1

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 Hindu Temples
of Bharat, Cambodia and Indonesia
Essays
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN

CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO Pvt. Ltd

Executive Editor Deepa Dokras

..

Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA

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 Hindu Temples
of Bharat, Cambodia and Indonesia

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN

CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO Pvt. Ltd..

EXECUTIVE EDITOR

Deepa DOKRAS
BA

Indo Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm SWEDEN and Nagpur INDIA

4
 Hindu Temples
of Bharat, Cambodia and Indonesia
Essays
Dr Uday Dokras
Deepa DOKRAS

Indo Swedish Author’s Collective. STOCKHOLM.SWEDEN

5
 First Edition 2020
Copyright 2020 Deepa Uday Dokras. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by means of electronic, mechanical, photocopy, micro-
film, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright holder.
ISBN No. applied for. Cost US $150. I N R 1500/- Euro 120

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 Acknowledgement
At this important stage of my life first of all I would like to say for My GURUJI

गुरुर्ब्रह्मा गुरुर्विष्णुर्गुरुर्देवो महेश्वरः ।

साक्षात परं ब्रह्म तस्मै श्रीगुरवे नमः ॥

The Guru (dispellar of darkness) is Brahma (the creator); the Guru is Vishnu (the sustainer); the
Gurudeva is Maheswara (the destroyer); the Guru is Verily the Para-Brahman (ultimate
consciousness); Salutations to that Guru.

The following Sanskrit sloka best describes my Co-author and executive editor Deepa

सर्वमङ्गलमाङ्गल्ये शिवे सर्वार्थसाधिके ।

शरण्ये त्र्यम्बके गौरि नारायणि नमोऽस्तु ते ॥

Salutations to who adorned with all auspiciousness and herself auspicious, fulfiller of both
worldly and spiritual wishes, the source of refuge, the mother (Lord) of the three worlds, the
Goddess who is Rays of Light and the wife of Lord Narayana / Exposure of consciousness.

Which probably equates me with Lord Narayana, but that is not what I mean nor desire. Life
is a journey and they say that one who fulfills wordly and spiritual wishes should be saluted
and in that spirit I pass on my salutations.

In this journey one learns constantly- infinite struggle to seek knowledge is the gift of my
Guru. This work is a result of constant encouragement of my Grandmother, my parents
Kusum and Vasant who got me to visit many temples and understand and seek the nector of
their divinity. For divine they all are small or big- here or there; temples have always attracted
me.
My parents taught me the value of education. My daughter Srishti’s smile made me fresh
whenever I was tired. I am lucky to have had research oriented teachers and a science
education. I am thankful to my dynamic son Karan for a nice discussion in writing
preliminaries. He is there whenever I need his help, and so is Srishti, Middun, Disha and other
near and dear ones too numerous to name but if you read these words and a smile breaks on
your face- yes! It is you. I touch your feet for your friendship; and rub my heart against yours
in a hug.
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 विद्यां चाविद्यां च यस्तद्वेदोभ्य सह ।
अविद्यया मृत्युं तीर्त्वाऽमृतमश्नुते ॥

One who knows both, the material science as well as the spiritual science, transgresses fear of
death by the former, i.e. by proper bodily and mental efforts, and attains salvation by the
latter, i.e. by the purity of mind and soul.

Having written this book I shall leave this world in peace

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN

CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO

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 C O N T E N T S

 Acknowledgment pages 7
 Contents page 9
 I N T R O D U C T I O N pages 10-17
 PART I Architecture of the Hindu Temple page 18
CHAPTER 1 The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala in Temple Architecture pp 19 to 54
 C H A P T E R 2 HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE of BHARAT- pp 55 to 97
 C H A P T E R 3. Uncommon facts of Ancient Hindu Temple Architecture,pages 98-109
 CH A P T E R 4- HUMAN BODY with HINDU TEMPLE- Comparison pp 111-122
 C H A P T E R 5. Khajuraho—Example of the Nagara Architecture pages 123-144
 C H A P T E R 6. Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam pp 145--172
 C H A P T E R 7. The Meenakshi Temple of Madurai pp 173-208
 CHAPTER8 ARCHITECTURE OF NAGPUR TEMPLES pp 209-225
 C H A P T E R 9 Sacred Hindu Architecture- Design and deified Shrines pp 227-262
 Chapter 10 Hindu Religious Endowments and Temples-Who controls this Empire? Pp 263-279

 PART II CAMBODIA - कम्बोजदेश pp 280

 11 CHAPTER 11 Cambodian Hindu Temple Architecture -Mystery of Architecture pp 281-374

 12. CHAPTER 12 Angkor Vat Temple p 375- 398

 PART III Indonesia भुमीनुसनतारा page 399

 C H A P T E R 13 Prambanan, an Hindu temple in Indonesia pp 401-416

 C H A P T E R 14 Volcanic and Sea temples of Bali pp 417- 436
 About the Author page 437
 Pre-publication Reviews Page 448-452

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 IN T R O D U C T I O N

“In this world, there is nothing as purifying as divine knowledge ” says the Bhagavad Gita
(4.38 ). I hope reading this book will give the reader some.

For more than 1500 years, from the Indian subcontinent to the islands of the Indonesian archipelago
and Cambodia the Hindu Mandir hereinafter known as temple to facilitate recognition of a common
denominator has embodied and symbolized the Hindu worldview at its deepest level and inspired the
greatest architectural and artistic achievements in Hindu Asia. In this book we explain the cultural,
religious, geographical and architectural significance of the temple. We illuminate with a profusion of
photographs, building plans, and drawings of architectural details, making the book a useful guide for
students of architecture, religion, and Asian civilizations and travelers to Asia.

Our discussion of the meaning and forms of the temple in Hindu society encompasses the awe-
inspiring rock-cut temples at Angkor Wat, the ancient cities of Ayodha and Lanka, the soaring
superstructures and exhibitionism of the sculptures at Khajuraho, and the colossal temple at
Ranganathaswamy, as well as the tiny iconic shrines that sprout up here and there- simple shrines
found under trees or near lakes and ponds.

The impact of Hinduism on the world in as omnipotent as the religion. Hinduism has approximately
1.1 billion adherents worldwide (15% of world's population). Nepal (81.3%) and India (79.8%) are
countries with Hindus being the majority of their respective populations The influence of Hinduism in
not to be taken lightly. For example there are up to 20 million Americans practicing yoga, meditation,
vegetarianism, and other Hindu practices, with varying degrees of awareness and acknowledgment
that these are Hindu per se. This movement is the nexus of the mind-body holistic healing trend of
today. America's spirituality and the new worldviews espoused by scientists and philosophers have
been deeply affected by Hindu-Buddhist ideas and practices.
a. Hinduism influenced the American Transcendentalists (including Emerson, Whitman, Thoreau, and
Eliot), the Beats, the new age pop culture, and women's fashions, and has thereby impacted
mainstream American culture.

b. Gandhi's influence led to the peaceful revolutions by Martin Luther King in the US, Lech Walesa in
Poland against communism, the anti-apartheid revolution of South Africa, and now the Tibet freedom
movement of the Dalai Lama. These have transformed the world in the post-colonial era.
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c..The 1.6 million Indian Americans are upwardly mobile, growing in their contributions to their

nation of adoption in many walks of life, and hence exerting their influence upon it.

Positioning of Hinduism in the western world: Negatives.

Issues of representation that are of concern to many of us.

a. Academic scholars of religion reduce Hinduism into exotica and anthropology, a portrayal
depicting backwardness in need of western cures.

b. Psychology scholars have been appropriating meditation, kundalini, tantra and related Hindu-
Buddhist ideas, repackaging them into 'new age' and western representations, while letting the
traditions' roots die out. Adept yogis/meditators are often reduced to laboratory subjects in the same
manner as laboratory rats, when in fact they deserve to be respected as co-scientists and co-
investigators of the inner realm.

c. The western academy of philosophers has largely boycott non- western philosophies, and many
openly proclaim that there is no such thing as non- western philosophy.

d. Anthropologists have positioned the Indians being studied as 'native informants' in an asymmetric
relationship. They always select poor, illiterate villagers, claiming them to be more 'real Indians'
and/or more 'interesting'. Given the power imbalance, often these native informants supply the data
that is expected of them to fit into the western scholars' paradigm, and the representation tends to be
that of a primitive people as compared to the superior, 'rational' west.

e. India's own Macaulayite elitist intellectuals have often sold out their traditions, rather than
championing the revival and proper place of these traditions for the benefit of all humanity.

In Hinduism, the Ultimate Reality and its body (the universe) are with no beginning. This
manifestation is cyclical: a universe comes into being and passes away according to a regular pattern,
like inhalation and exhalation. In Christianity, there was one unique Creation (with a capital 'C') with
nothing prior to it.

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  In Christianity, the created universe is separate from God and has its own self-existence. In
materialistic science, creation is a 'big bang' out of nothing. In contrast to both these
worldviews, in Hinduism the universe is a manifestation of, and form of, the Ultimate Reality.
It arises out of the being of the Ultimate Reality, not for any reason, but as a natural process
simply because this is the nature of Reality; it is maintained for a while as the form of the
Ultimate Reality; and then dissolves back into the unmanifest state within the Ultimate
Reality. There it lies dormant in potential form until it emerges again at the commencement of
another cycle.
 In Christianity, God was not immanent in the universe prior to Jesus, and the unique
significance of Jesus is that his historical arrival turned the universe into the Body of Christ,
i.e. made God immanent. In Hinduism, immanence is the very nature of Reality and not the
result of a historical event. This is why Hindus can and do accept Jesus as God's intervention,
but (i) not historically unique, and (ii) nor one that changed the nature of Reality.
 In mainstream Judaism and Islam, God is transcendent but not immanent. There have been
popular claims that Sufism is non-dualistic and hence consistent with immanence, but this
needs to be qualified in two ways:
(i) Sufism has been a very tiny percentage of Islam throughout Islam's history.
(ii) Even more importantly, Sufis experience union with God but clarify when asked that this
is not an ontological unity and merely a temporary experience of unity. Mainstream Islam
considers claims of ontological oneness with God as blasphemy.

In This scheme of things, a Hindu temple is a symbolic house, seat and body of divinity. It is a structure
designed to bring human beings and gods together, using symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs
of Hinduism. The symbolism and structure of a Hindu temple are rooted in Vedic traditions, deploying
circles and squares. It also represents recursion and equivalence of the macrocosm and the microcosm by
astronomical numbers, and by "specific alignments related to the geography of the place and the presumed
linkages of the deity and the patron". A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmos—presenting the
good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of
life—symbolically presenting dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma.

The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are given in the ancient Sanskrit texts
of India (for example, Vedas and Upanishads), while their structural rules are described in various ancient
Sanskrit treatises on architecture (Brhat Samhita, Vastu Sastras). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the

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building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within
various schools of Hinduism. A Hindu temple is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as
landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy have flourished.

Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction
methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs, yet almost all of them share certain core
ideas, symbolism and themes. They are found in South Asia particularly India and Nepal, in southeast
Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Vietnam, and islands of Indonesia and Malaysia, and
countries such as Canada, the Caribbean, Fiji, France, Guyana, Kenya, Mauritius, the Netherlands, South
Africa, Suriname, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, the United Kingdom, the United States, and
countries with a significant Hindu community. The current state and outer appearance of Hindu temples
reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also reflect the effect of
conflicts between Hinduism and Islam since the 12th century. The Swaminarayanan
Akshardham in Robbinsville, New Jersey, United States, between the New
York and Philadelphia metropolitan areas, was inaugurated in 2014 as one of the world's largest Hindu
temples.

Significance: A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values, and the way
of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal Purusa in a sacred
space. It represents the triple-knowledge (trayi-vidya) of the Vedic vision by mapping the relationships
between the cosmos (brahmanda) and the cell (pinda) by a unique plan that is based on astronomical
numbers. Subhash Kak sees the temple form and its iconography to be a natural expansion of Vedic
ideology related to recursion, change and equivalence.

The 9x9 (81) grid ‘’Parama Sayika’’ layout plan found in large ceremonial Hindu Temples, is one of
many grids used to build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has
significance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; while inner
Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. In between the good and evil is the concentric layer
of Manusha padas signifying human life; All these layers surround Brahma padas, which signifies
creative energy and the site for temple's primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very center of Brahma
padas is Grabhgriya (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in everything and
everyone.

Tirth: In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a place for Tirtha – pilgrimage. It is a sacred site whose
ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of Hindu way of life. All the

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cosmic elements that create and sustain life are present in a Hindu temple – from fire to water, from
images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from the fleeting sounds and incense
smells to the eternal nothingness yet universality at the core of the temple.

Susan Lewandowski states that the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief
that all things are one, everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid or 81-grid
mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and
celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life – the pursuit of artha (prosperity,
wealth), the pursuit of kama (pleasure, sex), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit
of moksha (release, self-knowledge). At the center of the temple, typically below and sometimes
above or next to the deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically
representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present
everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to
encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger the process of inner realization
within the devotee. The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of
different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum.

In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the secular and the lonely sacred. In the same
spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces, they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and
purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social
meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and
music, to get married or commemorate marriages, commemorate the birth of a child, other significant
life events, or mark the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have
served as a venue for the succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity
thrived.

Hindu temple Design:

Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple
shelter which serves as a deity's home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or
she would visit a friend or relative. The use of moveable and immoveable images is mentioned
by Pāṇini. In Bhakti school of Hinduism, temples are venues for puja, which is a hospitality ritual,
where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with the deity. In
other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform “jap”, or meditation, or yoga, or

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introspection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples often incorporate more elaborate and
monumental architecture.

Functions in Society: Hindu temples served as nuclei of important social, economic, artistic and
intellectual functions in ancient and medieval India. South Indian temples managed regional
development function, such as irrigation projects, land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery.
These activities were paid for by the donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees. These
donations came from a wide spectrum of the Indian society, ranging from kings, queens, officials in
the kingdom to merchants, priests and shepherds. Temples also managed lands endowed to it by its
devotees upon their death. They would provide employment to the poorest. Some temples had large
treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks.

The Golden Temple at Vellore is gilded with 1500 kg of pure gold.

Hindu temples over time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well as private
individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They sponsored land
reclamation and infrastructure improvements, including building facilities such as water tanks, irrigation
canals and new roads. A very detailed early record from 1101 lists over 600 employees (excluding the
priests) of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, still one of the largest temples in Tamil Nadu. Most
worked part-time and received the use of temple farmland as reward. For those thus employed by the
temple, according to Michell, "some gratuitous services were usually considered obligatory, such as
dragging the temple chariots on festival occasions and helping when a large building project was
undertaken.Temples also acted as refuge during times of political unrest and danger.

Temples Abroad: In contemporary times, the process of building a Hindu temple by emigrants and
diasporas from South Asia has also served as a process of building a community, a social venue to

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network, reduce prejudice and seek civil rights resolutions. There is considerable linguistic
and theosophical diversities among Hindus in various countries abroad( outside India), yet they also
share certain core beliefs, rites and festivals of Hinduism. Numerous umbrella organisations for
Hindus in these countries build temples and run them. For example a UK-wide Hindu organisation
comprises over 300 Hindu Temples and Hindu Faith Organisations. The predominant Hindu beliefs
found here include its Vedanta monist, Vedanta monotheistic and various sampradayas. Hindus
abroad celebrate major festivals such as Diwali. Homes and businesses are decorated with festive
lights and Hindus gift sweets such as laddoo and barfi. Community events such as dances and parties
bring Hindus and non-Hindus together. Hindus have begun to find acceptance into the larger British
community and the temples have played an important parts both in India and abroad in diverse nations
not only to bind the Hindus together but also underline their own HINDUTVA( essence of being a
Hindu). In that respect Temple role in Society is more earthly than temporal.

The vast literature both hidden, hard to reach and difficult to unravel if encompassed in a book will
take up more than a few thousand pages.What we have done is introduced temple architecture and
design to all in a serious yet delightful fashion.Kit is not for the faint hearted, yet it can be called a
serious light banter. Enjoy.And visit a temple near you.

When entering a temple all the following activities should be avoided according to the Varsha Purana:

1. Entering the temple without brushing the teeth.

2. Entering the temple after touching a menstruating women.
3. Entering a temple directly after visiting the cemetery (without having bathed).
4. Interrupting the liturgical proceedings to answer calls of nature.
5. Entering a temple wrapped in a blanket.
6. Lying, gossiping, praising or deprecating another deity or person in the presence of the
Lord.
7. Performing ritual functions in an angry mood.
8. Using forbidden flowers in the worship.
9. Worshiping while wearing unwashed garments. (Silk or woollen garments need not be
washed everyday but only as the need arises whereas cotton garments must be washed
every day.)
10. Worshiping while wearing the garments borrowed from others.
11. Wearing an upper garment in the temple
12. Wearing shoes during worship.
13. Tasting the food or smelling the flowers before they are offered.
14. Combing the hair, or clipping nails or spitting in the vicinity of the temple.
15. Eating meat or drinking alcohol prior to attendance.
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16. Attending the rituals with an upset stomach.
17. Carrying an umbrella while circumambulating the temple.
18. Weeping or lamenting in the temple.
19. Entering a temple after having anointed and massaged the body with oil.
20. Offering incense without offering flowers.
21. Stretching the feet towards the Icon or turning the back towards it.
22. Sitting with one leg across the other during the ceremonies.
23. Sleeping or eating in the temple.
24. Sitting upon an elevated seat in the temple
25. Stealing or using the temple vessels or paraphernalia for oneself.
26. Observing any form of untouchability during festival processions.

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 PART I
Hindu Temple Architecture and Design Concepts

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 CHAPTER 1

The Vastu Purusha Mandala( VPM) in Temple Architecture

Before venturing into explaining VPM, it is necessary to create an understanding of ‘Vastu Shasthra’,
the branch of architectural science to which VPM belongs. ‘Vastu’ is derived from the root Sanskrit
sound ‘Vas’which encompasses a range of words related to objects that are used as a surround by
human beings like cloths,house and habitation. ‘Vastu’ in the context of Vastu Shastra means places
where immortals and mortals dwell. Vastu is classifiedin to earth (bhumi), house (harmya), vehicle
(yana) and furniture/seating (sayana).
The general meaning of ‘Shastra’ is science, which makes the translation of Vastu Shastra ,
the science of places where immortals and mortals live. Vastu Shastra comprises of a body of
knowledge that was fully developed before the advent of 1st century AD but most of the literary
material between 6th century BC and 6th century AD are lost. Vastu Shastra was developed and
modified by a successive generation of architectural scholars through a range of Sanskrit and Tamil
literary works till 15th century. Most of the translated and interpreted books on Vastu Shastra are
based on six ancient Sanskritbooks-
1. Mayamata,
2. Manasara,
3. Samaranganasuthradhara,
4. Rajavallabha,
5. Vishwakarmaprakasha and
6. Aparajitapraccha

Vastu Purusha and Vastu Purusha Mandala – How He Came To Existence & Became the Basis
of Vastu Shastra

Vastu Purusha Mandala is a fascinating story from ancient Indian texts depicting the birth of Vastu
Purusha, the chaos he caused and how he was overpowered by collective efforts of different
Gods.This story also elaborates Vastu Purusha Mandala (the basis of Vastu Shastra).

The story of Vastu Purusha: It all started when Lord Brahma created The Universe and was
experimenting to make some creatures. He thought that a ”man” would be the best option for this and
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so he created a man.But this was no ordinary man, he was huge and had enormous powers to
grow.Soon after his creation the man started growing.As time passed, he became extremely huge and
with his size, his hunger also increased.He started to eat anything and everything that came his way.In
no time he became so big that his shadow had cast a permanent eclipse on earth.This whole episode
was enough for Gods(Shiva and Vishnu) to press the panic button.They immediately rushed to God
Brahma and requested him to stop the man from spreading chaos.God Brahma understood that he has
made a terrible mistake and he needs to rectify it.But the man was too powerful for God Brahma,
hence he requested the Gods of eight directions (Astha Dikapalakas) to come and help him.
Upon hearing his request, Gods came for rescue, they grabbed the man and overpowered him.They
pinned the man against ground with his head in North-East and legs in South-West direction.During
all this event God Brahma jumped into the center and held the man down.Going through all this the
“Man” started crying and asked God Brahma, “Why are you doing this to me?”,“You have created me
and now why this treatment is done to me?”
As soon as the”man” realized that he has been pinned down he started to cry and asked God Brahma
“You created me, and now you are doing this treatment to me?
What’s my fault?”
Hearing his question God Brahma thought for a moment and answered “I know its not your fault, but
you have become a threat to everyone.
I don’t want to destroy what I have created and hence you have to remain like this forever.”
“But what’s my benefit in all this?” the man asked.
Brahma said “I will make you immortal and all mortal people who build any sort of structure on earth
will worship you.
You can tease, devour and trouble these people if they don’t worship you and don’t keep you
happy.You will be present in all the land and you are from now onwards known as Vastu Purusha”.

To this deal, the man agreed and became an inseparable part of earth forever.

Vastu Purusha Mandala: From the story of Vastu Purusha you can recollect that Gods have pinned
down Vastu Purusha to ground, hence the section of the ground where Vastu Purusha was pinned
down is called as Vastu Purusha Mandala. Since God Brahma said that Vastu Purusha will be
worshiped all over earth hence any plot or land used for construction is automatically a Vastu Purusha
Mandala.

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You might have heard the saying “A picture is worth thousand words”, hence a better way of
understanding Vastu Purusha Mandala is to have a look at the image below. Having seen the diagram,
let’s start to understand what actually Vastu Purusha Mandala means and how can we keep Vastu
Purusha happy at all times.

Vastu Purusha Mandala: Detailed Explanation

In the diagram we see Vastu Purusha pinned down facing earth with his head in the North-East
direction and leg towards South-West direction. It was a collective effort of 45 Gods (including
Brahma) to pin Vastu Purusha down.

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 Vastu Purusha Mandala is divided in to 9×9= 81 parts (as shown in the diagram), each part names
the God holding Vastu Purusha down in respective part.
 There are 32 Gods in outer part and 13 Gods in inner part.
 This means that there is presence of different Gods in Vastu Purusha Mandala and each of these
Gods rule different parts of a human life as per their qualities.
 This is the reason why while making rooms in a home, we make sure not to offend any deity of
that area.
 Vastu Shastra lays guidelines and principles to keep all deities happy at all times.
 Hence as per vastu shastra if any building is constructed as per Vastu Purusha Mandala then
prosperity prevails in the building and inhabitants are always happy, healthy, wealthy and
satisfied.
 As humans, depending upon the time, we perform many functions throughout a day.
 For example, we sleep at night, get-up in the morning, work in daytime and again go to sleep at
night.
 Also, we perform all these activities at different locations in a home or any other building, such as
office, workshop etc.
 We all know that we have 24 hours in a day due to rotation of earth on its axis and the position of
sunlight changes constantly during 24 hours due to this rotation.
 Depending upon the position of Sun in relation to earth during a 24 hour period, our ancient Sages
structured various rooms of a home in such a way so that during anytime in a day, depending
upon the location of work, humans get the best rays of sun on them.
Let’s understand the importance of location of rooms based on direction:-

1. North-East: In morning, from 3:00 am to 6:00 am, Sun is in the North-East part of house. This
patch of time between 3:00 am to 6:00 am is called as Brahma Mahurat and is best for
meditation, yoga, exercise or study. Hence North-East part of a home is best suited for a
pooja/prayer room, living room or even study room.
2. East: The Sun remains from 6:00 am to 9:00 am in East portion of a home, this time is best to
get ready for the day ahead and hence East is best suitable for a bathroom (only bathroom, not
toilet). However, this portion can also be used for living room, unmarried children’s bedroom,
guest bedroom, dining room, pooja room and even study room.
3. South-East: 9:00 am to 12:00 noon is the time when Sun is in the South-East part of home and
this time is best for preparing food and going to job. Hence this location is best suited to place
a kitchen, office or unmarried son’s bedroom in a home.
4. South: The time between 12 noon and 3:00 pm is time to work, during this time the Sun is in
southern portion of a building and hence this location is good for office. In this portion, the
intensity of sunlight is very high and hence South can also be used as a store room, staircase
and even toilets.
5. South-West: Post lunch is the time to rest i.e. from 3:00 pm to 6:00 pm. During this time the
sun is in South-West portion of a home and hence this location is best for master bedroom.
Also a staircase or strong room can be located here.
6. West: The time between 6:00 pm to 9:00 pm is best time to relax and dine. Thats why this is
the best location to have dining room in a home. One can also use this portion to locate
children’s bedroom, prayer room, study room or a staircase.

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 7. North-West: The time between 9:00 pm to 12:00 am is the time to relax and sleep. Hence this
location is best suited for a bedroom. However, this portion can also be used as living room.
8. North: The time between 12:00 am and 3:00 am is the time of secrecy and darkness; hence this
portion of home is best suitable for cash room or strong room. However this portion is also
used as living room or dining room.The diagram below helps you to identify the best location
for different rooms in home as per vastu shastra.

Vastu shastra (vāstu śāstra) is a traditional Indian system of architecture originating in Indian which
literally translates to -science of architecture. Ancient Vastu Shastra principles include those for the
design of Mandir (Hindu temples), and the principles for the design and layout of houses, towns,
cities, gardens, roads, water works, shops and other public areas.

These are texts found on the Indian subcontinent that describe principles of design, layout,
measurements, ground preparation, space arrangement, and spatial geometry. Vastu Shastras
incorporate traditional Hindu and in some cases Buddhist beliefs. The designs are intended to
integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient
beliefs utilising geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry, and directional alignments.

Vastu Shastra are the textual part of Vastu Vidya, the latter being the broader knowledge about
architecture and design theories from ancient India. Vastu Vidya knowledge is a collection of ideas
and concepts, with or without the support of layout diagrams,that are not rigid. Rather, these ideas and

23
concepts are models for the organisation of space and form within a building or collection of
buildings, based on their functions in relation to each other, their usage and to the overall fabric of the
Vastu. The Sanskrit word vāstu means a dwelling or house with a corresponding plot of land.
The vrddhi, vāstu, takes the meaning of "the site or foundation of a house, site, ground, building or
dwelling-place, habitation, homestead, house". The underlying root is vas "to dwell, live, stay,
reside". The term shastra may loosely be translated as "doctrine, teaching". Vāstu-Śastras (literally,
science of dwelling) are ancient Sanskrit manuals of architecture. These contain Vastu-Vidya
(literally, knowledge of dwelling).

Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals of architecture, called Vastu Sastra. Many of these are
about Hindu temple layout (above), design and construction, along with chapters on design principles
for houses, villages, towns. The architect and artists (Silpins) were given wide latitude to experiment
and express their creativity.
There exist many Vāstu-Śastras on the art of building houses, temples, towns and cities. One such
Vāstu Śastra is by Thakkura Pheru, describing where and how temples should be built. By 6th century
AD, Sanskrit manuals for constructing palatial temples were in circulation in India. Vāstu-Śastra
manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns
and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with
nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were
theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice, the manuals suggest

24
that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu
social and spiritual life.

The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramachandra Bhattaraka Kaulachara sometime in ninth or
tenth century CE, is another Vāstu Śastra Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every
aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of
female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in eastern states of India.
Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India
developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in Saurastra tradition of
temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are
depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri compared to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa. Silpa Prakasa
provides brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada
Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara provide
a more extensive list of Hindu temple types.

Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region
of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's Prasadamandana (manual for planning and building a temple)
with chapters on town building. Manasara shilpa and Mayamata, texts of South Indian origin,
estimated to be in circulation by 5th to 7th century AD, is a guidebook on South Indian Vastu design
and construction. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing
the art of building in India in south and central India. In north India, Brihat-
samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing the
design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples.

These ancient Vāstu Śastras, often discuss and describe the principles of Hindu temple design, but do
not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the temple as a holistic part of its
community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and
city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature.

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The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Vastu Purusha Mandala layout for Hindu Temples. It is one of 32 Vastu Purusha Mandala
grid patterns described in Vastu sastras. In this grid structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has significance.

26
The central area in all mandala is the Brahmasthana. Mandala "circle-circumference" or
"completion", is a concentric diagram having spiritual and ritual significance in both Hinduism and
Buddhism. The space occupied by it varies in different mandala – in Pitha (9) and Upapitha (25) it
occupies one square module, in Mahaapitha (16), Ugrapitha (36) and Manduka (64), four square
modules and in Sthandila (49) and Paramasaayika (81), nine square modules. The Pitha is an
amplified Prithvimandala in which, according to some texts, the central space is occupied by earth.
The Sthandila mandala is used in a concentric manner.The most important mandala is the
Manduka/Chandita Mandala of 64 squares and the Paramasaayika Mandala of 81 squares. The normal
position of the Vastu Purusha (head in the northeast, legs in the southwest) is as depicted in the
Paramasaayika Mandala. However, in the Manduka Mandala the Vastu Purusha is depicted with the
head facing east and the feet facingwest. As is believed that every piece of a land or a building has a
soul of its own and that soul is known as Vastu Purusha a site of any shape can be divided using the
Pada Vinyasa. Sites are known by the number of squares. They range from 1x1 to 32x32 (1024)
square sites. Aspects in Temple Construction

1. There are many aspects involved in constructing a temple. Acarya, director for the temple
construction and shilpi (sculptor) play major role in the construction of a temple. The
temple's acarya is expected to know silpa sastra although not in as much detail as a shilpi.
Temple construction begins with search of a proper site. Soil and location are examined by
acarya and shilpi. This is called Bhupariksha.

2. This is followed by nagara/grama nirmana. Here, the layout of town, its size, breadth of
different levels of streets, locations and sizes of facilities like water tanks are determined
based on the size of town. There are different names for different sizes of towns, like grama,
kheta, kharvata, durga, nagara. Then the location of temple (brahma sthana) in the town is
decided. Temple is usually in the center of village so that every villager has access to it. The
entire arrangement is called grama vinyasa.

3. Then the size of temple is determined. For this, size of the image of main deity is to be
known, since the size of a temple is always a fixed multiple of the size of image of main

27
 deity. Then wood/metal/stone is selected for the image. The icon has three parts, main icon
(vigraha), pedestal (peetha) and platform (adhisthana or upa peetha).

4. Then tests to determine quality of stone are prescribed by the Agamas. There are three kinds
of stone, male female and neuter. When hit with an iron rod if the stone produces
good sound and spark, it is male and should be used for the main icon. If it
produces sound but not spark it is female and should be used for pedestal. If it produces
neither, it is neuter and should be used for platform. There are various standards for the
relative proportions of image, gopura, prakara etc. and also the relative proportions of various
parts of the vigraha. The units for measuring vigraha are tala, angula and yava. Tala is a
multiple of angula and angula is a multiple of yava. More than the specific size of each unit,
the multiplicity and relative sizes are important. The proportions of Head-Trunk-Arms-Legs
of images are specified. The finer specifications like nose, nail, ears and their shapes are also
mentioned. Generally the standard is to use dasatala (ten talas) for the height of image of male
deity, navatala (nine talas) for His consort and astatala (eight talas) for bhakta.

5. The teams that built Hindu temples

The 6th-century Brihat samhita is a Sanskrit encyclopedia. Its chapters 57-60 discuss
different styles and design of Hindu temples. Above: the text and commentary in
Nepalaksara, Devanagari and Tamil Grantha scripts.
Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples as ‘‘Silpin’’ , derived from
‘‘Silpa’’. One of earliest mentions of Sanskrit word Silpa is in Atharvaveda, from about 1000
BC, which scholars have translated as any work of art. Other scholars suggest that the word
Silpa has no direct one word translation in English, nor does the word ‘‘Silpin’’. Silpa,
explains Stella Kramrisch, is a multicolored word and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity,
imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly a Shilpin, notes
Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies art, science,
culture, skill, rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any divine form of
expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as the art works and sculpture within
them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are
unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number, and Vidya (science) that were of 32
types.

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 The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of good
artists and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included
Lekha or Lipi (alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana
(arithmetic). These were imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in
higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till the age of 25. Apart from specialist technical
competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who
know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse
with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and geography. Further they
are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy disposition,
and ardent in everything they do.

According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and
include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who
would design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons,
painters, plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors. While the temple is under
construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by the
patron as well as others witnessing the construction. Further, it was a tradition that all tools
and materials used in temple building and all creative work had the sanction of a
sacrament. For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a
hill, he would propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from
its surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut the tree would be
anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree. Even in modern times, in some parts of
India such as Odisha, Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and
artists worship their arts, tools and materials.

Duties of temple administration are also specified in the Agamas - organizing festivals, encourage
art forms and conduct shows to encourage artists, create accommodation for pilgrims from other
towns, run hospitals, regularly conducting religious discourses etc.
Town planning, engineering, architecture, fine arts, civics, and many other subjects are dealt in the
agamas, which relate to the various interests of people and involve them at different capacities and
also direct their work towards a higher goal.

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 Steps in Temple Construction
The procedure for building a temple is extensively discussed, and it could be expressed in short as
"Karshanadi Pratisthantam", meaning beginning with "Karshana" and ending with "Pratistha". The
details of steps involved vary from one Agama to another, but broadly these are the steps in temple
construction:
1. Bhu pariksha: Examining and choosing location and soil for temple and town. The land should be
fertile and soil suitable.
2. Sila pariksha: Examining and choosing material for image
3. Karshana: Corn or some other crop is grown in the place first and is fed to cows. Then the location is
fit for town/temple construction.
4. Vastu puja: Ritual to propitiate vastu devata.
5. Salyodhara: Undesired things like bones are dug out.
6. Adyestaka: Laying down the first stone
7. Nirmana: Then foundation is laid and land is purified by sprinkling water. A pit is dug, water mixed
with navaratnas, navadhanyas, navakhanijas is then put in and pit is filled. Then the temple is
constructed.
8. Murdhestaka sthapana: Placing the top stone over the prakara, gopura etc. This again involves
creating cavities filled with gems minerals seeds etc. and then the pinnacles are placed.
9. Garbhanyasa: A pot made of five metals (pancaloha kalasa sthapana) is installed at the place of main
deity.
10. Sthapana: Then the main deity is installed.
11. Pratistha: The main deity is then charged with life/god-ness.
Before the temple is opened for daily worship, there are some preparatory rituals to be done, like:
 Anujna: the priest takes permission from devotees and lord Ganesha to begin rituals
 Mrit samgrahana: Collecting mud
 Ankurarpana: Sowing seeds in pots of mud collected and waiting till they germinate
 Rakshabandhana: The priest binds a holy thread on his hand to take up the assignment.
 Punyahavacana: Purifying ritual for the place and invoking good omens
 Grama santi: Worship for the good of village and to remove subtle undesired elements
 Pravesa bali: Propitiation of various gods at different places in the temple, rakshoghna puja (to
destroy asuric elements) and of specific gods like Kshetra palaka (devata ruling the town)

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 Vastu Santi: Pacifying puja for vastu (this happens twice and this is the second time)
 Yagasala: Building the stage for homas, along with vedika.
 Kalasasthapana: Installing kalasam
 Samskara: Purifying the yaga sala
 Kalasa puja, yagarambha: Woshipping the kalasa as god and propitiating deities through fire
 Nayanonmeelana, Pratimadhivasa: Opening eyes of the god-image, installing it and giving it life.
Then specific worship is done to deity, as prescribed. For instance in the case of Siva, this is followed
by astabandhana and kumbhabhisheka.
Temple Design
From the proportions of the inner sanctum to the motifs carved into the pillars, the traditional temple
takes its first form on the master sthapati's drawing board. The architect initially determines the
fundamental unit of measurement using a formula called ayadhi. This formula, which comes
from Jyotisha, or Vedic astrology, uses the nakshatra (birth star) of the founder, the nakshatra of the
village in which the temple is being erected matching the first syllable of the name of the village with
the seed sounds mystically associated with each nakshatra and the nakshatra of the main Deity of the
temple. This measurement, called danda, is the dimension of the inside of the sanctum and the
distance between the pillars. The whole space of the temple is defined in multiples and fractions of
this basic unit.
The Shastras are strict about the use of metals, such as iron in the temple structure because iron is
mystically the crudest, most impure of metals. The presence of iron, sthapatis explain, could attract
lower, impure forces. Only gold, silver, and copper are used in the structure, so that only the most
sublime forces are invoked during the pujas. At especially significant stages in the temple
construction (such as ground-breaking and placement of the sanctum door frame), pieces of gold,
silver and copper, as well as precious gems, are ceremoniously embedded in small interstices between
the stones, adding to the temple's inner-world magnetism. These elements are said to glow in the inner
worlds and, like holy ash, are prominently visible to the Gods and Devas.
The ground plan is described as a symbolic, miniature representation of the cosmos. It is based on a
strict grid made up of squares and equilateral triangles which are imbued with deep religious
significance. To the priest-architect the square was an absolute and mystical form. The grid, usually of
64 or 81 squares, is in fact a mandala, a model of the cosmos, with each square belonging to a deity.
The position of the squares is in accordance with the importance attached to each of the deities, with

31
 the square in the center representing the temple deity; the outer squares cover the gods of lower rank.
Agamas say that the temple architecture is similar to a man sitting - and the idol in garbagriha is
exactly the heart-plexus, gopuram as the crown etc.
The construction of the temple follows in three dimensional form exactly the pattern laid out by the
mandala. The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical appearance
of the temple can best be understood by seeing it from above which was of course impossible for
humans until quite recently.
Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead from the
temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and so should have its
entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west axis and through a series of
increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected in the architecture. A typical temple
consists of the following major elements
1. an entrance, often with a porch
2. one or more attached or detached mandapas or halls
3. the inner sanctum called the garbagriha, literally 'womb chamber'
4. the tower build directly above the garbagriha.
Significance of the number eight in temple design
Vastu Shastra describes the inner sanctum and main tower as a human form, structurally conceived in
human proportions based on the mystical number eight. According to Dr. V. Ganapati Sthapati,
Senior Architect at the Vastu Government College of Architecture, the vibration of the space-
consciousness, which is called time, is the creative element, since it is this vibratory force that causes
the energetic space to turn into spatial forms. Therefore, time is said to be the primordial element for
the creation of the entire universe and all its material forms. When these vibrations occur
rhythmically, the resultant product will be an orderly spatial form. This rhythm of the time unit is
traditionally called talam or layam.
Since every unit of time vibration produces a corresponding unit of space measure, vastu science
derives that time is equal to space. This rhythm of time and space vibrations is quantified as eight and
multiples of eight, the fundamental and universal unit of measure in the vastu silpa tradition. This
theory carries over to the fundamental adi talam (eight beats) of classical Indian music and dance.
Applying this in the creation of a human form, it is found that a human form is also composed of
rhythmic spatial units. According to the Vastu Shastras, at the subtle level the human form is a

32
structure of eight spatial units devoid of the minor parts like the hair, neck, kneecap and feet, each of
which measures one-quarter of the basic measure of the body and, when added on to the body's eight
units, increases the height of the total form to nine units. Traditionally these nine units are applied in
making sculptures of Gods.
Since the subtle space within our body is part of universal space, it is logical to say that the talam of
our inner space should be the same as that of the universe. But in reality, it is very rare to find this
consonance between an individual's and the universal rhythm. When this consonance occurs, the
person is in harmony with the Universal Being and enjoys spiritual strength, peace and bliss.
Therefore, when designing a building according to vastu, the architect aims at creating a space that
will elevate the vibration of the individual to resonate with the vibration of the built space, which in
turn is in tune with universal space. Vastu architecture transmutes the individual rhythm of the
indweller to the rhythm of the Universal Being.

