swiftly to return the aircraft to a normal state
of flight. But it is just as important to remain alert for signs of an approaching stall. A low airspeed is the most
common time a stall is experienced, as such, you should remain extra vigilant any time the aircraft is flying slowly
(e.g. take-off and landing).
 CHAPTER 11: STABILITY

I magine you are flying along with the aircraft nicely trimmed. If you took your hands off the controls, it would
remain in your desired attitude. You briefly look down at your flight plan, but at the same time a slight patch of
turbulence causes the aircraft to pitch up slightly. What the aircraft does next will depend on the stability
characteristics of the aircraft, which is largely dependent on the aircraft design. Will the aircraft continue to pitch
up, eventually reaching the critical angle and causing a stall? Or will the aircraft initially head back towards its
original position before entering a dive? Stability is the natural tendency of an aircraft to return to its original
position. As you will see in this chapter, even small aircraft have clever stability design features for the three axes
of movement.

Static and Dynamic Stability

There are two types of stability: static and dynamic. Static stability refers to the initial tendency or direction the
aircraft follows after a disturbance. For example, if the aircraft is disturbed in a pitch up position, what happens
next:
Positive static stability means the aircraft’s initial tendency is to return back towards its original position
(e.g. pitch back down).
Neutral static stability means the aircraft remains in the new condition (e.g. remains at a fixed pitch up
attitude).
Negative static stability means the aircraft’s initial tendency is to continue away from its original position
(e.g. pitch up further), as shown in Figure 11.1.

Figure 11.1: Static stability refers to the initial tendency or direction following a disturbance (e.g. aircraft pitches
up unintentionally).

Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft’s response over time, in other words, after the initial static stability response,
what happens to the aircraft next:
Positive dynamic stability means over time the aircraft returns to its original position, as shown
in Figure 11.2.
Neutral dynamic stability means the oscillation never dampens.
Negative dynamic stability means the oscillation gets worse over time.
Figure 11.2: Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft’s response over time.

Stability and Controllability

Aircraft stability is a compromise between stability and controllability. Consider an aircraft with a very high level
of stability, meaning when it strays from its original position, it will have a tendency to return back very strongly.
This sounds great in periods of turbulence or unwanted movement, but would also mean if you try to move the
aircraft’s controls (e.g. pitch up), the aircraft’s stability characteristics will try to prevent this movement. You would
require excessive force to move the controls, resulting in an aircraft that is not very controllable. If we consider the
opposite, an aircraft with a high level of controllability, a small movement on the controls would change the attitude
of the aircraft, but there is very little tendency for the aircraft to return back towards its original position. This
allows precise control inputs, but if the aircraft unintentionally moves away from its original position, it will have
little desire to return (potentially placing the aircraft into an undesirable flight condition very quickly). Most small
aircraft are designed to provide a sufficient degree of stability, but not too much to ensure pilots can still maneuver
the aircraft.

Longitudinal Stability (Pitch)

Longitudinal stability is around the lateral access (pitch) and is largely achieved through tailplane design and the
position of the center of pressure (CP). Of the three types of stability that we will explore, longitudinal stability is
generally considered the most important due to the change in lift that can occur when the aircraft’s pitch varies (and
therefore the angle of attack). When an aircraft is disturbed in pitch, the tailplane or movement of the CP provides a
restoring force, which creates a restoring moment to return the aircraft back to its original attitude, as shown in
Figure 11.3.
Figure 11.3: The tailplane can provide a restoring moment to help provide longitudinal stability.

Directional Stability (Yaw)

Directional stability is around the vertical axis (yaw) which is largely achieved by the vertical fin and side of the
fuselage. This helps the aircraft right itself (realign with the airflow) in a similar manner to a weather vane.
Directional stability relies on the aircraft having a greater area behind the center of gravity than ahead, as shown in
Figure 11.4. When an aircraft is disturbed in yaw, the fin will develop a restoring force to realign the fuselage with
the airflow.

Figure 11.4: Directional stability is largely achieved by the vertical fin and side of the fuselage.

Lateral Stability (Roll)

Lateral Stability is around the longitudinal axis (roll) and is achieved through design features such as dihedral,
shielding, wing position, keel surface/fin area, and sweepback. When an aircraft is disturbed in roll, these design
features ensure the down-going wing generates greater lift to return the aircraft back to its original position. Lateral
stability design features often utilize the change in relative airflow caused by a sideslip. When an aircraft is
disturbed in roll, lift will tilt towards the down-going wing, causing the aircraft to slip sideways, as shown in Figure
11.5. As a result of the sideslip, the relative airflow will have a sideways component.

Figure 11.5: When an aircraft is disturbed in roll it will cause a sideslip, resulting in a sideways component of
relative airflow (RAF).