The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala-
The goal of a temple's design is to bring about the descent or manifestation of the unmanifest and
unseen. The architect or sthapati begins by drafting a square. The square is considered to be a
fundamental form. It presupposes the circle and results from it. Expanding energy shapes the circle
from the center; it is established in the shape of the square. The circle and curve belong to life in its
growth and movement. The square is the mark of order, the finality to the expanding life, life's form
and the perfection beyond life and death. From the square all requisite forms can be derived: the
triangle, hexagon, octagon, circle etc. The architect calls this square the vastu-purusha-mandala-
vastu, the manifest, purusha, the Cosmic Being, and mandala.
The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the temple
is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a
manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily
device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building.
In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on a construction site, it is first drafted on planning
sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The drawing of the mandala upon the
earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite. The rites and execution of the vastu-
purusha-mandala sustain the temple in a manner similar to how the physical foundation supports the
weight of the building.

33
Based on astrological calculations the border of the vastu-purusha-mandala is subdivided into thirty-
two smaller squares called nakshatras. The number thirty-two geometrically results from a repeated
division of the border of the single square. It denotes four times the eight positions in space: north,
east, south, west, and their intermediate points. The closed polygon of thirty-two squares symbolizes
the recurrent cycles of time as calculated by the movements of the moon. Each of the nakshatras is
ruled over by a Deva, which extends its influence to the mandala. Outside the mandala lie the four
directions, symbolic of the meeting of heaven and earth and also represent the ecliptic of the sun-east
to west and its rotation to the northern and southern hemispheres.

The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the creator of the universe. Surrounding
Brahma are the places of twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who assist in the affairs of
universal management. The remaining empty squares represent akasha or pure space. The vastu-
purusha-mandala forms a diagram of astrological influences that constitute the order of the universe
and the destinies of human lives. When placed on the building site, along with astrological
calculations, can the auspicious time to begin temple construction be determined.
The ground breaking ceremony
From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect proceeds to develop the vertical and
horizontal dimensions of the temple.
The plotting graphs of the temple are divided into two main sections-the ground plan and the vertical
alignment. The square, the rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the
horizontal or ground plan. In the vertical alignment the pyramid, the circle and the curve are most
prominent. The subdivisions of the ground plan include the brahmasthana (the main shrine and
smaller chapels) and the mandapam (balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan
consists of drawings for the gopuram, entrance ways, the vimana, the structure above the main shrine,
and the prakara, walls.
The brahmasthana is the principal location in a temple and is where the seat of the presiding Diety
will be placed. At the base of the foundation of the brahmasthana, located at the station of Brahma on
the vastu-purusha-mandala, a ritual called the garbhadhana is performed called. The ritual invites the
soul of the temple to enter within the buildings confines. During this ritual, a golden box is placed in
the earth as part of the ground-breaking ceremony. The interior of the box is divided into smaller units
exactly resembling the vastu-purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box are first partially filled

34
with dirt. In the thirty-two units representing the nakshatras, the units of Brahma, and the twelve sons
of Aditi, the priest places an appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the presence of the
corresponding Devata.
The sanskrit mantras chanted by the priest are as important as the actual mandala. The mantra infuses
the mandala with spiritual powers. The mantras are the subtle form of the mandala and therefore the
two are inseparable.
In the unit of Brahma, Ananta, a golden serpent with many raised hoods is placed. It is then
surrounded with nine precious jewels or navaratna. Ananta represents the energy of God in which the
universe rests in space. The nine jewels invoke the astrological influence of the nine planets and are
composed of a diamond, emerald, ruby, pearl, yellow sapphire, blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and
jade.
A gold lid with the seven continents of the earth engraved on it is placed on top of the box following
which the agni-hotra, or sanctification ceremony. During the agni-hotra the priest offers clarified
butter, the symbol of religious principles, into the fire, which represents the mouth of the Cosmic
Being. Along with the offering of clarified butter five types of grains-rice, wheat, barley, rye and dhal,
are also offered with the chanting of mantras.
Temple Layout
Ancient Scripts on Temple Construction in Hindu Shastras: The Shilpa text Shiva-prakasha in its
chapter titled vastu-bhumi-bedha, describes sixteen (Shodasha) types of temple layouts:
1. Square (Chandura);
2. Rectangle (Agatra);
3. Trapezium ( with uneven sides – like a cart – shakata);
4. Circle (Vritta);
5. Elliptical (kritta vritta);
6. triangular (dwaja);
7. diamond or rhombus (vajra) ;
8. Arrow (shara);umbrella (chatra) ;
9. fish (meena);
10. back of a tortoise (kurma);
11. conch (shanka);
12. crescent (ardha-chandra);

35
 13. pot (kumbha);
14. sword (khadga);
15. and lotus (kamala).

South elevation plan of Kailash temple is Plate LXXX11 from the book “Cave temples of India” by
Ferguson, James and James Burgess

These layouts have specific applications; and are not to be used generally. For instance: the back of a
tortoise (kurma), pot (kumbha), conch (shanka) and lotus (kamala) are recommended only for Vishnu
and Shiva temples. Similarly the Square (Chandura), Rectangle (Agatra), fish (meena), diamond or
rhombus (vajra) and sword (khadga) are recommended for Devi temples. The rest of the lay outs are
for other (lesser) deities. But all texts generally agree that the square or the rectangular shape of
layout are the best and most auspicious. Varaha-samhita calls such layouts as Siddha-bhumi, the best
of all. In case the layout is rectangula, the North South dimension should be greater than East-west
dimension. It is also said, it would be better if the elevation on the west or the South is slightly higher.

36
The drawing of the court yard of the Shiva temple at Thiruvālangādu, by Tamil illustrator, best known for
his detailed renditions of Tamil architecture and sculpture P.M. Sreenivasan (1919-1983), who adopted
the name Silpi,

Having determined the suitability of the land for constructing a temple, and having drawn up the
Vastu Mandala of the town and identified the temple location ; the next stage is to draw up a
construction plan. This specifies the location, the size and the orientation of the various temples to
come up in the proposed complex. This again involves preparation of another Vastu Mandala.

Pada Vinyasa: In Vastushastra (architecture means “scheme of plot- or disposition”). This is the
name of secondary conceptual instruments, used in the art of ancient Hindu architecture (vāstu-
śāstra). This term is commonly used in literature such as the Mānasāra. It is a particular diagram (one
only) traced on the building terrain during the padavinyāsa ceremony, before starting the construction.
Each square of a diagram is assigned to a different deity. In certain texts, the compartments (koṣṭha)
of the deposit casket are referred to by the names of deities associated with the plots of the site

37
diagram. In the Kāśyapaśilpa there are the letters of the Sanskrit ‘alphabet’ and the names of the eight
Vidyeśvaras assigned to or placed in the casket at the beginning of the ceremony, which serve as
menas of identifying the compartments later on.1

It is the process under which the Mandala (architectural plan which represents the cosmos) is put to
use in site planning and architecture - a method whereby any site can be divided into grids/ modules
or pada. Depending on the position of the gods occupying the various modules, the zoning of the site
and disposition of functions in a building are arrived at. A Mandala has certain points known as
marma which are vital energy spots on which nothing should be built. They are determined by certain
proportional relationships of the squares and the diagonals.The text first gives a list of thirty-two
such schemes.

1. sakala, whole;
2. pecaka, couch;
3. pīṭha, pedestal;
4. mahāpīṭha, great pedestal;
5. upapīṭha, low pedestal;
6. ugrapīṭha, high pedestal;
7. sthaṇḍila, altar;
8. caṇḍita, circumcised;
9. paramaśayika, primal rectiner;
10. āsana, seat;
11. sthānīya, local;
12. deśya, regional;
13. ubhayacaṇḍita; twice-circumcised;
14. bhadra, auspicious;
15. mahāsana, great seat;
16. padmagarbha; lotus-womb;
17. triyuta; thrice-yoked;
18. karṇāṣṭaka, eight-cornered;
19. gaṇita; computed;
20. sūryaviśālaka, extensive as the sun;
21. susaṃhita, well-endowed;
22. supratikānta, beautiful rival-spouse;
23. viśālaka, capacious;
24. vipragarbha, Brāhmaṇa-womb
25. viśveśa; lord of the world;
26. vipulahhoga, copious enjoyment;
27. viprakānta; Brāhmaṇa-spouse
28. viśālākṣa, large-eyed;
29. viprabhakti, Brāhmṇa’s portion;

38
 30. viśveśasāra, essence of lord of the world,
31. īśvarakānta; lord’s spouse,
32. candrakānta, moon’s spouse.

Among these thirty-two schemes, only seven are treated in more detail: sakala, single-plot (which
does not have much detail, to begin with); pecaka, four-plot; pīṭha, nine-plot; mahapīṭha, sixteen-
plot; upapīṭha, twenty-five-plot; maṇḍuka, sixty-four-plot, and paramaśayika, eighty-one-plot,
schemes. The further elaboration of these schemes inc1udes the assignment of deities to the plots.
The padavinyāsa, placing (marking) of the plots and assigning deities on the floor of the pavilion and
on the altar, is conducted next (see Mānasāra chapter 70). He marks either the sthaṇḍila of forty-nine
squares or the pīṭha of nine squares with grain powder on the fioor of the pavilion. On the altar, he
marks either the upapīṭha diagram of twenty-five plots or pīṭha of nine plots. He also marks two
circles, one on the floor of the pavilion and the other on the altar.
During padavinyāsa, ritual marking of the plots in the delineated site, the sthapati visualizes the form
of vāstupuruṣa, man or “spirit” of the site (who “inhabits” it), as lying face down and stretched out
across it, while reciting the mantra of obeisance to him. He also visualizes the vāstumaṇḍala, cluster
of forty-five deities, who, in order to subjugate vāstupuruṣa, sit upon his limbs and thus occupy plots
in the four quarters of the site. He invokes the deity corresponding to each plot and “situates” it
thereupon by touching the plot and visualizing its form in all iconic detail and vocalizing its specifie
venerational mantra.

2) Padavinyāsa scheme of plot-disposition”.—Chapter VII of the Mānasāra is titled

Padavinyāsalakṣaṇam, “Characteristics of the Disposition of Plots”. The chapter outlines a number of
schemes by which the delineated site is divided into plots. A typical scheme of plot-disposition is a
conceptual instrument intended to “order” the delineated site. This tool is constructed out of
geometrical and numerical principles of quadratic division. Therefore the number of plots in the
scheme is always a perfect square.

39
Land: The land considered suitable for the purpose of constructing the temple (vastu bhumi) and
placed at the center (Brahma Sthana) of the Vastu mandala of the township must be in the shape of a
rectangle or a square. The ratio between the breadth and the length of the area may be 4:8; 4:7; 4:6; or
4:5. (The square would be 4:4). Shapes of sites to be avoided are:
1. circular (vritta),
2. triangular (trikona),
3. rod shaped (dandakriti),
4. bow shaped (dhanur akara)
5. other irregular shapes.

And, in case it becomes necessary to construct a temple on a land of such “un approved” shape, the
area meant for the temple should be demarcated and rendered a square or a rectangle in shape.
Buddhist and Jain temples too follow the same principles. Even the Sri Harmandir Sahib, the Golden
Temple at Amritsar is structured in a square shape; with the Sanctum placed in the Brahma sthana.
In case of a rectangular site, it must have north – south orientation. The depth of the site (Aaya-profit)
should be more than its breadth (vyaya-loss). That is the reason we find our temple walls (prakara) on
north-south shorter than the walls on east-west. The slope of the land surrounding the temple in the
east and the north direction should be in the northeast corner. Fountains or lotus ponds of the temple

40
should be in the northeast direction.In the open space surrounding the temple, Tulsi ( Basil) plants
with raised bed should be in the east; the Jasmine, white Champak, Star Coral plants etc. should be in
the northwest corner or the east. Four approach roads are much recommended.
The preliminaries for construction of a shrine include preparations of a plan, Vastu Purusha
Mandala, a Yantra, with unit cells (pada) of 64, 81 or 256 in number. The entire process is rich in
symbolism.
The square shape of the Mandala is symbolic of earth, signifying the four directions which bind and
define it; and the Vastu is the extent of existence in its ordered site; Purusha being the source of
existence.
The ground plan, again, is symbolic and is the representation of cosmos in miniature. The Vastu
Purusha represents terrestrial world with constant movements. The grid made up of squares and
equilateral triangles is imbued with religious significance; with each cell belonging to a deity. The
position of the deity is in accordance to the importance assigned to him .The central portion of the
square (Brahma Sthana) is occupied by the presiding deity of the temple ; while the outer cells house
deities of lower order.

Another important aspect of the design of the ground plan is that it is intended to lead from the
temporal world to the eternal. The principal shrine should face the rising sun and so should have its
entrance to the east. Movement towards the sanctuary, along the east-west axis and through a series of
increasingly sacred spaces is of great importance and is reflected in the architecture.
This process of drawing the Mandala , known as Pada-vinyasa or Vastu mandala Vinyasa is essential
not only for construction of the main temple but also for deciding upon the location, the orientation
and the size of the sanctum; and for placement of retinue-divinities.
Let us look at the following example of an 81 cell parama-saayika layout.
41
The site-plan is to be regarded as the body of the Vastu-purusha whose height extends from Pitrah (in
the bottom left corner) to Agni (top right corner).
The Vastu purusha mandala is in some ways a development of the four pointed or cornered earth
mandala having astronomical reference points. The mandala of 81 squares has 32 squares around the
border representing the four cardinal points and the lunar constellations. It is the representation of all
cyclical time; lunar and solar. Brahma is the God at the centre.
The Manduka Mandala (8×8) the whole square would be divided by the two axes that go North-south
and East-west.

In the case of Parama Saayika Mandala (9×9)- the entire square would be unevenly divided.

42
The center of the mandala consisting nine cells is dedicated to Brahma, the first of beings and the
engineer of universal order. The Three cells to its east are for Aryaman, three cells to its west are for
Mitra and three cells to its north are for Prihvidhara. In this site plan 32 spirits reside in the outer ring.
There are 8 spirits in four corners. There are four spirits surrounding Brahma. Thus there are in all 45
spirits (including Brahma).
Dikpalas or guardian deities of different quarters, who assist in the affairs of universal management,
are an important part of the Vastu. Indra, Agni, Yama, Niritti, Varuna;, Vayu , Kubera and Isana;
reside in the East , South-East , South, South-West, West, North-West, North and North-East
respectively. All except Kubera are principal Vedic deities. This provides a method that determines
the requirements of architecture in relation to its directions.
Establishing Vastu Mandala on the site
The vastu-purusha-mandala, forming a sort of map or diagram of astrological influences that
constitute the order of the universe, is now complete. When placed on the building site the vastu-
purusha-mandala determines the positions and orientations of the temples and the time for
commencing the construction. Only by the combination of the vastu-purusha-mandala and the
astrological calculations can this factor be ascertained.
Horizontal and vertical dimensions: From the diagram of the vastu-purusha-mandala the architect
next proceeds to develop the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the temple. The square, the
rectangle, the octagon and the pentagon are fundamental patterns in the horizontal or ground plan. In
the vertical alignment the pyramid, the circle and the curve are more prominent. The subdivisions of
the ground plan include thebrahmasthana (the main shrine and smaller chapels) and
the mantapa(balconies, assembly halls and auditoriums). The vertical plan consists of drawings for
the gopura (entrance ways), the vimana (the structure above the main shrine or chapel) and
the prakara (the walls).
The construction of the temple follows in three dimensional forms, in exactly the patterns laid out by
the mandala. The relationship between the underlying symbolic order and the actual physical
appearance of the temple can best be understood by viewing it from above (top elevation).
In order to establish the vastu-purusha-mandala on the construction site, it is first drafted on planning
sheets and later drawn upon the earth at the actual building site. The ground for civil construction
is demarcated by dividing the site into 81 cells, by drawing 10 lines from East to West and 10 lines

43
 from North to South in which Vastu Mandala deities are installed. In addition the deities of the
Sarvathobhadra-mandala are also established after performing Vastu Homa.
The drawing of the mandala upon the earth at the commencement of construction is a sacred rite in
itself. The cells sustain the temple in their own sphere of effectiveness, in the manner that the actual
foundation supports its weight.
Vastu Shanti Puja is a spiritual and religious process to offer prayers to the Vastu Purush who is the
Lord, protector and soul of the house and seek the blessings for positivity and prosperity. During this
worship, people also pay their tribute to the deity of directions, five elements of nature, and natural
forces.
Some of the major objectives of performing Vastu Shanti Pooja are –
 To eliminate any kind of faults relating to interiors exteriors, or structures of buildings.
 To seek forgiveness of God for the damage done to the nature during construction.
 To ask for the blessings of Vastu Purush for happiness, wealth and good health.
 Offer prayers to Vastu Purush for protection of home or office from natural calamities.
 To appease any form of supernatural force which might be dangerous for the occupants

Significance of Vastu Shanti Puja

Vastu is a place where nature and human beings live together in harmony. Vastu Shanti Puja, also
known as Vastu Dosh Nivaran Puja, brings a striking balance between both of them by removing all
the hurdles or negativities present in the environment and preventing unforeseen destruction and
misfortune to finally improve the Vastu of a place. The puja is performed to appease Vastu Devta to
seek his blessings and bless one’s home or workspace with prosperity and harmony.
Vastu Puja is also conducted to reduce the harmful impacts of the Vastu Dosha caused by the
construction faults in the Vastu of a place and to maintain a balance between the eight directions and
the five elements of nature. People worship Vastu Purush or Vastu deva on several occasions such as
land worship, Griha Pravesh, door installation, well mining, foundation laying, foundation mining,
and others.

Garbhadhana,
Shilanyasa is the ceremony for laying foundation stone. It is the laying of the first stone (square in
shape) or a brick signifying the start of construction. It is laid in the north-western corner of the

44
building plan, drawn on the ground. After this, the construction of the foundation is taken up. The
foundation is built and the ground filled up, up to the plinth level, except in the middle portion of the
garbhagraha area, which is filled up three-fourths.
The sanctum is technically known as Garba-Griha. This part of the temple is usually constructed first.
The ceremony related to it is known as Garba-dana or Garba-nasya; and, it involves letting in to the
earth a ceremonial copper pot, containing nine types of precious stones, several metals, minerals,
herbs and soils symbolizing creation and prosperity. The following is a little more detail about it.

The Brahmasthana , the principal location in a temple where the Garbagraha will eventually come up,
is the nucleus of the Vastu Purusha Yantra. At thebrahmasthana, as drawn on the grounda ritual is
performed calledgarbhadhana, inviting the soul of the temple (Vastu Purusha) to enter within the
buildings confines. In this ritual, a golden box is imbedded in the earth. The interior of the box is
divided into smaller units exactly resembling thevastu-purusha-mandala. All the units of the gold box
are first partially filled with earth. In the thirty-two units representing the nakshatras (lunar
mansions), the units of Brahma and the twelve sons of Aditi, the priest places an
appropriate mantra in written form to invoke the presence of the corresponding divinity .An Image of
Ananta , the hooded serpent , is also placed in the box. Ananta, meaning eternal or timeless, also
represents theenergy that supports the universe. The box also contains nine precious stones –
diamonds, emeralds, rubies, pearls, yellow sapphire, and blue sapphire, red coral, cats-eye and jade –
to appease the nine planets.
A stone slab (adhara-shila) is thereafter placed over the spot the copper pot is buried.And, over this
slab will rise the foundation for installing the Mula-bhera. The copper pot signifies the womb;
and icon the life arising out of it. The sanctum constructed around it is the body.
That pot represents the roots of the “temple-tree”; and the icon its sap. The four walls around the
icon represent the branches spreading around. The structure of the Vimana rises above it in a series of
tiers. The roof resting over the walls is called Kapotha, meaning where the doves rest. The imagery
suggested is that of a tree with birds perched on its branches. The sanctum is thus a model of a
growing tree.
Another set of symbolism is that the foundation of the temple represents the Earth (prithvi); the walls
of the sanctum the water (apaha); and the tower over it the fire (tejas). The final tier of the Vimana is

45
air (vayu) and above it is the form-less space (akasha).The sanctum is thus a constellation of five
elements that are basic building blocks of all existence.
Once the garbhadhana and agni-hotra ceremonies are complete the actual construction of the temple
commences according to the plan. When the foundation is finished the vertical structure is raised. The
external features of the temple are brought to life through finely sculpted figures and paintings. The
art and sculpture frequently portray the forms of divine entities and the different stages of
consciousness in the gradual evolution of life throughout the universe.
It is believed that the Vastu Purusha sleeps during Bhadrapada, Ashviyuja and Karhika months facing
east. During Margashira, Pushya and Magha months he sleeps facing south; In phalguna, Chaitra and
Vaishaka, he sleeps facing west. And, in Jeysta Ashada and Shravana, he sleeps facing north. The
doors facing towards those directions are fixed in the respective months.

Temple Layout and its symbolism

The Agama Shastras say that the Temple structure is a mini cosmos. The Temple entrance should face
east – the direction of the Rising Sun. The ideal Temple should have at least one entrance, an Ardh-
Mandapa, a Mandapa or a large hall, a Garba-Griha and a Shikara directly above the Garbha-Griha.
The design comprises:

46
1. A Towering structure called the Rajagopuram (pyramid in pattern) on the Eastern side at the
entrance to the Temple.
2. A Dwajasthamba (pillar) in line with the main shrine immediately after the Rajagopuram.
3. Near the Dwajasthamba is a lotus shaped pedestal for offerings, called the Balipeeta.
4. A large Mandapa or hall for assembly of devotees.
5. The passage through the Mandapa leads to the “Garba-Griha” (womb chamber) where the Main
Deity is installed.
6. Ardha Mandapa adjacent to the main Mandapa and before the “Garba-Griha”.
7. The Main Deity faces East word inside and the Garba-Griha is located inside a structure or
sanctuary called the “Vimana”.
8. The pyramidal or tapering roof over the Deity is called “Shikara” or “Gopuram” which is a dome.
9. There is a circumnutating passage or “Pradakshira Patha” around the Garba Griha and Mandapa.
The above design applies both to the “Shiva” and “Vaishnava” Temples with small variations.
Architecture is otherwise called “Shilpa” and the one who constructs the Temple is called a
“Sthapathi”. The “Sthapathi” is an expert in Temple architecture and idol creation. The procedure of
worship in the Temple is known as “Agama Vidhi”.

47
1. TEMPLE LAYOUT The basic purpose of Hindu temple is to give shelter for a deity and to
facilitate its worship by its devotees . The style and Architecture of a Hindu temple is a
symbol of Hindu. The Hindu temple is laid out on an east-west alignment; the temple
entrance is on the eastern side and the sanctuary is on the western side. The entire temple

48
 complex is placed on a high plinth or platform to symbolize its significance. Vaikanasagamas
and the silapashastras stipulate the rules for the selection of the site and construction of the
temple buildings. Most of the temple adhere to this rule. The Indian temple architecture also
seems to be based on the concept of main shrine as being composed of multiple images of
small shrines normally leading up to the building us of towering the super structure. The
region wise categories have got the following distinguishing characteristic features. Region
Architectural shape Presiding god/deity North India Nagara Square Brahma South India
vesara Circular Siva Far south Octagonal Vishnu The temple type that is popular in the Tamil
country is the octagonal Dravida-Vimana which is also known as Dravida-Satanga-Vimana.
This type consists of six important parts from the base to the final. These six parts are linked
to the angas of human beings. There are
1. upapitha,
2. adhisthana,
3. pada or bhiti,
4. prastara,
5. sikhara and
6. griva (Kalasa)
humans parts are as follows. Upapitha : Feet Adhisthana : Thigh , up to hip Pada : Forso Prastara :
Head Griva(Kalasa) : Neck (top knot) The upapitha and adhisthana constitute the basement. The
upapitha is an additional part meant to increase the height of the basement.The pada or bhitti is the
wall part of htehouse that houses themulbera. It is fitters with additional architectural moldings such
as the kumbha panjara and kostha panjara that add to the aesthetics of the edifice. The kumbhapanjara
is of the shape of the full pitheher at its base and is an architectural addition. The kosthapanjara
houses Avaranamurts.
WALLED TEMPLE ENCLOSURE This is a unique feature of the South India temple style.
Temples are usually encircled by protective, concentric enclosure walls, with entrances through large
gateways (called gopurams) that sometimes even dwarf the enclosed temples. This walled design was
perhaps precipitated by the increased fragility of Hindu empires in the wake of ongoing Islamic
invasions that jeopardized the sacred structures of their civilization. As a result, the temple complex
came to include not only the temple, but also the surrounding city itself. Accordingly, the temple-

49
cities now even more accurately symbolized the divine city surrounded by its mountain ranges (city
walls).
PRIMARY STRUCTURES The chief temple structures (moving from east to west) include:
Ardha-mandapa. This is a largely open entrance vestibule, entered by passing under a gopuram
(arched gateway), symbolic of the passage from the world of the profane to the sacred. Temple-goers
ascend stairs, pass under the gopuram to the level of the ardha-man- dapa, and then proceed into the
mandapa.
Mandapa. The mandapa is positioned directly between the entrance vestibule and the garb- ha griha;
it is a columned or hypostyle hall, in which devotees assemble (to view the deity in the garbha griha)
and ritual dances are performed. Some more advanced temples will have a second mandapa — called
the maha mandapa — that is located in between the external mandapa and the garbha griha.
Garbha griha. The square-shaped garbha griha holds the core sanctuary, cella, or Holy of Holies
where the resident deity resides. The vimana, the main tower of the temple, sits directly above the
garbha griha. The images since the early chola period that decorate the kosthapanjara are the
following Ardha-mandapa South Ganapathi Garbhagrha South Daksinamurti Garbhagraha West
Lingodbhavamurth Far south Octagonal Vishnu Vishnu (or) Ardhanarisvara Garbhagraha North
Brahma Ardhamandapam north Mahissuramardini In view of the six-fold division of the Hindu
temple in its vertical order in comparison with the human angas. It is called parusa. That is to say the
temple is equal to that of the cosmic man virat purusa or human form . In its horizontal order of the
temple site is divided into a number of squares that is called Vastupurusa. Therefore the Hindu temple
is Vastupurusa.

THE SQUARE AND CIRCLE: The square sanctuary (garbha griha) is the core of the temple
complex, positioned directly under the mountain tower (vimana); it houses the resident deity. The
overall plan of the temple is dictated by this central square, as its form is mirrored by surrounding
structures. To return briefly to cosmology: The square form is associated in Hinduism with divinity
(hence the square sanctuary), whereas the circle is associated with humanity. The transition from
profane (circle) to sacred (square) is most profoundly indicated by the half-circle stones positioned at
the base of the entrance stairways to temples’ ardha-mandapas. It is interesting to note that the apsidal
form used as the floorplan for Buddhist sanctuaries (cha- itya) fuses the circular with the square; this
was likely the inspiration for the use of these basic, symbolic architectural forms.

50
MOUNT of the God AT THE ENTRANCE The approach to the temple entrance (ardha-mandapa)
is indicated by the presence of the resident divinity’s mount or transport:
 Temples venerating Shiva (and his consort, Parvati) display stone images of his mount, Nandi
(a seated bull), facing the main shrine.
 Temples dedicated to Vishnu (and his consort, Lakshmi) display stone images of his mount,
Garuda (a mythical bird), facing the main shrine.

There are often three entrances to the South India temple, on the east, north, and south sides of the
external ardha-mandapa. This compares versus the Northern temple’s single eastern entrance.
The progression of rooms follows the same pattern as in the North: the internal mandapa is shown in
yellow highlights and the garbha griha sanctuary is shown in red highlights.
Vast hypostyle halls. Later in the Southern style’s development, the internal mandapa was replaced
by vast hypostyle halls, with as many as one thousand pillars. Later, even the external ardha-mandapa
was expanded, becoming a small hypostyle hall that fed an even larger one. 0000
SOURTHERN STYLE TEMPLE, The Southern style’s tower exhibits sharp vertical sides that
proceed to the summit in a series of diminishing storey’s to form a pyramidal outline (rather than a
curved, corn cob like shape). This is perhaps the most easily identifiable feature of the Southern style
temple. Further, the clearly visible horizontal lines indicative of the storeys contrast with the Northern
style’s strong vertical lines. The tower shape was originally inspired by Buddhist vihara monastery
antecedents — specifically, the parapets (discussed below) represent the cells around a squareshaped
51
room in which Buddhist monks were allowed to sleep. This core “cell-surrounded square” form is
merely superimposed in ever-smaller layers until the desired temple height is achieved.

HINDU TEMPLE IN TAMILNADU The Hindu temple in Tamil Nadu was an evolving
phenomenon since the pallava to the Vijayanagara Nayaka period. The simple vimana on the
Mamallapuram beach(the mukunda Nayanar Temple) has a micro structure which became a macro
during the Nayaka period as the temple in Srirangam. Madurai and Tiruvanamalai are the early
temples consists of the six vertical parts (Upapitha to kalasa) and the basic plan includes the
garbhagraha antarala and Mukhamandapa. From the pallava to Nayaka period a lot of development
took place both vertically and horizontally in the format of the Hindu temple building. A number of
gopuras, mandapas, subsidiary chapels, tirthas, vahanas and so on were added. The micro gopura that
peeps in the kailasanatha temple at Kanchi acquire a pyramidal proportion in the latter temples at
Srirangam, Madurai and Tiruvanannamalai .

Gopuras were set in all cardinal directions and at the entry of each prakara, the total number reaching
its peak in the Srirangam and Madurai temples. Mandapas of intricate workmanship were in various
locations. These catered to the needs of the increasing utsavas; Kalyanamandapa for holding the
marriage festival s and Vasantamandapa for holding the spring festival. Subsidiary chapel were added
for Devis,Nandi,Garuda, Acaryas and so on. A number of uhanas for processional purpose were
added. In short, the Hindu temple reached the optimum level of its evolution under the Nayakas in the
Tamil country. Against this background the temple chosen for the present study are examined.

The Temple is not only a home of God but his representation in the structure of temple which
resembles human form. The symbolism of the temple plan and elevation suggests that the garbhagrha
represents the head and the gopuram the feet of the deity. Other parts of the building complex are
identified with other parts of the body. For instance, the sukhanasi or ardhamantapa (the small
enclosure in front of the garbhagrha) is the nose; the antarala (the passage next to the previous one,
leading to passage next to the previous one, leading to the main mantapa called nrttamantapa) is the
neck; the various mantapas are the body; the prkaras (surrounding walls) are the hands and so on.
Vertically, the garbhagrha represents the neck, the sikhara (superstructure over the garbhagrha) the
head, the kalasa (finial) the tuft of hair (sikha) and so on.

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Another interesting symbolism is that when a devotee enters the temple, he is virtually entering into a
mandala and therefore participating in a power-field. His progress through the pavilions to reach the
sanctum is also symbolic. It represents the phases of progress in a man’s journey towards divine. In
accordance with this scheme, the architectural and sculptural details vary from phase to phase ;
gradually leading him to the experience, which awaits him as he stands in front of the deity in the in
the sanctum. This is explained in the following way.
On reaching the main gateway, a worshipper first bends down and touches the threshold before
crossing it. This marks the transition from the way of the world to the world of God. Entering the
gateway, he is greeted by a host of secular figures on the outer walls; representing the outward and
diverse concerns of man.
As he proceeds, the familiar mythological themes, carved on the inner walls attune his attitude. The
immediate pavilion and vestibule near the sanctum are restrained in sculptural details and decorations;
these simpler motifs and the prevailing semi darkness help the worshipper to put aside distractions
and try focusing his attention on the sanctum. Finally the shrine, devoid of any ornamentation, and
with its plainly adorned entrance, leads the devotee further to tranquility, to fulfilment and to the
presence of God.
The garbhagriha is usually surrounded by a circumambulatory path, around which the devotee walks
in a clockwise direction. In Hindu and Buddhist thought, this represents an encircling of the universe
itself.
Positions and orientations of the temples
The following plan indicates the position of gods and goddesses in an 81 celled temple-site. This plan
relates to construction of a Vishnu temple.

53
Atri Samhita ( 2.38.42) prescribes that the central Brahma bagha must be divided into four equal
parts and the main shrine facing east must be located on the North-western side thereof. The shrine
must have five sanctums, to house five forms of Vishnu; and the shrine should have three stories.
The icon of Vishnu , the principal object of worship, may be represented in the shrine in one of his
many forms . It could be single ( eka-murti-vidana) or many ( aneka-murti-vidana). The aneka forms
might be : 5 (pancha murti); 6 ( shan murti); or 9 ( nava murti).

The opening of the sanctum on the Eastern side is preferred , specially in a shrine dedicated to
Vishnu. The shrine must never have a door in the intermediate direction (Vidik)- Atri Samhita (2.32-
33)

And, generally, the doorway to the East is the best , most auspicious (utta-mottamam) ;to the West is
next best (uttama); to the South is middling (madhyama); and, to the North is not desirable ( adhama)
– Vimanarchana kalpa (patala 3)

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 CHAPTER2
HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE of BHARAT-
SOME MUSINGS

Abstract:
This chapter addresses interconnections between temple topography and architecture, ritual practice,
and cosmic symbolism. There is a substantial body of literature devoted to this topic, from
archaeological, textual, and theoretical perspectives in various different ancient cultures, which
suggests an excellent opportunity for interdisciplinary and cross-cultural analysis. The importance of
this topic is paramount not only to scholars of the ancient world, but also to the study of religion,
particularly the understanding and interpretation of ritual and sacred architecture
Recent work illustrates the significance of this subject just as it illuminates the value of historical and
comparative perspectives. The arena can bring together archaeologists, art historians, and
philologists working all across the ancient world (Mesoamerica, Greece, Egypt, the Levant,
Mesopotamia, Iran, South Asia, and China) to facilitate communication between scholars of different
fields in order to share questions and methods which might provide new avenues of research or
enable the use of comparative data
There has been a lot of research into Hindu temple architecture, still many aspects of this subject are
still unexplored. This study attempts to collate some of the existing research that has been undertaken
in this field, and potentially contribute to the existing body of knowledge through a structural analysis
of Hindu Temple architecture.

A temple (from the Latin word templum) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and
activities such as prayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths
where a more specific term such as church, mosque or synagogue is not generally used in English.
These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers, as
well as other ancient religions such as Ancient Egyptian religion. The temple, it is needless to say, is
not an Indian invention.1A

The form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered by believers
to be in some sense the "house" of one or more deities. Typically offerings of some sort are made to
the deity, and other rituals enacted, and a special group of clergy maintain, and operate the temple.
The degree to which the whole population of believers can access the building varies significantly;
often parts or even the whole main building can only be accessed by the clergy. Temples typically

55
have a main building and a larger precinct, which may contain many other buildings, or may be a
dome shaped structure, much like an igloo.

The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a temple constituted a sacred precinct as defined by a
priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word "template" a plan in preparation of the building that
was marked out on the ground by the augur.Templa also became associated with the dwelling places
of a god or gods. Despite the specific set of meanings associated with the word, it has now become
widely used to describe a house of worship for any number of religions and is even used for time
periods prior to the Romans. Hindu temples, however, are known by many different names, varying
on region and language, including Aiayam, Mandir, Mandira, Gudi, Kavu, Koli, Kovil
Déul, Raul, Devasthana, Degul, Deva Mandiraya and Devalaya.

A Hindu temple or mandir is a symbolic house, the seat and dwelling of Hindu gods. It is a structure
designed to bring human beings and gods together according to Hindu faith. This is not the temple – a
generalist term . Inside its Garbhagriha innermost sanctum, a Hindu temple contains a Murti or Hindu
god's image. Hindu temples are large and magnificent with a rich history. There is evidence of use of
sacred ground as far back as the Bronze Age and later during the Indus Valley Civilization. Outside of
the Indian subcontinent (India, Bangladesh and Nepal), Hindu temples have been built in various
countries around the world. Either following the historic diffusion of Hinduism across Asia (e.g.
ancient stone temples of Cambodia and Indonesia), or following the migration of the Indian Hindus'
Diaspora; to Western Europe (esp. Great Britain), North America (the United States and Canada), as
well as Australia, Malaysia and Singapore, Mauritius and South Africa.

Individual rather than communal

Hindu worship is primarily an individual act rather than a communal one, as it involves making
personal offerings to the deity. Worshippers repeat the names of their favorite gods and goddesses,
and repeat mantras. Water, fruit, flowers and incense are offered to god. Unlike other
organized religions, in Hinduism, it is not mandatory for a person to visit a temple. Since all Hindu
home usually has a small shrine or ‘puja room’ for daily prayers, Hindus generally go to temples only
on auspicious occasions or during religious festivals. Hindu temples also do not play a crucial role in
marriages and funerals, but it is often the meeting place for religious discourses as well as ‘bhajans’
and ‘kirtans’ (devotional songs and chants).

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 Puja

Hindu worship, or puja, involves images (murtis), prayers (mantras) and diagrams of the universe
(yantras).Central to Hindu worship is the image, or icon, which can be worshipped either at home or
in the temple.

Worship at home

The majority of Hindu homes have a shrine where offerings are made and prayers are said. A shrine
can be anything: a room, a small altar or simply pictures or statues of the deity. Family members often
worship together. Rituals should strictly speaking be performed three times a day. Some Hindus, but
not all, worship wearing the sacred thread (over the left shoulder and hanging to the right hip). This is
cotton for the Brahmin (priest), hemp for the Kshatriya (ruler) and wool for the vaishya (merchants).

Temple worship

At a Hindu temple, different parts of the building have a different spiritual or symbolic meaning.

 The central shrine is the heart of the worshipper

 The tower represents the flight of the spirit to heaven

 A priest may read, or more usually recite, the Vedas to the assembled worshippers, but any "twice-
born" Hindu can perform the reading of prayers and mantras

Religious rites

Hindu religious rites are classified into three categories:

 Nitya

 Nitya rituals are performed daily and consist in offerings made at the home shrine or performing
puja to the family deities.

 Naimittika

 Naimittika rituals are important but only occur at certain times during the year, such as
celebrations of the festivals, thanksgiving and so on.

 Kamya

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  Kamya are rituals which are "optional" but highly desirable. Pilgrimage is one such.

Worship and pilgrimage

Pilgrimage is an important aspect of Hinduism. It's an undertaking to see and be seen by the deity.
Popular pilgrimage places are rivers, but temples, mountains, and other sacred sites in India are also
destinations for pilgrimages, as sites where the gods may have appeared or become manifest in the
world.

History of Temples

In the Vedic period, there were no temples. The main object of worship was the fire that stood for
God. This holy fire was lit on a platform in the open air under the sky, and oblations were offered to
the fire. It is not certain when exactly the Indo-Aryans first started building temples for worship. The
scheme of building temples was perhaps a concomitant of the idea of idol worship.

Locations of Temples

As the race progressed, temples became important because they served as a sacred meeting place for
the community to congregate and revitalize their spiritual energies. Large temples were usually built
at picturesque places, especially on river banks, on top of hills, and on the seashore. Smaller temples
or open-air shrines can crop up just about anywhere - by the roadside or even under the tree.

Holy places in India are famous for its temples. Indian towns — from Amaranth to Ayodhya,
Brindavan to Banaras, and Kanchipuram to Kanya Kumari— are all known for their wonderful
temples.

Temple Architecture
Hindu temple architecture is one of the most important forms of Hindu architecture. The basic style of
Hindu temples will always remain the same but there are differences in them according to the
architecture. The Technical architecture of the Hindu temple reflects a lot about the synthesis of the
values, believes, ideas and arts of those who built it. It is believed that all the elements of the Cosmos
that are responsible for creating and celebrating life according to the Hindu culture from fire to water,
on from feminine the masculine, from kama to arth, etc. are ingrained in Temples and it is believed

58
that the solutions to all the problems of life are in the temples and it is possible to manifest everything
that you want by getting them constructed rightly. The architectural elements of a Hindu temple have
the capability to create a link between the divine and the man. A temple created following all the rules
can help in attaining the spiritual knowledge and lead the soul to Moksh.

Each traditional Hindu temple is essentially a universe in itself. It is a miniature replica of God’s
creation, which reflects its diversity, divinity and complexity, reminding us of the presence of God
upon earth and our duties towards him and his Dharma. The Hindu temples are built according to
mathematical and geometrical principles. The design of the temple architecture is done very carefully
because there are very strong rules associated with them. It is believed that the souls of the Gods and
Goddesses can be worshipped and the fruits are quick if the temple architecture is made perfectly. The
temples according to Indian temple architecture are constructed according to a symmetry. There are
many variations guitar created on a square grid of padas. It depicts the perfect shape of the geometry.
The common shapes are circles and squares. The indian temple architecture design is based on the
principle that everything is connected with each other. Indian Temple designed with the principles of
Indian architecture is capable of welcoming the divine souls through building the structured spaces
that are mathematically correct, statues and carvings on the pillars, a network of beautiful art, etc. All
this helps in achieving the necessary principles of mankind. The appropriate site for Indian temple
architecture is first of all decided. Most of the time the site is chosen for building the temple according
to the presence of birds and animals, Gardens with flowers, water bodies, etc. The layout of the
temple is designed according to VastuPurushMandal which is the sanctum based on a geometrical
design. VastuPurushMandal is a self-repeating and symmetrical Yantra. We follow this layout while
making a Hindu temple design. It has been derived from mathematical principles, cardinality, myths,
beliefs, etc.

The theoretical aspects of the Hindu temple are according to the knowledge contained in the Vedas,
the Tantras and other Shastras, while the design, geometric and architectural aspects are drawn from
ancient building manuals (Vastu Shastras) and treatises on traditional sculpting (Shilpa
Shastras).Many temples are built as microcosms of Hindu cosmology with a central tower or towers
representing Mt. Meru, the five-peaked home of the Hindu gods and the center of the Hindu universe.
The halls, arranged around the sanctuary in a square plan, represent the mountains on the edge of the

59
world. The galleries, corridors and halls are aligned with directions of the compass. Temple are
usually built facing east towards the rising sun which is regarded as auspicious.
The central tower representing Mt. Meru is regarded as a cosmic axis between the heaven and the
earth. Elaborate temples have a central tower surrounded by other towers. These towers represent the
peaks of Mount Meru and are organized in a square plan around the central dome like a lotus flower
and are often adorned with stucco or carved sandstone decorations. Their conical shape is formed by a
series of stepped tiers that come together to form a rounded point at the top.
Great shrines and temples often have features connected with mountains. Some are painted white to
symbolize the snowcapped Himalayas. Things like domes, spires, hexagonal or octagonal towers are
representations of Mt. Meru, the peaks of Mt. Meru or other mountains. In the old days many temples
had moats around them, representing the infinite ocean that surrounds Mt. Meru. Angkor Wat in
Cambodia is a good example of a Hindu temple.
T
he architecture of Hindu temples evolved over a period of more than 2,000 years and there is a great
variety in this architecture. Hindu temples are of different shapes and sizes — rectangular, octagonal,
and semi-circular — with different types of domes and gates. Temples in southern India have a
different style than those in northern India. Although the architecture of Hindu temples is varied, they
mainly have many things in common. The temples of ancient India have also received substantial
treatment with regard to their cosmic meaning, but the interpretation of sacred architecture in India
has been influenced by the significant body of ritual and architectural texts (sacute;ãstras), which
provide detailed rules and conventions for all aspects of planning and construction and ritual practice.
The use of these texts has not only supplemented understanding of the symbolism of temple
architecture, but encouraged research into the meaning of plans, proportions, and architecture as
science. The question of the interrelationship between cosmos and architecture has also been
investigated in ancient Greece, where the use of proportion and geometry is considered vital to this
topic. The question of whether similar constraints existed in other cultures, such as the example of
Mesopotamia, also arises, with the possibility that they were perhaps articulated in the form of
metrological texts.1

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Temple Geometry
Ground floor plan, elevation, and the roof plan are the 3 separate areas of the temple on an analysis of
temple geometry. In 2011 a comprehensive and coherent design and geometrical analysis method
termed ‘Square Circle Sequence’ (SCS) was introduced on a revision of squaring of the circle and its
symbolic connotations. A relationship between the expanding squares of SCS, the location of
Garbhagriha, the plan of a temple and elevation, as well as the roof plan of the temple has been
established. Suggesting the need to study the temple architecture proportions in totality. 1B

The method is a simple sequence of squares and circles. The squares are rotated at 22.5° to form a
sixteen-point star (these 16 points can be equated to the 16 petals of the Sriyantra). Three sets of
points are created, the first set consists of the corner of the squares (example, a and a’), the second is
the sixteen point of the each rotated square (example, b’, b’’,b’’’) and the third set consists of the
intersection points ‘marma’ (example, c’,c’’,c’’’). the intersection points marmas when projected
provide the key location of the temple plan. Smaller details can also be derived with exact precision
form this method. The SCS starts with a square which coincides with the size of the deity and in the
case where the enshrined figure is a linga and its yoni pitha the sequence starts with a circle. With the
help of numerous examples, it can be proved, that if we start the sequence with the dimension of the
deity, then all the key elements coincide with the SCS sequence. The location of garbhagriha is also
located with this method. Besides locating the subsidiary shrines, the location of the peripheral wall
and their entrances can also be done by this method 1C
Parts of a Temple
1. Garbhagriha is the sanctum sanctorum, the innermost sanctuary of a Hindu and Jain
temples where resides the murti (idol or icon) of the primary deity of the temple. In Jainism, the main
deity is known as the Mulnayaka. Literally the word means "womb chamber", from
the Sanskrit words garbha for womb and griha for house. Generally in Hinduism only 'priests'
(pujari) are allowed to enter this chamber.
The room has a single entrance, normally facing east to be accessed by the rising sun, and no
windows. It is normally square, and at least approximately a cube, with the representation of the
temple's deity placed in the centre, so that it can be seen by worshippers outside. Relative to the size
of the temple, and especially the large tower arising over it, it is a rather small room, and there is no

61
view from below up into the shikhara or tower, which is treated as completely solid, although in fact
for structural reasons it very often includes a hollow space.
In the great majority of temples with a tower superstructure, a shikhara (in the north) or vimana (in the
south), this chamber is placed directly underneath it, and the two of them form the main vertical axis
of the temple. These together may be understood to represent the axis of the world through Mount
Meru. The garbha griham is usually also on the main horizontal axis of the temple which generally is
an east–west axis. In those temples where there is also a cross-axis, the garbha gṛha is generally at
their intersection.
Generally the garbhagriha is a windowless and sparsely lit chamber, intentionally created thus to
focus the devotee's mind on the tangible form of the divine within it. Entrance to the Hindu
garbhagrha is very often restricted to priests who perform the services there, and in temples in active
worship (as opposed to historic monuments) normally to Hindus at the least. In Jain temples all
suitably bathed and purified Jains are allowed inside.
In the Dravida style, the garbhagriha took the form of a miniature vimana with other features
exclusive to southern Indian temple architecture such as the inner wall together with the outer wall
creating a pradakshina around the garbhagriha. The entrance is highly decorated. The inner
garbhagriha or shrine became a separate structure, more elaborately adorned over time.
The garbhagriha is normally square and sits on a plinth, its location calculated to be a point of total
equilibrium and harmony as it is representative of a microcosm of the Universe. In the centre is placed
the image of the deity.But sometimes, for the temples of feminine deities, the garbagriha is
rectangular. For example, in the temple of Varahi Deula in Chaurasi.The present structure of most of
these temples is a two-storeyed vimana with a square garbhagriha and a surrounding
circumambulatory path, an ardha-mandapa and a narrower maha-mandapa.

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 2. Mandapa:It is the entrance to the temple.It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns
placed at regular intervals) hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.Dances and
such other entertainments are practiced here.Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes
named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, and Mahamandapa. Mandapa (also
spelled mantapa or mandapam) in Indian architecture, especially Hindu temple architecture, is
a pillared hall or pavilion for public rituals. mandapa is a porch-like structure through the
(gopuram) (ornate gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used for religious dancing and music
and is part of the basic temple compound. The prayer hall was generally built in front of the
temple's sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha). A large temple would have many mandapa..

 Mandapas are described as "open" or "closed" depending on whether they have walls. In
temples, one or more mandapas very often lie between the sanctuary and the temple entrance,
on the same axis. In a large temple other mandapas may be placed to the sides.

 If a temple has more than one mandapa, each one is allocated for a different function and
given a name to reflect its use. For example, a mandapa dedicated to divine marriage is
referred to as a kalyana mandapa. Often the hall was pillared and the pillars adorned with
intricate carvings.[5] In contemporary terms, it also represents a structure within which
a Hindu wedding is performed. The bride and groom encircle a holy fire lit by the officiating
priest in the center of the mandapa

3. Shikhara or Vimana:

 They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.

 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.

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4. Amalaka: It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North
Indian temples.

5. Kalasha:It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.

6. Antarala (vestibule): Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main
hall (mandapa).

7. Jagati: It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.

8. Vahana: It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar
or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum.

Classification of Indian Temples:.

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Hindu temples come in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction
methods and are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs, yet almost all of them share certain
core ideas, symbolism and themes. ignificance and meaning of a Hindu temple

Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values, and the way of life
cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal Purusa in a sacred
space. It represents the triple-knowledge (trayi-vidya) of the Vedic vision by mapping the
relationships between the cosmos (brahmanda) and the cell (pinda) by a unique plan that is based on
astronomical numbers. Subhash Kak sees the temple form and its iconography to be a natural
expansion of Vedic ideology related to recursion, change and equivalence.

The 9x9 (81) grid ‘’Parama Sayika’’ layout plan (above) found in large ceremonial Hindu Temples. It
is the second most common Hindu temple format, set on a 9 x 9 grid. These were built as ceremonial
temples - by kings and regional communities. They are typically very large.The blue squares are
Brahma pada where the main and/or largest idol of the temple resides.The deep saffron square in the

center symbolically represents Universal One (or Space/Eternity/Universal Principle/Purusa) in Hindu

tradition, understanding which is considered the ultimately goal of all Hindu spiritual activity. In
some designs and texts all 9 central squares are considered as Brahma padas.

The white squares surrounding the Brahma pada are Devika (Devaika) padas - the zone where gods
(devas) reside.

The light green squares at the outermost periphery are Paisachikas padas - the zone of demons, fears,
suffering. On the east edge of the temple are always present Surya (Sun) and Indra, who rythmically
bring light and hope everyday.

The light saffron squares forming the third outer encirclement are Manusha padas - the zone where
human beings live, walk and symbolically make choice between good and evil, Devas (gods) and
Paisachikas (demons), as they walk towards the central core for a darsana (darshan, vision).

In Hindu temple architecture, the designs range from simple 1 pada (used for yoga, meditation with
self as temple) to 1024 pada or 32x32 grid superstructure temples.

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It is one of many grids used to build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric
layer has significance. The outermost layers, Paisachika padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil;
while inner Devika padas signify aspects of Devas and good. In between the good and evil is the
concentric layer of Manusha padas signifying human life; All these layers surround Brahma padas,
which signifies creative energy and the site for temple’s primary idol for darsana. Finally at the very
center of Brahma padas is Grabhgriya (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in
everything and everyone.

In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a place for Tirtha – pilgrimage. It is a sacred site whose ambience
and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of Hindu way of life. All the cosmic
elements that create and sustain life are present in a Hindu temple – from fire to water, from images of
nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from the fleeting sounds and incense smells to
the eternal nothingness yet universality at the core of the temple.

Susan Lewandowski statesthat the underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief
that all things are one, everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid or 81-grid
mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and
celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life – the pursuit of artha (prosperity,
wealth), the pursuit of kama (pleasure, sex), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit
of moksha (release, self-knowledge). At the center of the temple, typically below and sometimes
above or next to the deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically
representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present
everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to
encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one’s mind, and trigger the process of inner realization
within the devotee. The specific process is left to the devotee’s school of belief. The primary deity of
different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum.

In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the secular and the sacred. In the same spirit,
Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces, they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose
have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social meaning.
Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and music, to
get married or commemorate marriages, commemorate the birth of a child, other significant life

66
events, or mark the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have served as
a venue for the succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity thrived.

Forms and designs of Hindu temples

Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple
shelter which serves as a deity’s home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or
she would visit a friend or relative. The use of moveable and immoveable images is mentioned
by Pāṇini. In Bhakti school of Hinduism, temples are venues for puja, which is a hospitality ritual,
where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with the deity. In
other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform jap, or meditation, or yoga, or
introspection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples often incorporate more elaborate and
monumental architecture.

The major and distinct features between the north Indian temple and the south Indian temple are their
superstructures. In the north the beehive shaped tower is the most distinguished element called as the
sikhara. The gateways are in the north and they are plain, simple and small. The plans of the north
Indian temples are based on square but the walls are sometimes broken at so many places that it gives
an impression of temple being circular in plan. The tower is made up of miniature sikhara creating an
amazing visual effect resembling mountain.

In the south, the distinct features are the vimana and the gopurams. The vimana is a tall pyramidal
tower consisting of several progressively smaller storeys, the peak of the vimana is called as sikhara
in the south Indian temples. This stands on a square base. The temple complex consisting of the main
shrine and other smaller shrines are enclosed by the outer wall called as the prakara. Along these
outer walls are the intricate and marvelous gateways called as gopurams. These gopurams became
taller and taller overpowering the main shrine and its superstructure and dominating the whole temple
complex.
Site
_________________________________________________________________
The appropriate site for a temple, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where
lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without

67
fear of injury or harm. These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the
explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples.

The gods always play where lakes are,

where the sun’s rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters,
and where clear water paths are made by swans
whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither,
where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard,
and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks.

The gods always play where rivers have for their bracelets
the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech,
water as their garment, carps for their zone,
the flowering trees on their banks as earrings,
the confluence of rivers as their hips,
raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle.

The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with
pleasure gardens.
— Brhat Samhita 1.60.4-8, 6th Century AD

While major Hindu temples are recommended at confluence of rivers ( or sangams), river banks, lakes
and seashore, Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where a natural source of
water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of
the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is
symbolically present at the consecration of temple or the deity. Temples may also be built,
suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93, inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops
affording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and
hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.

Manuals

_________________________________________________________

Ancient builders of Hindu temples created manuals of architecture, called Vastu-Sastra (literally
"science" of dwelling; vas-tu is a composite Sanskrit word; vas means "reside", tumeans "you"); these
contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling). There exist many Vastu-Sastras on the art of
building temples, such as one by Thakkura Pheru, describing where and how temples should be
built. By the 6th century AD, Sanskrit manuals for in India. Vastu-Sastra manuals included chapters
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on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated
temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature. While it is unclear,
states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or
when they were properly implemented in practice, the manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu
temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life.

Ancient India produced many Sanskrit manuals for Hindu temple design and construction, covering
arrangement of spaces (above) to every aspect of its completion. Yet, the Silpins were given wide
latitude to experiment and express their creativity. The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by
Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara in the ninth or tenth centuries AD, is another Sanskrit treatise on
Temple Architecture. Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple
and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These
styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found
expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and
added their own interpretations. For example, in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in
western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types
of Nataka-stri compared to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa. Silpa Prakasa provides brief
introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada
Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankaraprovide a
more extensive list of Hindu temple types.

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Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of
India, include Sutradhara Mandana’s Prasadamandana (literally, manual for planning and building a
temple). Manasara, a text of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by the 7th century AD,
is a guidebook on South Indian temple design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is
another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of temple building in India in south and
central India. In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit
manual from 6th century describing the design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples.

A Temple Craftsman
According to Yogi there are only about 200 “Stapati”, or Master Builders, who are qualified to design
a Hindu temple in the South Indian Chola style. These architects use ancient formulas and techniques
only known by a few. It was explained that each temple has a “module” (a length measurement)
which is unique. This number is derived from a secret formula which takes into account the
astrological casting of the location, the diety installed, and certain measurements of the founder. In
this case the number was 11’-7 1/4” . This module must be used for all the spacings of columns, and
other distances in the design of the temple. Yogi laughed when he told me that even though the
number must be used, there is no stipulation of exactly how it is applied. Therefore, he said that some
columns are spaced center-to-center and some are spaced edge-to-edge while others may be spaced
center-to-edge, etc.

Because iron-based materials are considered inauspicious, and because steel rebar does not have the
desired longevity for a Hindu temple, only copper, silver or gold are allowed to be used. In fact the
entire crown of the temple is adorned with gold leaf! Yogi explained that the concrete foundation and
slab floor was designed by an engineer. The monolithic concrete slab is 48” thick, made from a high-

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volume fly ash mix, with no reinforcement, and is placed on a 36” deep bed of compacted structural
fill. Even though all of the construction was “old school” it was still required to meet the strict
planning and building codes currently in effect in Kauai, which it did!

Perhaps the most amazing aspect of the temple are the carved granite panels and ornamentation.
These objects are often huge, and always carved from a single solid piece of stone. Some are used to
form entire wall sections, while others act as columns, railings and other architectural elements. This
most exciting elements to me were the full-sized carved lions. Each of them has it’s mouth open,
showing a sharp set of teeth. But inside of each mouth is a solid granite ball which was carved in
there! I can’t even imagine this task. How long must it take to achieve such a feat? And what happens
if the chisel slips? I assume the carver must start all over with a new piece of stone. Not a trivial
decision, since the larger and more elaborate stones weigh as much as seven tons and take four men
two to three years to carve. Yes, up to 12 man-years for a single element!

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Four Types of Architects: Apart from the Acharya who is the learned preceptor who gives the
yajamana (one who sponsors the temple project) the necessary advice and guidance in selecting the
proper site, the sthapati and other silpins. The sthapati, yajamana and the ahcarya form the trinity
of vastusthapana (construction); they are compared to Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra .

The ancients mention four types of architects –

1. the Sthapati,
2. Sutragrahin,
3. Vardhaki and
4. Takshaka.
1.Sthapati: The Sthapati is the chief architect or master builderempowered to plan, design and direct
the construction from the beginning to the end. He is well-qualified in Shastras and the Vedas. He is
pictured as a cultured, decent man free from vices. He has the ability to direct his team.
2.The Sutragrahin is the supervisor and is said to be normally the Sthapati’s son or disciple. He is
also well-qualified in the Vedas and Sastras. He is an expert draftsman or Rekhagna, who directs the
rest of the work force. His job is to see that all building parts are aligned correctly. He should be able
to give instructions to the other craftsmen.
3.The Vardhaki is the painter and has made a special study of it. He is also well-versed in the Vedas.
Vardhaki joins together the building elements shaped by Taksaka.
4.Taksaka is the craftsman who cuts and shapes the building elements. The Takshaka is also the
master carpenter who is responsible for all the intricate wood work including doors, windows, pillars
etc.
These four classes are considered the representations of Viswakarma, Maya, Manu and Twasta, the
sons of Brahma, the creator.
IV.Ayaadi Shadvarga- Matrix of Astrology and design:

Ayadi _shadvarga is a matrix of architecture and astrological calculations. According

to Samarangana Sutradhara Ayaadi-shadvarga is a set of six criteria: Aaya, Vyaya, Amsha,
Nakshatra, Yoni and Vara-tithi, which are applied to certain dimensions of the building and its

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astrological associations. The purpose of the exercise is to ascertain the longevity of the house as also
the suitability to its owner. These norms are applied to temples too.
The term Aaya could be taken to mean increase or plus or profit; Vyaya – decrease or minus or loss;
Nakshatra,- star of the day; Yoni – source or the orientation of the building; Vara- day of the week;
and Tithi – the day in lunar calendar for construction of building and performing invocation of Vastu
Purusha..The area of the structure is divided by certain factors assigned to each element of the Aayadi
Shadvarga; and the suitability or longevity of the building is ascertained from the reminder so
obtained.
For instance, if the plinth area of the house is divided by 8; and the remainder is either 1 or3 or 5, then
these are called Garuda garbha, Simha garbha and Rishabha garbha, which are auspicious. Hence
the plinth area of the building should be manipulated or altered to arrive at an auspicious reminder.
The rule is also applied to ascertain the longevity of the building. According to this method the total
area should be divided by 100 and if the reminder is more than 45, it is good and if it is more than 60
it is very good. For instance, if the length of the house 11 meters, and the width 5 meters, then its area
is 11 X 5 = 55 sq.mts. Multiply the area by 27 (Nakshatra factor) , 55 X 27 = 1485. Divide the product
1485 by 100. The remainder is 85,-which indicates the projected longevity of the house. Since the
reminder is more than 60, .it is a very healthy result.
There is another method for arriving at the Aayadi value. The result is categorized in to eight types of
Aayas. According to this method, the area (length X breadth) is multiplied by 9; and divided by 8. The
reminders 1 to 8 are interpreted as good or bad, as indicated in the following table.

Aaya Symbolizing Reminder Interpretation

Dhwajaya Money 01 Good. Brings wealth

Not good. ill heath of the head of

Dhumraya Smoke 02 the family and spouse.

Very Good. Victory over

enemies; health ,wealth and
Simhaya Lion 03 prosperity.

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Shwnaya Dog 04 Bad. Ill health and bad omens.

Vrishabhaya Bull 05 Good. wealth and fortune.

Very bad. Head of family will

turn a vagabond; premature
Kharaya Donkey 06 death in family.

Good. Life of head of family and

members brightens; improvent in
Gajaya Elephant 07 heath and wealth.

Very bad. Sorrow to family; and

Kakaya. Crow 08 no peace.

Ayadi calculations : See http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=666&

http://www.vastu-design.com/seminar/14a.php]

III .Building Materials used in temple architecture

The building materials that are prominently used in temple construction are the stone, the bricks and
the wood (apart from earth which we discussed separately in the earlier part of this series). The Shilpa
texts describe in detail the nature of these materials and the criteria for their selection, for various
purposes. Let us take a quick look at these three materials.

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A.Stones
The stones are the major ingredients in temple construction. One cannot think of a temple constructed
without using stones. It is therefore natural that the Shilpa texts discuss the stones quite elaborately.
The following, in brief, is the summarized observations and recommendations of some shilpa texts.
The stones collected from open source such as mountain or hill are stronger and more durable as
compared to those dug out of earth. Similarly, the stones or boulders dug out from the coastal areas
are considered weak, as they could be eroded by the chemicals and the salt content of the sea. They
are not considered fit to bear heavy loads. The reason for preferring the stones from hills or mountains
could be that they are well seasoned by constant exposure to the vagaries of weather; and are
unaffected by salts and other chemicals.
Stone should be free from lines, patches, blotches, blots and cracks or other faults. The white lines or
patches in a black or other coloured stone are acceptable. But, black lines or black patches in white or
other coloured stones are not acceptable at all. The explanation given is, the white lines, the patches of
quartz, strengthen the rock structure; while black lines of baser materials weaken the stones. The
traces of chlorite or olivine cause green or black patches and weaken the stones; therefore, such stones
are not recommended for temple construction. The Vishnu Darmottara Purana talks in great detail
about the faults in the rocks and the methods to test the rocks.
Stones such as marble, steatite, khondalite, sandstone, basalt etc are not fit for carving a diety. They
are not recommended in load bearing areas, either. They could be used in other areas, if needed.

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Colour
As regards their colour, the stones are of four basic colours: white, red, yellow and black. Some of
them could be tainted with traces of other colours. Stones of white colour are regarded the best for
temple construction. The next in the order of preference are the red, yellow and black coloured stones.
. It is preferable to use uniformly the stones of the same colour.
The Kashyapa Shilpa mentions seven categories of white stones: white as milk, as the conch, as
jasmine, as moon, as pearl, as alum and as the kundapushpa (a variety of jasmine).The white stones
with traces of blue or slight brown or bee-like black lines are considered good for temple construction.
The red coloured stones are of five types: Red as red hibiscus flower (japa kusuma), as kinsuka(bright
red), as the indragopa insect, as parijatha flower, as the blood of a rabbit, and as pomegranate flower.
The yellow colour of the stones is of two types: yellow as the Banduka flower, and as koranti flower.
The black of the stones comes in ten colours: black as the pupil of the eye, as mascara, blue lotus, as
bee, as the neck of peacock, as kapila cow, as urd gram etc.
“Age”
The stones are also classified according to their “age”-: child (baala), youthful (taruna) and the old
(vriddha).
If a stone when tapped gives out a faint sound or the sound is as that of mud, or of half burnt brick;
such stones are classified as baala– the child; to mean raw or immature. The baala stones are not fit
for making idols or for bearing loads.
If a stone when struck produces the sound resembling the ring of a bell and if such sound resonates for
quite a while, such a stone is classified as taruna youthful. Such stone should have a cold touch and a
soft feel. If the stones emanate fragrance it is much better. The taruna– the youthful – stones are fit
for carving images and for crucial areas of temple.
An old, the vriddha, stone does not give out any sound and has a dry appearance.It gives the touch and
feel of a frog or a fish. It might have many holes or might be in a state of decay. Such old and spent
stones are not fit for making images or for load bearing areas.
“Gender”
Stones are also classified according to their “gender”. Those stones which give bronze sound at the
hammer weight are called “male’. Those which give brass sound are called “female’. And, those that
do not produce any sound are called genderless (neuter).

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A hollow stone may be taken as pregnant and hence should be discarded. When smeared with a paste,
overnight, it changes its colour. Shilpa Ratna describes dozens of such pates. Some stones are said to
carry poisonous effects. These stones too should be tested by application a paste; and should not be
used.
It is suggested that male stones are used for carving male deities; female stones are used for carving
female deities; and the neuter stones are used for other constructions. Further it is said, the male
stones could also be used for construction of sikhara (tower) and stone walls; the female stone could
be used for structures above foundations; and the neuter stones could be used for foundations.
Male stones are big, round or polygonal, are of a singular shape and uniform colour; they are weighty
and give out sparks when hammered. When dug out, its apex will be towards north. If the apex is
inclined towards north or west facing, the rock is considered inauspicious. Highly compact rocks like
dolerites, bronzites, proxenites and peridoties as well as lamprophyres are regarded male rocks.
A female rock is of medium weight , square or octagonal, thick at root and thin near the apex, cold to
touch, soft to feel and on being struck gives out sonorous notes like that of a mridanga (drum).
A neuter gender stone is one that doesn’t give any sound on being struck and narrow towards its
bottom and triangular on its upper side ; and such stones may be used only for the foundation.

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Chisels and carving – Khanitra-pancakam srestharn -excerpts from Five types of chisels are good.
The different varieties are lanji (biting), langali (plough like), grdhradanti (like vulture
teeth), sucimukha (needle tipped) and vajra (diamond like). All are made up of steel and each one of
two types is narrow and broad.
Men beat the chisel on the long mallet, with the short mallet people use for breaking stone. All
instruments are sharpened, dipped in cow’s urine and then smeared with ingida (asafetida) oil and
whetted in leather.
Sculptors apply a softening mixture. Shell-solvent, Kustharasa, sea salt and the powder of the bark of
the ukatsa tree are thus the four fluids for the softening of stones. With this plan, after immersing the
chisel for 10 days, sculptors use the chisel in sacrificial rites and also dig with ease.

Mixing of the mortar

There should be 5 parts extract of beans, nine and eight parts molasses (thick treacle that drains from
sugar ) and curd or coagulated by acid (respectively). Clarified butter (ghee) 2 parts, 7 parts milk, hide
(extract) 6 parts.
There should be 10 parts of myrobalan*. Coconut two parts, honey one part. Three parts plantain are
desired.In the powder (thus) obtained, 1/10th lime should be added. Larger quantity than others of
molasses, curd and milk is best. In two parts of lime, (add) karaka, honey, clarified butter, plantain,
coconut and bean. When dry (add) water, milk, curd, myrobalan along with molasses gradually.
Now in the powder (thus) obtained, grow one in hundred parts. It (the compound) is said by leading
thinkers who know the technology as rocklike.

Acoustics Shilpis have displayed a remarkable skill and ingenuity in crafting “musical “pillars, which
when struck at right points produce sonorous octaves. One can see such pillars in the Vijaya Vittala
temple at Hampi; Meenakshi temple at Madurai; and at Sundarehwara temple at Trichendur. There
might be such “musical” in other temples too. Usually such pillars are of granite and charnockites;
and of different girths and volumes to produce the right octaves.
Assembling Pillars Starnbha-sandhayah ,following are a few excerpts from Pride of India: A
Glimpse Into India’s Scientific Heritage
Assembly of Pillars: It is said that there are five types of assemblies suitable for pillars; these are
Mesayuddha, Trikhanda, Saubhadra, Ardhapani and Mahavrtta.

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 1. When there is a central tenon (projection at the end of a piece of wood etc., with a width) a
third (that of the pillar) and a length twice or two and half time its width, this is Mesayuddha
(mortise – A hole to receive a tenon ,and tenon) assembly
2. In the Trikhanda assembly, there are three mortises and three tenons arranged as a Swastika,
The assembly called Saubhadra comprises four peripheral tenons.
3. An assembly is called Ardhapani (scarf joint) when half the lower and half the upper pieces
are cut to size according to the thickness chosen (for the pillar)
4. When there is a semicircular section tenon at the centre, the assembly is called Mahavrtta, the
well advised man employs this for circular section pillars.

The assembling of (the different parts of) a pillar should be done below the middle and any
assembling done above will be a source of accident; (however) the assembly which brings together
the bell-capital and the abacus gives the certainty of success. When a stone pillar, with its decoration,
(is to be assembled) this should be done according to the specific case.It should be known that the
assembling of the vertical pieces is done according to the disposition of the different parts of the tree;
if the bottom is above and the top is below, all chance of success is lost

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B.Bricks (Ishtaka)

Bricks have been in use for thousands of years in construction of yupa the sacrificial altars
and Chaithyas the early temples of the Vedic ages. Shathapatha Brahmana as also Shilpa
Rathna describes the methods for moulding and burning the bricks. The Sulba
sutras and Manasara detail the dimensions of the bricks of various sizes in relation to the sacrificial
altars constructed for various purposes. The remnants of the Indus valley civilization too amply
demonstrate the extensive use of bricks in construction of buildings and other structures.During the
later ages, the bricks were used in the temple structures mainly for erecting Gopuras the temple towers
and Vimanas the domes over the sanctum.

As per the descriptions given in Manasara the bricks were made in various sizes; the size of the
bricks varying from 7 inches to 26 or even to 31 inches in length. The length of the bricks were 1 ¼,
1 ½, 1 ¾ or 2 times the width .The height of the brick was ½ its width or equal to the width. Thus,
bricks of different sizes, shapes, and types were made. The composition, shape and baking of a brick
depended upon the use to which it was put. Interestingly, the bricks with straight and linier edges were
called male bricks; while those with a broad front side and a narrower back side or those of curved
shape were called female bricks. The bricks in concave shape were called neuter bricks. The male
bricks could be used in the construction of the prasada, the sanctum. The female bricks were used for
the sanctum of female deities. The neuter bricks were generally not used in temple construction; but
were used for lining the walls of the well.
According to Shukla Yajurveda Samhita, bricks were made from thoroughly mixed and pulverized
earth and other ingredients. The earth was strengthened by mixing goat hair, fine sand, iron flake or
filings and powdered stone. Earth was also mixed with ‘raal oil’, etc. and thoroughly beaten and
blended in order to increase the strength of the material by enhancing the cohesion of the earth
particles. Triphala concoction is said to render the earth, white ants (termite) and microbe proof.
Maya-mata and other Shilpa–texts give details about brick-making (Istaka-sangrahanam).
a. Salty, off-white, black and smooth, red and granulated, these are the four kinds of clay-Clay
suitable for making bricks and tiles must be free from gravel, pebbles, roots and bones and
must be soft to touch.
b. Then fill the clods of clay in knee-deep water; then having mixed, pound with the feet forty
times repeatedly
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 c. After soaking the clay in the sap of fig, kadamba, mango, abhaya and aksha and also in the
water of myrobalan for three months, pound it
d. These (bricks) are in four, five, six and eight unit (widths) and twice that in length. Their
depth in the middle and in the two ends (is) one fourth or one-third the width. Again these
bricks should normally be dried and baked.According to the experts, only after one, two, three
or four months, again throwing (the baked bricks) in water, and extractin g (them) from the
water with effort, (will put the brick to use)

Brick lying was done with the aid of molds; and, the bricks were burnt in enclosed kilns. The works
like Shilpa Ratna and Vastuvidya explain that the brick moulds were baked for 24 hours in a fire of
firewood.Bricks black in color or half baked or broken or defective otherwise were rejected. The
bricks should be well burnt and be of uniform color.

According to Shulba Sutra, bricks measuring 22.8 X 11.4X 5.7 cms were used in construction of
walls. The Bodhayana Sulaba sutra specifies the arrangement of bricks, while constructing a wall.
The brick should be directed in a dextral and laevo order. The brick ends should not be piled one over
the other. The joints of the brick in each third row of brick may fall over the brick of the first row; this
is the ‘Malla Lila’ style of fixing the brick, based on the arrangement of the joints of the brick.
The bricks having a smooth surface are not to be set one above the other, but are to be fixed in straight
line and the wall should be of an equal thickness all over. The corners of the walls should be on the
ratio of 5: 3: 4 and at right angle to each other. According to the Sumrangana Sutradhara, the square
of the diagonal of the wall should be equal to the sum total of the square of the width of the wall.
It is said that the altar constructed for major sacrifices, bricks of about 200 types were used,
depending upon the size and shape of the altar.

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According to local legends, in ancient times, five brick temples were located beside the holy tank.
However, only two temples now survive. These temples are built in the Gurjara-Pratihara style, and
can be dated to 8th century CE. One of the two surviving temples has undergone heavy modifications.
Kalayat Ancient Brick Temple Complex is a ruined brick temple complex north of Delhi, is located
in Kalayat town in Kaithal district of the state of Haryana, India. It comprises the several Hindu
temples, including two ancient temples dating from the 8th century. This temple constitutes an
important point in the series of 48 kos parikrama of Kurukshetra. Locally made red bricks were the
main source of material for the buildings and sculptures. They were built without using any plaster or
mortar. Only two temples survive. One temple is a Shiva temple in the Pancha Rathas style with
a Linga statue and snake statue. There are stairs at the back leading to the Kapil Muni Tirtha, where
pilgrims take a bath before worship.
C.Wood

Wood has limited use in traditional temple structure of medieval times.