Dihedral is a wing design feature whereby the outer tip of the wing is higher than the wing root, as shown
 on the left side of Figure 11.6. When the aircraft sideslips, the down-going wing will be subjected to a
higher angle of attack and therefore generate more lift. The up-going wing will have a lower angle of
attack and therefore less lift. The difference in lift generated on each wing creates a restoring moment,
rolling the wings level.

Figure 11.6: Dihedral helps provide a restoring moment when an aircraft is disturbed in a roll.

Sweepback is when the leading edge of the wing slopes backward (often found on commercial airliners),
as shown in Figure 11.7. When an aircraft is disturbed in roll, the down-going wing will have a larger
effective span, which helps generate more lift, providing a restoring moment.

Figure 11.7: Sweepback results in the down-going wing having a larger effective span when disturbed in roll,
generating more lift and providing a restoring moment.

Keel effect, shielding, and wing position can all aid in lateral stability. During a roll, the center of pressure
is displaced towards the down-going wing on a high winged aircraft. The keel effect and shielding can
provide a sideslip drag force, as shown in Figure 11.8. Each of these design features helps provide a
restoring moment to bring an aircraft back to a wings level position.
Figure 11.8: A high wing, the keel effect and shielding can all help provide lateral stability.

Dutch Roll and Spiral Instability

Aircraft designers need to carefully match lateral (roll) and directional (yaw) stability. If one is much stronger than
the other, an aircraft can oscillate around these two axes, known as Dutch roll, or result in a spiral dive.
Spiral instability occurs when an aircraft has strong directional but weak lateral stability. If an aircraft is
disturbed in roll, the aircraft will not want to return to wings levels swiftly, but the strong directional stability
will cause the aircraft to yaw in the direction of the roll. For example, if an aircraft rolls to the left, the strong
directional stability will also yaw the aircraft to the left quickly, leading to more roll and yaw in the direction of
the original roll. If this sequence of events goes unnoticed, the aircraft may enter a steep spiral dive.
A Dutch roll occurs when directional stability is weak, but lateral stability is too strong. When an aircraft is
disturbed in yaw, the weak directional stability will not provide a correcting yawing force, but the yaw will
generate a roll motion in the opposite direction. The aircraft will then roll and yaw at the same time, in opposite
directions (e.g. roll left, yaw right) and in an oscillating motion (sometimes called wallowing).
Even small aircraft have a range of design features to help pilots fly the aircraft. However, it must be stressed many
of these design features only work if the aircraft is being operated within its design limits – especially in regards to
the center of gravity. Operating an aircraft that is too heavy or with a center of gravity too far forward or back, can
have dire consequences.
 CHAPTER 12: PROPELLERS

A fter the aircraft wing, the propeller (and the engine it is attached to) is one of the most important components of
the aircraft. The propeller converts the power of the engine into a useful forward force which you know as
thrust. The principles of the propeller can sometimes seem overwhelming, but you will see the propeller is simply
an aerofoil, therefore the same principles that were explored in earlier chapters can be applied. Like the aircraft
wing, the propeller is most efficient under certain conditions (typically certain angles of attack). You will see there
are some clever design features utilized to help the propeller remain efficient over a wide range of flight conditions.

Basic Components
Let’s start with the basic components of the propeller. Piston aircraft will have two or more propeller blades, with
each essentially a rotating wing, as shown in Figure 12.1. Propellers are classified as either left-handed or right-
handed, depending on the direction the propeller rotates. When viewed from the cockpit, a left-handed propeller
rotates anti-clockwise and a right-handed propeller rotates clockwise.

Figure 12.1: Basic components of the propeller. When viewed from the cockpit, this propeller rotates clockwise,
making it a right-handed propeller.

Consider one propeller blade section at some distance from the hub (spinner), as shown in Figure 12.2. You will
note the blade section is an aerofoil, with one side of the blade fairly flat, whereas the other side is cambered or
curved. Like the wing aerofoil, the leading edge is thicker than the trailing edge. The flat side is located on the side
the pilot would see when sitting in the cockpit, which is also called the ‘blade face’, whereas the cambered side is
called the ‘blade back’. The propeller blade also has a chord line - the line between the leading edge and trailing
edge - which normally sits along the blade face. Blade angle is the angle between the chord and the plane of
rotation, measured in degrees. The plane of rotation is an imaginary line that the propeller follows as it spins.
Figure 12.2: Looking at a blade section some distance from the spinner (hub) of the propeller.

Just like the wing, the propeller produces an aerodynamic force when it is subjected to a relative airflow (RAF).
Each propeller will be most efficient at a specific angle of attack (normally about 2-4 degrees). However,
determining the RAF affecting the propeller is a little trickier than the wing, as it usually contains two components.
Consider an aircraft that is stationary on the ground with the propeller spinning. With no forward speed, the RAF
would simply be coming from the opposite direction to the plane of rotation (imaginary line that the propeller
follows as it spins), therefore the angle of attack would be the same as the blade angle. However, once the aircraft
has some forward motion, the RAF of the propeller will have two components; rotational velocity and forward
speed of the aircraft. Rotational velocity means how quickly a section of the blade is traveling. It is determined by
how quickly the propeller is spinning (revolutions per minute – rpm) and the specific location on the blade (the tips
of the propeller have a faster rotational velocity), as shown in Figure 12.3.