“With the early inhabitants of India, the timber age appears to have been along one due no
doubt to the vast extent of the Mahavana or Great Wood in which they were cradled,
picturesque references to which find a place in their epics. So closely connected with their
existence were these forests that the early people developed a dexterity in wooden
construction of a very high standard. Their pronounced manipulative skill in this material
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may be accounted for by their prolonged apprenticeship to the woodworker’s craft when they
were forced to rely on the trees around them for many of the necessities/, of life."
Brown,Percy : Indian Architecture, Vol.I, Bombay 1956;3

Wood has limited use in traditional temple structure of medieval times. Its application is mainly for
carving doors, erecting Dwajasthamba the flag posts and for other utilities such as platforms, stands
etc. But, in rare cases (as in Sri Jagannath temple at Puri or at Sri Marikamba temple in Sirsi) the
principal idol dhruva bhera is made of wood. The most extensive use of the wood is of course in the
construction of the Ratha the temple chariot. In rare cases as in Puri a new chariot is created each
year.
Shatapatha Brahmana a Vedic text of about 1500 BC or earlier makes repeated references to wood
and its applications. During its time the temples and the images were mostly made of wood (kasta
shilpa). The text mentions a certain Takshaka as a highly skilled artist who carved wood. It names a
number of trees the wood from which was used for various purposes. For instance Shaala (teak) and
Kadira a type of hard wood was used for carving images, pillars, gnomon (sanku) and other durables.
Certain other trees are also mentioned as being suitable for pillaras, posts etc: Khadi, Shaal, Stambak,
Shinshipa, Aajkarni, Kshirani, Dhanvan, Pishit, Dhanwalan, Pindi, Simpa, Rahjadan, and Tinduka.
Trees such as Nibaka (Neem), Panasa (jackfruit), Asana, Sirish, Kaal, Timish, Likuch, Panas,
Saptaparni, wood are said to be best for roofing work.
Coconut, Kramuk, Bamboo, Kitki, Oudumbara (silk cotton etc. wood is suited for hut constructions,
ribs and rafters etc.
However use of certain trees considered holy or godlike was not recommended in temple
construction. The trees such as Ashwattha (Peepal), Vata, Nagrodha (banyan), Chandana
(sandalwood), Kadamba, Badari, Shami, Bilva, Parijatha, kinsuka, and Bakula, were some such
sacred and godlike trees.
Chandana, Kadira, Saptaparni, Satwak, etc. were used for engraving and carving artwork.
The southern text Shilpa Rathnam states that the wood from the following is not suited for temple
construction.
Trees from a place of public resort, trees from a village or from the precincts of a temple, trees that
have been burnt, trees in which are birds’ nests, trees growing on anthills, trees in which are
honeycombs, trees fruiting out of season, trees supporting creepers, trees in which maggots dwell,

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trees growing close to tanks or wells, trees planted in the earth but reared by constant watering, trees
broken by elephants, trees blown down by the wind, trees in burning-grounds, in forsaken places, or
in places which had been paraclieris, withered trees, trees in which snakes live, trees in places where
there are hobgoblins, devils, or corpses, trees that have fallen down of themselves, – these are all bad
trees and to be avoided.
Age
The lifetime of a tree was regarded as 103 years. The trees under the age of 16 were Baala – child
trees; and those above 50 years of age were Vriddha– trees in their old age. The trees between the age
of 16 and 50 years were regarded most suitable for construction of temple and homes.
Tall trees of uniform girth without knot and holes, in their youth, grown on dense hilly regions are
most suited for construction of pillars. The trees that are white under the bark are in the best category;
followed by those having red, yellow and dark interiors; in that order. The juicy or milky trees are
preferable.
Gender
The trees that are round from the root to its apex, give a gentle fragrance, are deep rooted, are solid
and temperate may be taken as masculine trees, yielding male wood.
The feminine trees have slender roots and are thick at apical part, but a much thicker middle part with
no fragrance or odor in the wood.
The wood should be straight and without any knot, crevice or cavity. The structure built by joining
such male and female wood last for centuries
Neuter Trees
Slender and long in the middle of the trunk and having a thick head, is a genderless tree. While the
male trees serve for pillars; female trees for wall-plates, beams, and capitals; the hermaphrodite trees
serve for cross-joists, joists, and rafters.
Agastya Samhita has described the wood that is to be used in a chariot, boat or an aircraft. A youthful
and healthy tree should be cut and its bark removed, thereafter, it should be cut in squares after which
are to be transported to the workshop where these pieces should be stored upon spread out sand in an
orderly manner for 3 to 8 months for seasoning. The root and apex sides must be marked because in
pillars the root side is to be kept down and apex part up.
As far as possible, only one type of wood may be used for one particular construction. The use of
more than tree types of wood in a construction is not recommended.

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It is said the ISI standard A-883-1957 regarding a wooden items is based on the specification s
mentioned in the ancient Indian Texts

Precautions in the selection of the building materials:

1. No used building material should be used.
2. Stolen and renovated material should never be purchased.
3. Materials confiscated by the King should not be used.

4. The wood culled from the trees cut down in a cremation ground; temple, ashram or shrine
should not be utilized.

The plan

Elements of a Hindu temple in Kalinga style. There are many Hindu temple styles, but they almost
universally share common geometric principles, symbolism of ideas, and expression of core beliefs.

The 8x8 (64) grid Manduka Hindu Temple Floor Plan, according to vastupurusamandala. The 64 grid
is the most sacred and common Hindu temple template. The bright saffron center, where diagonals
intersect above, represents the Purusha of Hindu philosophy.

A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a
composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means
circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling

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structure. Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical,
self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.

The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect
square in the space available. The circle of mandala circumscribes the square. The square is
considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of knowledge and human thought,
while circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water
drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81)
sub-squares called padas. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the
form of a deity. The central square(s) of the 64 or 81 grid is dedicated to the Brahman (not to be
confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.

The 49 grid design is called Sthandila and of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu
temples in South India, particularly in ‘‘Prakaras’’. The symmetric Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are
sometimes combined to form a temple superstructure with two or more attached squares. The temples
face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing
sunrise is dedicated to Surya deity (Sun). The Surya pada is flanked by the padas of Satya (Truth)
deity on one side and Indra (king of gods) deity on other. The east and north faces of most temples
feature a mix of gods and demi-gods; while west and south feature demons and demi-gods related to
the underworld. This vastu purusha mandala plan and symbolism is systematically seen in ancient
Hindu temples on Indian subcontinent as well as those in Southeast Asia, with regional creativity and
variations.

Beneath the Mandela’s central square is the space for the formless shapeless all pervasive all
connecting Universal Spirit, the highest reality, the purusha. This space is sometimes referred to as
garbha-griya- womb house, a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without
ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a murti (idol). This
is the main deity idol, and this varies with each temple. Often it is this idol that gives the temple a
local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple,Narayana and Shiva
temples, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, and others.
It is this garbha-griyawhich devotees seek for ‘‘darsana’’ literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision.

Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara in north India,
and Vimana in south India, that stretches towards the sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the dome

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may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or
dome is designed as a pyramid, conical or other mountain-like shape, once again using principle of
concentric circles and squares (see below). Scholars suggest that this shape is inspired by cosmic
mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to Vedic mythology.

A Hindu temple has a Shikhara (Vimana or Spire) that rises symmetrically above the central core of
the temple. These spires come in many designs and shapes, but they all have mathematical precision
and geometric symbolism. One of the common principles found in Hindu temple spires is circles and
turning-squares theme (left), and a concentric layering design (right) that flows from one to the other
as it rises towards the sky.

In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk
around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence. Often this space is visually
decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these
images may be stories from Hindu Epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or
virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings
typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just and necessary pursuits of life –
kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.

Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One on the east side, serves as the waiting
room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in
newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega temple sites have a main
temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of
symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu
temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure, each unique yet also repeating the
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central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of repeating
cells".

An illustration of Hindu temple Spires (Shikhara, Vimana) built using concentric circle and rotating-
squares principle. The left is from Vijayanagar in Karnataka, the right is from Pushkar in Rajasthan.

The ancient texts on Hindu temple design, the Vastupurusamandala and Vastu Sastras, do not limit
themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the temple as a holistic part of its
community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and
city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature.

Exceptions to the square grid principle

______________________________________________________________________

Predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect square grid principle. However, there are
some exceptions. For example, the Teli-ka-mandir in Gwalior, built in the 8th century AD is not a
square but is a rectangle in 2:3 proportion. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and
shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting the architect intended
to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary
approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at Naresar temple site of
Madhya Pradesh and Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur, Rajasthan. Michael Meistersuggests that these
exceptions mean the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism
permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.

The symbolism

_________________________________________________________________

A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction of the universe and universal principles that make
everything in it function. The temples reflect Hindu philosophy and its diverse views on cosmos and
Truths.

Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing

body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic,
monistic, or atheistic. Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an
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individual experience, and referred to as kṣaitrajña. It defines spiritual practice as one’s journey
towards moksha, awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a
consciousness that is liberated and content. A Hindu temple reflects these core beliefs. The central
core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large communal space; the temple is designed for the
individual, a couple or a family – a small, private space where he or she experiences darsana.

Darsana is itself a symbolic word. In ancient Hindu scripts, darsana is the name of six methods or
alternate viewpoints of understanding Truth. These are Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa
and Vedanta – each of which flowered into their own schools of Hinduism, each of which are
considered valid, alternate paths to understanding Truth and realizing Self in the Hindu way of life.

Kāma is celebrated in some Hindu temples, such as Khajuraho and the Konark Temple (above).

From names to forms, from images to stories carved into the walls of a temple, symbolism is
everywhere in a Hindu temple. Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, sex, connection and
emotional pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical, erotic and architectural forms in Hindu temples.
These motifs and principles of human life are part of the sacred texts of Hindu, such as its
Upanishads; the temples express these same principles in a different form, through art and spaces. For
example, Brihadaranyaka Upanisad at 4.3.21 recites:

In the embrace of his beloved a man forgets the whole world,

everything both within and without;
in the same way, he who embraces the Self
knows neither within nor without.
— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 7th Century BC
The architecture of Hindu temples is also symbolic. The whole structure fuses the daily life and it
surroundings with the divine concepts, through a structure that is open yet raised on a terrace,
transitioning from the secular towards the sacred, [70] inviting the visitor inwards towards the Brahma
pada and temple’s central core, as well as lifting him upwards into a symbolic space marked by its
spire (shikhara, vimana). The ancient temples had grand intricately carved entrances but no doors, and
lacked a boundary wall. In most cultures, boundary and gateway separates the secular and the sacred,
and this gateway door is grand. In Hindu tradition, this is discarded in favor of an open and diffusive
architecture, where the secular world was not separated from the sacred, but transitioned and flowed
into the sacred. The Hindu temple has structural walls, which were patterned usually within the 64

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grid, or other geometric layouts. Yet the layout was open on all sides, except for the core space which
had just one opening for darsana. The temple space is laid out in a series of courts (mandappas). The
outermost regions may incorporate the negative and suffering side of life with symbolism of evil,
asuras and rakshashas (demons); but in small temples this layer is dispensed with. When present, this
outer region diffuse into the next inner layer that bridges as human space, followed by another inner
Devika padas space and symbolic arts incorporating the positive and joyful side of life about the good
and the gods. This divine space then concentrically diffuses inwards and lifts the guest to the core of
the temple, where resides the main idol as well as the space for the Purusa and ideas held to be most
sacred principles in Hindu tradition. The symbolism in the arts and temples of Hinduism, suggests
Edmund Leach, is similar to those in Christianity and other major religions of the world.

Styles

Hindu temples are found in diverse locations each incorporating different methods of construction and
styles:

 Mountain temples such as Masrur

 Cave temples such as Chandrabhaga, Chalukya and Ellora
 Step well temple compounds such as the Mata Bhavani, Ankol Mata and Huccimallugudi.
 Forest temples such as Kasaun and Kusama
 River bank and sea shore temples such as Somnath.
 Hindu deities, stepwell style.

Step well temples

_____________________________________________________________________

In arid western parts of India, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat, Hindu communities built large walk in
wells that served as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social meeting places
and carried religious significance. These monuments went down into earth towards subterranean
water, up to seven storey, and were part of a temple complex. These vav (literally, stepwells) had
intricate art reliefs on the walls, with numerous idols and images of Hindu deities, water spirits and
erotic symbolism. The step wells were named after Hindu deities; for example, Mata Bhavani's
Stepwell, Ankol Mata Vav, Sikotari Vav and others. The temple ranged from being small single pada
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(cell) structure to large nearby complexes. These stepwells and their temple compounds have been
variously dated from late 1st millennium BC through 11th century AD. Of these, Rani ki vav, with
hundreds of art reliefs including many of Vishnu deity avatars, has been declared a UNESCO World
Heritage site.

Cave Temples
___________________________________________________________________

The Indian rock-cut architecture evolved in Maharashtrian temple style in the 1st millennium AD. The
temples are carved from a single piece of rock as a complete temple or carved in a cave to look like
the interior of a temple. Ellora Temple is an example of the former, while The Elephanta Caves are
representative of the latter style. The Elephanta Caves consist of two groups of caves—the first is a
large group of five Hindu caves and the second is a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu
caves contain rock-cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god
Shiva.

The teams that built Hindu temples

______________________________________________________________________
The 6th-century Brihat samhita is a Sanskrit encyclopedia. Its chapters 57-60 discuss different styles
and design of Hindu temples. Above: the text and commentary in Nepalaksara, Devanagari and Tamil
Grantha scripts.

Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples as ‘‘Silpin’’ derived from ‘‘Silpa’’. One of
earliest mentions of Sanskrit word Silpa is in Atharvaveda, from about 1000 BC, which scholars have
translated as any work of art. Other scholars suggest that the word Silpa has no direct one word
translation in English, nor does the word ‘‘Silpin’’. Silpa, explains Stella Kramrisch, is a multicolored
word and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of
any art or craft. Similarly a Shilpin, notes Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any
person who embodies art, science, culture, skill, rhythm and employs creative principles to produce
any divine form of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as the art works and sculpture
within them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are unlimited,
Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number, and Vidya (science) that were of 32 types.

The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of good artists and
architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included Lekha or Lipi (alphabet,
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reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana (arithmetic). These were imparted from
age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till the
age of 25. Apart from specialist technical competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for
building a Hindu temple are those who know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves
as students, keep well verse with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and
geography. Further they are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of
happy disposition, and ardent in everything they do.

According to Silparatna, a Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and include a
Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who would design the
building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons, painters, plasterers,
overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors). While the temple is under construction, all those working on the
temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by the patron as well as others witnessing the
construction. Further, it was a tradition that all tools and materials used in temple building and all
creative work had the sanction of a sacrament. For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a
tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for
cutting it from its surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut the tree
would be anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree. Even in modern times, in some parts of
India such as Odisha, Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and artists
worship their arts, tools and materials.

Social functions of Hindu temples

Hindu temples served as nuclei of important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions in
ancient and medieval India.Burton Stein states that South Indian temples managed regional
development function, such as irrigation projects, land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery.
These activities were paid for by the donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees.According to
James Heitzman, these donations came from a wide spectrum of the Indian society, ranging from
kings, queens, officials in the kingdom to merchants, priests and shepherds Temples also managed
lands endowed to it by its devotees upon their death. They would provide employment to the poorest.
Some temples had large treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks.

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Hindu temples over time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well as
private individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They
sponsored land reclamation and infrastructure improvements, states Michell, including building
facilities such as water tanks, irrigation canals and new roads. A very detailed early record from 1101
lists over 600 employees (excluding the priests) of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur, still one of
the largest temples in Tamil Nadu. Most worked part-time and received the use of temple farmland as
reward. For those thus employed by the temple, according to Michell, "some gratuitous services were
usually considered obligatory, such as dragging the temple chariots on festival occasions and helping
when a large building project was undertaken". Temples also acted as refuge during times of political
unrest and danger.

In contemporary times, the process of building a Hindu temple by emigrants and diasporas from
South Asia has also served as a process of building a community, a social venue to network, reduce
prejudice and seek civil rights together.

Library of manuscript

______________________________________________________________________

Forest temple
Cave temple

Mountain temple
Seashore temple

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John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi state Hindu temples served as centers where ancient manuscripts were
routinely used for learning and where the texts were copied when they wore out. In South India,
temples and associated mutts served custodial functions, and a large number of manuscripts on Hindu
philosophy, poetry, grammar and other subjects were written, multiplied and preserved inside the
temples. Archaeological and epigraphical evidence indicates existence of libraries called Sarasvati-
bhandara, dated possibly to early 12th-century and employing librarians, attached to Hindu temples.

Palm-leaf manuscripts called lontar in dedicated stone libraries have been discovered by
archaeologists at Hindu temples in Bali Indonesia and in 10th century Cambodian temples such as
Angkor Wat and Banteay Srei.

Art: Ancient Hindu temple has a profusion of arts – from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons
to engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of mathematical principles with Hindu sense
of time and cardinality.

Ancient Sanskrit texts classify idols and images in number of ways. For example, one method of
classification is the dimensionality of completion

 Chitra – images that are 3-dimensional and completely formed,

 Chitrardha – images that are engraved in half relief,
 Chitrabhasa – images that are 2-dimensional such as paintings on walls and cloths.

Images and idols inside Hindu temples vary widely in their expression. Raudra or ugra images express
destruction, fear and violence, such as Kali image on left. Shanta or saumya images express joy,
knowledge and harmony, such as Saraswati image on right. Saumya images are most common in
Hindu temples.

Another way of classification is by the expressive state of the image:

 Raudra or ugra – are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide,
circular eyes, carry weapons, and have skulls and bones as adornment. These idols were
worshiped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress or terrors. Raudra

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 deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in remote areas
of a kingdom.
 Shanta and saumya – are images that were pacific, peaceful and expressive of love, compassion,
kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These images would carry symbolic icons of
peace, knowledge, music, wealth, flowers, sensuality among other things. In ancient India, these
temples were predominant inside villages and towns.

A Hindu temple may or may not include an idol or images, but larger temples usually do

Historical development and destruction

How and when the first temple took its birth is to anybody’s guess. Temples did not seem to exist
during Vedic period. The main object of worship was fire that stood for God. This holy fire was lit on
a platform in the open air under the sky, and oblations were offered to the fire. It is not certain when
exactly the Indo Aryans first started building temples for worship. The scheme of building temples
was perhaps a concomitant idea of idol worship. God can be malevolent as well as benevolent in
nature. It is important that the temple sight symbolize is one that will exhilarate him. The Puranas
state the “The God always play near the rivers and mountains and springs”. Sacred sites in India
therefore, are usually associated with water. Shades of trees and lakes of India are often considered to
be sacred and they have heeling and purifying powers.2

Evolution of Temples In the early ages temples were not constructed but only huts were provided
which later on got evolution till it become a solid structure. During the inclination towards
Brahmanism, the Hindu Gods needed a place for exhibition. They thus provided simple solid structure
to shelter the sacred place for worship. During Gupta time the solid stone blocks were used to
construct the temple. After this stage the rituals became more complex. Hence it required more deities
and sculptures because of which the temple became larger in size with more elements. Evolution of
Temples in Tamil Nadu The primitive Tamil was a believer in totems. Ancestral worship and totemic
worship were insepararable and worship of the dead hero was the phase of ancestor-worship. But
these belong to a period very much anterior to the Sangam period. Later the ideas of Godhead and
modes of worship had reached a mature stage with most of the Tamils. The aborigines believed in
Gods who were supposed to reside in the hollow of trees. The snake which resided in such hollows
was a special object of worship. The Kantu, a piece of planted log of wood was an object of worship.
It served as God and it was preferably stationed in the shade of the Banyan tree. The trees themselves,
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being totems developed into religious institutions and particular trees came to be associated with
particular gods and their temples, became local trees later.

The Sangam cult centers like Kottam, Koyil and Nagar had no institutional character and even in the
transitional phase they are described as centers which people are advised to visit for the worship of a
particular deity. The references in the late and post Sangam works to Brahmanical forms, in which
bloody sacrifices of animals and birds were made and belong to the transitional stage. The
universalization of the Tinai (Land Division) deities and the institutionalization of the cult centre as a
temple with Brahmanical forms of worship as the chief focus achieved its fruition in the early
medieval period that is, in a totally transformed socio-political context.

Bhakti was a crucial element in the evolution and spread of Puranic religion, which emerged by the
Sixth Century A.D., as a universal and formal system in the Indian subcontinent as a whole. Bhakti
Movement in the Tamil region the expansion of Vedic religion was intrinsically linked with local and
popular traditions and their interaction with Brahmanical religion is a two way process. It was a
synchronic and at times, diachronic evolution. It would be too simplistic or facile to explain it as an
interaction between the ‘Great’ and ‘Little’ traditions. The major impact of Bhatia ideology was more
significant and it led to the expansion of the role of the temple in restructuring society and economy.
The temple based Bhatia was capable of developing into a transcendental norm. 3

The societal change visible from the Sixth Century A.D., was the establishment of the varna
hierarchy, in which the Kshatriya status was assigned to the new ruling families and the traditional
ruling families, by the fabrication of impressive genealogies in the prasastis which were composed by
the Brahmanas in return for royal patronage and land grants, with the kshatriya and the Brahman at
the apex of the power structure. The rest of society was places at the lower levels of the stratified
order, with a ritual ranking around the temple. The temple was not only the major institutional base
for mobilizing and redistributing economic resources, but also an integrative force and orbit for social
organization and the ranking of all the other occupational groups’ tribal and ethnic groups of forests
and hills. The land distribution and control through such institutions represented by brahmadeyas and
temple-nucleated settlements, to oust the so called heterodox faiths. Brahmanical religions achieved
this change through a process of acculturation by incorporating popular and folk elements in worship
and ritual, and by assimilating tribal and ethnic groups into the social order through the temple.

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The practices and traditions of temples exist not only in history but also in present time which greatly
influence the socio-cultural life of its people and gives continuity to traditional Indian values. The
evolution of Indian temple architecture is marked by a strict adherence to the original ancient models
that were derived from religious consideration- and that continued over many centuries.4Temples built
today also adhere to ancient principles.The fact is it will continue on this course for times to come.

REFERENCES

1. A. Temple Architecture, a Brief Overview and Its Symbolism, Purushottama Bilimoria,

http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://www.indian-
heritage.org/temple/symbolism_Purushottama.pdf

1. Heaven on Earth: Temples, Ritual, & Cosmic Symbolism in the Ancient World, Conference-
Organizer, Deena Ragavan, the Oriental Institute, University of Chicago, 1155 East 58th Street,
Chicago, IL 60637, March 2-3, 2012
1B A. Gandotra, “Indian Temple Architecture - Analysis of Plans, Elevations and Roof Forms”, Shubhi Publications,
Gurugram, 2011.

1C. Study of Proportion System of Shiv Temple, Baijnath using Square Circle Sequence (SCS)
Aniket Sharma and Vandna Sharma, Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research, Volume
5, Issue 2; January-March, 2018, pp. 67-70

2. Concept of Temple 2 1. Saradhamani, M., Historical Sites and Monuments along the River
Noyyal (South India) Megalithic Period to Medieval Age- A Study, Ph.D. Thesis, Bharathiar
University, Coimbatore, 2013,p.86 See also2. Kanakasabhai, V., The Tamils Eighteen Hundred
Years Ago, Reprint, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1979, p 232. 32

3. Burton Stein, South Indian Temples An analytical Reconsideration, New Delhi, 1978, pp.11-
46.

4. Building Science of Indian Temple Architecture, Master’s Thesis- Structural Analysis of

Monuments and Historical Constructions, University of Minho, Portugal, July 2008

5. Construction Techniques of Indian Temples ,Chanchal Batham1, Aatmika Rathore,Shivani

Tandon, International Journal of Research in Engineering, Science and Management
Volume-1, Issue-10, October-2018

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 CHAPTER 3
Uncommon facts about Ancient Hindu Temple Architecture

To reject the necessity of temples is to reject the necessity of God.

Mahatma Gandhi.
___________________________________________________

On The Merits of Building a Temple, the Agni-purana,' XXXVIII, 1-50 reads:

“Agni said: I will now describe the fruits of making temples for the residence of Vasudeva and other deities.
He who attempts to erect temples for gods is freed from the sins of a thousand births. Those who think of
building a temple in their minds are freed from the sins of a hundred births. 1

FOREWORD
During the writings of these 10 papers on Hindu temples we came across numerous instances of
ancient architectural thought and analysis on the construction of temples that is not generally known
to anyone. Hence this paper highlighting some interesting and uncommon facts on temple design.

1. HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE of BHARAT-SOME MUSINGS-The Vastu-Purusha-

Mandala in Temple Architecture
2. Ayodhya
3. Prambanan, a Hindu temple in Indonesia-general architectural and morphological analysis
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4. Lanka- The golden City of Ramayana
5. Sacred Hindu Architecture-Design and deified Shrines (Roadside & Others
6. TEKDI Ganesh of NAGPUR
7. AYODHYA in ITS ARCHITECTURE Myth and Reality
8. Khajuraho—Example of the Nagara Architecture
9. Cambodia and its Angkor Vat Temple
10. ARCHITECTURE OF NAGPUR TEMPLES A recurring scenario of Revivalism and
metamorphosis

Introduction:The 4 Yugas
TIME is divided into four different periods by ancient Indian thought. These durations are referred to
as the Krta, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali.
The first of these divisions (Krta), is also known as satya-yuga, or the Age of Truth. This was a golden
age without envy, malice or deceit, characterized by righteousness. All people belonged to one caste,
and there was only one god who lived amongst the humans as one of them.
In the next span (Treta-yuga), the righteousness of the previous age decreased by one fourth. The
chief virtue of this age was knowledge. The presence of gods was scarce and they descended to earth
only when men invoked them in rituals and sacrifices. These deities were recognizable by all.
In the third great division of time (Dvapara), righteousness existed only in half measure of that in the
first division. Disease, misery and the castes came into existence in this age. The gods multiplied.
Men made their own images, worshipped them, and the divinities would come down in disguised
forms. But these disguised deities were recognizable only by that specific worshipper.

The Age of Temples:Kali-yuga is the present age of mankind in which we live, the first three ages
having already elapsed. It is believed that this age began at midnight between February 17 and 18,

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3102 B.C. Righteousness is now one-tenth of that in the first age. True worship and sacrifice are now
lost. It is a time of anger, lust, passion, pride, and discord. There is an excessive preoccupation with
things material and sexual. Temples appeared on the horizon only in the Kali-yuga. During this
existing last phase, temples (as public shrines), began to be built and icons installed. But the gods
ceased to come down and appear in their own or disguised forms. However, their presence could be
felt when the icons were properly enshrined, and the temples correctly built. In contrast to the
previous periods when the gods were available to all equally, now it is only the priests, belonging to a
traditional hierarchy of professional worshippers, who are the competent individuals to compel this
presence.

Background: A temple in India is a place where the devotee can meet a representation of the Lord,
pray and ask for blessings. A devotee may also celebrate music and dance and festivals in the temple.
It is also a place for meditation and spiritual connect. Temples are places where Puja is performed.
Hindu temples depict Good, Evil and Man. Hindu temples were initially built in Kshetras or holy
places and near Thirtas or holy water bodies. But now are found everywhere in India and also

abroad.2 Unlike Christian churches which are places to worship, Hindu temples are

"artificial mountains" built as objects of worship built to enshrine the image of a chosen deity. The
Upanishads described them as a place “at the heart of this phenomenal world, within all its changing
forms, dwells the unchanging Lord."Temples in India may be simple like a small house or grand like
a palace. The simple and small temples are built around shrines and are places where the common
man goes for regular prayer and spiritual connect. The large and grand temple complexes were
monuments built by kings honouring a deity displaying intricate architecture. These became centres of
commerce and religion.

A temple incorporates all elements of Hindu cosmos—presenting the good, the evil and the human, as
well as the elements of Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life—symbolically presenting
dharma, kama, artha, moksa, and karma. According to Hindu beliefs, Vishnu is the supreme deity in
front of whom all others sit; since other Hindu deities are believed to sit facing east, this leaves
Vishnu facing west, hence that is also the direction in which structures dedicated to Vishnu are
designed to face. Most places of worship follow long-established traditions that started off by
blending the needs of a new religion with the possibilities offered by existing technologies. New ideas
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and methods were then added into the canon and, with time, they became the standard — even rigid
— way of conceptualising sacred structures. Artists found ways to innovate and express within these
constraints; sometimes they get into trouble, but often they evolve new traditions within a larger
standard.

The rise of the Gupta Empire (Fourth Century AD to Seventh Century AD) marks the beginning of
the classical phase of Indian art, architecture and temple building. They have remained models of
Indian art at all times to come even in Indian colonies in the Far East. The sculptures of the Malay
Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Vietnam, Cambodia and even Celebes bear the indelible stamp of Gupta art.
With the growth of image worship, and because the image had to be appropriately housed and a cave
was not adequate for this purpose; the free-standing temple became necessary. Gradually the image
came to be surrounded by a host of attendant deities and figures,eventually leading to the rich
sculptural ornamentation associated with later styles. Manuals on the construction of stone temples
were written giving minute details of construction, and these were faithfully followed. 3

The Gupta kings were prolific builders and great patrons of Hinduism. They built several stone and
brick temples, whose remains can still be seen at Deogarh, Bhitargaon, Nachna-ke-Talai and other
places. “These temples are well designed and consist of a square chamber, a cella (shrine), and a
portico or verandah as essential elements. They are decorated with fine sculptured panels,
but...properly subordinated to, and is in full harmony with, the architectural plan of the buildings.”
The images of Shiva, Vishnu and other Vedic gods at the Deogarh temple are “the best products of
Indian art. They present a beautiful figure, full of charm and dignity, a graceful pose and a radiant
spiritual expression.”
According to Joanna Williams in the Gupta Period, stone, brick and wide range of materials were
used in the construction of fairly large temples. Their entrance ways, walls and pillars were finely
carved, and parts of the temples were decorated with gold, silver and jewelry. The empire also
witnessed the consolidation of ideas such as the sanctum (garbha-griha) for the deity, the hall
(mandapa) for the devotees and the artistic representation of the important motifs of Hinduism such as
dharma, karma, kama, artha and moksha. Those early ideas were further refined and improved as time
went by. The post Gupta period witnessed the rise of many local architectural styles such as the
Vidharbha style, the Badami Chalukya Style, the Nagara Style and so on. Many temples, which were

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built during this period, especially those in the North, either perished or destroyed during wars and
foreign invasions. The temples that survived bear testimony to the extent of temple building by the
Hindu rulers in the India subcontinent.

Union of Temple Craftsmen: Supremacy of the Brahmins priestly class filled the political vacuum
after the decline of the Gupta dynasty up to the age of the Mughals in the absence of a central
political authority through most of India. This Class gradually assumed power as the sole arbiters of
almost every aspect of life - birth, death, puberty, marriage, business and personal of the
populous.All these 'favors', of course, had a price and those on whose behalf they 'generously'
interceded with the gods would pay the priests by cash or in kind.

Obviously the serious business of construction was too important to be overlooked either. While the
basic concepts of construction and decoration had already been evolved, it was the Brahmins who
began erecting a complex edifice of rules and layouts for different classes of building. These were
purposely couched in hideously complicated mumbo-jumbo.These rules sometimes assumed
ridiculous dimensions. The most basic acts of building were no longer to be based on technical
considerations but rather on mythological ones. Thus the Vastushastra was sometimes more of a
hindrance than a help to the craftsmen. A large part of this was due to the institution of Senis or
guilds, about which a brief mention has been made in a previous article. Senis were the Protectors
of Heritage or craftsmen. In the senis, heredity was the route by which traditional knowledge was
passed on through the generations. As soon as a boy was old enough to hold tools, he was set to
work on a rough block of stone and so commenced his long apprenticeship. This was the father's
sole gift and heirloom to his sons who in turn ensured that his name and style would live on. As
early as the 7th century B.C., Indian craftsmen had organized themselves into guilds, the better to
protect their special knowledge, and to gain for themselves better working conditions, and finally to
ensure a minimum standard of quality of workmanship. A temple project would often be of such
magnitude that more than one generation of master cutters and masons would be required to finish
it. So a clan of stonecutters would settle around the building site for years. The temple site attracted
young men hoping to learn as well as find work. Thus it became the focus of activity for miles
around. Over the years, regional variations introduced for the building of a particular temple led to
the evolution of a new style or 'school' of temple building, much like the gharanas that exist in
Indian classical music even today. Hence we find distinct schools of art and architecture even within
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North Indian temple construction - the Orissan, Chalukyan, Gujarati, Kashmiri, and of course, the
same situation in the temples of the south, which were further divided into many regional variations
and schools of construction. In all these the Vastushastra was the giver of cohesiveness, which
ensured overall similarity of form and function, but also, as we have seen, was responsible for
fettering the imagination of the craftsmen. The Jataka, (Pali and Sanskrit: “Birth”) many of the
stories of former lives of the Buddha, which are preserved in all branches of Buddhism.
Some Jataka tales are scattered in various sections of the Pali canon of Buddhist writings, including
a group of 35 that were collected for didactic purposes. These 35 constitute the last book, the Cariya
Pitaka (“Basket of Conduct”), of the Khuddaka Nikaya (“Short Collection”). Beyond this, a
Sinhalese commentary of the 5th century that is questionably attributed to a Buddhist scholar named
Buddhagosa and called the Jatakatthavannana, or Jatakatthakatha, gathers together about
550 Jataka stories, some of which are quite brief while others are as long as novelettes.These
Jatakas describe 18 Senis.The Senis were governed by their own laws and customs and were led by
a Chief of Settis- a Satthahava who headed all the 18 guilds.These were like today’s unions with a
way or access to approach the King himself for a redressal of any of their problems.Both Jaina and
Buddhists refer to 18 guilds:

1. Architects
2. Mechanics
3. Carpenters
4. Smiths
5. Masons
6. Stone-workers or carvers
7. Ivory workers
8. Conch Workers
9. Tailors, weavers, spinners
10. Dyers
11. Leather
12. Potters
13. Jewellwes
14. Flower-workers or garland makers
15. Barbers
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 16. Painters
17. Sailors
18. Basket weavers 3

The Land: The first step towards the construction of a temple is the selection of land. Even though
any land may be considered suitable provided the necessary rituals are performed for its
sanctification, the ancient texts nevertheless have the following to say in this matter: "The gods
always play where groves, rivers, mountains and springs are near, and in towns with pleasure
gardens." Not surprisingly thus, many of India's ancient surviving temples can be seen to have been
built in lush valleys or groves, where the environment is thought to be particularly suitable for
building a residence for the gods.

The practical preparations for building a temple are invested with great ritual significance and magical
fertility symbolism. The prospective site is first inspected for the 'type,' of the soil it contains. This
includes determining its color and smell. Each of these defining characteristics is divided into four
categories, which are then further associated with one of the four castes:

 White Soil: Brahmin

 Red Soil: Kshatriya (warrior caste)
 Yellow Soil: Vaishya
 Black Soil: Shudra

Similarly for the smell and taste:

 Sweet: Brahmin
 Sour: Kshatriya
 Bitter: Vaishya
 Astringent: Shudra (a reminder perhaps of the raw-deal which they have often been given in life)

The color and taste of the soil determines the "caste" of the temple, i.e., the social group to which it
will be particularly favourable. Thus the patron of the temple can choose an auspicious site
specifically favourable to himself and his social environment.After these preliminary investigations,
the selected ground needs to be tilled and levelled:
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Tilling : When the ground is tilled and ploughed, the past ceases to count; new life is entrusted to the
soil and another cycle of production begins, an assurance that the rhythm of nature has not been
interfered with. Before laying of the actual foundation, the Earth Goddess herself is impregnated in a
symbolic process known as ankura-arpana, ankura meaning seed and arpana signifying offering. In
this process, a seed is planted at the selected site on an auspicious day and its germination is observed
after a few days. If the growth is satisfactory, the land is deemed suitable for the temple. The
germination of the seed is a metaphor for the fulfilment of the inherent potentialities which lie hidden
in Mother Earth, and which by extension are now transferred to the sacred structure destined to come
over it.

Levelling : It is extremely important that the ground from which the temple is to rise is regarded as
being throughout an equal intellectual plane, which is the significance behind the levelling of the land.
It is also an indication that order has been established in a wild, unruly, and errant world.

Now that the earth has been ploughed, tilled and levelled, it is ready for the drawing of the vastu-
purusha mandala, the metaphysical plan of the temple.

Stone Art: Ancient Indian temples were built by quarrying and sculpting huge stones often granites
with huge manpower and animal power for logistics and building-quarrying Granites.

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In ancient times, quarrying granites without steel was the toughest task. For example
the Mundeshwari Devi Temple (also spelled as Mundesvari) is located at Kaura in Kaimur district in
the state of Bihar, India on the Mundeshwari Hills. It is an ancient temple dedicated to the worship
of Lord Shiva and Shakti and is considered one of the oldest Hindu temples in India. A substantial
part of this stone structure has been damaged, and many stone fragments are seen strewn around the
temple. However, under the jurisdiction of ASI, it has been the subject of archaeological study for
quite some time.

It is also considered as the oldest functional Hindu temple of India.The information plaque erected by
the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at the site indicates the dating of the temple to 625 CE.
Hindu inscriptions dated 635 CE were found in the temple. The temple is a protected monument
under ASI since 1915.

The temple, built of stone, is on an octagonal plan which is rare. It is the earliest specimen of
the Nagara style of temple architecture in Bihar. There are doors or windows on four sides and small
niches for the reception of statues in the remaining four walls. The temple shikhara or tower has been
destroyed. However, a roof has been built, as part of renovation work. The interior walls have niches
and bold mouldings which are carved with vase and foliage designs. At the entrance to the temple,
the door jambs are seen with carved images of Dvarapalas, Ganga, Yamuna and many other murtis.
The main deities in the sanctum sanctorum of the temple are of the Devi Mundeshwari
and Chaturmukh (four faced) Shiva linga. There are also two stone vessels of unusual design. Even
though the Shiva linga is installed in the centre of the sanctum, the main presiding deity is Devi
Mundeshwari deified inside a niche, which is seen with ten hands holding symbols riding a buffalo,
attributed to Mahishasuramardini. The temple also has murtis of other popular gods such
as Ganesha, Surya and Vishnu.

Use of stones and other construction materials in India: India's history, dating back to 3200 BC has
been influenced considerably by the disposition, development and use of stones and other construction
materials. Dimension stones have also left deep imprints on the architectural heritage of the country.
Innumerable temples, forts and palaces of Ancient Indian Civilisation have been carved out of locally
available stones. The Taj Mahal at Agra was constructed from Indian marble. Some of the rock-cut
structures include Khajuraho Temple, Elephanta Caves,and Konark Temple. Besides, all

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major archeological excavations have revealed exquisitely carved statuettes and carvings in stone.
Ancient Buddhist monuments like the Sanchi Stupa of 3rd century BC have also been carved out of
stone.This tradition of Stone Architecture has continued to the present era, with most of the important
modern buildings in India like the Presidential House, Parliament House, and Supreme Court made from
high quality sandstone of Rajasthan. The Bahá'í House of Worship of New Delhi stands testimony to the
relevance of marble in modern Indian architecture. Stones are still the mainstays of civil construction in
India, with stones being used extensively in public buildings, hotels, and temples. It is increasingly being
used in homes, with the use of stones now penetrating amongst the growing middle class of India.

The success of commercial stone industry solely depends upon defects in rock/stone. Natural defects
in ornamental/commercial rock deposits adversely affect the quality of rock deposit. Detection of natural
defects in decorative and dimensional stone industry play vital role in the quality assessment.

India is pioneer in the exploration, mining of commercial rock deposits and in establishing a firm base for
stone industry. India, with an estimated resource of about 1,690 million cu m, comprising over 160 shades
of Dimension Stone Granites (DSG), accounts for about 205 of the world resources. Of the 300 varieties
being traded in the world market, nearly half of them are from India. Commercially viable granite and
other rock deposits are reported from Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Telangana, and others.