Figure 12.3: The rotational velocity of a section of the blade depends on the distance from the spinner (hub) and
revolutions per minute (rpm).

The forward component of the RAF is simply how quickly the aircraft is traveling. As a result, RAF and angle of
attack will vary with changing airspeeds and rotational velocities along the propeller. For the same rotational
velocity, as the aircraft travels faster, the RAF airspeed component becomes larger, and therefore the angle of attack
is smaller, as shown in Figure 12.4. Likewise, at slower airspeeds, the angle of attack is higher. When the aircraft
has some forward speed, a new angle is formed between the RAF and the plane of rotation, known as the helix
angle. You could also say the angle of attack plus the helix angle equals the blade angle.
Figure 12.4: For the same propeller rotational velocity (RV), angle of attack (AoA) will vary with changing
forwards speeds of the aircraft. The angle between the RAF and rotational velocity is known as the helix angle.

For the same forward speed, angle of attack will also change along different parts of the same propeller blade
(assuming blade angle remains the same). Consider Figure 12.5, which is showing the RAF for the same propeller,
traveling at the same forward speed, but at different points along the blade. The section near the middle of the blade
has a lower rotational velocity, therefore the angle of attack is lower. The section near the tip has a larger rotational
velocity, therefore the angle of attack is higher. You will see shortly the blade angle varies along the length of the
propeller to maintain a constant angle of attack.

Figure 12.5: For the same forward airspeed, the angle of attack (AoA) will vary along the length of the propeller
due to changes in rotational velocity (RV), if blade angle remains the same.

Forces on a Propeller
Like the wing aerofoil, the propeller blade generates an aerodynamic force due to the propeller shape and the angle
of attack of the blade. Over the wing, we were concerned with lift and drag, whereas with the propeller we are
more concerned with thrust, as shown in Figure 12.6. As a result, the total reaction force over the propeller is split
into:
Thrust, which acts perpendicular to the plane of rotation. For our purpose, we can assume thrust acts
in the same direction as the flight.
Propeller torque, which acts in the direction of the plane of rotation and resists the motion of the
propeller. In order for the propeller to spin (and therefore generate thrust) the engine must overcome
the propeller torque produced by the rotating propeller.
Figure 12.6: The forces acting on a propeller blade.

Blade Twist
The propeller is usually most efficient at an angle of attack of around 4 degrees. However, as the propeller spins
faster the further it is from the hub, the RAF constantly changes along the length of the propeller (due to the
different rotational velocities at each propeller section). If the same blade angle was used for the whole propeller,
the angle of attack would vary widely, as was shown earlier in Figure 12.5, with some sections of the blade
potentially beyond the critical angle, whereas others may have a negative angle of attack. This would result in
variable thrust being generated along the propeller. To overcome this issue, the propeller is twisted, which means
the blade angle changes along the length of the propeller, allowing a relatively constant angle of attack and
therefore creating an even amount of thrust along the propeller. The twist angle is largest near the hub, where the
rotational velocity is the lowest, and smallest at the tip, as shown in Figure 12.7.

Figure 12.7: The propeller blade is twisted to help produce an even amount of thrust along the blade.

Most small aircraft are fitted with a fixed pitch propeller, meaning the blade angle cannot be adjusted during a
flight. Despite the fixed pitch propeller being twisted, it will only be efficient at a given airspeed and revolutions per
minute (rpm). Aircraft are normally fitted with either a climb or cruise fixed pitch propeller, depending on the type
of flying the aircraft is intended for. Although a fixed pitch propeller is not efficient across all flight conditions,
they are widely used due to their reduced complexity, which means they are simpler and cheaper.

Propeller Efficiency
Angle of attack is not the only factor that will influence a fixed pitch propeller’s ability to convert engine power
into useful thrust. No engine can convert 100% of its power into useful thrust – just like no wing can produce lift
without drag. You will explore the constant speed propeller shortly, which can overcome the angle of attack issue,
but there are other propeller design features that can help, as shown in Figure 12.8, one of which is propeller
diameter (the length of the propeller). A longer diameter means there is more propeller to generate thrust (just like a
larger wing will generate more lift), and practically propellers are designed as long as possible. However, there are
several limiting factors:
The larger the diameter, the more engine power is required to turn the propeller. This means the
engine power limits will be reached at some point (i.e. if the propeller is too long, the engine will not
be able to turn it).
Propeller diameter is often limited by ground clearance (distance between the propeller tip and the
ground). A propeller striking the ground on take-off or landing is not ideal.
If the diameter is too long, the tip speed can reach the speed of sound resulting in excessive noise,
vibrations, and reduced thrust.