Ownership and Management of Temples.5 (chapter 10)

Since the sixth century, after the decline of Buddhism as the main focus of religious patronage,
temples have been accumulating generous donations from kings, nobles, and the wealthy. The result is
a huge number of shrines throughout the country, many of which, especially in South India, date back
hundreds of years. The statuary and embellishment in some of the ancient shrines constitute one of the
world's greatest artistic heritages. The layout of major temples has expanded into gigantic
architectural complexes.

Along with architectural elaboration has come a complex administrative system to manage the many
gifts bestowed by wealthy donors in the past and continually replenished by the piety of devotees in
the present. The gods are legal landholders and command substantial investment portfolios throughout
the country. The management of these fortunes in many states lies in the hands of private religious
endowments, although in some states, such as Tamil Nadu, the state government manages most of the
temples directly. Struggles over the control of temple administration have clogged the courts for
several hundred years, and the news media readily report on the drama of these battles. Several cases
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have had an impact on religious, or communal, affairs. The most spectacular case involved ownership
of a site in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, claimed by Hindus as the site of Ram's birth but taken over by
Muslims as the site for a mosque, the Babri Masjid, built in 1528.

The ownership of the Hindu temples in India is partly guided by the state laws and partly by tradition
and local customs. Most ancient temples, such as the ones located at Tirupathi, Madurai or Tanjavur
are controlled by Government managed trusts in accordance with the state laws. Their maintenance
may also be looked after by the Archaeological Survey of India, a government body, which has been
entrusted with the responsibility of preserving and protecting the monuments and heritage of India. A
few temples such as the ones at Hampi, Khajuraho and Pattadakal are declared UNESCO Heritage
Sites.
Many states have passed the Hindu Religious Institutions and Charitable Endowment acts to govern
the ownership, maintenance and finances of the temples in their states, which have been listed under
the acts or which have been taken over by the government due to mismanagement and irregularities.
The temples which do not fall under the preview of the act are managed by the private trusts or
descendants of the royal families or the people appointed by them.

In addition to the trustees, temples also employ a variety of permanent and temporary employees,
whose service terms may be regulated by state laws or according to the norms established by the
temple executive bodies. The most important category of workers found in a traditional Hindu temple
are one or more temple priests (archakas) whose duty is to perform daily worship at the appointed
hours, cooks and kitchen workers (pachakas) who have to prepare the sacrificial food (naivedyam) for
the gods and remains of the offering (prasadam) for the devotees, acharyas or scholars who have to
organize discourses or teach the nuances of dharma to the devotees, and other staff (paricharikas) such
as singers, musicians, carriers of water or palanquins, office administrative staff, temple guards,
cleaners, sweepers and so on. Large temples may employ hundreds or thousands of employees, which
makes temple administration and staff discipline a very complex process. State interference in the
ownership of Hindu temples has been a contentious issue in recent times. On the positive side,
government involvement prevents the misuse of temple properties or misappropriation of revenues by
private individuals, but on the negative side it gives them unlimited powers to spend the temple funds
according to their agenda. One of the common complaints is that much of the revenue earned by the
temples is diverted by the government for purposes other than their maintenance or welfare or the

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promotion of Hindu Dharma. Many Hindu temples are in dilapidated conditions and on the verge of
closure. The revenue from large and wealthy temples can be used to improve their condition, which
does not usually happen unless it becomes a public issue. Incidents of misuse of funds and
irregularities in managing temples and trusts, favouritism in appointing priests or misuse of temple
trust funds are also not uncommon.

REFERENCES

1. Source: Manmatha Nath Dutt, A Prose English Translation of Agni Puranam, vol. I,"Calcutta,
1903), PP. 142-6; adapted by M. Eliade,Eliade Page website

2. Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu Temples in an UrbanMiddle-Class World,Joanne Punzo

Waghorne,Oxford University Press, 2020
3. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, Romila Thapar,2002,University of California
Press

4. History Of Ancient India (portraits Of A Nation), Kapur, Kamlesh,Sterling publishers,

5. The Square and the Circle of the Indian Arts, Kapila Vatsyayan,, Abhinav Publications.
6. See my article on The Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment Act, academia.edu

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110
 CHAPTER4
COMPARISON of the STRUCTURE of HUMAN BODY with the HINDU TEMPLE

ABSTRACT

There is a belief and very little writing on the Hindu temples and their architecture. This belief hold
that temples were designed in form of the human body but here in this article I will try to assert that
that was not always true. In fact temples were abodes for the God. The God manifested itself as a
human form in later years and hence the genealogy transformed that the temple is in form of Human,
but it is in form of God not human. Certain liberties were therefore taken not to mention that early
temples form the sites of Mohanjo Daro etc have temples as houses. No human forms there.

"Everything is governed by one law. A human being is a micro cosmos, i.e. the laws prevailing in the
cosmos also operate in the minutest space of the human being." SWAMI VIVEKANANDA

_____________________________________________________________________________

Architecture and the Human Body

The relationship between architecture and the human body obviously has a long history. The
comparison between architecture and the human body crops up first in the works of Vitruvius, The
Ten Books on Architecture written in the time of Augustus. He writes that in the human body there is
a kind of symmetrical harmony between forearm, foot, palm, finger, and other small parts; and so it is
with perfect buildings. In the case of temples, symmetry may be calculated from the thickness of a
column, from a triglyph, or even from a module; in the ballista, from the whole a ship, from the space
between the tholepins and in other things, from various members.1
And again writes:
“A building is a body or a "carcass," lettered over "with beauty of diction, with poetic illustration, and
with the charms of rhetoric. . . . What the skin is to the body, the hair to the head, the eye-brows and
lashes to the eyes, and the lips to the mouth—such is the marble casing to the walls, the cornice to the
façade, the pediment and the architrave to the windows, and the porch to the door.”

“Beyond the gestalt discourse of form and shape of tectonic buildings, the human body plays an
imperative role throughout the whole process of production, exchange, and consumption of everyday
architecture. Both the human body and architecture are a form of “material flow” that are made up of
many machines for enunciating, which include the prosthetic body of fashion, the moving body of
urbanity, and the technologized body of mediatecture. “2
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A temple (from the Latin 'templum') is a structure usually built for the purpose of, and always
dedicated to, religious or spiritual activities including prayer, meditation, sacrifice and worship. The
Hindu temple is seen as a link between man and god; and between the actual and the ideal. As such it
has got to be symbolic. A temple usually called Devalaya, the abode of God, is also referred to as
Prasada meaning a palace with very pleasing aspects. Vimana is another term that denotes temple in
general and the Sanctum and its dome, in particular. Thirtha, a place of pilgrimage is it’s another
name.
As soon as the image worship became a vogue temples must have come into being. Here Hindus
conceived God in human form, and as such an anthropomorphic (having human characteristics) form
required a habitation, a shelter and this resulted in a structural shrine. In the ancient literatures, a
temple was simply called a devaqriha, devSlaya devakula -a home of the God, found in Shastras and
the earliest temples, therefore were designed after the models of the residential house, and probably
there was no difference between a griha (human dwelling) and mandira, 3 rd and 4 th Century saw
increase in devotional worship through imagery and sculptures. Hinduism is today a religion of
innumerable gods and goddesses; still throughout the religious history one finds two major cults in the
religion those of male gods Shiva and Vishnu. The third cult, the mother or goddess who is essentially
the consort of Shiva also holds great importance and most temples are devoted to the worship of these
three.

The character of Hindu temples reflected local architecture styles and the material found nearby and
skills to which the region. The main forms and styles of the Hindu temple were established during
600-800 AD. It is said that structures of Indian temples began to take a definite form in the latter half
of the7 th century-its common elements being:
1. The cell or shrine, the garbhagriha (usually square in plan), housed the image and was
approached through a columniated porch or Mandapa.
2. The shrine was roofed with a pyramidal spire or vertically attenuated dome like structure
known as sikhara .
3. The temple as a whole was raised on a massive plinth and was often surrounded by subsidiary
shrines and by an enclosing wall pierced by one or more gigantic gateway towers
or gopurams.
4.
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Who were the people responsible for the construction of the temple?
1. Architect - Priest (Sthapaka). It was expected of him that he should be a Brahmana of high born
family and well versed in sacred texts and rituals i.e Vedas and Agamas. Observers of a code of
conduct according to his varna (caste) and stage of asrama (life), he exerts himself in his tapasvin
(work), a profound asthika (believer) in the sacred tradition.
2. The architect-priest prepares the plan of the temple
3. Classes of Silpihs (craftsmen) worked there on the site
4. Sthapati (designing architect),
5. Suiragrahin (surveyor),
6. Taksako (sculptor) and
7.Vardhakin (builder-plasterer-painter).
8.There is a reference to Sutradhara or Suiragrahin. Like a project manager or overall in-charge.

The plan for the temple prepared by the architect is called Vastu-Purusamandala 3and is in the
form of a square. It is a geometrical design and the name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of
the most important componentsvof the plan.
1. Mandala means circle,
2. Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition,while
3. Vastu means the dwelling structure.
Vastupurushamandala is a yantra. The design lays out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating
structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.ibidIn building a
temple, the Hindu architect is enjoined to carry out all the instructions laid down in the Vastusastras.
As a result, in this vast country from the Cape Camorin in the South to Kasmir in the North, from the
4th century A.D till today, temples are marked by a uniformity of plan. Regional differences do exist,
but the essential form remains intact.4

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 Structural elements and symbolism
Yantra ( Machine)
A yantra comprises geometric shapes, images, and written mantra. Triangles and hexagrams are common, as are
circles and lotuses of 4 to 1,000 petals. Saiva and Shakta yantras often feature the prongs of a trishula.
Mantra
Yantras frequently include mantras written in Sanskrit. Madhu Khanna writes that, "Yantra and mantra are
always found in conjunction. Sound is considered as important as form in yantra, if not more important, since
form in its essence is sound condensed as matter."
Color
Use of colors in traditional yantra is entirely symbolic, and not merely decorative or artistic. Each color is used
to denote ideas and inner states of consciousness. White/Red/Black is one of the most significant color
combinations, representing the three qualities or gunas of nature (prakriti). White represents sattwa or purity;
red represents rajas or the activating quality; black represents tamas or the quality of inertia. Specific colors also
represent certain aspects of the goddess. Not all texts give the same colors for yantras. Aesthetics and artistry are
meaningless in a yantra if they are not based on the symbolism of the colors and geometric shapes.
Bindu
The central point of traditional yantras have a bindu or point, which represents the main deity associated with
the yantra. The retinue of the deity is often represented in the geometric parts around the center. The bindu in a
yantra may be represented by a dot or small circle, or may remain invisible. It represents the point from which
all of creation emanates. Sometimes, as in the case of the Linga Bhairavi yantra, the bindu may be presented in
the form of a linga.
Triangle
Most Hindu yantras include triangles. Downward pointing triangles represent feminine aspect of God or Shakti,
upward pointing triangles represent masculine aspect such as Shiva.
Hexagram
Hexagrams as shown in yantras are two equilateral triangles intertwined, representing the union of male and
female aspects of divinity, or Shiva and Shakti.
Lotus
Mandalas and yantras both frequently include lotus petals, which represent purity and transcendence. Eight-
petaled lotuses are common, but lotuses in yantras can include 2, 4, 8, 10, 12, 16, 24, 32, 100, 1000 or more
petals.
Circle
Many mandalas have three concentric circles in the center, representing manifestation.
Outer square
Many mandalas have an outer square or nested squares, representing the earth and the four cardinal directions.
Often they include sacred doorways on each side of the square.
Pentagram
Yantras infrequently use a pentagram. Some yantras of Guhyakali have a pentagram, due to the number five
being associated with Kali.
Octagon
Octagons are also infrequent in yantras, where they represent the eight directions.
Yantra designs in modern times have deviated from the traditional patterns given in ancient texts and traditions.
Designers in India and Nepal may copy design elements from Western imitations of yantras.

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 There is a belief that Hindu Temples take their cue from the structure of Human body. The vast
Hindu canonical literature on Agamic texts, Devalaya Vastu (Temple Vastu astrology) and sacred
geography describe the temple as a cosmic man, the 'Purusha' (cosmic man). The legend of the ‘Vastu
Purusha’ states that Vastu Purusha blocked the heaven from the Earth and Lord Brahma along with
many other Gods trapped him to the ground. But that is not wholly true.The significance and meaning
of each of the structures described above and what rituals we should follow during our temple visit. In
Bhagavad Gita, Lord Krishna says that “idam sariram kaunteya ksetram ity abhidhiyate”. This body is
a temple.The human body is the temple for the indwelling Spirit of God (Antaryamin). Various parts
of the temple structure correspond to various parts of the human body. The temple is the physical
body (sthoola sarira) which houses the presence of Divine. So the actual building of the temple itself
is a symbol of the presence of the Divine in the world.

The Indian temple tradition falls into two broad categories, the Nāgara and the Drāvida, whose
separation from the earlier tradition is traced back to the middle centuries of the first millennium. In
addition, the texts speak of a hybrid category, called Vesara, which in Sanskrit means “mule” that
emphasizes this hybridicty. The mūrti in the garbhagrha stands on its pedestal (pītha). A Vaisnava
temple has an image of Visnu, a Śaiva temple has a lingam, and a Devi temple has the image of the
Goddess. The garbhagrha is enclosed by a superstructure, and the nature of this superstructure makes
the distinction between the Nāgara and the Drāvida type. The Nāgara temple, the mūlaprāsāda, is
enclosed by a curved spire (śikhara), while the Drāvida temple has a tiered pyramid form with a
crowning top which is called the vimāna. The temple is the embodiment or manifestation of the deity,
therefore the names of certain temple parts, as given in Sanskrit, are anthropomorphic: grīva = neck,
skandha = shoulder, uru= thigh, jangha = lower leg. The cakras visualised in the practice of yoga are
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analogous to the stages up the vertical axis of the temple tower in the South Indian temple and it is
marked by corresponding levels in the exterior.5

The human body as a Temple

In the Vaishnava tradition devotees wear the urdhva pundra made of gopi chandan commonly known as tilak.
"Tilaka means victory personified." (SPL to Tilaka devi dasi,)
By wearing tilak not only does one identify ones body as the temple of the Lord but also one is blessed by the auspicious
protection of the Lord. Not only is the wearer immensely benefited but even those who see the tilak marks are benefited.
“In Kali-yuga one can hardly acquire gold or jeweled ornaments, but the twelve tilaka marks on the body are sufficient as
auspicious decorations to purify the body. “ Srila Prabhupada

The whole of the temple starting with the main entrance and the outermost prakaram is the body of
the Lord.

The science of Vastu is believed as part of the Indian architecture. Vastu Shastra developed during the
period of 6000 BC and 3000 BC and the ancient Indian text Mayamatam represents Vastu Purusha as
the presiding deity for all land structure meant for temples or houses. Vastu Purusha Mandala is the
metaphysical plan of a temple incorporating course of the heavenly bodies and supernatural forces.
This Mandala square is divided into (8×8 =64) 64 metaphysical grids / modules or pada for temples.
(For dwelling places 9x9=81 metaphysical grids / modules or pada). At this square Vastu Purusha is
shown lying with his chest, stomach and face touching on the ground - his head is shown
at Ishanya (north-east) and his legs shown at Nairutya (south west). The center point is known

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as Brahmasthana and at this vital energy point Lord Brahma presides over the temple site and protects
it.

STHAPATI Means Master Builder

Directions in Hindu tradition are called as Disa, or Dik. There are four primary directions and a total
of 10 directions: East, South-East (Agneya), West, North-West (Vayavya), North, North-East
(Isanya), South, South-West (Nauritya), Zenith (Urdhva), Nadir (Adho).

In the context of products like temples the process was a mix of technical, religious, astrological
procedures which were carried out so as to make the product in harmony with the environment and
universe. The product was a universe in miniature; complete within itself and in harmony with all sub-
systems of the universe. The site become a miniature cosmos; a universe with the client at its center.
The site was the upholder of the built form. Various rituals, geometrical matrices (mandalas),
astrological deadlines, chanting of verses, etc. are incorporated at appropriate junctures so as to make
the site demarcation and the building design and construction flawless. All these were followed in the
belief that this building, erected through the labor of the architect, skilled workmen and enlightened
client would provide its occupants a fruitful life of material-emotional-spiritual fulfillment.6
There are 'Guardians of the Directions' (Dikpala or Dasa-dikpala) who rule the specific
directions of space.
1. North east Direction ruled by Ishanya Shiva (Load of Water) influences balanced thinking
2. East Direction ruled by Indra (Load of Solar) - influences long life
3. South east Direction ruled by Agneya or Agni (Load of Fire) (Energy Generating) influences
comfort, peace, prosperity and progeny.
4. South Direction ruled by Yama (Lord of Death or Lord of Death / Damage) yields nothing but
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mourning, depression and pain. If this direction used properly safeguards from envy of others and cast
of all evils.
5.West Direction ruled by Varuna (Load of Water / Lord of Rain) (Neptune) influences reputation,
fame, prosperity and success.
6. South west Direction ruled by Nairitya - Deity Lord (Demon) Nairitya influences Protection,
strength and stability
7. North west Direction ruled by Vayu or Vayavya (Load of Wind) influences peace
8. North (Kuber) - Deity Lord Kuber or Lord of Wealth (Finance) and keeper of riches influences
good strength, better business sufficient in flow of money, education, industrial growth etc.
9. Center ruled by Lord Brahma (Creator of Universe)

The 'Aham Brahmasmi' ("I am Brahman. I am part of the Universe.") is the great sayings
(Mahavakya) mentioned in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10. of Yajur Veda. The meaning is
that ‘Whatever is in the Universe, is present in me’ (and ‘whatever is in me, is part of the Universe’).
Indian temples represents the macrocosm of the universe and the structure of the human body
represents the microcosm. Veda also says "Yatha Pinde tatha Brahmande". It means what is going on
within human being is the same as what is going on in universe. According to the Tamil Saint
Tirumular "our body is a temple". Here I would like to quote Stella Kramrisch:

“The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic Being; upon which the
temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him, comes from Him, and is a
manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the Cosmic Being and a bodily
device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best results in temple building.” 7

The concept of chakra features in tantric and yogic traditions of Hinduism. In Yoga, Kundalini
Shakti means the ‘coiled power.’ It is compared to a serpent that lies coiled while resting or sleeping.
Chakras are vital energy points (Kundalini energy) in the human anatomy, i.e. breath channels, or
nadis, and the winds (vayus), that are centres of life force (prana), or vital energy. They include: 1.
Muladhara, 2. Swadhisthana, 3. Manipura or manipuraka, 4. Anahata, Anahata-puri, or padma-
sundara, 5. Vishuddha or Vishuddhi, 6. Ajna and 7. Sahasrara.

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1. Muladhara or root chakra located at the base of the spine in the coccygeal region (governs
senses). According to Vastu Mandala South-West (Nauritya) -
Deity Lord (Demon) Nauritya influences protection, strength and stability.

2. Swadhisthana or Adhishthana at the lower stomach region or the sacrum of the human. Vastu
direction West (Varuna) - Lord Varuna (Neptune) Lord of Water or Rain. Formation of temple tank or
water bodies in South or West will influence reputation, fame, prosperity and success.

3. Manipura or Manipuraka at the digestive glands (governs digestion through pancreas and adrenal
glands) of the human. Digestion involves energy of fire. Female bears navel, womb and umbilical
chord. According to Vastu Mandala Lord Brahma or Lord of Creation seated on lotus flower base
(Adishtana) rules this point. Cosmic Brahma bridges the cosmic human navel or life. If this point in
temple should be left open, the vital energy flows and the wholeness resides with blessings and
protection.

4. Anahata, Anahata-puri, or Padma-sundara located at chest (governs lungs, immune system -

thymus of human being). As per Vastu Mandala Lord Vayu or Lord of Wind rules this point. This
grid relates to air and regulation of air. If this grid is allowed to flow air and the peace and comfort
resides.

5. Vishuddha or Vishuddhi located at the throat i.e., thyroid glands (governs sound, speech
communication and sence of security of human being). Mantras chanted by cosmic human being
bridges with cosmic Ishanya. Comic Ishanya is represented in OM, a Pranava Mantra form.
According to Vastu Mandala Lord Shiva in Ishanya form rules this grid and represents the space
or Akasha. Mantras chanted here will reverberate in space. If left free from obstacles and less
occupation or weight, there will be balanced power.

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6. Ajna or third eye located at pineal glands or between the eye brows; the two side nadis 'Ida' (yoga)
and 'Pingala' are terminating and merge with the central channel 'Sushumna' (governs higher and
lower selves and trusting inner guidance of human being). As per Vastu Mandala this direction is also
related to open spaces (‘Akasha’) and to the North East corner (Ishanya). The sanctum (Garbagriha or
womb chamber) is recommended at this grid, the seat of the divinity.

7. Sahasrara or pure consciousness chakra located at the crown of the head - symbolized by a lotus
with one thousand multi-coloured petals. According to Vastu Mandala Anja is the sanctum.
The vimanam and shikara forms the space element and the currents of life ascends through the
'Brahma-randra shila' or stone slab placed at 'griva' (neck) of the vimana. The finial of the shikara of
the vimanam is the grid at which unseen sahasrara located.6

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Source: Hindu Temple vol 1. by Stella Kramrisch

The picture shown here is reproduced from Hindu Temple vol. 1. By Stella Kramrisch demonstrates
that
how the temple structure can be compared with the human body. It is apt to quote the Sanskrit sloka
from “Viswakarmyam Vastu Shastra”:

"Garba Gruha Sirahapoktam antaraalam Galamthatha

Ardha Mandapam Hridayasthanam Kuchisthanam Mandapomahan
Medhrasthaneshu Dwajasthambam Praakaram Janjuangeecha
Gopuram Paadayosketha Paadasya Angula Pokthaha
Gopuram Sthupasthatha Yevam Devaalayam angamuchyathe"

Meaning: Garba-griham (main sanctum) is equated with human head; antarala (vestibule) is equated with
human neck; ardha - mandapam (half-hall) is compared with human chest; maha - mandapam (main hall) is
equated with the stomach; flag-post is viewed along with human male organ and gopuram or temple gateway
tower is viewed along with human feet.

What is worshipped in a temple is an idea, a conception or the mental image of god, translated to a
form in stone or metal or wood; but, it is not the god itself. The structural harmony, the rhythm and a
fine sense of proportion is its hallmark. It not merely resolves but also encompasses contradictions.

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Indian temples represents the macrocosm of the universe and the structure of the human body
represents the microcosm. The vastu-purusha-mandala represents the manifest form of the Cosmic
Being; upon which the temple is built and in whom the temple rests. The temple is situated in Him,
comes from Him, and is a manifestation of Him. The vastu-purusha-mandala is both the body of the
Cosmic Being and a bodily device by which those who have the requisite knowledge attain the best
results in temple building.

R EFERENCES
1.Vitruvius, "The Fundamental Principles of Architecture"; on Symmetry: In Temples and in the Human
Body,"http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20239

2.Beyond Building: ARCHITECTURE THROUGH THE HUMAN BODY Mohd. Shahrudin Abd. Manana, and
Chris L. Smith, https://frsb.upm.edu.my/upload/dokumen/FKRSE1_79-227-1-PB.pdf
3.For complete details see my article on The Vastu-Purusha-Mandala in Temple Architecture, Srishti Dokras,
https://www.academia.edu/34115475/The_Vastu-Purusha-Mandala_in_Temple_Architecture
4. TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE : AN INTRODUCTION,
https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/187259/12/12_chapter%201.pdf
5.Early Indian Architecture and Art, Subhash Kak,Migration & Diffusion - An international journal,
Vol.6/Nr.23, 2005, pages 6-27
6. 2000 The Sacred in Indian System of Architecture: A Case example of Mayamatam, Vinay Mohan Das,
January 2011, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/295860415
7.The Hindu Temple -Stella Kramrisch Vol. 1&2 Hardcover ,Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, India, 1976

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 CHAPTER 5

Khajuraho—Example of the Nagara Architecture

Aasman se gire…aur Khajuraho mein atke.

Fall from the sky only to get stuck in Khajuraho- ancient local saying

KHAJURAHO abounds in metaphors and puns. The very name of the town, Kharjuravahaka, means
both the town of Kharjura (dates) and of the scorpion, a motif occurring on one of the female figures.

ABSTRACT
Ancient Indian temples are classified in three broad types. This classification is based on different
architectural styles employed in the construction of the temples. Three main style of temple
architecture are the Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravidian or the Southern style and the Vesara
or Mixed style.
The Khajuraho temples are a pinnacle of the North Indian Nagara architectural style.

*******

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In the 19th century, a British surveyor named T.S. Burt discovered, excavated and restored these
temples. However, the first recorded mention of the Khajuraho temples is in the accounts of Al-Biruni
in AD 1022 and in the works of the Arab traveler Ibn Battuta in AD 1335. The temples are known for
their elaborate and intricate carvings and sculpture. While these sculptures depict various scenes from
everyday lives, the Khajuraho temples are primarily infamous for the artful and erotic depiction of the
female form as well as various sexual practices of the time.

The origin of the Hindu temple is said to be the ancient basic circle of stones within which one
cherished holy relics, human or divine. It is the Hindu temple where the contact between man and
gods take place and it is also where a man progresses from the world of illusion to knowledge and
truth and thus, a temple is not only a place to worship but an object to worship as well. A Hindu
temple not only shows unique architecture but also symbolizes ideas characteristic in its structure,
which are usually related to the common practice of people residing around it. A pilgrimage or visit to
a temple is undertaken for the purpose of looking at it. In ancient India, temple architecture of high
standard developed in almost all regions. The distinct architectural style of temple construction in
different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities.
Ancient Indian temples are classified in three broad types. This classification is based on different
architectural styles, employed in the construction of the temples; functions of the temples-
Religious, Administrative centers, Centre of education.
.
The evolution of Hindu temples occurred over many centuries due to differing views between the
rulers of the Indian sub-continent. Emperor Asoka is credited with ordering the construction of the
first significant stone structures in India around 3rd century, BCE. Religious architecture can be traced
back to the Vedic time (1500 – 700 BCE) and practices of temple worship can be traced back to texts
from the Puranas and earlier. The construction of the temples however was on a small scale back then,
which included materials such as timber, baked clay bricks and mud. Caves were naturally the earliest
shrines on record and from the 4th to 7thcentury, a classical “golden period” of art and architecture
emerged in India. It was this period in which temple building activities grew rapidly all over the
country. When kings conquered other kingdoms for the purpose of expansion, they reintegrated their
thoughts into carvings of antique superstructures. Some stages of architectural patterns still survive to
the present day.

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Geography:The Vidhya hills in Madhya Pradesh’s Chatarpur district form the back-drop to the small
village of Khajuraho. Located 395 km (244 mi) southeast of Agra, this place is so rural that it’s hard
to imagine Khajuraho as the religious capital of the Candela dynasty (10th-12th centuries), one of the
most powerful Rajput dynasties of Central India. The only significant river is some distance away,
and the village seems far removed from any substantial economic activity. Yet this is where the
Candelas built 85 temples, 22 of which remain to give us a glimpse of a time when Hindu art and
devotion reached their apex.

During the Chandelas’ rule, India was the Asian El Dorado. The temples’ royal patrons were rich, the
land was fertile, and everyone lived the 10th-century good life, trooping off to fairs, feasts, hunts,
dramas, music, and dances. This abundance was the perfect climate for creativity, and temple-building
was emerging as the major form of expression. There were no strict boundaries between the sacred
and profane, no dictates on acceptable deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, and the Jains’ saints were all
lavishly honored, and new excavations have begun to uncover a complex of Buddhist temples as well.
Despite the interest in heaven, the real focus was earth, and particularly the facts of human life. Here,
immortalized in stone, virile men and voluptuous women cavort and copulate in the most intimate and
erotic of postures. Temples of Khajuraho represents the best of Hindu temple sculpture: sinuous,
twisting forms—human and divine—throbbing with life, tension, and conflict.

The Chandela dynasty reigned for five centuries, succumbing eventually to invaders with a different
moral outlook. In 1100, Mahmud the Turk began a holy war against the “idolaters” of India, and by
1200 the sultans of Delhi ruled over the once-glorious Chandela domain. Khajuraho’s temples lapsed
into obscurity until their rediscovery by a British explorer in 1838.

The temples have more to offer than erotic sculpture. Their soaring shikharas are meant to resemble
the peaks of the Himalayas, abode of Lord Shiva: Starting with the smallest shikhara, over the
entrance, each spire rises higher than the one before it, as in a range of mountains that seems to draw
near the heavens. Designed to inspire the viewer toward the highest human potential, these were also
the builders’ attempts to reach upward, out of the material world, tomoksha—the final release from
the cycle of rebirth. One scholar has suggested that Khajuraho’s temples were in effect chariots of the
kings, carrying them off to a heavenly world resembling an idealized view of courtly life. Their
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combination of lofty structure and delicate sculpture gives them a unique sense of completeness and
exuberance.

Of the 22 extant Temples of Khajuraho, all but two were made from sandstone mined from the
banks of the River Ken, 30 km (19 mi) away. The stone blocks were carved separately, and then
assembled as interlocking pieces to form a temple. Though each structure is different, every temple
ob-serves precise architectural principle of shape form, and orientation and contains certain essential
elements: a high raised platform, an ardh mandapam (entrance porch), a mandapam (portico), an
antrala (vestibule), and a garbha griha (inner sanctum). Some of the larger temples also have a
walkway around the inner sanctum, a mahamandapam (hall), and subsidiary shrines on each corner of
the platform, making a complete panchayatana (five-shrine complex).

A Nagara style temple would generally stand on a high platform (jagati) made of stone bricks, with
several moldings. The identification of the temple with a mountain is specific and the superstructure is
known as a “mountain peak”. The jagati represents the feet of a man. Over jagati, there is a smaller
platform of stones (pitha). Over the pitha, there rises an even smaller platform (adhisthana), which is
the base of the superstructure of the temple. The pillars and walls of the temple are raised on
the adhisthana.

The Nagara style is not native to the mountainous region and some believe it was introduced in the
late Gupta period. The Nagara, also known as the sikhara (mountain peak) type, can be divided into
three sub-groups: The first is the Phamsana Type. This is the earliest known type of sikhara. It is
usually a pyramidal structure divided into seven, nine and eleven tiers. The towering sikhara is
crowned by an amalaka, which is a stone disk believed to represent the deity of the temple.
A kalasam, a finial from which the temple banner is hung, crowns the amalaka itself. Illustrations of
the Phamsana Type can be viewed at the Siva temple at Camunda, the Nrshimha temple at Bharmaur
and many others (Singh and Sharma 19). The second is the Latina Type. This type represents most of
the stone temples of Nagara style in Himachal Pradesh and is believed to have emerged at the
beginning of the 8th century. The Latina Type temples are curvilinear in nature, following their
trademark triratha plan. “The central bands of the superstructure are tall spines of web patterns cast
over receding cornices – the creepers (latas) of the Nagara temple’s Latina formula”. An example of

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this temple would be the Rudranath (Gopinath) temple in Uttrakhand. The third is the Valabhi Type.
These temples have a rectangular ground plan, a doorway on one of its longer sides, and a semi-
cylindrical sikhara. No Valabhi Types are found in Himachal Pradesh but there are several examples
of this type across India.

The Nagara style has 2 basic components. The first is garbhagra, a sanctum with only one entrance,
in which the image of the main deity is installed. “The garbhagrha consists of 4×4 = 16 squares,
which is equivalent to the Brahmasthana”.The second component is known as mandapa, a porch in
front of the garbhagrha, typically exposed from three sides for the worshippers to assemble for
worship. for more information on this component of the Nagara style. Various examples of diverse
ideologies of different emperors regarding Nagara temple architecture will be explored in the
following cases.

The northern style under the Guptas and their successors (400 CE – 600 CE) portrayed a square
sanctuary that connected with a pillared porch. The roof of the sanctuary consisted of horizontal stone
slabs and this part lacked a tower. A horizontal molding serves as a cornice on the plain wall surfaces.
Uprights that margin the doorway are divided into vertical bands, which continue over the lintel. The
porch had columns divided into square, octagonal and sixteen-sided sections with undergrowth
centers supporting brackets engraved with pairs of seated animals.

Rock-cut temples were common under the Early Chalukyas, Kalachuris and Rashtrakutas (500
CE – 700 CE). These cave temples contain pillared halls with small chambers cut into the posterior
walls. The halls have columnar arrangements, with varieties such as fluted shafts or panels of relief
carvings; cushion capitals are also employed. Together with the doorways, these columns display
clear northern stylistic characteristics. The brackets of the outer columns of these caves are fashioned
to depict amorous couples beneath trees, a motif considered particularly appropriate for the entrance
of a temple. Another variation of the rock-cut temples places the sanctuary in the middle of the
columnar hall instead of the posterior wall. The lack of the external access via a flight of steps,
sometimes guarded by lions, is characteristic of these caves. The Elephanta cave near Mumbai
resembles this type of architecture and one of the main focal points is a three-headed, major sculpture

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of Lord Siva, also known as the Great Lord, Mahesha. Other carved panels nearby are devoted to
scenes from the mythology of Siva.

The northern style under the Kalingas and Eastern Gangas (700 CE – 1200 CE) can be seen in some
of the Orissa's temples such as the Parashurameshvara temple. “The emphasis on the horizontal
courses employed in the superstructure of the sanctuary and roof of the adjoining hall is one of their
main characteristics. Another key characteristic is the contrast between the vertical profile of the
superstructure, curving only at the very top, and the pyramid-like arrangement of hall roof”. In the
Vairal Deul temple in Bhubaneswar, the sanctuary is rectangular and is positioned on a transverse axis
to the adjoining hall. The walls of the sanctuary are divided into projections with carved panels, which
lead into the lower parts of the superstructure. As centuries went by, stylistic developments were
occurring in the Indian sub-continent. Further stylistic advances may be detected in the Lingaraja
temple in Bhubaneswar. “The outer walls are divided by a horizontal molding into two registers, as
are the tiers of the hall roof, which is surmounted by an inverted bell-shaped fluted form”. This temple
was enlarged by the addition of two more halls along the principal axis of the temple to create a
sequence of successive interior spaces that was to be copied in later Orissan temples.

The northern style under the Pratiharas and Chandellas (700 CE – 1000 CE) erected several small
temples at various sites, which resembled typical northern stylistic features such as a square sanctuary
with projecting niches, carved doorways, and towers with curved profile. Distinct stylistic innovations
appeared by the 9thcentury and one temple built with similar designs is the Telika Mandir at Gwalior
This temple’s rectangular sanctuary raises the superstructure into a massive dome. The unique
expansions on the end of the temple project complex interlocking horseshoe arched designs. These
expansions spread onto the horizontal divisions of the tower serving as pediments above the
doorways. When the Chandella kingdom replaced the Pratihara rule, several new temples with unique
architectural designs were built in Khajuraho, one of the kingdom’s capital cities. Their tall slender
columns characterize the interiors of the Khajuraho temples. Auspicious females support the foliage
design that exists on the brackets of these columns. The dome-like ceiling above the central spaces of
the porches and halls provides the Khajuraho temples’ chief interest. The ceilings are usually
sculptured with cusps that rise in diminishing circles to an overhanging lotus bed. The doorway to this
sanctuary is characteristic of a northern manner and the images on the outer walls are floodlit by the

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lighting from the open balconies. KHAJURAHO has been the subject of both scholarly and popular
literature, and the fascination for Khajuraho seems not to diminish. One has to delink Khajuraho's
sculptures from the Kamasutra, the secular handbook on love. Khajuraho has erroneously become
synonymous with erotic sculpture. Erotic sculpture, in fact, constitutes not even one-tenth of its
imagery and indeed belongs, as in the case of other medieval temples, to a different tradition in which
both religious and worldly interests merge. The religious imagery of Khajuraho far outweighs the
erotic in numbers and importance, and iconology is the key to the understanding of the conceptual
basis and the architectural and iconographic scheme of the temples.

Another misconception that is refuted is the suggested association of the hedonistic Kaula-Kapalika
sect with the erotic sculptures as representing their extreme ritual practices. The Tantric texts show
that the erotic figures on the juncture wall of the temples are metaphoric and that only the ignorant
would interpret them in a literal sense. It is believed that the Chandela Kinds who build the temples
was influenced by his mother's story and so he built temples with sculptures depicting human passions
and probably, the futility of the same. The Khajuraho group of temples were built together but were
dedicated to two religions, Hinduism and Jainism, suggesting a tradition of acceptance and respect for
diverse religious views among Hindus and Jains in the region.

Lord Shiva
With Lord Shiva as the presiding deity, Matangeshvara temple is one of the famous temples in
Khajuraho. Amongst the other monuments of Chandela Dynasty, this is the only Hindu temple which
is still actively used for worship

Khujuraho/Chandel school
 Khajuraho’s temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures
 Patronized by Chandela kings of Bundelkhand (10th and 11th century).
 These 22 temples (out of the original 85) are regarded as one of world’s greatest artistic wonders.
 The finest among them is Shaivite temple known as Kandariya Mahadev, built around
10th century by King Ganda
 The standard type of Khajuraho temple has a shrine room, an assembly hall, and an entrance
portico.

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 These entities were treated as a whole, whereas in the Odishan style they were conceived as
separate elements.
 The sikhara is curved for its whole length, and miniature sikharas emerge from the central tower.
 The halls and porticos of the temple are also crowned with smaller towers which rise
progressively up to the main tower.
 Vishnu Temple at Chaturbhunj (MP) is another prominent temple at Khajuraho.

The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho is a classic example of the Nagara temple style
produced by the Chandella Dynasty (Khajuraho, India)

The Nagara style's primary feature is a central tower (shikhara) whose highest point is directly over
the temple's primary deity. This is often surrounded by smaller, subsidiary towers (urushringa) and
intermediate towers; these naturally draw the eye up to the highest point, like a series of hills leading to
a distant peak. Setting the temple on a raised base (adhisthana) also shifts the eye upward, and
promotes this vertical quality.
Three subtypes of Nagara temple depending upon the shape of Shikhara:
Rekha Prasad / Latina
 Simple Shikhara → Square at the base and the walls curve inward to a point on the top.
 Latina types are mainly used for housing the garbhagriha
 The top is called ‘Latina’ or the rekha-Prasad type of Shikhara.