Another design feature to improve propeller efficiency is to increase the number of blades or increase the width
(chord) of the propeller blade. However, as discussed above, this would also require a more powerful engine to turn
the propeller.

Figure 12.8: Propeller efficiency can be improved by increasing the number of blades and having the propeller as
long as practicable.

Constant Speed Propeller

To overcome some of the efficiency issues of a fixed pitch propeller, some aircraft are fitted with a constant speed
propeller. A fixed pitch propeller is only efficient at a specific airspeed and rpm. But the loss of efficiency can
significantly hinder an aircraft’s performance, especially in larger propeller aircraft that tend to travel faster. A
constant speed propeller automatically varies the blade angle to maintain a constant rotational speed. At low speed,
the blade angle is kept small (also called a fine pitch), therefore ensuring the angle of attack remains efficient for the
RAF, as shown in Figure 12.9. At higher speeds, the blade angle is increased (also called coarse pitch), again to
ensure the angle of attack remains efficient.
Figure 12.9: A constant speed propeller automatically adjusts the blade angle to maintain a constant angle of
attack (AoA).

In an aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller, the pilot has two engine levers available; mixture control and throttle. The
engine and rpm are directly tied to the throttle setting. That is, when you increase the throttle (more power), rpm
will increase. Aircraft with a constant speed propeller will have an extra lever in the cockpit to set the desired rpm.
With the rpm set, if the throttle is increased (or decreased), the constant speed propeller will automatically adjust
the blade angle to maintain the same rpm.

The propeller can seem daunting, but it is essential for flight. Just like the wing is required to generate lift to
overcome the weight of the aircraft, the propeller is required to generate thrust to overcome drag. Furthermore, they
both operate with the same basic principles of an aerofoil. With all this thrust pulling the aircraft along, it is now
time to get the most performance out of the aircraft, which you will discover next.
 CHAPTER 13: PERFORMANCE

I magine it’s a warm sunny day, you are departing on a long flight and the aircraft is close to maximum take-off
weight. You apply full power and slowly accelerate down the runway. As the aircraft slowly picks up speed, the
end of the runway approaches quickly. The aircraft reaches take-off speed just in time and begins to gradually climb
away from the ground. Your heart is beating fast, but why did you eat up so much of the runway? You will see in
this chapter there are many factors that will influence an aircraft’s performance, with this chapter focusing on the
critical take-off and landing phase. How the aircraft performs on take-off and landing is closely linked with many of
the previous chapters. To keep take-off and landing distance as short as possible, the aircraft is flown relatively
slowly, often just a few knots above the stall. But flying in this speed region requires extra vigilance to ensure you
remain in control of the aircraft, as there is very little room for error when flying low and slow to the ground.

Take-off
The amount of runway needed to lift the aircraft off the ground is known as take-off distance required (TODR).
This is the distance required from the start of the take-off roll to 50 feet above the runway, as shown in Figure 13.1.
The aircraft take-off speed is usually about 20% above the stalling speed of the aircraft.

Figure 13.1: Take-off distance required (TODR) is from the start of the take-off roll to 50 feet above the runway.

When you apply power on take-off, altitude is one of the most important factors that will influence your required
take-off distance due to variations in air density. Density was touched on in the first chapter when you explored the
atmosphere, and you may recall it is the measure of how many air molecules are in a given area. Air density
influences an aircraft’s performance in two main ways; it will impact the TAS (true airspeed) required on take-off
and the power delivered by the engine. Density usually reduces with altitude; however, it is not as simple as
factoring in the elevation of the aerodrome. The temperature and pressure of the day can make an aircraft perform
better or worse than expected at your actual elevation (e.g. the aircraft performs like it is at 5,000 feet, even though
the aerodrome’s elevation is 2,000 feet). Pilots can calculate the equivalent altitude on a given day to determine
how the aircraft will perform. This is known as density altitude, a calculation which has a starting point of pressure
altitude, before factoring in temperature.

Pressure Altitude
You may recall the average or international standard atmosphere (ISA) pressure is 29.92inHg or 1013hPa at sea
level. However, it is common for sea level pressure to be higher or lower than this standard value. Pressure altitude
is the altitude in ISA that has the same pressure as your current location. For example, consider an aircraft at an
aerodrome that has an elevation of 1,000 feet and a sea level pressure (QNH) of 993hPa (29.32inHg), as shown in
Figure 13.2. As the sea level pressure is lower than an ISA day, you would expect the aircraft to perform worse, but
by how much? To find pressure altitude:
First find the pressure difference between QNH (current sea level pressure) and ISA sea level pressure
(1013hPa). In our example the difference is 20hPa (1013hPa – 993hPa = 20hPa).
Next, convert hPa into feet by multiplying by 30 (20hPa x 30 = 600 feet).
The final step is to apply this correction to your actual altitude, in our case the altitude of the aerodrome
(1,000 feet). When QNH is higher than 1013hPa, subtract the correction from your actual altitude. When
QNH is lower than 1013hPa, add.
In our example we add the correction (600 feet), as 993hPa is less than 1013, therefore the pressure
altitude is 1,600 feet (aerodrome elevation 1,000 feet + correction 600 feet = pressure altitude 1,600 feet).
In other words, despite being located at 1,000 feet, the aircraft performs like it is at 1,600 feet. If you are working
with inches of mercury (inHg), the only difference is how you convert the pressure difference into feet. To convert
inHg into feet, multiply by 1000 for each 1 inHg difference. In our example, the difference is 0.6 inHg (29.92 –
29.32 = 0.6) x 1000 = 600 feet.

Figure 13.2: Pressure altitude is where you would expect the current pressure to occur on an ISA day.

You do not need to pull out your calculator to work out the pressure altitude. Pressure altitude can be worked out
when sitting in the aircraft by placing ISA pressure (29.92inHg / 1013hPa) on the altimeter subscale. The altitude
that the altimeter displays will be the pressure altitude of the day.

Density Altitude
Pressure is not the only factor that will influence the density of the air and therefore aircraft performance.
Temperature can have a considerable impact on density; in cold temperatures air density is higher, whereas in warm
temperatures, air density is lower. Density altitude is a simple measure to help pilots determine what the equivalent
altitude is that the aircraft will perform like on the given day and is the most commonly used measure of overall
engine and aerodynamic performance. A high density altitude (i.e. higher in the atmosphere) means poorer aircraft
performance, whereas a low density altitude (i.e. lower in the atmosphere) means better aircraft performance.

Since density varies with temperature, a given pressure altitude may exist with a wide range of temperatures and
therefore varied air density. Density altitude can be calculated by taking the pressure altitude and adding (or
subtracting) 120 feet for each 1ᵒC (1.8ᵒF) above (or below) ISA. For example, in our previous example with a
pressure altitude of 1,600 feet:
If the temperature was 10ᵒC (18ᵒF) warmer than ISA, the density altitude would be 2,800 feet (10ᵒC
x 120 feet = 1,200 feet + pressure altitude 1,600 feet = density altitude 2,800 feet).
If the temperature was 10ᵒC (18ᵒF) colder than ISA, the density altitude would be 400 feet (-10ᵒC x
120 feet = -1,200 feet + pressure altitude 1,600 feet = density altitude 400 feet). That is, the colder
 temperature cancelled out the lower pressure and the aircraft will perform better than its actual
altitude (1,000 feet).

Let’s assume the density altitude is higher than normal, but how does it actually influence take-off performance?
The main impact is the aircraft will need a faster true airspeed (TAS) to generate sufficient lift, therefore a longer
take-off distance is required. In chapter three you visited the two main aircraft speeds; IAS and TAS.
IAS (indicated airspeed) is displayed on the airspeed indicator. IAS is considered the ‘aerodynamic’
speed, as the aerodynamic forces generated on the aircraft are influenced by IAS.
TAS (true airspeed) is the measure of the actual speed of the aircraft through the air.
At sea level, IAS and TAS are very similar, as shown in Figure 13.3. However, at higher density altitudes, a faster
TAS must be obtained for a given IAS.

Figure 13.3: At a higher density altitude (e.g. 8,000 feet) a faster true airspeed (TAS) is required to generate
sufficient lift.

As lift is generated by the air molecules flowing over the aerofoil, as air density reduces (e.g. higher density
altitude), the aircraft needs a faster true airspeed to generate sufficient lift to take-off. If we look at our take-off run
in Figure 13.3, you can see the aircraft takes-off at the same IAS, regardless of density altitude. But the take-off
distance required is considerably more at a high density altitude due to the faster true airspeed (TAS). The impact of
density altitude on engine performance will vary depending on the power plant. A higher density altitude will result
in reduced power output in most small aircraft (non-supercharged engine).

Weight, Wind, and Runway Conditions

An increase in take-off weight has a number of negative impacts on take-off performance. Increased weight means
the aircraft needs a higher take-off speed to provide the required safety margin above the increased stall speed (due
to heavier weight). A higher take-off speed along with slower acceleration will result in a longer take-off distance,
as shown in Figure 13.4.
Figure 13.4: A heavier aircraft will accelerate slower and have a higher take-off speed, therefore requires more
runway to take-off.

Ideally an aircraft should take-off with a headwind, which results in a shorter take-off distance. A headwind means
some air is already flowing over the aerofoil, helping to generate lift. A tailwind has the opposite effect, requiring a
longer take-off distance, resulting in a shallower climb, as shown in Figure 13.5.

Figure 13.5: Taking off with a tailwind can be very dangerous, requiring a longer take-off run and resulting in a
shallower climb.