Phamsana
Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina buildings.
Rectangular building with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
 They are usually called as wagon vaulted buildings
 Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the center of
building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers.
 They do not curve inwards; instead they slope upwards on a straight incline.
 In many North Indian temples Phamsana was used for mandapa and latina for Garbhgriha.
The true arch (in which the parts of the arch are supported in tension with each other) was unknown in
classical India. The arches in Khajuraho's temple are made by a technique known as corbelling, in a

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dome or arch is created by overlapping masonry courses (this accounts for the step-like construction
over the three right parts of the building below). This particular image shows the Vishwanath Temple.

Amalaka: a stone disk, usually with ridges on the rim, that sits atop the temple's main tower. According
to one interpretation, the amalaka represents a lotus, and thus the symbolic seat for the deity below.
Another interpretation is that it symbolizes the sun, and is thus the gateway to the heavenly world. The
amalaka itself is crowned with a kalasha (finial), from which a temple banner is often hung.
Entrance Porch (Ardhamandapa): The entrance porch formed a transitional area between the outside
world and the mandapa or hall. Most temple buildings have some sort of transitional space between the
central shrine (garbhagrha) and the outside world, but only the largest, most developed temples will
have all of these elements.
Hall (Mandapa): A hall in the temple, forming a transitional space between
the ardhamandapa and mahamandapa. In smaller or less architecturally developed temples, this was
usually omitted.
Great Hall (Mahamandapa): The temple's main entrance-hall, separated from the central shrine
(garbhagrha), by a short vestibule named the antarala. Just about every temple has some sort of
entrance-hall between the central shrine (garbhagrha) and the outside world, but only the largest and
most developed temples have all of the transitional members. At Khajuraho, a mahamandapa is often
distinguished by transepts (bumped-out portions perpendicular to the temple's main axis).
Vestibule (Antarala): a transitional space between a temple's main hall and the inner sanctum
(garbhagrha) where the image of the temple's primary deity would be housed. The antarala was found
only in the largest temples, and in many smaller ones was omitted entirely. This architectural element
marks the liminal space between the exterior world and the divine world, and at Khajuraho the exterior
panels on these elements are the primary sites for large panels with sexually explicit scenes (particularly
on the Vishvanath and Kandariya Mahadev temples). This placement cannot be accidental, although
observers differ about what these mean. At the very least, it could indicate that sexuality and
encountering the divine are both liminal experiences that force us out of ourselves

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.
Inner Sanctum (Garbhagrha): The temple's inner sanctum, containing the image of the temple's
primary deity. The basic function of a Hindu temple is to serve as the deity's dwelling-place (the most
common word for temple, mandir, simply means "house"), and devotees come there to interact with
and worship the resident deity (often in family groups). In this respect, Hindu temples are very different
from places of worship in many other religious traditions, which serve as centers for congregational
worship. The word garbha can mean either "womb" or "embryo;" both meanings connote potentiality,
hiddenness, and a sense of development. The garbhagrha was located directly below the summit of the
highest tower, with the primary deity directly under the highest point. Smaller temples may only have a
small shrine room at the back end of the temple (a "womb" in the metaphorical sense), but larger
temples often also have a processional pathway ("ambulatory") around the central shrine, via which
devotees can circle around the deity (always clockwise) as a gesture of respect and worship.

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Secondary Tower (Urushringa): smaller towers on the temple's exterior to lead the eye up to the
highest point. Their shape often replicates that of the tallest central tower, and serves to draw the eye
upward toward it.
Base Platform (Adhishsthana): The raised base on which a temple was built. These are particularly
high in the temples at Khajuraho, and by their height accentuate these temples’s upward thrust.
three sub schools developed under Nagara style:
Odisha School
 Most of the main temple sites are located in ancient Puri and Konark.
 Here the shikhara, called deul in Odisha, is vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves
sharply inwards.
 Deuls are preceded, as usual, by mandapas called jagamohana in Odisha.
 The ground plan of the main temple is square, which, in the upper reaches of its superstructure
becomes circular in the crowning mastaka.
 The exterior of the temples are lavishly carved, their interiors generally quite bare.
 Odisha temples usually have boundary walls.
 Example: Konark Temple, Jagannath temple, Lingaraj temple.

Solanki School
 Patronized by Solanki kings (later Chalukya) of Gujarat (11th to 13th century).
 The Vimala, Tejpala and Vastupala temples at Mount Abu exhibit this style.
 Dilwara temple in Mt Abu – Highest Jain pilgrimage

Exquisite example is Sun temple at Modhera, built by Raja Bhimdev-I of the Solanki Dynasty in
1026
 There is a massive rectangular stepped tank called the suryakund in front of it.
 108 miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank.

 A huge ornamental arch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assembly hall) which is
open on all sides.
 Every year at the time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directly into the central shrine.
 Among the most famous historical places in India, Khajuraho temple was built by Chandella
rulers during AD 900 and 1130. Building temples was a tradition of Chandella rulers and
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 were followed by all the rulers of the dynasty. 85 temples were built during the golden period
of Chandella rulers, but only 23 temples survived the destruction & disfigurement by Muslim
invaders.

 Scattered over an area of about 25 km, Khajuraho temples are categorized into three groups:
Eastern, Western, and Southern. The beauty and expressiveness of the sculptures of the
temples will leave you in wonder.

Perhaps the most important part of the ancient Indian temples is decoration. It is reflected in the
multitude details of figured sculpture as well as in the architectural elements. Another important
component of Indian temples was the garba-griha or the womb chamber, housing the deity of the
temple. The garbha-griha was provided with a circumambulation passage around. However, there are
also many subsidiary shrines within temple complexes, in the initial stages of its evolution, the
temples of North and South India were distinguished on the basis of some specific features like
sikhara and gateways. In the north Indian temples, the sikhara remained the most prominent
component while the gateway was generally unassuming. The most prominent features of South
Indian temples were enclosures around the temples and the Gopurams (huge gateways). The
Gopurams led the devotees into the sacred courtyard. On the other hand there were many common
features in the Northern and the Southern styles. These included the ground plan, positioning of stone-
carved deities on the outside walls and the interior, and the range of decorative elements.
The temples at Khajuraho were built during the Chandella dynasty, which reached its apogee between
950 and 1050. Only about 20 temples remain; they fall into three distinct groups and belong to two
different religions –Hinduism and Jainism. They strike a perfect balance between architecture and
sculpture. The Temple of Kandariya is decorated with a profusion of sculptures that are among the

greatest masterpieces of Indian art.

The two major temples, the Lakshmana (Vaikuntha Vishnu) and Kandariya Mahadeva (Siva as
Sadasiva), and their iconic schemes are the finest achievement of the Nagara style of temple
architecture, they are "monuments of manifestation" of Vishnu and Siva, symbolizing the cosmic
Meru and Kailasa mountains. Not built mechanically according to Vastu Sastra dictums, they are
conceived of as mandalas or consecrated sacred space guarded by dikpalas and vasus. The architect-
priest has consciously produced the yantra formation to symbolize cosmic order on earth by following
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closely the highly structured metaphysical order of the Pancaratra and Saiva Siddhanta Tantric system
in their images and their placement in the scheme of the temple. The architect-priest has used the non-
discursive language of visual imagery to present this metaphysical structure, harmoniously integrating
them with architecture, thereby unfolding the evolution or manifestation of the Supreme Being in the
universe. The ascent and descent of graded peaks (miniature shrines called urah-sringas) on
the sikhara centering on its highest point, the finial, the cosmic axis, convey the rhythm of Dissolution
and Creation. While cosmic symbolism characterizes all major temples of the 11th-12th centuries in
India (such as those in Thanjavur and Bhubaneswar), the design of the temples of Khajuraho seems to
surpass the others precisely in its ordering of the miniature shrines and the religious imagery in a
hierarchical organization.

The key concepts in the two temples are Vaikuntha and Sadasiva, representing the intermediate stage
of the transcendental-unmanifest to the immanent-manifest forms, where the movement towards
creation begins. From the formless to the form, there are several graded manifestations of Vishnu and
Siva, and these find their hierarchical and ordered places in the various niches leading ultimately to
the sanctum. The visual representation of the process from the unmanifest to the manifest guides the
worshipper through the avarana or surrounding deities to the centre, that is, the innermost sanctuary.
The diverse manifestations of Vishnu and Siva are placed in the main niches of the jangha,
while dikpalas, navagrahas, Matrikas, and deities including Ganesa and Karthikeya are placed in
appropriate positions from the inner doorway to the outer walls (vedibandha). Again there is a graded,
hierarchical positioning as a protective mandala, magico-protection being a major function of such
deities. This is a feature of all medieval Saiva and Vaishnava temples.

It is in this context that the positioning of the erotic figures becomes significant, for they are mostly
found in the juncture (kapili) connecting the shrine and the mandapa, that is, the meeting point of the
divine and the human (or twilight zone), as they are figures in conjunction and speak a sandhya
bhasha or intentional language with double meaning or pun (slesha). Marriage scenes, conjoint
images and pairing of divinities are other ways in which the ordering of images is determined. Female
figures (sura sundaris) both as auspicious and fertility motifs and protective symbols figure
commonly in medieval temples.

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KHAJURAHO abounds in metaphors and puns. The very name of the town, Kharjuravahaka, means
both the town of Kharjura (dates) and of the scorpion, a motif occurring on one of the female figures.
The term Digambara or sky-clad for both Siva and Jaina Kshapanaka (monk) occurs in inscriptions
and on representations. Both literature and art used these metaphors and puns. One of the most
significant is the Yajna-Varaha or boar incarnation of Vishnu at Khajuraho, a political metaphor for
royal power, rescuing the earth from the nether region and symbolizing cosmic Visvarupa carrying on
its theriomorphic form all the important divinities. This symbolism is found not only in Khajuraho but
also in Gupta period sculptures and in Pallava, Chalukya and Rashtrakuta narrative panels. Siva as
Sadasiva represented as a four-legged figure (chatushpada) and his unique iconography conveys by
way of a pun the four padas of the Saiva Siddhanta system. Vishnu as Vaikuntha had a special
importance in north India and the image was sought by rulers of different dynasties. Chandellas are in
fact believed to have obtained it from Pratiharas, who obtained it from the Sahi rulers and so on.

Above all, the allegory of the Prabodha Chandrodaya, which combines Vedanta with Bhakti through
the story of King Viveka (discrimination) and his victory over Mahamoha (delusion) is recognized by
the author in the sculptures of these temples in their puns and intentional language, thereby showing
the interface between art and politics and art and literature. Following Mircea Eliade, the author
identifies homologies and equivalents to read the secret or intentional language of the physical acts
portrayed in the Khajuraho temples. Dr. Desai writes on one aspect of this representation: "On
the sandhi juncture of the hall for devotees (jivas) and the womb house of the divinity (Siva), on the
juncture of the phenomenal and transcendental worlds, the juncture, 'which is neither here nor there',
where the opposite energies of two architectural yantras meet, the architect-priest of the grand
Kandariya Mahadeva temple has imaginatively and intentionally placed the scene of physical union to
project the non-communicable experience of the Non-Dual state through the homologies and
equivalents of Sandhya Bhasha."1

The Khajuraho temples substantiate the existence of the Devadasi tradition during the 7th and 8th
centuries CE. Devadasis were girls dedicated to worship and service of a deity or a temple for the rest
of their lives and usually enjoyed a high societal status. They were usually transferred to the king's
palace and subsequently performed for the general masses.

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JAIN INFLUENCES2 : The Khajuraho group of temples were built together but were dedicated to
two religions, Hinduism and Jainism, suggesting a tradition of acceptance and respect for diverse
religious views among Hindus and Jains in the region. During the Chandela rule, many towns
in Bundelkhand, including Khajuraho, were home to large and flourishing Jain communities. At
Khajuraho the Jains apparently lived on the east side of town. A number of Jain temples from that
period have survived in this part of Khajuraho in various states of preservation. Many Jain
inscriptions from the Chandela period can be seen at Khajuraho. All the Jain temples are now
enclosed within a modern compound wall constructed in the 19th century, with the exception of the
Ghantai temple, when the restoration of the temples was initiated. These temples are part of UNESCO
World Heritage Site along with other temples in Khajuraho Group of Monuments. There is also an
archaeological museum where historical Jain artifacts from the chandella period are preserved.

A key difference between the Jain temples and most other Khajuraho temples is that the Jain temples
are alive with active praying and worship. Digambar Jain monks still visit time to time and can be
seen meditating, studying or preaching

Two of the large temples still stand in a good state of preservation in the original form. The portico of
the Adinath temple is a later addition. The enclosed Shantinath temple houses a massive monolithic
Shantinath image. It also incorporates at least one other Chandella period temple. To the east of these
temples are several small Chandella temples that have been restored using masonry. The temple
complex underwent restoration in 1870 AD, when a Gajarath festival was organized by Kanchhedtilal
Jain of Nagaurmarking a renewal of the site accompanied by installations of new images, as indicated
by the inscriptions. The stone structures were stabilized using masonry and the Shantinath temple was
constructed incorporating two Chandella period temples.

There is a museum called Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain Samgrahalaya right outside the main compound
constructed in 1984 to house sculptures of historical and artistic merit. There is a dharmashala to the
south for the pilgrims.

A number of Jain inscriptions from the Chandella period have been found in Khajurao. The earliest is
the Samvat 1011 (AD 954) in the Parshvanath Temple, and the last is Samvat 1234 (1177 AD, it is
also the last Chandella era inscription in Khajuraho Pratishtha events must have taken place in Samvat
1205 and 1215 with multiple images of those years. During the time of Kirttivarman (reigned c.
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1060–1100 CE), the capital shifted to Mahoba, and Khajuraho declined. The Jain activity resumed
around samvat 1915 (1858 AD), when the temples were repaired and installation of new images was
restarted.

1. Parshvanath Temple

This temple contains an inscription dating from 954 AD by its builder Pahila, mentioning donation of
gardens and requesting future generations to safeguard the temple. It mentions Chandella Dhanga as
the reigning king.

A well known early magic square is found in this temple. This is referred to as the Chautisa (Thirty-
four) Yantra, since each sub-square sums to 34. The intricate carvings on the walls of the Parsvanath
Temple captures all the attention. An aesthetic blend of Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist style is quite
apparent here. It is dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras. The idols of Surasundaris in various poses are also
quite prominent here.The Parsvanath Temple to the south, built in the mid-10th century, is the largest
and finest in the Eastern Group’s Jain complex and holds some of the best sculpture in Khajuraho,
including images of Vishnu. In contrast to the intricate calculations behind the layout of the Western
Group, the plan for this temple is a simple rectangle, with a separate spire in the rear. Statues of flying
angels and sloe-eyed beauties occupied with children, cosmetics, and flowers adorn the outer walls.
The stone conveys even the texture of the women’s thin garments.

2. Adinath Temple

The late-11th-century Adinath Temple, a minor shrine, is set in a small walled compound southeast of
Ghantai. Its porch and the statue of Tirthankara (literally, “Ford-Maker,” a figure who leads others to
liberation) Adinatha are modern additions. Built at the beginning of the Chandelas’ decline, this

temple is relatively small, but the shikhara and base are richly carved.The Adinath Jain

temple contains an idol with an inscription dated to year 1027 during the rule
of Chandella king Madanavarman. The sculpture features Adinatha with an ushnisha on his head
and dharmachakra with a small bull figure. A part of UNESCO World Heritage Site along with other
temples, Adinatha Temple was built to pay reverence to Jain Tirthankara Adinatha. Although a Jain
Temple but it also showcases Hindu deities on the exterior walls. Get to know in detail about the
dance styles of Nilanjana, a well-known dancer in the court of Lord Adinatha.

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3. Shantinath Temple

The Shantinath Temple is a modern composite structure that incorporates sections of several temples
and has several shrines. The main section has a 15 feet (4.6 m) idol of Lord Shantinath with an
inscription of year 1028(V.S. 1085). The third temple in this cluster, the Shantinath, bears an
inscription dating it to the early 11th century. It has been remodeled extensively and is still in active
use, but it does contain some old Jain sculpture.

4. Ghantai Temple

The Ghantai Temple was built around 960 AD by Chandela kings of Khajuraho. This temple was
dedicated to lord Rishabha as Chakreshvari is seen in this temple along with nine planets and Gomukh
yaksha. South of these three Jain temples, toward the Jain complex, is a little gem called the Ghantai
Temple. All that’s left of this temple are its pillars, festooned with carvings of pearls and bells.
Adorning the entrance are an eight-armed Jain goddess riding the mythical bird Garuda and a relief
illustrating the 16 dreams of the mother of Mahavira, thegreatest religious figure in Jainism and a

counterpart to the Buddha.

OTHER TEMPLES

5. The Vishwanath Temple

The Vishvanath Temple is on a terrace to the east of the Chitragupta and Devi Jagdamba temples.
Two staircases lead up to it, the northern flanked by a pair of lions and the southern by a pair of
elephants. The Vishvanath probably preceded the Kandariya, but here two of the original corner

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shrines remain. On the outer wall of the corridor surrounding the cells is an impressive image of
Brahma, the three-headed Lord of Creation, and his consort, Saraswati. On every wall the form of
woman dominates, portrayed in all her daily 10th-century occupations: writing a letter, holding her
baby, studying her reflection in a mirror, applying makeup, or playing music. The nymphs of paradise
are voluptuous and provocative, and the erotic scenes, robust. An inscription states that the temple
was built by Chandela King Dhanga e in 1002. Facing the main temple, a simpler shrine, the Nandi
Temple, houses a monolithic statue of Shiva’s mount, the massive and richly harnessed sacred bull
Nandi. ED The small and heavily rebuilt Parvati Temple, near Vishvanath, was originally dedicated to
Vishnu. The present icon is that of the goddess Ganga standing on her mount, the crocodile.

6. The Chitragupta Temple lies slightly north of the Devi Jagdamba and resembles it in
construction. In honor of the presiding deity, Surya—the sun God, the temple faces east, and its
cell contains a 5-ft image of Surya complete with the chariot and seven horses that carry him
across the sky. Surya also appears above the doorway. In the central niche south of the sanctum is
an image of Vishnu with 11 heads; his own face is in the center, and the other heads represent his
10 (9 past and 1 future) incarnations. A profusion of sculptural scenes of animal combat, royal
processions, masons at work, and joyous dances depict the lavish country life of the Chandelas.

7. The Mahadeva Temple:The small, mostly ruined Mahadeva Temple shares its platform with the
Kandariya and the Devi Jagdamba. Now dedicated to Shiva, it may originally have been a
subsidiary to the Kandariya Mahadev temple, probably dedicated to Shiva’s consort. In the
portico stands a remarkable statue of a man caressing a mythical horned lion.

8. The Devi Jagdamba Temple was originally dedicated to Vishnu, as indicated by a prominent
sculpture over the sanctum’s doorway. It’s now dedicated to Parvati, Shiva’s consort, but because
her image is black—a color associated with Kali, goddess of wrath and an avatar of Parvati—it is
also known as the Kali Temple. From the inside, its three-shrine design makes the temple appear
to be shaped like a cross. The third band of sculpture has a series of erotic mithunas. The ceilings
are similar to those in theKandariya Mahadev, and the three-headed, eight-armed statue of Shiva
is one of the best cult images in Khajuraho

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9. As you enter the Western Group complex, you’ll see the Varaha Temple (circa 900-925) to your
left. This shrine is dedicated to Vishnu’s Varaha avatar, or boar Incarnation, which Vishnu assumed in
order to rescue the earth after a demon had hidden it in the slush at the bot-tom of the sea. In the inner
sanctum, all of creation is depicted on the massive and beautifully polished sides of a stone boar, who
in turn stands on the serpent Shesha. The ceiling is carved with a lotus relief.

10. Lakshmana Temple. Behind the Varaha Temple stands the Lakshmana Temple, also dedicated to
Vishnu, and the only complete temple remaining. Along with Kandariya Mahadeva and Vishvanath
(LG. below), this edifice represents the peak of achievement in North Indian temple architecture. All
three temples were built in the early to mid-10th century, face east, and follow an elaborate plan
resembling a double cross, with three tiers of exterior sculpture above the friezes on their high
platforms. The ceiling of the mandapam is charmingly carved with shell and floral motifs. The lintel
over the entrance to the main shrine shows Lakshmi, goddess of wealth and consort of Vishnu, with
Brahma, Lord of Creation (on her left) and Shiva, Lord of Destruction (on her right). A frieze above
the lintel depicts the planets. The relief on the doorway shows the gods and demons churning the
ocean to obtain a pitcher of miraculous nectar from the bottom. The wall of the sanctum is carved
with scenes from the legend of Krishna (one of Vishnu’s incarnations). An icon in the sanctum
withtwo pairs of arms and three heads represents Vishnu as Vaikuntha, or the supreme god, and is
surrounded by images of his ten incarnations. Around the exterior base are some of Kimpjuraho’s
most famous sculptures, with gods and goddesses on the protruding corners, erotic couples or groups
in the recesses, and apsaras and sura-sundaris (apsaras performing everyday activities) in-between.
Along the sides of the tall platform beneath the temple, friezes depict social life, including battle
scenes, festivals, and amorous sport.

11. The Kandariya Mahadev, west of the Lakshmana Temple, is the largest and most evolved
temple in Khajuraho in terms of the blending of architecture and sculpture, and one of the finest in
India. Probably built around 1020, it follows the five-shrine design; and its central shikhara, which
towers 102 ft above the platform, is actually made up of 84 subsidiary towers building up in
increments. The feeling of ascent is repeated inside, where each succeeding mandapam is a step above
the previous one, and the garbha griha is higher still; dedicated to Shiva, this inner sanctum houses a
marble linga with a 4-ft circumference. Even the figures on this temple are taller and slimmer than

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that elsewhere. The rich interior carving includes two beautiful toranas (arched doorways); outside,
three bands of sculpture around the sanctum and transept bring to life a whole galaxy of Hindu gods
and goddesses, mithunas, celestial handmaidens, and lions. A total of 872 statues-226 in-side and 646
outside—have been counted.

12. Just outside the boundary of the Western Group is the Matangesvara Temple, the only one still
in use here; worship takes place in the morning and afternoon. The lack of ornamentation, square
construction, and simpler floor plan date this temple to the early 10th century. The building has oriel
windows, a projecting portico, and a ceiling of overlapping concentric circles. An enormous linga,
nearly 81/2 ft tall, is enshrined in the sanctum.

13.The Shiva temple Lalguan Mahadeva is a few hundred yards north-east of the Chausath Yogini.
The structure is in ruins, and the original portico is missing, but this temple is historically significant
because it was built of both granite and sandstone, marking the transition from Chausath Yogini to the
later temples.
14.The first three temples, though considered part of the Western Group, 0 are actually at a slight
distance from the enclosure. The Chausath Yogini Temple, on the west side of the Shivsagar Tank, a
small artificial lake, is the oldest temple at Khajuraho, possibly built as early as AD 820. It is
dedicated to Kali, and its name refers to the 64 (Chausath) female ascetics (yoginis) who serve this
fierce goddess in the Hindu pantheon. Unlike its counterparts of pale, warm-hued sandstone, this
temple is made of granite and is the only one (so far excavated) in Khajuraho that’s oriented
northeast-southwest instead of north-south. It was originally surrounded by 64 roofed cells for the
figures of Kali’s attendants; only 35 cells remain. Scholarly supposition holds that this and a handful
of other open-air temples, usually circular, in remote parts of India were focal points for an esoteric
cult.

15.The small, 12th-century Chaturbhui Temple, nearly 3 km (2 mi) south of Duladeo, has an
attractive colonnaded entrance and a feeling or verticality thanks to its single spire. It enshrines an
impressive four-handed image of Vishnu that may be the single most striking piece of sculpture in
Khajuraho. With a few exceptions, the temple’s exterior sculpture falls short of the local mark (a sign
of the declining fortunes of the empire), but this temple is definitely the best place in Khajuraho to

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watch the sun set. A few hundred yards north of the Chaturbhuj Temple are excavations for the newly
discovered Buddhist complex, which archaeologists first announced in 1999. It will be years before
reconstructions are complete, but you may find a recently unearthed piece of sculpture on view.

16.Though built in the customary five-shrine style, the Duladeo Temple (about 900 yards south of the
Eastern Group’s Ghantai) looks flatter and more massive than most Khajuraho shrines. Probably the
last temple built in Khajuraho, dated to the 12th century; the Duladeo Ternple lacks the usual
ambulatory passage and crowning lotus-shape finials. It has some vibrant sculptures, but many are
clichéd and over decorated. Here, too, in this temple dedicated to Shiva, eroticism works its way in,
though the amorous figures are discreetly placed.

17. The granite and sandstone Brahma Temple, one of the earliest temples here (c. 900), is probably
misnamed. Brahma, a titular member of the triad of Hinduism’s great gods, along with Shiva and
Vishnu, rarely gets a temple to himself, and this one has a linga, the abstract, phallus-shape icon of
Shiva. It differs in design from most of the other temples, particularly in the combination of materials
and the shape of its shikhara.

18. The small, well-proportioned Javari Temple, just south of the Vamana Temple and roughly
contemporary in origin, has a simplified three-shrine design. The two main exterior bands bear hosts
of heavenly maidens.

19.In the Complex, the northernmost is the late-11th-century Vamana Temple, dedicated to Vishnu’s
dwarf incarnation (though the image in the sanctum looks more like a tall, sly child). The sanctum
walls show unusual theological openness, featuring most of the major gods and goddesses; Vishnu
appears in many of his form, including the Buddha, his ninth incarnation. Outside, two tiers of
sculpture are concerned mainly with the nymphs of paradise, who strike charming poses under their
private awnings.

“When one stands here in the heart of the temple complex, as if in the heart of the world, at the centre
of the cosmos, we can be at peace with ourselves and with the world. We can let go of our fears and

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confusion. All is well. The Gods dance.Their dance for all of humanity — for eternity. We are Jiva,
all separateness is illusion, we are One.” 3

REFERENCE

1.Dr. DesaiKhajuraho – Monumental Legacy, (15th impression, 2014); The Religious Imagery of
Khajuraho, 1996; Erotic Sculpture of India – A Socio-Cultural Study, 1975, second Edition,
1985;
2. Khajuraho ke Jain Mandir, Niraj Jain, 2000
3. Liesbeth Pankaja Bennink, The Hindu newspaper February 2019

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 CHAPTER 6
Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam
The biggest in the World- bigger than Angkor Wat

HAPTER

Whenever righteousness wanes and unrighteousness increases I send myself forth.

For the protection of the good and for the destruction of eviland for the establishment of
righteousness,I come into being age after age.
— Bhagavad Gita 4.7–8

ABSTRACT
The biggest living temple complex in the world- is in India and this paper deals with how it
was founded and its design and Architecture. It is smaller than Angkor Wat but it is still
living temple as opposed to the Wat which is not.
This paper is a detailed study of the morphology of this site, considering that there is very
little literature on the temple on the WWW.

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"One cannot attain to the God. One cannot see him; one can only hope for his future
manifestation, with certain exceptions. One cannot have full knowledge of him; but it is
possible to venerate him in his shrine; This is the deep significance of a pilgrimage to
Srirangam.”

JhannieAuboyer, "Sri Ranganathaswamy - A Temple of Vishnu in Srirangam Madras, India, Paris, June
1969, p.8.

Land of Temples: India is a country which has earned the privilege of being called a land of temples.
Big and small temples are virtually littered all over its territory, especially in South India. These
sacred places emerged not out of chance but through choice. Temples rose out of devotion of the
commoners and with donations from the public. Piety also caused the appearance of small pillar
temples at almost all streetcorners. People believed that temples for Gods would bring them peace and
prosperity. Small Amman Koils or shrines also sprang in all places with monotonous regularity,
because people considered “Shakthi“to be the embodiment of power and protection. Even these small
temples generated extensive economic, commercial and other activities, paving the way for the
emergence of villages, and small towns. Legends, stories and miracles came into circulation, creating
awe and discipline among the inhabitants. Social cohesion was achieved as various castes and
communities started living harmoniously.

Rulers built temples: A large cohesive unit emerged out of the territorial ambitions of Rulers. While
occupying other kingdoms, they fulfilled their individual, egotistic aspirations by constructing temples
of gigantic dimensions in places considered appropriate. They deployed immense financial and human
resources to build places of worship and fine arts. This temple-raising activity gained historic
importance as each temple became a permanent testimony to the devotional fervour and artistic
sensibilities of the Rulers. The historic significance of the Rulers' predilections was that Shiva and
Vishnu temples adorned the Indian landscape in large numbers. Inscriptions found on the walls of
these holy shrines offer eloquent proof of the history of their origin. The Prahadeeswarar Temple (Big
Temple) at Tanjavur is a concrete example: Eaja Raja Chola oversaw the construction activities and
earned a niche in the annals of history. The historic temple brought fame to Tanjavur then, and, now,
it has developed into a tourist centre. Whatever be the reasons, historic compulsions or religio-social
necessities, the fact remains that the temple has been the centre of activities influencing human life
from the ancient times to the present day. Sculptured inscriptions on the Pillars and walls of the
temples provide us an insight into the social fabric of the period. In ancient times, the village was an
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economic unit and the temple became the hub of activities. An excerpt from a Government
Publication throws light on the role of the temple in the economic sphere: "The temple deity was a
leading landowner and received generous gifts from kings, chiefs, merchants, and the common
people, in addition to some local taxes. Temples thus became rich enough to function as banks and
could even lend money to needy agriculturists. The daily routine of temple ritual gave assured
employment to a large number of people - priests, learned men, musicians, dancing girls, teachers,
florists, tailors, clerks, accountants, and functionaries of various kinds.

Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam: Is a Hindu temple dedicated to Ranganatha, a reclining

form of the Hindu deity Maha Vishnu, located in Srirangam, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, India. It is a
major pilgrimage destination for Hindus (especially Srivaishnavites) and the largest temple complex
in India.Constructed in the Dravidian Architecture, this temple is glorified by Alvars in
their DivyaPrabhandaand has the unique distinction of being not only the foremost among the
108 DivyaDesams dedicated to Vishnu, but also the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world as
opposed to Angkor Wat which is dysfunctional though at No.1 Rank.

It is one of the most illustrious Vaishnava temples in South India rich in legend and history. The
temple has played an important role in Vaishnavism history starting with the 11th-century career
of Ramanuja and his predecessors Nathamuni and Yamunacharya in Srirangam. Its location, on an
island between the Kollidam and Kaveri rivers, has rendered it vulnerable to flooding as well as the
rampaging of invading armies which repeatedly commandeered the site for military encampment. The
temple was looted and destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate armies in a raids in early 14th century. The
temple was rebuilt in late 14th century, the site fortified and expanded with many more Gopurams in
the 16th and 17th centuries.It was one of the hubs of early Bhakti movement with a devotional singing
and dance tradition, but this tradition stopped during the 14th century.

Ranganāthar, also known as Sri Ranganatha, Aranganathar, Ranga and Thenarangathan, is

a Hindu deity, more well known in South India, and the chief deity of the Sri Ranganathaswamy
Temple, Srirangam. The deity is a resting form of Lord Vishnu, recumbent on the great form of the
serpent god Adisesha, one of the foremost of Hindu gods. His consort is Goddess Lakshmi, also
known as Ranganayaki. His two other consorts seen next to his recumbent figure
are Bhudevi and Nila Devi. Most of the deities portray a 'smiling' lord in a sleeping or reclining
position over the celestial serpent Adisesha in the sea of cosmic dissolution (pralaya). This is the
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form in which he is open to listening to all of his devotees' woes, and blesses them. Apart from being
worshipped by all Hindus, this form is of particular importance to the Sri Vaishnava community. His
name in Sanskrit means "leader of the place of assembly", coined from two Sanskrit
words ranga (place) and natha (Lord or leader).

Symbolic representation of Ranganatha and Nataraja has been compared as the meaning of both is the
same except for their locations. In Ranganatha, ranga means "stage" and which in the broadest sense
refers to "the world, the cosmos or better still of the body and the senses". Nataraja also means the
"Lord of the Stage" and in this case his stage is in ‘Chidambaram’ meaning the "sphere of wisdom",
while Ranganatha rests on the Ocean of milk or Paarkadal, which is a metaphysical or esoteric
concept which is not easy to interpret as it is perceived in different ways by different people. The
name "Nataraja" is more usually taken to mean Lord of the Dance in reference to the dance of
dissolution, or pralaya, or alternatively the dance of illusion by which the material sphere is
manifested, and is therefore a name for Lord Shiva, as distinct from Lord Vishnu.

The PancharangaKshetrams are the five most sacred Ranganatha temples which are located on the
banks of the Kaveri River, also spelled as Cauvery. The five PancharangaKshetrams in the order of
their successive locations, on the banks of the Kaveri River are: The Srirangapatna (Karnataka) called
the AdiRanga, the first temple on the banks of the Kaveri River from the upstream side;
the Srirangam, Trichy in Tamil Nadu known as AnthaRanga (the last temple), Appalarangam
or Koviladi at Tiurppernagar in Tamil Nadu, and Vatarangam near Sirkazhi, also listed as Sri
RenganathaPerumal Temple, Vadarengam, Tamil Nadu, 609108. The Sarangapani
temple at Kumbakonam is mentioned in place of Vatarangam in some references.

ParasaraBattar, well known poet of the times who has written a commentary on "Vishnu
Sahasranama" (thousand names of Lord Vishnu) has noted the beautiful image of Ranganatha at
Srirangam temple as ornamented with basil (tulsi) garland on the chest (favorite of
Vishnu), Kaustubha, Vaijayanthihara (a necklace) and a few other ornaments, which once formed the
divine jewelry of Krishna, the avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu, are also decorating the image of
Ranganatha.

The Ranganatha temple is also the religious center of Sri Vaishnavism propagated by
Saint Ramanuja from Srirangam. The temple worship at the RanganathaSwamy temples is done
traditionally in the Tamil and Sanskrit scriptures written by the 12 Alvars and Ramanuja.

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Also, Kaveri River forms three small sacred islands in its river stretch in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
at AdiRanga, at Srirangapatna, Madhya Ranga at Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Shivanasamudra and
AntyaRanga or AdyaRanga at Srirangam where Ranganatha temple is located.

Also among the 108 DivyaDesams (sacred places of worship of Lord Vishnu), the reclining posture of
the God can be found in many temples. Some of these temples are
at Thirumayam, Thirukoshtiyur, Koviladi, Kapisthalam, Thiruneermalai, Tiruvallur, Anbil, Appokuda
than, Mayiladuthurai, Srivilliputhur, and Padmanabhaswamy temple at Tiruvanathapuram.

There are many other Ranganatha temples spread over many towns and villages of South India and to
mention a few are: PallikondaRanganatha where his three consorts Shri Devi, Bhudevi and Nila
Devi are also deified next to Ranganatha; At Singavaram, a rock cut reclining image of Ranganatha,
which measures 7.5 metres (25 ft. Other notable temples of Ranganatha are
at Nellore, Namakkal and Bangalore, {Sri
Varadhahasthaaanjaneyaswamysamethasriranganathaswamy temple}, {Narasambhudhi},
{AgaliMandal}, {Ananthapuramu District}, {AP}.There are also temples dedicated to Lord
Ranganatha outside of South Asia.

Vishnupeethas( Temples of Vishnu) in India

Place Deity Location

Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Srirangam<Trichi
district<Tamilnadu
Venkatadri Venkateswaraswamy Tirupati<Chittore
district<Andhra pradesh
Srimushnam Bhuvarahaswamy Srimushnam<Cuddalore
district<Tamilnadu
Totaparvatam Vanamamaliperumal Nanguneri<Tirunelveli
District<Tamilnadu
Salagramam Chakrapani Muktinath<Dhavalgiri<Nepal
Pushkaram Vishnu Pushkar<Near
Ajmeer<Rajasthan

Naranarayanashramam BadariNarayanaswamy Badrinath<Near

Nainital<Uttarakhand
Naimisham Chakranarayana Nimsar<Near
Lucknow<Uttar pradesh
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Myth and Mythology:

Lord Rama performed aradhanam (pooja) to Vishnu's idol (deity in a reclining posture). As a symbol of
love he gifted the idol to Vibishana (brother of Ravana of the Hindu epic Ramayana) to take back with him
to Lanka. There was a condition that he could not set the idol on earth and if he did it would seat itself
permanently. Vibishana took this idol and while travelling towards Lanka, came upon the banks of the
river Kaveri. He placed the idol on banks of river Kaveri, while an utsavam was in progress. When the
utsavam got over, the Lord refused to move as he loved the place (Srirangam). When Vibhishana requested
him to come along with him, the lord refused but promised to bless Vibhishana by always facing South
(the direction of Lanka, home to Vibhishana). Hence it is due this reason the deity (in a reclining posture)
faces South. The Chola kings Dharmavarcholan and Killivalavan developed the shrine into the big temple
seen now. They built the basic foundations and main buildings.

Srirangam became important during the invasion of Muslim emperors when it was captured and the riches
were looted. A temple at Srirangam is mentioned in Tamil literature of the Sangam era - 6th century BC to
the 4th century ADin the epic Silapadikaram "the Tale of an Anklet" (book 11, lines 35–40):

On a magnificent cot having a thousand heads spread out, worshipped and praised by many, in an islet
surrounded by Kaveri with billowing waves,is the lying posture of the one who has Lakshmi sitting in
his chest
Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40)
āyiramviritteḻutalaiyuṭaiaruntiṟaṟ pāyaṟpaḷḷippalartoḻutētta viritiraikkāviriviyaṉperuturuttit tiruvama
rmārpaṉkiṭantavaṇṇamum
Archaeological sites from Chola, Pandya, Hoysala and Vijayanagar dynasties -1st millennium AD
exists. Other inscriptions range in date between the 9th and 16th centuries during invasion and
plunder by the Alaud Din Khilji's Muslim general Malik Kafur and his Delhi Sultanate forces in
1311.The texts in Arabic state of a raid on a "golden temple" on river "Kanobari" (Kaveri) which
was destroyed,looted and the loot ferried to Delhi together with a Golden Idol.

The Tamil texts that followed offer various inconsistent legends on how the temple regained the
Vishnu icon. According to one found in KoilOluku, a young girl had vowed to fast till she had seen
the icon. She followed the Muslim army as it returned with the loot back to Delhi. There she sneaked
into the palace and saw that the Sultan's daughter had fallen in love with the image. The young girl
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returned to Srirangam and told the priests about what she had seen in Delhi. The priests went with
musicians to Delhi, found the icon in capriciously playful possession of the Sultan's daughter, day and
night. They sang and danced before the Sultan to return the icon, and he gave it back which upset his
daughter. To console the daughter, the Sultan sent in his army again to bring it back, but this time they
were not successful. According to other versions, the Muslim daughter followed the icon from Delhi
to Srirangam on a horse, symbolizing that love brought back the icon after the war had taken it away.