Runway slope and conditions will also impact take-off performance. A downslope will help the aircraft accelerate,
reducing take-off distance. An upslope will have the opposite effect, requiring more runway to reach take-off speed.
Contamination on the runway (e.g. snow, mud), will generally degrade take-off performance, as it makes it more
difficult for the aircraft to accelerate. Slower acceleration can also be expected when taking off from a non-paved
surface, such as a dirt or grass runway. The following case study highlights how a combination of factors can
severely degrade take-off performance:
On June the 30th 2012, a pilot flying a Stinson 108 (single-engine aircraft) attempted to take-off from Bruce
Meadows Airport, Idaho. The runway was a reasonable length at 5,000 feet, but was a dirt surface and
located 6,370 feet above sea level. Due to the temperature and pressure of the day, the aircraft performed like
it was at 9,200 feet. To make matters even worse, the pilot took off with a 10-knot tailwind. About three-
quarters of the way down the runway, the pilot was about to abort the take-off, but a gust of wind lifted the
aircraft into the air. Despite being airborne, the aircraft struggled to climb and collided with trees a short
distance past the runway end.
A tailwind, high elevation, and high temperatures should all be red flags. It is recommended pilots always calculate
take-off distance required carefully before a flight.

Landing
The amount of runway needed to bring an aircraft to a stop is known as landing distance required (LDR).
Landing distance required is measured from 50 feet above the runway to the point where the aircraft comes to a
complete stop, as shown in Figure 13.6. Landing speed is usually kept as low as possible, generally around 30%
above the stall speed of the aircraft. On touchdown, the aircraft will need to slow down as quickly as possible.
Deceleration is achieved with a mixture of aerodynamic drag (e.g. full flaps) and braking. Aerodynamic drag is
most efficient during the initial landing roll, with braking used for the remainder of the roll. On touch down, power
should be minimum (idle), otherwise there will be an extra forward force the aircraft needs to overcome.

Figure 13.6: Landing distance required (LDR) is measured from 50 feet above the runway to the point the aircraft
comes to a complete stop.

Landing performance will be affected by similar factors as take-off, even though the goal is to stop the aircraft
swiftly:
Density altitude: The higher the density altitude (e.g. higher in the atmosphere), the longer
the landing distance that is required. Even though the aircraft will land at the same IAS as
sea level, a higher TAS would be required at a higher density altitude, due to reasons
discussed earlier.
Wind effect is similar to take-off – a tailwind will result in a longer landing distance,
whereas a headwind shorter.
Heavier weight will degrade landing performance, as shown in Figure 13.7. Although a
heavier weight will aid in braking, it also means the aircraft will need to land at a higher
speed (to generate more lift to support the aircraft weight on approach).
Figure 13.7: Heavier landing weight means landing at a faster speed, therefore requiring more runway to come to
a stop.

Practically, a heavier aircraft, high density altitude, and unfavorable winds (a tailwind) will result in the worst take-
off and landing performance. It is essential pilots calculate take-off and landing distances before a flight to ensure
sufficient runway is available. Be especially careful operating from a high altitude aerodrome, as the influence of
operating in a low-density environment can be dire. You have now explored aircraft performance during take-off
and landing, next you will see how the aircraft performs higher in the atmosphere, with a focus on how to stay in
the air for the longest time (endurance) or how to fly further (range).
 CHAPTER 14: RANGE AND ENDURANCE

I magine after a long cross-country flight, you arrive overhead your destination and to your horror, the aerodrome
is covered in a thick blanket of fog. Should you immediately divert to another aerodrome or wait to see if the fog
clears? If you do wait, should you fly high or low? Should you lower flaps or fly fast? Your goal is to remain in the
air as long as possible, which is known as flying for endurance. If you do decide to divert, you may need to fly the
greatest distance possible with the remaining fuel on board, which is known as flying for range. Flying for
maximum range or maximum endurance involves both airframe and engine considerations. The underlining
principles have been touched on in previous topics, which we will bring together in this chapter.

Endurance
Let’s start off by waiting over the aerodrome for the longest possible time – flying for endurance. You are not
interested in traveling anywhere, just staying in the air for the greatest amount of time. Flying for maximum
endurance involves operating the aircraft using the smallest amount of fuel for a given time period (fuel flow). The
speed for maximum endurance corresponds with the bottom of the power required curve, as shown in Figure 14.1.

Figure 14.1: Maximum endurance is obtained at the minimum required power speed.

You may recall from chapter seven, the power required curve is a U shape, (high at low speed to overcome induced
drag, high at high speed to overcome parasite drag). Any factors that increase the power required to maintain level
flight will degrade maximum endurance (i.e. shorten the time you can stay in the air). Therefore:
Any configuration that increases drag (e.g. lowering flaps or landing gear) would require more power
to remain in level flight. This would result in the aircraft using more fuel, shortening endurance time.
As altitude and weight both influence power required to remain in level flight, they will also impact
endurance. Heavier weight and higher altitude both increase power required, shortening endurance
time.

Practically, to fly for maximum endurance you need to fly for minimum drag. Fly at the lowest safe altitude, ensure
flaps and landing gear are retracted and fly at the minimum drag speed (which corresponds with minimum power
required for level flight).