Beyond these legends, there was a more severe second invasion of South India including Srirangam in
1323 AD. The sanctum's Vishnu image with its jewelry was pre-emptively removed by the Hindus before
the Delhi Sultanate troops reached Srirangam by a group led by the Vaishnavite Acharaya Pillai
Lokacharyar to Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu. The Goddess Ranganayaki (Lakshmi) was also taken away to
another location by a separate group. The temple was defended and according to the Tamil tradition some
13,000 Sri Vaishnavas devotees of Srirangam, died in the fierce battle.

After nearly six decades when Madurai Sultanate ruled after the Chola rulers were ousted after the repeated
Delhi Sultanate's invasions, the Vijayanagara Empire ousted the Madurai Sultanate in 1378. Thereafter, the
Vishnu and Lakshmi images were brought back to Srirangam by Swami Vedanta Desika. Before then, for
decades the deity and the priestly wardens wandered and secretly carried the temple's icon through villages
of Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka. They finally went to the hills of TirumalaTirupati, where they
remained until the temple was rebuilt in 1371. The icon was consecrated again according to the legends.
This time, in memory of the first Sultan's daughter which tradition calls ThulukhaNachiyar, a niche in the
temple was built for her. The niche shows her as a girl sitting on a horse that carried her to Delhi. Her
legend is still remembered. During contemporary processions when the icon is taken out of sanctum and
then returned to it after its journey, ThulukhaNachiyar is dressed in Muslim garments and food offerings
are made to her in the form of butter and chappathis (wheat bread).

Thereafter, under the Vijayanagara Empire, the temple site saw over 200 years of stability, repairs, first
round of fortifications, and addition of mandapas.The Vishnu and Lakshmi images were reinstalled and the
site became a Hindu temple again in 1371 CE under Kumara Kampana, a Vijayanagara commander and
the son of Bukka I. In the last decade of the 14th century, a pillared antechamber was gifted by the
Vijayanagara rulers. In the 15th century, they coated the apsidal roofs with solid gold sheets, followed by
financing the addition of a series of new shrines, mandapas and gopuras to the temple, according to George
Michell.
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After the destruction of the Vijayanagara in late 16th century, geo-political instability returned. The site
became the focus of bitter wars between the Hindu Nayakas and the Muslim Mughals in the 17th century.
The Nayakas fortified the temple town and the seven prakaras. It was taken over by Muslim Nawabs of
Arcot as a lucrative source of revenues, and thereafter attracted a contest between the French and British
military powers. Srirangam temple site and the neighboring city of Tiruchirappalli (Trichy) became an
intense center of Christian and Muslim missionary activity during the 18th and 19th centuries. With the
establishment of the Madras Presidency within the British Empire, geo-political stability returned and the
Ranganathaswamy Temple site attracted interest in archeological and historical studies.

Puranical Story about the temple

Ranganatha painting (not from the temple )

The temple and its artwork are a subject of numerous different Tamil legends covered in
regional Puranic texts such as SrirangaMahathmiyam.One of the temple mythology about its origins
is that God Brahma was performing austerities during the samudramanthan (churning of cosmic
ocean), and SrirangamVimanam emerged as a result. It remained in Satyaloka for ages, was brought
to Ayodhya by king Ikshvaku. After Rama, an Avatar of Vishnu had killed the evil demon Ravana, he
gave it to King Vibhishana who wanted to be with Rama.

1. On route to SriLanka when Vibhishana passed through Trichy his aerial vehicle would not
move from the island so he gave it to a local king called Dharma Varma. On consecrating the
vehicle faced the south cardinal direction eternally, blessing him and Lanka. Hence the deity
is in a reclining posture and faces South, Its body aligned to the east-west axis.
2. As per another legend, Sanaka, the four child sages, came for a darshana of Ranganatha in
Srirangam. They were stopped by Jaya and Vijaya, the guardians of Vaikuntha. In spite of
their pleadings, they were refused entry. In anger, all four of them cursed the guardians in one
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 voice and left. The guardians approached Vishnu and told him about the curse. Ranganatha
said that he would not be able to revert the curse and gave them two options: be born as
demons opposing Vishnu in three births or good human beings in the following seven births.
Hiranyaksha & Hiranyakasipu, Ravana & Kumbakarna and Sisupala & Dantavakra are the
forms of guardian demons. Vishnu took four avatars -Varaha, Narasimha, Rama, and Krishna
respectively – to kill the demons in each one of those births.

Vaishnavism the main teneat of the temple: The tradition is known for the loving devotion to an
avatar of Vishnu (often Krishna), and it has been key to the spread of the Bhakti movement in South
Asia in the 2nd millennium CE. Key texts in Vaishnavism include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the
Bhagavad Gita, the Pancaratra (Agama) texts, divyaprabhadameavand the BhagavataPurana.

It originates in the latest centuries BCE and the early centuries CE, with the cult of the heroic
Vāsudeva, a leading member of the Vrishni heroes, which was then amalgamated with the cult of
Krishna, hero of the Yadavas, and still several centuries later with the "divine child" Bala Krishna of
the Gopala traditions, followed by a syncretism of these non-Vedic traditions with the Mahabharata
canon, thus affiliating itself with Vedism in order to become acceptable to the orthodox establishment.
Krishnaism becomes associated with bhakti yoga in the medieval period. Vaishnavism is one of the
major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartism. It is also called
Vishnuism, its followers are called Vaishnavas or Vaishnavites, and it considers Vishnu as the
Supreme Lord.The tradition is notable for its avatar doctrine, wherein Vishnu is revered in one of
many distinct incarnations. Rama, Krishna, Narayana, Kalki, Hari,
Vithoba,Kesava,Madhava,Govinda, Srinathji and Jagannath are among the popular names used for the
same supreme being. The tradition has traceable roots to the 1st millennium BCE, as Bhagavatism,
also called Krishnaism. Later developments led by Ramananda created a Rama-oriented movement,
now the largest monastic group in Asia. The Vaishnava tradition has many sampradayas
(denominations, sub-schools) ranging from the medieval era Dvaita school of Madhvacharya to
Vishishtadvaita school of Ramanuja.

Historical Vishnuism in Southern India: Devotion to southern Indian Mal (Tirumal) may be an
early form of Krishnaism, since Mal appears as a divine figure, largely like Krishna with some
elements of Vishnu. The Alvars, whose name can be translated "sages" or "saints", were devotees of
Mal. Their poems show a pronounced orientation to the Vaishnava, and often Krishna, side of Mal.

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But they do not make the distinction between Krishna and Vishnu on the basis of the concept of the
Avatars. Yet, according to Hardy the term "Mayonism" should be used instead of "Krishnaism" when
referring to Mal or Mayon.

In Vishnu-centered sects Vishnu or Narayana is the one supreme God. The belief in the supremacy
of Vishnu is based upon the many avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu listed in the Puranic texts, which
differs from other Hindu deities such as Ganesha, Surya or Durga.

To the devotees of the SrivaishnavaSampradaya "Lord Vishnu is the Supreme Being and the
foundation of all existence."

In Vaishnava mythology, such as is presented in the BhagavataPurana and the Pancaratra, whenever
the cosmos is in crisis, typically because the evil has grown stronger and has thrown the cosmos out of
its balance, an avatar of Vishnu appears in a material form, to destroy evil and its sources, and restore
the cosmic balance between the everpresent forces of good and evil. The most known and celebrated
avatars of Vishnu, within the Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism, are Krishna, Rama, Narayana and
Vasudeva. These names have extensive literature associated with them, each has its own
characteristics, legends and associated arts. The Mahabharata, for example, includes Krishna, while
the Ramayana includes Rama.

Historical Vishnuism in the temple town of Srirangam

The epigraphical evidence suggests that these Hindu dynasties — Cholas, Pandyas, Hoysalas, Nayaks,
Vijayanagara – assisted with rebuilding, renovation and supported the traditional customs in the
Temple. Some gave substantial gifts to the temple. A Chola king,RajamahendraChola, for example,
presented agolden serpent couch. This temple has witnessed and played a key role in the early Sri
Vaishnavism history, particularly the centuries that followed the major Hindu
philosopher Ramanuja (1017–1137 AD), and his predecessors Nathamuni and Yamunacharya. It
witnessed the debate between the Dvaita (dualistic) and Advaita (non-dualistic) sub-traditions within
Vaishnavism. Centuries later, it was a key site in the debate and disagreements between the northern
Tamil and southern Tamil traditions, also called as the Vadakalai and Thenkalai. The early rulers such
as the Pallavas, Cholas and Pandiyas supported it as a hub of the Bhakti movement with a devotional
singing and dance tradition, but this tradition stopped during the 14th century and was revived in a
limited way much later.

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Srirangam (also known as Thiruvarangam)where

the temple is located is a neighbourhood of the city of Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India. A river
island, Srirangam is bounded by the Kaveri on one side and its distributary Kollidam on the other
side. Considered as the first among the 108 DivyaDesams,( Divine Kingdoms)Srirangam is home to a
significant population of Sri Vaishnavites (followers of Lord Vishnu).

self-manifested": Srirangam is among a few "self-manifested" shrines

(SwayamVyaktaKshetras) of Lord Vishnu. Svayambhu (स्वयम्भ)ू is a Sanskrit word that means
"self-manifested", "self-existing", or "that is created by its own accord". Often, the word swayambhu is
used to describe a self- manifested image of a deity, which was not made by human hands, but instead is

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naturally arisen, or generated by nature. The word etymology of swayambhu is 'Svayam' (स्वयम्) which
means 'self' or 'on its own' and 'bhu' (भू) which means 'to take birth' or 'arising'

This is applicable to the physical and tangible idols of Gods that we see or to the intangible yet existing
God whom we cannot see. For example, the jyotirlingas are considered swayambhu- the idol
of Venkateshwara at Tirumala and some other ones are considered Swayambu- which means they are not
installed by any person but they exist on their own. The word Swayambhu is also applicable to Gods- for
example- Brahma is described as swayambhu in Ramayana, Vishnu is called swayambhu in Matsyapurana.

After the rise of Vijayanagara Empire, Krishna Deva Raya realized the importance of this sacred city
and treated it on par with Tirupati and bequeathed plenty of treasures, jewels and lands to the
Srirangam temple. During his period the Srirangam temple was reformed and many plans were
executed for its growth and welfare of the people.

Due to the famous temple, Srirangam has a thriving economy based on tourism. Devotees come from
all parts of India and abroad. The number of devotees to the town increases greatly during the
festivals.There are many other famous temples near Srirangam. Along the banks of Kaveri in areas
near Srirangam and Tiruchirappalli there are other famous temples of Lord Vishnu most of which
house the reclining form of him, namely the Sri VadivazhagiyaNambiPerumal Temple (ThiruAnbil)
and housing the deity Appala Ranganathar, also called the Appukudaththan Temple at Koviladi.
Another temple of Lord Vishnu is at Tiruchirappalli itself, the AzhagiyaNambi Temple
at Woraiyur which is part of the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam.Srirangam town is also
home to several hundred people who work in offices and industries located in Tiruchirappalli.

The Srirangam temple is the largest temple compound in India and one of the largest religious
complexes in the world. Some of these structures have been renovated, expanded and rebuilt over the
centuries as a living temple. The latest addition is the outer tower that is 67 metres (220 ft) tall,
completed in 1987. Srirangam temple is often listed as one of the largest functioning Hindu temple in
the world, the still larger Angkor Wat being the largest existing temple. The temple occupies an area
of 155 acres (63 ha) with 81 shrines, 21 towers, 39 pavilions, and many water tanks integrated into the
complex making it the world's largest functioning Hindu temple.The temple town is a significant
archaeological and epigraphical site, providing a historic window into the early and mid- medieval
South Indian society and culture. Numerous inscriptions suggest that this Hindu temple served not

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only as a spiritual center, but also a major economic and charitable institution that operated education
and hospital facilities, ran a free kitchen, and financed regional infrastructure projects from the gifts
and donations it received.

The temple is an active Hindu house of worship and follows Thenkalai tradition of Sri Vaishnavism.
The annual 21-day festival conducted during the Tamil month of Margazhi (December–January)
attracts 1 million visitors. The temple complex has been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage
Site, and is in UNESCO's tentative list.

The temple site is on a large island bounded by the Kaveri River and Kollidam River. It is vast and
planned as a temple town with Sapta-Prakaram design where the sanctum, gopuram, services and
living area are co-located in seven concentric enclosures. Rampart walls were added after medieval
centuries that saw its invasion and destruction. The temple monuments are located inside the inner
five enclosures of the complex, surrounded by living area and infrastructure in outer two enclosures.
Numerous gopurams connect the Sapta-Prakaram enclosures allowing the pilgrims and visitors to
reach the sanctum from many directions. The site includes two major temples, one for Vishnu as
Ranganatha, and other to Shiva as Jambukeshvara. The island has some cave temples, older than both.

Alignment: Of particular sanctity in India are the rivers, among which the Ganges stands first. This
river, personified as a goddess, originally flowed only in heaven until she was brought down by
Bhagiratha to purify the ashes of his ancestors. She came down reluctantly, cascading first on the head
of Shiva in order to break her fall, which would have shattered the Earth. Confluences are particularly
holy, and the confluence of the Ganges with the Yamuna at Allahabad is the most sacred spot in India.
Another river of importance is the Sarasvati, which loses itself in desert; it was personified as a
goddess of eloquence and learning.

All major and many minor temples and sanctuaries have their own myths of how they were founded
and what miracles were wrought there. The same is true of famous places of pilgrimage, usually at
sacred spots near and in rivers; important among these are Vrindavana (Brindaban) on the Yamuna,
which is held to be the scene of the youthful adventures of Krishna and the cowherd wives. Another
such centre with its own myths is Gaya, especially sacred for the funerary rites that are held there.
And there is no spot in Varanasi (Benares), along the Ganges,that is without its own mythical
history. Srirangam, a temple town set in an island in the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu, is considered to

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be heaven on earth (bhulokavaikuntham).There are Three promised lands in Indian mythology -
Swarga, Mount Kailash and Vaikuntha. Swarga has the Kalpataru tree which gives you what you ask
for. There is infinite return without investment. Indra, the king of heaven, is prosperous but Swarga is
always under attack. Indra is always worried and insecure.In contrast, Vaikuntha, where Vishnu
prevails, is both peaceful and prosperous. It is like a playground. Vishnu is said to engage with the
others- he is participative.

The temple complex has been created like Vaikunthan the abode of Vishnu. It is the celestial abode
of Vishnu who is the principal deity of the Universes and known to be Godhead, as revered by all of
pre-Battle Of Kurukshetra, and the supreme being in Vedic, Hinduism, and its Vaishnavism traditions.

Vaikuntha is an abode presided over on high exclusively by him, accompanied always by his feminine
partner, consort and goddess Lakshmi, his other expansions as well, represented by Balarama or
brother. There are also many places sacred to followers of Vishnu, Shiva, or other deities. The temple
is aligned to the north-south and east-west axis, on an island surrounded by the Kaveri River. The
river has long been considered sacred, and called the Daksina Ganga or the "Ganges of the South".

hfxzThe Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, dedicated to the Hindu deity Ranganatha, is

primarily Vaishnavite but is also holy to Shaivites. The temple is composed of seven rectangular
enclosures, one within the other, the outermost having a perimeter more than 2 miles (3 km) in
length.Each with a courtyard. Srirangam is one of the most frequently visited pilgrimage centres in
southern India..Of the 7 the outer two prakarams (outer courtyard) are residential and markets with
shops, restaurants and flower stalls. The five inner courtyards have shrines to Vishnu and his
various avatars such as Rama and Krishna. Major shrines are additionally dedicated to goddess
Lakshmi and many saints of Vaishnavism. In particular, these shrines celebrate and commemorate the
Bhakti movement poet-saints called the Alvars, as well Hindu philosophers such as Ramanuja and
Vedantadesika of Sri Vaishnavism tradition.

A remarkable feature of the temple is the Hall of a Thousand Pillars with its colonnade of rearing
horses. The temple and the 1,000-pillared hall were constructed in the Vijayanagar period (1336–
1565) on the site of an older temple. Termed prakarams or mathilsuvar. Each of the 7 layers has walls
and gopurams, which were built or fortified in and after the 16th century. These walls total 32,592

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feet (9,934 m) or over six miles. The temple has 17 major gopurams (towers, 21 total), 39 pavilions,
50 shrines, 9 sacred water pools, Ayiramkaal mandapam (a hall of 1000 pillars) and several small
water bodies inside

The temple is enclosed by 7 concentric enclosures with courtyards

(termed prakarams or mathilsuvar). Each layer has walls and gopurams, which were built or fortified
in and after the 16th century. These walls total 32,592 feet (9,934 m) or over six miles. The temple
has 17 major gopurams (towers, 21 total),39 pavilions, 50 shrines, 9 sacred water
pools, Ayiramkaal mandapam (a hall of 1000 pillars) and several small water bodies inside.

Despite the construction of various mandapas and gopuras over a span of many centuries, the
architecture of the Ranganathaswamy temple is one of the better illustrations of Hindu temple
planometric geometry per agama design texts in the Tamil tradition. According to George Michell, a
professor and art historian on Indian architecture, the regulating geometry and plan of Srirangam site
takes on "a ritual dimension since all the architectural components, especially the focal gopuras and
the most important colonnades and mandapas, are arranged along the axes dictated by the cardinal
directions". This alignment integrates the routes that devotees follow as they journey into the
innermost sanctum.

Shrines[

The temple complex includes over 50 shrines. These are dedicated to Vishnu, Lakshmi as well as
various Vaishnava scholars and poets. The shrines to Vishnu display him in his various avatars, as
well as his iconography. For example, the Ranganathaswamy temple shrines and symbolism include
those to Chakkarathazhwar, Narasimha, Rama, Hayagreeva and Gopala Krishna.

The Chakrathazhwar shrine is in the east facing on the south side of Akalanka. The sanctum is
approached through a Mukamandapa (six rows of pillars) built during the Cholas and a Mahamandapa
with six rows of eight pillars built during the period of Vijayanagar Empire. There is a
circumambulation passage around the sanctum. The image of Chakrathazhwar is sculpted
with Narasimha on the rear side and can be viewed from the passage around the sanctum. The
Venugopala shrine, one of the most elaborately carved, is in the south-west corner of the fourth
enclosure of the temple was built by ChokkanathaNayak, according to an inscription dated 1674.

The main shrine for Ranganatha is in the innermost courtyard. The sanctum has a
golden vimanam (crown tower over the sanctum sanctorum). It is shaped like the Tamil omkara (om
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symbol), shows anthropomorphic Paravasudeva on its gable, has an etching of Ramanuja as well on it,
and is plated with gold. Inside, a 6-metre (20 ft) edifice of Sri Ranganthar reclining on Adisesha, the
coiled serpent, can be seen. Adisesha has five hoods and is coiled into three and a half rounds.
Vishnu's head rests on a small cylindrical pillow and his right palm which faces upwards rests next to
his head. Neither Sridevi (goddess Lakshmi) nor Bhudevi (goddess Earth) are depicted near his feet,
as is found in late medieval era paintings. The sanctum does not show Brahma coming out of or
connected to his navel either. However, the procession images of Sridevi, Bhudevi and
Alagiyamanavalan reside within the sanctum in different places to ease their darshana (viewing).

The sanctum can be entered through the south gateway, one the reclining Vishnu is facing. The
doorway as one enters from the mukhamandapam, also called the Gayatrimantapa, is flanked by Jaya
and Vijayadvarapalas. The sanctum chamber is round, even though the vimana above is an oval
projection. The circumambulation path (pradakshina-patha) is set in a square, to journey
clockwise. This garbha-griya is surrounded by a raised square Tiruvunnali, encircling pillars and
another inner square. As the visitor completes the circumambulation around the resting Vishnu, one
sees four additional images.On the western wall inside the core sanctum is Vighnesvara (son of Shiva
and Parvati, Ganesha, Shaivism), on the northwestern corner is Yoga-Ananta (Vishnu seated in yoga
asana on Sesha, Vaishnavism), on the northeastern side is Yoga-Narasimha (Narasimha seated in yoga
asana, Vaishnavism), and on the eastern wall is Durga (an aspect of Parvati, Shaktism).

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The golden Vimana over the sanctum at Srirangam midst its gopurams, its gable with Paravasudeva
image.

The exterior of the vimana and attached mandap (hall) have intricately carved pilasters with fluted
shafts, double capitals, and pendant lotus brackets. Sculptures are placed in the niches of three sides of
the sanctuary walls; maidens enhance the walls in between. The elevation is punctuated with a
secondary set of pilasters that support shallow eaves at different levels to cap larger and smaller
recesses. The sanctuary is crowned in the traditional fashion with a hemispherical roof. The double-
curved eaves of the entrance porch on the east side are concealed in a later columned
hall.Dhanvantari, a great physician of ancient India is considered to be an avatar of Vishnu – there is a
separate shrine of Dhanvantari within the temple.

Ranganayaki (Lakshmi) shrine is in the second precinct of the temple. During the festival processions,
Ranganayaki does not visit Ranganatha, but it is he who visits her. Ranganathar visiting Ranganayaki
and being with her is called as 'Saerthi' during 'PanguniUthiram'. There are three images of
Ranganayaki within the sanctum.

There are separate shrines for major saints in the Vaishnava tradition, including Ramanuja.

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Mandapams (Halls)

Sesharayarmandapam artwork

The Ranganathaswamy Temple has many mandapams:

1. Thousand pillar mandapam is a theatre like structure made from granite. It was built during
the Vijayanagara rule period. It has a central wide aisle with seven side aisles on each side
with pillars set in a square pattern.
2. Sesharayamandapam is the intricately carved hall built duringtheNayaka rule period. It is
found on the east side of the fourth prakaram courtyard. The northern side of this community
hall has 40 leaping animals with riders on their back, all carved out of monolithic pillars.
3. Garuda Mandapam is named after the vahana (vehicle) of Vishnu, named Garuda. It is on the
south side of the third prakaram courtyard. It too is dated to the Nayak rule era. Inside the
community hall, on its pillars, are portrait sculptures. In the middle is a free-standing seated
Garuda figure, identifiable by his eagle-head, wings and him facing the Vishnu shrine.
4. Kilimandapam is found inside the innermost (first) prakaram courtyard. It is next to the
Ranganatha sanctum. Here walking elephant balustrades line the steps that lead into the

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 gathering hall. This is dated to the 17th century Hindu rulers. The hall and structural elements
are carved with animals, and in its center is a raised square platform with four carved pillars.
5. RangaVilasamandapam is one of the larger community halls designed for large spaces
between the pillars for the pilgrim groups and families to sit together and rest. It is covered
with Hindu mythology murals and narratives from the Ramayana.

The Hall of 1000 pillars (actually 953) is a fine example of a planned theatre-like structure and
opposite to it is the "SeshaMandap". The 1000-pillared hall made of granite was constructed in
the Vijayanagara period (1336–1565) on the site of the old temple. The most artistic halls that the
Nayaks added to the complex is the SeshaMandap on the east side of the fourth enclosure.The
hall is celebrated for the leaping animals carved on to the piers at its northern end. The pillars
consists of sculptures of wildly rearing horses bearing riders on their backs and trampling with
their hoofs upon the heads of rampant tigers, seem only natural and congruous among such weird
surroundings.The great hall is traversed by one wide aisle in the centre for the whole of its greater
length, and intersected by transepts of like dimension running across at right angles. There still
remain seven side aisles on each side, in which all the pillars are equally spaced out. The Garuda
Madapa (hall of the legendary bird deity of Vishnu, garuda) located on the south side of the third
enclosure is another Nayak addition. Courtly portrait sculptures, reused from an earlier structure,
are fixed to the piers lining the central aisle. A free-standing shrine inside the hall contains a large
seated figure of garuda; the eagle-headed god faces north towards the principal
sanctum. The Kilimandapa (Hall of parrot) is located next to the Ranganatha shrine, in the first
enclosure of the temple. Elephant balustrades skirt the access steps that ascend to a spacious open
area. This is bounded by decorated piers with rearing animals and attached colonettes in the finest
17th-century manner. Four columns in the middle define a raised dais; their shafts are embellished
with undulating stalks.
1. A Vaishnava devotee in namaste posture
2. Thousand pillar hall
3. A mandapa
4. Garuda mandapa

GopuramsGopurams are widespread in south Indian temples, predominantly in Tamil Nadu.

Hei Consecr
Not
Temple Image ght ation Location
es
ft
Year

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 Hei Consecr
Not
Temple Image ght ation Location
es
ft
Year

Talles
t
templ
Sri Ranganathaswamy Srirangam, Tam
1 239.50 1987 CE e
Temple il Nadu, India
tower
in
India.

Vellai gopurams (tower)

There are 21 gopurams (tower gateways), among which the towering Rajagopuram (shrine of the
main gateway) is the tallest temple tower in Asia. The 13-tiered Rajagopuram was built in 1987
by AhobhilaMatha, a historic Srivaishnava Hindu monastery. This tower dominates the landscape for
miles around, while the remaining 20 gopurams were built between the 12th and early 17th centuries.
The gopurams have pronounced projections in the middle of the long sides, generally with openings
on each of the successive levels. The Vellaigopura (white tower) on the east side of the fourth
enclosure has a steep pyramidal superstructure that reaches a height of almost 44 metres

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(144 ft).[57] The structure of the Rajagopuram remained incomplete for over 400 years. Started during
the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya of Vijayanagara Empire, the construction stopped after the fall of
Vijayanagara in late 16th century and wars thereafter. The Rajagopuram (the main gopuram) did not
reach its current height of 73 metres (240 ft) until 1987, when the 44th Jiyar (acharya, chief
counsellor) of AhobilaMatha began collecting donations to complete it. The whole structure was
constructed in a span of eight years. The Rajagopuram was consecrated on 25 March 1987.[65] The
length and breadth at the base of the Rajagopuram is 166 and 97 feet (50.6 and 29.6 m), while the
length and breadth at the top is 98 and 32 feet (29.9 and 9.8 m). The 13 glistening copper 'kalasams'
atop the tower weigh 135 kg (298 lb) each, are 3.12 m (10 ft 3 in) high with a 1.56 m (5 ft 1 in)
diameter vessel.

1. A 2-storey gopura
2. A 3-storey gopura
3. A 4-storey gopura

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5.A 7-storey gopura with colorful figurines on each tier; with gods in center and other dolls on either
side

4.A 13-storey gopura

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Inscriptions and frescoes

The 800 historic inscriptions at the Ranganathaswamy Temple are in six major Indian
languages: Tamil, Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Marathi and Odia. Many in Grantha characters.

640 are on temple walls and monuments. Many of these relate to gifts and grants by rulers or the elite,
while others relate to the temple's management, scholars, dedication and general operation. The

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inscriptions have been a source of information about South Indian history, culture, economy and
social role.These range from the late 9th century to the rule of Aditya Chola I, to the last historical
ones from the 16th century. Others are from the times of Cholas, Nayakas, Pandyas, Hoysalas and the
Vijayanagara era.

Some of the mandapam and corridors of the Temple complex have frescoes, of which some have
faded. These narrate Hindu legends and mythologies, or scenes relating to Vaishnava scholars.

Granaries, tanks and other monuments

The granaries were built on the temple premises, apparently for storing spices, rice and other food
material for contingency purposes to be used for temple needs - Naivedhyam - preparation of divine
food, Annadhanam (free feeding) in the event of scarcity after natural disasters & unexpected foreign
invasions.The Ranganathaswamy Temple complex includes huge medieval era Kottarams or
granaries. These provided food reserves and security to the temple town and supplies to its kitchen
serving the needy travelers, pilgrims and local population. The temple has many other structures,
participating and supporting various aspects of social life. Some mandapams and temple compounds
were devoted to education, both religious and secular such as of musicians and dancers. The temple
inscriptions state that its premises had an arokyashala (hospital) for those needing medical
care. Several 11th and 12th century inscriptions describe a gift of land to support recitation of Hindu
texts in the temple and for feeding Sri Vaishnavas.

The temple has twelve major water tanks. Of these, the Surya Pushkarini (sun pool) and Chandra
Pushkarani (moon pool) are two of the largest that harvest most of rainwater. They have a combined
capacity of two million liters of water.

The temple has wooden monuments that is regularly maintained and used for festive processions.
These have intricate carvings of Hindu legends, and some are plated with silver or gold foils. The
most significant of the temple chariots are the Garuda vahana, the Simhavahana, the Yanaivahana, the
Kudiraivahana, the Hanumanthavahana, the Yazhivahana, the Seshavahana, the Annapakshivahana,
the Otraivahana and the Prabhaivahana.

The temple is maintained and administered by the Hindu Religious and Endowment Board of
the Government of Tamil Nadu. A scheme, which provides free food to 200 devotees, is implemented

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in the temple by the Board. The temple celebrates numerous festivals around the year including
processions. These are called utsavam (celebrations).

The Srirangam temple complex is composed of 7 concentric walled sections and 21 towers gopuram.
The southern gopuram of the temple, called the Rajagopuram, is 239.5 feet tall and, as of 2016, is the
tallest in Asia. The construction of the Rajagopuram began during the reign of Achyuta Deva Raya of
the Vijayanagaraempire. However, construction was halted after his death and the structure of the
Rajagopuram remained incomplete for over 400 years. The monumental task of completion of the
Rajagopuram was undertaken and completed successfully by Sri Vedanta
DesikaYatheendraMahadesikan, the 44th jeeyar of Sri AhobilaMatha. The construction spanned 8
years before it was consecrated on 25 March 1987.

The temple has seven prakaras with gopurams articulating the axial path, the highest at the
outermost prakara and the lowest at the innermost. In historic times, just after the construction of this
temple, the city of Srirangam lived completely within the walls of this temple and hence is quoted as
an example of Hindu religious utopia – during its peak of existence.

The Srirangam temple is one of the three temples of the God Ranganatha (AntyaRanga) that are
situated in the natural islands formed in the Kaveririver. The other two are:

 AdiRanga: the Ranganathaswamy temple at Srirangapattana

 Madhya Ranga: the Ranganathaswamy temple at Shivanasamudra

There is a gopuram fully made of gold, which is protected by an electrical fence. Clothes such as silk
sarees, dhoti and towels, which are used for religious purposes are auctioned here.The famous and
influential Indian Theologian Ramanuja's body is said to come out of the Earth after he was buried
and was preserved at this temple. Although, Ramanujar hailed from Sriperumbudur and a pivotal
point in his lifetime, receiving the Ashtaksharamantram, happened in Thirukoshtiyur, he made
Srirangam his

home after the demise of his Acharya in spirit, Alavanthar or Yamunacharya.

Inside the temple complex, there is a separate temple dedicated to the goddess Andal. Additionally,
there is a museum, a library and a bookshop.

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170
171
AMAZING FACTS ABOUT THE SRIRANGAM - SRI RANGANATHA SWAMY
TEMPLE IN TRICHY (TIRUCHIRAPPALI)

The Sri RanganathaSwamy temple located at Srirangam in Trichy (or Tiruchirapali) in Tamilnadu is one of the
most famous temples in South India. Built in the Dravidian architectural style, the temple is spread across a total
area of 156 acres, and is dedicated to the Hindu deity, Lord Vishnu or Ranganatha. There are many other
Sannnathis and 53 upa-sannathis alongside the main diety or Moolavar. This temple is one among the 108
Vishnu temples in the country, out of which 105 temples are found in India, one in the neighbouring country of
Nepal and two are believed to exist outside the Earthly walls. The River Kaveri (also spelled Cauvery) flows on
one side of the temple; there is a distributary of the river running on the other side called the Kollidam. Here are
some intriguing facts on the temple:

1. Sri Ranganathaswamy temple is also called by other names like Periyakoil, ThiruvarangaTirupati,
BhoologaVaikundam and Bhogamandabam.

2. This temple is the largest Hindu temple and the largest working temple in India.

3. The temple’s Gopuram is made of gold that is well protected by an electric fence.

4. There are totally seven concentric prakaras or enclosures or walls. These walls, which measure 32,592 feet in
length, enclose the entire sanctum’s sanctorum. It is the only temple in this part of the world to have seven
enclosures. Seven is believed to be an auspicious number by most Vaishnava believers. According to the
Vaishnava traditions, seven signifies the seven Yogic centres of consciousness (chakras) of the body located at
the base of the spin.

5. There are 21 towers (gopurams) in the temple. In addition, it also houses 50 shrines and 39 pavilions.

6. The entry of non-hindus is restricted at the gold-topped sanctum sanctorum and second prakaram.

7. There is a shrine located above the sanctum sanctorum designed in the shape of the Hindu symbol ‘Om’
which is fully gold plated.

8. The second enclosure has the Ranganayaki shrine, actually the Goddess of Lakshmi. Therefore, during
festival times the deity remains inside the shrine, but is called on by Ranganthar.

9. Inside the temple there is a hall having 953 pillars made of granite. The most intriguing, yet fascinating
feature of the hall is the intricate sculptures. This hall was constructed by the Vijanagara rulers who ruled
between 1336 and 1565.

10. The Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple contains 21 tower gateways. The shrine has a main gateway which
measures 236 feet in height. Not surprisingly, it is Asia’s second tallest temple tower.

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 CHAPTER7
The Meenakshi Temple of Madurai

1 The city of Madurai is as a lotus flower that springs from the navel of Lord Vishnu. The streets
of the city are the petals. The ktjl ' at the centre is the thalamus within the petals.
-Paripidal

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 ABSTRACT
The Meenakshi Temple is the physical center of the city of Madurai as well as its economic, mythical,
and spiritual heart. Its importance radiates outward from the central shines through Madurai to the
entire Tamil-speaking region in south India, and beyond. The Meenakshi Temple is in many ways a
microcosm of the earthly and spiritual characteristics of Hindu India.
This paper is a scopic review of the literatutre on the www about this amazing temple and the city that
nurtured it

The Meenakshi Temple is the physical center of the city of Madurai as well as its economic, mythical,
and spiritual heart. Its importance radiates outward from the central shines through Madurai to the
entire Tamil-speaking region in south India, and beyond. The Meenakshi Temple is in many ways a
microcosm of the earthly and spiritual characteristics of Hindu India. Madurai a major city in
the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is the cultural capital of Tamil Nadu and the administrative
headquarters of Madurai District, the third largest city in Tamil Nadu and 44th most populated city in
India. Located on the banks of River Vaigai, Madurai has been a major settlement for two millennia.
The city is believed to be of significant antiquity and has been ruled, at different times, by
the Pandyas, Cholas, Madurai Sultanate, Vijayanagar Empire, Madurai Nayaks, Carnatic kingdom,
and the British East India Company British Raj.The city has a number of historical monuments, with
the Meenakshi Amman Temple and the Tirumalai Nayak Palace being the most prominent. The
region is believed to have been covered with Kadamba forest and hence called Kadambavanam.

Madurai is closely associated with the Tamil language, and the third Tamil Sangam, a major
congregation of Tamil scholars said to have been held in the city. The recorded history of the city
goes back to the 3rd century BCE, being mentioned by Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to
the Maurya empire, and Kautilya, a minister of the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya. Signs of
human settlements and Roman trade links dating back to 300 BC are evident from excavations
by Archeological Survey of India in Manalur.

According to Iravatham Mahadevan, a 2nd-century BCE Tamil-Brahmi inscription refers to the city
as matiray, an Old Tamil word meaning a "walled city".Madurai is one of the many temple towns in
the state which is named after the groves, clusters or forests dominated by a particular variety of a tree

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or shrub and the same variety of tree or shrub sheltering the presiding deity. The region is believed to
have been covered with Kadamba forest and hence called Kadambavanam.The city is referred by
various names including "Madurai", "Koodal", "Malligai Maanagar", "Naanmadakoodal" and
"Thirualavai".

The word Madurai may be derived from Madhura (sweetness) arising out of the divine nectar
showered on the city by the Hindu god Siva from his matted hair. Another theory is that Madurai is
the derivative of the word Marutham, which refers to the type of landscape of the Sangam age. A
town in the neighbouring Dindigul district is called Vada Madurai (North Madurai) and another
in Sivagangai district is called Manamadurai. The different names by which the city has been referred
to historically are listed in the 7th-century poem Thiruvilayaadal puraanam written by Paranjothi
Munivar.

Koodal means an assembly or congregation of scholarly people, referring to the three Tamil Sangams
held at Madurai. Naanmadakoodal, meaning the junction of four towers, refers to the four major
temples for which Madurai was known for. Tevaram, the 7th- or 8th-century Tamil compositions on
Shiva by the three prominent Nayanars (Saivites), namely Appar, Sundarar and
Thirugnanasambandar, address the city as Thirualavai.

Madurai has been inhabited since at least the 3rd century BCE. Megasthenes may have visited
Madurai during the 3rd century BCE, with the city referred as "Methora" in his accounts.The view is
contested by some scholars who believe "Methora" refers to the north Indian city of Mathura, as it
was a large and established city in the Mauryan Empire. Madurai is also mentioned in Kautilya's
(370–283 BCE) Arthashastra. Sangam literature like Maturaikkāñci records the importance of
Madurai as a capital city of the Pandyan dynasty. Madurai is mentioned in the works
of Roman historians Pliny the Younger (61 – c. 112 CE), Ptolemy (c. 90 – c. CE 168), those of
the Greek geographer Strabo (64/63 BCE – c. 24 CE), and also in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

After the Sangam age, most of present-day Tamil Nadu, including Madurai, came under the rule of
the Kalabhra dynasty, which was ousted by the Pandyas around 590 CE. The Pandyas were ousted
from Madurai by the Chola dynasty during the early 9th century. The city remained under the control
of the Cholas until the early 13th century, when the second Pandyan empire was established with
Madurai as its capital. After the death of Kulasekara Pandian (1268–1308 CE), Madurai came under
the rule of the Delhi Sultanate.[ The Madurai Sultanate then seceded from Delhi and functioned as an

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independent kingdom until its gradual annexation by the Vijayanagar Empire in 1378 CE. Madurai
became independent from Vijayanagar in 1559 CE under the Nayaks. Nayak rule ended in 1736 CE
and Madurai was repeatedly captured several times by Chanda Sahib (1740 – 1754 CE), Arcot
Nawab and Muhammed Yusuf Khan (1725 – 1764 CE) in the middle of 18th century.