Range
You have now decided to divert, but the next aerodrome is a considerable distance away. You are more concerned
with traveling the greatest distance for a given amount of fuel, maximum range. Flying for range is a compromise
between speed and power required (and therefore fuel consumption). Practically, range is of great importance for
pilots, as flying for range means the aircraft is flying efficiently – the greatest forward speed for the minimum
amount of fuel. In our previous discussion about endurance, although you are able to stay airborne for a long time,
the airspeed is relatively low so you would not travel very far. The maximum range speed is shown in Figure 14.2,
which is found by drawing a straight line from the origin of the graph until it touches the power required curve. This
speed also corresponds with the IAS for the maximum lift/drag ratio.

Figure 14.2: Maximum range speed.

Just like flying for maximum endurance, there are a number of factors that can affect range:
Drag should be kept to a minimum – which means do not lower the flaps and landing gear.
Flying at a higher altitude can improve range. Altitude does not affect the airframe considerations (the
IAS for best lift/drag ratio does not change with altitude), but altitude will affect engine efficiency.
Pilots should refer to their aircraft flight manual for the recommended maximum range altitude, as it
will vary between different aircraft types.
Wind will also impact range, a tailwind will improve range, whereas a headwind will reduce range.
There may be a compromise between altitude and wind. For example, if there is a strong headwind at
a high altitude, but calm winds lower, maximum range may be achieved at a lower altitude.

In summary, to fly for maximum range, keep drag and weight to a minimum, fly higher (if possible), and ideally fly
with a good tailwind.

Practically, out of the two scenarios just discussed, pilots are more likely to fly for maximum range. This is not just
in an emergency situation to stretch out a flight, but any cross-country flight, especially over a long distance, to
ensure the aircraft is being operated efficiently.
 CHAPTER 15: WEIGHT AND BALANCE

I nweight.
this final chapter, you will take a closer look at the force we are constantly trying to overcome in flight –
Weight has been looked at in almost every chapter, with heavier weights generally associated with poorer
aircraft performance. A heavier weight means more lift is required, more runway is required to take-off, and more
power is needed to fly straight and level. Although the total weight of the aircraft is an important consideration, it is
just as important where the weight is located on the aircraft. If the weight of the aircraft is outside of specified
limits, the aircraft may be uncontrollable.

Aircraft Weight
Even a small aircraft will be reasonably heavy, which is made up of several components:
Basic empty weight is the weight of the aircraft before any fuel, payload (e.g. bags, cargo, passengers), or
the pilot is put into the aircraft. This will include the weight of the airframe, engine, and any unusable fuel.
Each aircraft has a unique basic empty weight that will always be specified in the aircraft flight manual (or
a similar document).
Zero fuel weight, as the name suggests is the weight before fuel is put in the aircraft. This means it
includes the aircraft’s basic empty weight, the pilot, and the payload.
Gross weight is the total weight of the aircraft, which will include all the previous items along with the
fuel of the aircraft.

Figure 15.1: The total weight of an aircraft (or gross weight) includes the basic empty weight of the aircraft, the
payload (e.g. passengers, bags), the pilot, and fuel.

Before take-off, one of the important tasks a pilot must conduct is to ensure the aircraft’s gross weight (total weight)
does not exceed the aircraft’s maximum certified take-off weight. This task is critical, as flying an overloaded
aircraft will severely degrade flying performance and compromise the structural integrity of the aircraft. An
overloaded aircraft may not even leave the ground. Pilots should be aware that flying a heavy aircraft, even below
maximum take-off weight, will result in poorer performance compared to when the aircraft is lighter. A heavy
aircraft will:
Require more runway to take-off
Have a poorer climb performance (climb slower)
Stall at a higher speed
 Not fly as high (lower absolute ceiling), with poorer range and endurance
Require a higher landing speed, resulting in a longer landing distance.

Some aircraft may also have maximum weights for specific types of operations (e.g. for aerobatics). You may also
need to ensure the aircraft is below its maximum certified landing weight. In small aircraft, this is normally the
same as the maximum take-off weight. But in larger aircraft, maximum landing weight is often lower (lighter), due
to structural limitations (e.g. landing gear may break if the aircraft lands too heavy).

Aircraft Balance
The consequences of flying an overloaded aircraft have been explored a number of times. But it is just as important
to ensure the aircraft is in balance, which means determining the point the weight is acting through. You may recall
from an earlier chapter, weight acts vertically downwards through the center of gravity (CG). The CG may be
considered as the point at which all weight of the aircraft is concentrated. We have touched on CG a few times,
especially in the flight control chapter, as the aircraft moves around the CG. When calculating the aircraft’s total
weight, you will also calculate the position of the CG. The CG will need to be located within a specific range,
generally a distance from a datum, as shown in Figure 15.2. The datum is a point specified by the manufacturer;
some will choose the nose of the aircraft, others the firewall of the aircraft (behind the engine).

Figure 15.2: The aircraft center of gravity (CG) needs to be located within a specific range from the datum. Not too
far forward (Fwd) or back (aft).

If the CG is outside of this range the aircraft may be uncontrollable, even if the aircraft is below maximum take-off
weight. One of the key reasons is the distance between the CG and the tailplane.

If the CG is too far forward (e.g. too much weight towards the front of the aircraft), the distance between
the CG and the tailplane (and the elevator) is too long. This means the aircraft is nose-heavy and the
tailplane may not be able to provide sufficient force to turn the aircraft around the CG, as shown in Figure
15.3. For example, you may struggle to rotate (pitch up) the aircraft on take-off.
Figure 15.3: A center of gravity (CG) too far forward or aft (rear) can be very dangerous.

If the CG is too aft (e.g. too much weight towards the back of the aircraft), the distance between the CG
and tailplane is too short. The aircraft is tail heavy, making it difficult to control. In a stall or spin, you
may be unable to pitch the nose forward to recover, as shown in the following case study:
In December 2000, a Pitts 260 aerobatic aircraft radioed to the local Tower, ‘Mayday mayday mayday, in
an unrecoverable flat spin…’. The aircraft was 120 pounds over maximum aerobatic weight, and the CG
was aft (rear) of the CG limits. The CG location meant once the aircraft entered a spin, the tailplane was
unable to provide enough force to help recover. The aircraft crashed a short time later.
CG can shift throughout the flight, such as when fuel is burnt. As a result, pilots need to ensure the CG remains
within limits during the whole flight. For example, if the aircraft becomes nose heavy (CG too far forward) during
the flight, the pilot may have trouble raising the nose on landing.

Any extra weight will degrade the performance of the aircraft, especially if operating outside of CG limits. Pilots
should think carefully about what is loaded into the aircraft, and never fly in an overweight aircraft.
 CONCLUSION

T hethedesign features that allow an aircraft to fly are amazing. With seemingly little effort, an aircraft can leap into
air, despite weighing a considerable amount. Pilots have so much control over the various forces acting on
the aircraft, but flying an aircraft also comes with responsibility. To avoid flying an aircraft beyond its limits, pilots
must respect the principles of flight. Turning too sharply, flying too slowly, or overloading an aircraft can all have
dire consequences.

We started our principles of flight journey by exploring how air flows around the aircraft wing to generate an
aerodynamic reaction, known as lift, which is used to overcome the weight of the aircraft. But no matter how
efficient the aircraft is at generating lift, there is always a penalty to pay, which led us into drag. Next, we explored
the various flight controls of the aircraft. The same aerodynamic principles that allowed an aircraft to fly were used
to move the aircraft around, from pitching the nose up in a climb to rolling the wings in a turn. We then took the
aircraft for a flight and saw how the aircraft climbs, descends, turns, and flies straight and level. In each case, a
delicate balance was required with the main forces to ensure the aircraft is flown as desired. One of the most
important chapters was stalling and spinning. These dangerous flight conditions are not limited to slow flight and
are closely linked to how the aircraft generates lift. In the final few chapters we looked at how to get the most
performance out of the aircraft; from flying further or longer, to taking off and landing in the shortest distance.

Aviation is fast evolving, with even small aircraft becoming faster and more complex. Despite aircraft coming in a
range of sizes, they all utilize the same basic aerodynamic principles. Whether you are a pilot who is just
experiencing the joy of flying for the first time or flying has been your passion for countless years, it is essential
you have a solid understanding of the principles of flight.
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Stephen Walmsley

Stephen Walmsley has been actively involved in aviation for over 20 years. He is a qualified flight instructor, with
several thousand hours of flight experience in a range of aircraft. His flying experience has ranged from aerobatics,
night flying to multi-engine operations. He holds a PhD in Aviation, with a focus on weather related decision-
making.
 BOOKS IN THIS SERIES
Aviation Books Series
The aviation books series provides the reader with an educational and enjoyable reading experience. A focus has
been placed on practical, hands-on aviation by linking science with the real world. Books in this series include:

Human Factors
From the dangers a pilot faces when straying too high in an oxygen-deprived atmosphere to the way the brain
attempts to process the enormous amount of information obtained during a flight. This book is for pilots and non-
pilots to explore the vast number of factors that can influence a pilot’s ability to fly an aircraft safely.

Aviation Weather
Aviation weather is a wondrous and frightening subject. Pilots can encounter a range of weather conditions on just a
single flight, from a towering thunderstorm that can toss an aircraft around like it is in a washing machine, to thick
fog in which pilots will struggle to see just a few feet in front of the aircraft.

Flight Radio
The aircraft radio is an amazing piece of equipment. By pressing down on the microphone switch you can have a
conversation with a wide range of people; from the local controller to other pilots in the area. But operating the
radio also comes with responsibility. To avoid the serious consequences that can result from miscommunication, it
is essential that all pilots have a good understanding of flight radio.