Madurai is built around the Meenakshi Amman Temple, which acted as the geographic and ritual
centre of the ancient city of Madurai. The city is divided into a number of concentric quadrangular
streets around the temple. Vishwanatha Nayak (1529–64 CE), the first Madurai Nayak king,
redesigned the city in accordance with the principles laid out by Shilpa Shastras (Sanskrit: śilpa
śāstra, also anglicised as silpa sastra meaning rules of architecture) related to urban planning. These
squares retain their traditional names of Aadi, Chittirai, Avani-moola and Masi streets, corresponding
to the Tamil month names and also to the festivals associated.The temple prakarams (outer precincts
of a temple) and streets accommodate an elaborate festival calendar in which dramatic processions
circumambulate the shrines at varying distances from the centre. The temple chariots used in
processions are progressively larger in size based on the size of the concentric streets. Ancient Tamil
classics record the temple as the centre of the city and the surrounding streets appearing liken a lotus
and its petals.The city's axes were aligned with the four quarters of the compass, and the four
gateways of the temple provided access to it. The wealthy and higher echelons of the society were
placed in streets close to the temple, while the poorest were placed in the fringe streets.With the
advent of British rule during the 19th century, Madurai became the headquarters of a large colonial
political complex and an industrial town; with urbanisation, the social hierarchical classes became
unified.

Meenakshi Temple is at the center of the ancient temple city of Madurai mentioned in the Tamil Sangam
literature, with the goddess temple mentioned in 6th century CE texts. It is also referred to as Meenakshi
Amman or Meenakshi-Sundareshwara Temple located on the southern bank of the Vaigai Riverdedicated
to Meenakshi, a form of Parvati, and her consort, Sundareshwar, a form of Shiva.
History: Madurai Meenakshi temple was built by King Kulasekara Pandya (1190-1216 CE). He built the
main Portions of the three-storeyed gopura at the entrance of Sundareswarar Shrine and the central portion
of the Goddess Meenakshi Shrine are some of the earliest surviving parts of the temple. The traditional
texts call him a poet-saint king, additionally credit him with a poem called Ambikai Malai, as well as

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shrines (koil) each for Natarajar and Surya near the main temple, Ayyanar in the east, Vinayagar in the
south, Kariamalperumal in the west and Kali in the north. He also built a Mahamandapam. Kulasekara
Pandya was also a poet and he composed a poem on Meenakshi named Ambikai Malai. Maravarman
Sundara Pandyan I built a gopura in 1231, then called Avanivendaraman, later rebuilt, expanded and
named as Sundara Pandya Thirukkopuram. Chitra gopuram (W), also known as Muttalakkum Vayil, was
built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II (1238-1251). This gopuram is named after the frescoes and
reliefs that depict secular and religious themes of Hindu culture. Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II also
added a pillared corridor to the Sundareswara shrine and the Sundara Pandyan Mandapam . It was rebuilt
after the 14th-century damage, its granite structure was renovated by Kumara Krishnappar after 1595.
Though the temple has historic roots, most of the present campus structure was rebuilt after the 14th
century CE, further repaired, renovated and expanded in the 17th century by Tirumala Nayaka. In the early
14th century, the armies of Delhi Sultanate led by Plundering and rebuilding: Muslim Commander Malik
Kafur plundered the temple, looted it of its valuables and destroyed the Madurai temple town along with
many other temple towns of South India. The current structure is the result of rebuilding efforts started by
the Vijayanagara Empire rulers who rebuilt the core and reopened the temple. In the 16th century, the
temple complex was further expanded and fortified by the Nayak ruler Vishwanatha Nayakar and later
others. The restored complex now houses 14 gopurams (gateway towers), ranging from 45–50m in height,
with the southern gopura tallest at 51.9 metres (170 ft). The complex has numerous sculpted pillared halls
such as Ayirakkal (1,000 pillar hall), Kilikoondu-mandapam, Golu-mandapam and Pudu-mandapam. Its
shrines are dedicated to Hindu deities and Shaivism scholars, with the vimanas above
the garbhagrihas (sanctums) of Meenakshi and Sundaresvara gilded with gold.

The temple is at the center of the ancient temple city of Madurai mentioned in the Tamil Sangam literature,
with the goddess temple mentioned in 6th century CE texts.It is a major pilgrimage destination within the
Shaivism tradition, dedicated to Meenakshi Devi and Shiva. However, the temple includes Vishnu in many
narratives, sculptures and rituals as he is considered to be Meenakshi's brother. This has made this temple
and Madurai as the "southern Mathura", one included in Vaishnava texts. The Meenakshi temple also
includes Lakshmi, flute playing Krishna, Rukmini, Brahma, Saraswati, other Vedic and Puranic deities, as
well as artwork showing narratives from major Hindu texts. The large temple complex is the most
prominent landmark in Madurai and attracts tens of thousands visitors a day. The temple attracts over a
million pilgrims and visitors during the annual 10-day Meenakshi Tirukalyanam festival, celebrated
with much festivities and a ratha (chariot) procession during the Tamil month of Chittirai (overlaps
with April–May in Georgian calendar, Chaitra in North India).
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Location: The Meenakshi temple is located in the heart of historic Madurai city, about a kilometer south
of the Vaigai River. It is about 460 kilometres (290 mi) southwest from Chennai, the state capital. The city
roads radiate from the temple complex and major ring roads form a concentric pattern for the city, a
structure that follows the Silpa Sastra guidelines for a city design.Madurai is one of the many temple
towns in the state which is named after the groves, clusters or forests dominated by a particular variety of a
tree or shrub and the same variety of tree or shrub sheltering the presiding deity.

Meenakshi (Sanskrit: मीनाक्षी, lit. 'Mīnākṣī', Tamil: மீனாட்சி, lit. 'Mīṉāṭci') is a Sanskrit term
meaning "fish-eyed", derived from the words mina ("fish") and akshi ("eyes"). She was earlier known by
the Tamil name Tadadakai ("fish-eyed one"), mentioned in early historical account as a fierce, unmarried
and meat-eating goddess which was later sanskritised as Meenakshi. According to another theory, the
name of the goddess literally means "rule of the fish", derived from the Tamil words meen (fish)
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and aatchi (rule).She is also known by the Tamil name "Angayarkanni" or "Ankayarkannammai" (literally,
"the mother with the beautiful fish eyes").

The goddess Meenakshi is the principal deity of the temple, unlike most Shiva temples in South
India where Shiva is the principal deity. According to a legend found in the Tamil
text Tiruvilaiyatarpuranam, king Malayadwaja Pandya and his wife Kanchanamalai performed
a Yajna seeking a son for succession. Instead a daughter is born out of the fire who is already 3 year old
and has three breasts. Shiva intervenes and says that the parents should treat her like a son, and when she
meets her husband, she will lose the third breast. They follow the advice. The girl grows up, the king
crowns her as the successor and when she meets Shiva, his words come true, she takes her true form of
Meenakshi. According to Harman, this may reflect the matrilineal traditions in South India and the
regional belief that "penultimate [spiritual] powers rest with the women", gods listen to their spouse, and
that the fate of kingdoms rest with the women According to Susan Bayly, the reverence for Meenakshi is a
part of the Hindu goddess tradition that integrates with the Dravidian Hindu society where the "woman is
the lynchpin of the system" of social relationships.

The marriage of Meenakshi and Shiva was the biggest event, with all gods, goddesses and living beings
gathered. Vishnu is believed to be the brother of Meenakshi. Vishnu gives her away to Shiva at the
wedding.

Meenakshitutelary deity of Madurai is considered an avatar of the GoddessParvati. She is the divine
consort of Sundareswarar, a form of Shiva. She finds mention in literatures as the princess or queen of the
ancient Pandya kingdom who elevates to godhood.The goddess is also extolled by Adi Shankara as Shri
Vidya. She is mainly worshipped in South India where she has a major temple devoted to her known as the
Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. She is also known by the Tamil name "Angayarkanni" or
"Ankayarkannammai" (literally, "the mother with the beautiful fish eyes"). According to another theory,
the name of the goddess literally means "rule of the fish", derived from the Tamil words meen (fish) and
aatchi (rule). Various meanings of this appellation have been suggested, including that she was originally a
goddess of the fisher-folk, that her eyes are "large and brilliant" like that of a fish, or that she has "long and
slender" eyes shaped like the body of a fish. Another interpretation is that the name is based on the belief
that the fish never close their eyes: the goddess similarly never stops watching over her devotees.Yet
another interpretation states that the name is based on the ancient belief that the fish feed their young by
merely looking at them; the goddess supposedly supports here devotees by merely glancing at them.

Several great hymns on the goddess were composed in the early modern period by many saints and
scholars, including the famous Neelakanta Dikshitar. The stotram Meenakshi Pancharatnam (Five
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Jewels of Meenakshi), composed by Adi Sankaracharya (8th century AD), is an incantation to her.
Meenakshi does not directly appear in the stotram Lalita Sahasranama, though there is a reference to
her in the line Vakthra lakshmi parivaha chalan meenabha lochana (She who has auspiciousness and
glory of Lakshmi and has beautiful eyes which look like fish in the pond of her face).

One Tamil poem/song (Tamilpillai) portrays Meenakshi as the intersection of domesticity and divinity
and as a global icon for all who deal with "impossible" children or husbands:The great Shiva with the
metel flower / Wanders through the courtyard of space / Destroying your work again and again / And
then he comes before you. // You never get angry. / Every day you just pick up the vessels.

The 13th century Tamil text Tiruvilaiyatarpuranam, mentions king Malayadhwaja Pandya and his
wife Kanchanamalai who performed a yajna seeking a son for succession. Instead a daughter is born
who is already 3 year old and has three breasts. Shiva intervenes and says that the parents should treat
her like a son, and when she meets her husband, she will lose the third breast. They follow the advice.
The girl grows up, the king crowns her as the successor and when she meets Shiva, his words come
true, she takes her true form of Meenakshi. According to Harman, this may reflect the matrilineal
traditions in South India and the regional belief that "penultimate [spiritual] powers rest with the
women", gods listen to their spouse, and that the fate of kingdoms rest with the women. According to
Susan Bayly, the reverence for Meenakshi is a part of the Hindu goddess tradition that integrates with
the Dravidian Hindu society where the "woman is the lynchpin of the system" of social relationships.
Her eyes are fabled to bring life to the unborn.

The town of Madurai is ancient and one mentioned in Sangam era texts.These are dated to be from the
1st to 4th century CE. The Sangam Age was the period of history of ancient Tamil Nadu and Kerala
and parts of Sri Lanka (then known as Tamilakam) spanning from c. 6th century BCE to c. 3rd
century CE. It was named after the famous Sangam academies of poets and scholars centered in the
city of Madurai. Some early Tamil texts call Madurai as Koodal, and these portray it as a capital and a
temple town where every street radiated from the temple. Goddess Meenakshi is described as the
divine ruler, who along with Shiva were the primary deities that the southern Tamil kingdoms such as
the Pandya dynasty revered. The early texts imply that a temple existed in Madurai by the mid 6th
century.In medieval literature and inscriptions, it is sometimes referred to as Kadambavanam (lit.
"forest of Kadamba") or Velliambalam ("silver hall" where Shiva danced). It was described to be the
sangam of scholars, or a place where scholars meet. It is mentioned in the Tamil

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text Tiruvilayadalpuranam and the Sanskrit text Halasya Mahatmya.It is one of the shrines of the
275 Paadal Petra Sthalams that are revered in the verses of SaivaNayanars in the 6th-9th century CE
and are amongst the greatest Shiva temples of the continent. The Divya Desams by comparison are
the 108 Vishnu temples glorified in the poems of the contemporary VaishnavaAlvars of Tamil Nadu,
India.

Various names: The origin of the temple is mentioned in early Tamil texts, some in the regional
Puranam genre of literature. All of these place the temple in ancient times and include a warrior
goddess, but the details vary significantly and are inconsistent with each other. Thirugnanasambandar,
the famous Hindu saint of Saiva philosophy for example, mentioned this temple in the 7th century,
and described the deity as Aalavai Iraivan. Some link to it deities they call Alavai Iraivan and Alavai
Annal, or alternatively Angayar Kanni Ammai. Some link its legend to other deities such as Indra
who proclaims the primacy of the goddess, while some describe Hindu gods appearing before ancient
kings or saints urging wealthy merchants to build this temple in the honor of a goddess. One legend
describes a childless king and queen performing yajna for a son, they get a daughter who inherits the
kingdom, conquers the earth, meets Shiva ultimately, marries him, continues to rule from Madurai,
and the temple memorializes those times. Instead of such inconsistent ahistorical mythologies,
scholars have attempted to determine the history of the temple from inscriptions found in and outside
Madurai, as well as comparing the records relating to South Indian dynasties. These largely post-date
the 12th century.

Invasions and destruction

In the north, the Indian subcontinent had been conquered by the Delhi Sultanate. Muslim armies had
begun raiding central India for plunder by the late 13th century. Between 1310–1311, the Ala ud Din
Khilji's Muslim general Malik Kafur and his Delhi Sultanate forces went deeper into the Indian
peninsula for loot and to establish annual tribute paying Muslim governors. The records left by the
court historians of the Delhi Sultanate state that Malik Kafur raided Madurai, Chidambaram,
Srirangam and other Tamil towns, destroyed the temples, and they were the sources of gold and
jewels booty he brought back to Delhi.

This Islamic invasion in the 14th century brought an abrupt end to the patronage of Tamil Hindu
temple towns. After the conquest and destruction, the Delhi Sultan appointed a Muslim governor in
Madurai, who seceded within the few years from the Delhi Sultanate and began the Madurai

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Sultanate. This Sultanate sought tribute from the temple towns, instead of supporting them. The
Muslim Madurai Sultanate was relatively short-lived, with Hindu Vijayanagar Empire removing it in
the late 14th century. According to one poetic legend called Madhura Vijayam attributed to Ganga
Devi, the wife of Kumara Kampana, she gave him a sword, urged him to liberate Madurai, right the
vast wrongs, and reopen the Meenakshi temple out of its ruins. The Vijayanagara rulers succeeded,
removed the ruins and reopened the temple for active worship.They restored, repaired and expanded
the temple through the 16th century, along with many other regional temples. The Tamil Hindus
revived these towns but in some places such as Madurai, it took a long while.

Rebuilding
The temple was rebuilt by the Hindu Nayaka dynasty ruler Vishwanatha Nayak in the 16th and 17th
century. According to Susan Lewandowski, the Nayaka rulers followed the Hindu texts on
architecture called the Shilpa Shastras in redesigning the temple city plan and the Meenakshi temple.
The city was laid out, states Lewandowski, in the shape of concentric squares and ring-roads around
them, with radiating streets culminating in the Meenakshi-Sundaresvara temple. These streets use
traditional Tamil Hindu month names, such as Adhi, Chitrai, Avani-moola, Masi and others. In each
of these months, the Hindus started their tradition of taking the temple bronzes festively through the
street of the same name.The temple and the city was once again east facing to greet the
rising Surya (sun god).The temple city grew again around the new temple, with human settlements
structured along their castes, according to Lewandowski, with the royalty, Kshatriyas and Vaishya
merchants lived on the southeast side of the temple, the Brahmins in a special quarter close to the
temple, while others in other areas and fringes of the city. The king started a procession tradition
linked to the temple to link his authority with the divine and maintain the social system. In contrast,
according to Bayly, the procession reflects the traditional matrilineal social values, the brother-sister-
groom kinship values that better explain its popularity. The warrior goddess worship tradition is
ancient in the Tamil Hindu tradition, states Bayly, and it dramatically expanded after the 14th-century
wars.

The work completed by Vishwanatha Nayaka in 1560 was substantially expanded to the current
structure during the reign of Tirumala Nayaka (1623–55). Tirumala Nayaka, a Hindu king, took
considerable interest in erecting many complexes inside the temple. His major contributions are
the Vasantha Mandapam for celebrating Vasanthotsavam (spring festival) and Kilikoondu
Mandapam (corridor of parrots). The corridors of the temple tank and Meenatchi Nayakar
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Mandapam were built by Rani Mangammal. The initiative for some changes to the structure was
under the supervision of Ariyanatha Mudaliar, the prime minister of the Nayaka Dynasty.

During the colonial era, the population around the Meenakshi temple attracted a hub of Christian
missionary activity headed by competing missions from Portugal and other parts of Europe.The
British rulers first gave endowments to the temple and the British troops participated in temple
festivities to gain socio-political acceptance. Lord Clive, for example, donated jewels looted by the
East India Company from Sringapatam, but in 1820 they withdrew from their roles as temple patrons
and participating in temple festivities.The missionaries ridiculed the temple artwork and criticized the
temple practices while introducing themselves as "Roman Brahmins" and "Northern Sanniasis" [sic].
The missionary efforts were largely unsuccessful with people continuing to patronize the temple after
baptizing. The missionaries wrote back that the Tamils were "baptizing, but not converting", for they
baptize if "someone wants a wife who is Christian" or medical aid when they have a disease, material
aid if they are poor.

After the end of the Nayakas, start of the Madras presidency and withdrawal of the colonial British
from support, the temple condition degraded. In 1959, Tamil Hindus began collecting donations and
initiated restoration work in consultation with engineers, Hindu monasteries, historians and other
scholars. The completed restoration was celebrated with a Kumbhabhishekam in 1995.The temple is
sometimes spelled as Minaksi and the city as Madura in 17th to early 20th-century texts.

The temple has its traditional version of history that it calls Shiva-lilas (sports of Shiva), and sixty
four of these episodes are painted as murals around the temple walls. These depict the many
destructions of Madurai and the temple, then its rise from the ashes and ruins of the destruction every
time.In 1801 the British East India Company took direct control of Madurai and brought it under the
Madras Presidency. In 1837, the city was expanded to accommodate the growing population by
demolishing the fortifications around the temple. This was done on the orders of the then collector
John Blackburn. The moat was drained and the debris was used to construct the new streets - Veli,
Marat and Perumaal Mesthiri streets. The city was constituted as a municipality in 1866.

TRADITIONAL PLANNING STRATEGIES: The old city of Madurai is considered to be

designed according to the Rajdhani plan, described in Manasara, one of the Shilpasastra, and has the
fivefold concentric rectangular formation with Meenakshi- Sundareshwara Temple at a very centre
point. The city was a well- planned one with bazaars and many broad streets with high and luxurious

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mansions on both sides. The city was built around the temple complex as the focal point with a
combination of a concentric street pattern.The streets concentric to the temple complex formed the
major streets viz., Chithirai Streets, Avani Moola Streets and Masi Streets. The next order of streets is
perpendicular to the above streets and lead to the temple entrances. The developments within and
beyond these streets are on an irregular pattern. A definite hierarchy of street pattern was adopted with
the width of the Streets decreasing as they branched out, ending up in stone paved streets and lanes
the width of some being just 0.60 m. The entire city was enclosed within the fort walls and
surrounded by a moat. The fort walls have been razed down and the moat filled up to form the present
day Veli Streets.

SETTLEMENT PATTERN : The settlement pattern of Madurai is planned according to the ancient
system of town planning which is based on caste and occupational hierarchies. The map shows the
present settelemnt pattern and its relavance with the ancient town planning system. Ancient south
indian temple towns are designed by placing the temple complex at the centre with concentric
rectangle pattern of streets around. This can be seen in another southern temple town srirangam also.
Map showing Settlement Pattern of Madurai city with ancient town planning system:
Madurai, Meenakshi Amman Temple is at the center. Royal Palaces, Brahmins and Priests at the first
concentric rectangle.Traders, Kishatriyas and Vaishnavaites on the second rectangle. The lower caste
Sudras and immigrants zoarashitrains in the third rectangle. Map showing Settlement Pattern of
Madurai city with ancient town planning system.

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An aerial view of the compound from the top of the southern gopuram, looking north.

Mandala: A mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit मण्डल, maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a
geometric configuration of symbols with a very different application.The basic form of hinduism
mandalas is a square with four gates containing a circle with a center point and it is called also
a yantra. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas often have radial balance. The temple
plan, as well as the old city, suggests that it is mandala, a cosmic diagram laid out based on principles
of symmetry and loci. The physical space contained in the mandala form is believed to represent the
universe – including the earthly and spiritual realms – and is one of the chief ways that Hindu
practitioners can focus and meditate on the sacred. Each design and element in a Hindu mandala
serves a symbolic purpose, and therefore, contemplating or creating these works can be a highly
detailed and ritualized process. After the city's destruction in the 14th century, the Tamil tradition
states that the king Vishwantha Nayaka rebuilt the temple and the Madurai city around it in
accordance with the principles laid down in the Shilpa Shastras (Sanskrit: śilpa śāstra. The city plan is
based on concentric squares with streets radiating out from the temple. Early Tamil texts mention that
the temple was the center of the city and the streets happened to be radiating out like a lotus and its
petals. The temple prakarams (outer precincts of a temple) and streets accommodate an elaborate
festival calendar in which processions circumambulate the temple complex. The vehicles used in the
processions are progressively more massive the further they travel from the centre.
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One of the chief symbolic purposes of the mandala is to represent the different layers of the universe –
the spiritual realm, the lived environment, the inner experience of man – and how each of these layers
can flow into and out of the next. Therefore, the mandala is perhaps the most essential tool when
practitioners seek enlightenment or spiritual connection. The temple complex is spread over about 14
acres (5.7 ha). The courtyard is close to a square with each side of about 800 feet, but more accurately
a rectangle with one side about 50 feet longer. The complex has numerous shrines and
mandapas.Monuments inside arein a number of concentric enclosures, each layer fortified with high
masonry walls. The outer walls have four towering gateways, allowing devotees and pilgrims to enter
the complex from all four directions.

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Significance: According to the Tiruvilaiyatal Puranam, of the list of 68 pilgrimage places in Shaivism,
four are most important: Kashi (Varanasi), Chidambaram, Tirukkalatti and Madurai. The sacrality of
Madurai is from this temple. The shrine of Sundareswarar is considered as one of the Pancha Sabhai (five
courts), where the Tamil Hindu tradition believes Shiva performed cosmic dance. The Tamil
word velli means silver and ambalam means stage or altar. This massive Nataraja sculpture is enclosed in a
huge silver altar and hence called "Velli Ambalam" (silver abode).

The marriage of the goddess and god is a symbolic paradigm for human marriage.The Meenakshi Temple
is a theologically and culturally significant temple for Hindus. The temple is a popular site for Hindu
weddings, though it is not the exclusive site. The short main ceremony is completed in the temple,
followed by receptions and other rituals elsewhere. The Meenakshi temple is not only a religious center,
but is also an economic center. The goods and services for temple-related pilgrims and visitors is a
significant part of the Madurai economy. The wedding of Meenakshi and Sundaresvara the "supremely
important rite of passage" for women, the cultural concept of "sumangali" or "auspicious married woman"
who lives with her husband but is also independent, organizer of the social connections and who is central
to Tamilian life. This event is commemorated with an annual festive procession that falls sometime around
April.

The temple is also significant because it implies an affinal, protective relationship

between Shaivism and Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism, by making Shiva the husband of Meenakshi,
and Vishnu her brother, a significant relationship in Dravidian kinship system. Meenakshi herself is a

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central part of the Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, and represented as the dominant figure of the pair in
this temple. The temple thus symbolically celebrates all three of its major traditions.

Walls

The ancient temple complex was open. The courtyard walls were added over time in response to invasion
and the plunder of the temple complex. According to the text Thirupanimalai, the Vijayanagara
commander Kumara Kampana after completing his conquest of Madurai, rebuilt the pre-existing structure
and built defensive walls around the temple in the 14th century. Lakana Nayakar added the defensive walls
around the first prakara (courtyard), as well as expanded and renovated the Mahamandapa and Meenakshi
shrine about the middle of the 15th century.

After the destruction of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire in the late 16th century by a coalition of Islamic
Deccan sultanates north of Karnataka, the Madurai region declared its sovereignty. Visvanatha Nayak then
poured resources to heavily fortify the temple complex, set a new plan for the temple complex. The
Nayaka ruler also gilded the vimana of the primary shrines with gold. Chettiappa Nayakkar rebuilt the
Dvarapala mandapam in front of the Sannadhi gopuram, as well as the north colonnade of the Golden
Lotus Tank, the second protective wall around the Meenakshi Devi's shrine.

Meenakshi temple has 14 colorful gopura. These are gateways to various shrines and mandapas.

Gopurams

A Gopuram or gopura गोपुरम्, is a monumental entrance tower, usually ornate, at the entrance.

Ancient and early medieval temples feature smaller gopuram, while in later temples they are a
prominent feature of Hindu temples of the Dravidian style; or in many cases the temple compound
was expanded and new larger gopuram built along the new boundary. They are topped by
the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial. They function as gateways through the walls that surround the

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temple complex. Another towering structure located towards the center of the temple is
the Vimanam. Both of them are designed and constructed as per rules given in the texts of Vaastu
shastra. The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Pallava kings, and relate to
the central shikhara towers of North India. Between the twelfth and sixteenth century, during
the Pandya, Nayaka and Vijayanagara era when Hindu temples increasingly became a hub of the
urban life, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually
overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram's colossal size
and courtyards. It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has
more than one gopuram as in our case

The shrines of Meenakshi temple are embedded inside three walled enclosures and each of these have
four gateways, the outer tower growing larger and reaching higher to the corresponding inner one.
The temple has four main towering gateways (gopurams) that look identical to each other. Apart from the
four ‘gopurams,’ the temple also houses many other ‘gopurams’ that serve as gateways to a number of
shrines. The temple has a total of 14 towering gateways. Each one of them is a multi-storey structure and
displays thousands of mythological stories and several other sculptures. The major ‘gopurams’ of the
temple are listed below:

1. Kadaka Gopuram – This towering gateway leads to the main shrine that houses Goddess Meenakshi.
The gateway was rebuilt by Tumpichi Nayakkar during the mid-16th century. The ‘gopuram’ has five
storeys.
2. Sundareswarar Shrine Gopuram – This is the oldest ‘gopuram’ of the temple and was built by
Kulasekara Pandya. The ‘gopuram’ serves as a gateway to the Sundareswarar (Lord Shiva) shrine.
3. Chitra Gopuram – Built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II, the gopuram depicts the religious and
secular essence of Hinduism.
4. Nadukkattu Gopuram – Also called as the ‘Idaikattu Gopuram,’ this gateway leads to the Ganesha
shrine. The gateway is placed right in between the two main shrines.
5. Mottai Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ has fewer stucco images when compared to the other gateways.
Interestingly, ‘Mottai gopuram’ had no roof for nearly three centuries.
6. Nayaka Gopuram – This ‘gopuram’ was built by Visvappa Nayakkar around 1530. The ‘gopuram’ is
astonishingly similar to another gateway called ‘Palahai Gopuram.’

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 Mandapams: The temple also has numerous pillared halls called ‘Mandapams.’ These halls were built
by various kings and emperors and they serve as resting places for pilgrims and devotees. Some of the
most important ‘mandapams’ are given below:

1. Ayirakkal Mandapam – It literally translates to ‘hall with thousand pillars.’ The hall, which was
built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar, is a true spectacle as it is supported by 985 pillars. Each and every
pillar is sculpted magnificently and has images of Yali, a mythological creature.
2. Kilikoondu Mandapam – This ‘mandapam’ was originally built to house hundreds of parrots. The
parrots that were kept there in cages were trained to say ‘Meenakshi’. The hall, which is next to the
Meenakshi shrine, has sculptures of characters from Mahabharata.
3. Ashta Shakthi Mandapam – This hall houses the sculptures of eight goddesses. Built by two
queens, the hall is placed in between the main ‘gopuram’ and the gateway that leads to the
Meenakshi shrine.
4. Nayaka Mandapam – ‘Nayaka Mandapam’ was built by Chinnappa Nayakkar. The hall is
supported by 100 pillars and houses a Nataraja statue.

The temple has 14 gopurams, the tallest of which is southern tower, rises to over 170 ft (52 m) and
was rebuilt in the late 16th century. The oldest gopuram is the eastern one (I on plan), built
by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan during 1216-1238. Each gopuram is a multi-storeyed structure,
covered with sculpture painted in bright hues. The outer gopurams are high pyramidal tower serving
as a landmark sign for arriving pilgrims, while the inner gopuram are smaller and serve as the
entrance gateways to various shrines.

The temple complex has 4 nine-storey gopurams (outer, raja), 1 seven-storey gopuram (Chittirai), 5
five-storey gopurams, 2 three-storey, and 2 one-storey gold-gilded sanctum towers.Of these 5 are
gateways to the Sundareshvara shrine, 3 to the Meenakshi shrine. The towers are covered with stucco
images, some of whom are deity figures and others are figures from Hindu mythology, saints or
scholars. Each group or sets of panels in each storey present an episode from regional or pan-Hindu
legend. The four tallest gopurams on the outer walls alone depict nearly 4,000 mythological stories.

Portions of the three-storeyed gopura at the entrance of Sundareswarar Shrine and the central portion
of the Goddess Meenakshi Shrine are some of the earliest surviving parts of the temple. These were
constructed by king Kulasekara Pandya (1190-1216 CE). The traditional texts call him a poet-saint
king, additionally credit him with a poem called Ambikai Malai, as well as shrines (koil) each for
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Natarajar and Surya near the main temple, Ayyanar in the east, Vinayagar in the south,
Kariamalperumal in the west and Kali in the north. He also built a Mahamandapam. Kulasekara
Pandya was also a poet and he composed a poem on Meenakshi named Ambikai Malai.

Some of the major gopurams of the Meenakshi temple complex are

1. Maravarman Sundara Pandyan I built a gopura in 1231, then called Avanivendaraman, later
rebuilt, expanded and named as Sundara Pandya Thirukkopuram.
2. Chitra gopuram (W), also known as Muttalakkum Vayil, was built by Maravarman Sundara
Pandyan II (1238-1251). This gopuram is named after the frescoes and reliefs that depict
secular and religious themes of Hindu culture. Maravarman Sundara Pandyan II also added a
pillared corridor to the Sundareswara shrine, and the Sundara Pandyan Mandapam. It was
rebuilt after the 14th-century damage, its granite structure was renovated by Kumara
Krishnappar after 1595.
3. Vembaturara Ananda Nambi built the early version of the three-tiered gopuram in 1227. Like
other gopurams, it too was destroyed in the 14th century and later rebuilt. This gopuram is
found between Meenakshi shrine and the Kilikuttu (parrot) mandapam. Some inscriptions
refer to it as Vembathurar gopuram.

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The south gopuram is the tallest and curvilinear (above: inner and outerviews). The colorful
sculptures narrate legendary scenes from Hindu texts.

The gopuram east to the Sundareshwara shrine is 5 storeyed. It was completed about 1372 by
Vasuvappan after the Vijayanagara rulers reopened the temple complex after remaining in ruins and
dormant for about five decades. The gopuram west to the Sundareshwara shrine is also 5 storeyed,
and was completed around 1374 by Mallapan.

1. According to the inscriptions found on the foundation of the gateways, Visvappa Nayakkar built
the Nayaka gopuram in the second prakara around 1530, while Palahai gopuram was built about
the same time by Mallappan. Both the gopuram have similar style and architecture, likely built by
a collaborating group of same artists.
2. Kadaka Gopuram in Meenakshi’s shrine was built by Tumpichi Nayakkar around the mid 16th
century, but different texts give different dates. It is five-storeyed, was walled up and closed
through 1963 for unclear reasons. This gopura was reopened after the renovations completed in
1963.
3. The gopuram near the Ganesha shrine (Mukkuruni Vinayakar), also called the Nadukkattu
gopuram or Idaikattu gopuram, was built by the Siramalai Sevvanthimurti Chetti family. It is
called Nadukkattu because it is between the shrines of Meenakshi and Sundareswarar. They also
rebuilt and renovated the Idabhakkuri gopuram, a five-storey tower on the northern segment of
the Adi street.

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4. The nine-storey southern gopura, the highest tower, was also built by Siramalai Sevvanthimurti
Chetti family, a wealthy Hindu who lived near Thiruchirapalli. It was completed in the second
half of the 16th century. The gopuram is notable for its extensive artwork with over 1,500
mythological characters in panels that narrate legends from the Hindu texts, particularly
the Puranas.
5. Mottai gopuram ("bald" gateway) was started by Krishnappa Nayakkar, also called the North
Raya gopuram (this is not on the plan, below the bottom edge). It was completed by Amaravati
Purur Vayinagaram Chettiyar family in 1878 CE. The Mottai gopuram for nearly three centuries
did not have the roof structure, is simpler and has fewer stucco images than the other major
entrances, giving it a relatively bald appearance and the local name. Before its completion in the
19th century, the gopuram made of stone and brick had even fewer stucco images.

ShrinesThe Shrine of Lord Sundareswarar (Shiva) the consort of Goddess Meenakshi is to the
north of Kilikoontu Mandapam . There's a gigantic idol of Sri Ganesh called Mukkurini Pillaiyar on
the way. There's a stump of a Kadamba tree, in the outer pragaram (corridor outside the main
shrine), which is said to be a part of the same tree under which Indra worshiped Shiva linga.
There's also Kadambathadi Mandapam in the outer corridor and big hall called 'Velli Ambalam'.
There's also an idol of Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of Dance), covered with silver leaves. Thus this
hall is named as Velli Ambalam (Silver Hall).

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The golden vimana over the sanctum

A sculpture in the pilgrim pillared hall

The Meenakshi temple has two separate shrines for the goddess Meenakshi (Parvati, Devi, Amman)
and god Sundaresvara (Shiva, Deva, Cuvami), just like most Shaiva temples. Both open to the east.
The Devi shrine is on the south side (B), while the Deva shrine is more centrally placed, to the north
thus placing the goddess as the pradhana murti or the "more important" right side within the complex,
states Fuller.

The goddess shrine has the green stone image of Meenakshi, standing in bent-leg posture. Her raised
hand holds a lotus, on which sits a green parrot. Her left hand hangs by her side. This image is set in a
square garbha griya (central sanctum). A copy of this image has been made from metal and is kept in
the temple complex. The metal version is used for a festive procession. A distinct feature of
Meenakshi in terms of iconography is the presence of parrot in her right hand. The parrot is generally
associated with the Vaishnava azhwar saint Andal. The Sundareswarar shrine has a stone linga in its
square plan sanctum, and this anicon is shaded under a stone cobra hood. In the northeast corner is
another stone image of his consort. None of these travel during a festive procession. Rather,

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Sundareswarar is represented in the form of anthropomorphic Somaskanda image. There is another
metal symbolic image of Shiva called the Cokkar, which is merely a pair of embossed feet on a metal
stool. This symbol is kept near Sundareswarar sanctum all day, then carried in a palaki daily to
Meenakshi's chamber every evening so that the two can symbolically spend the night together. In the
morning, the temple volunteers wake the divine couple and the symbolic Cokkar image is carried
back to the Sundareswarar sanctum.
The shrine for Sundareswarar[ The Shrine of Lord Sundareswarar (Shiva) the consort of Goddess
Meenakshi is to the north of Kilikoontu Mandapam . There's a gigantic idol of Sri Ganesh called
Mukkurini Pillaiyar or Mukuruny Vinayakar on the way. There's a stump of a Kadamba tree, in the
outer pragaram (corridor outside the main shrine), which is said to be a part of the same tree under
which Indra worshiped Shiva linga. There's also Kadambathadi Mandapam in the outer corridor and
big hall called 'Velli Ambalam'. There's also an idol of Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of Dance), covered
with silver leaves. Thus this hall is named as Velli Ambalam (Silver Hall). It is the largest within the
complex and its entrance is aligned with the eastern gopuram. The shrine for Meenakshi is smaller,
though theologically more important. Both the Meenakshi and Sundareswarar shrines have gold
plated Vimanam (tower over sanctum). The golden top can be seen from a great distance in the west
through the apertures of two successive towers. A large measure of rice measuring 3 kurini (a
measure) is shaped into a big ball of sacrificeand hence the Ganesh is called Mukkurni
Vinayagar (three kurinis).
Kumara Kampana, states the Thirupanimalai text, donated jewels and made grants to cover the
expenses for daily operations of the two shrines in the 14th century. The Tamil Hindus who had
hidden the temple idols in Nanjil Nadu, brought them back and reconsecrated them ending the nearly
five decades era when the temple had been closed under the Madurai Sultanate rule. The temple
inscriptions suggest that the Vijayanagara rulers participated worship ceremonies in the temple and
donated gold, through the 16th century. Lakana Nayakar built the Paliarai (bed chamber) in the
mid15th century for the icon goddess and god to symbolically spend their night together. The Nataraja
shrine was also added in the 15th century by Arulalan Sevahadevan Vanathirayan, who also renovated
the Thiruvalavaudaiyar shrine.
The temple has other shrines, such as for Murugan in the northwest corner of the second courtyard. It
was built by Krishnappa Nayakar II. A tall, monolithic Ganesha sculpture with a large rice ball,

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locally called the Mukuruny Vinayakar, is carved on the way between the Meenakshi shrine and the
Sundareshwarar shrine, reflecting the legend that gave him the elephant head.
Temple tank and surrounding portico
As mentioned earlier Nayakas, expanded the temple complex. In 1516, Saluvanarasana Nayaka added
the sacred pool for pilgrims to take a dip, naming it Ezhukadal (seven seas, ) Another Nayak -
SaptasaharamChettiappa Nayakkar rebuilt the north colonnade of the Golden Lotus Tank, as well as
Dvarapala mandapam in front of the Sannadhi gopuram.

Golden Lotus in the temple pool.

The sacred temple tank is called Porthamarai Kulam ("Pond with the golden lotus"). It is also referred
to as Adhi Theertham, Sivaganga and Uthama Theertham. The pool is 165 ft (50 m) by 120 ft (37 m)
in size. The pool walls were painted with frescoes. Only a fraction of 17th and 18th-century paintings
of Nayak period survives and one such portion is found in the small portico on the western side of the
tank. It depicts the marriage of Sundareswarar and Meenkashi attended by Vijayaranga Chokkanatha
and Rani Mangammal. The painting is executed on a vivid red background, with delicate black
linework and large areas of white, green and ochre. The celestial couple is seated inside an
architectural frame with a flowering tree in the background.
The small six pillared swing mandapam (Unjal) was built by Cheventhi Murthi Chetti during this
period, and this remains in use currently for a Friday ritual and it also houses the model of the entire
temple complex created in 1985.

Halls or Mandapams

The temple complex has many mandapas (pillared-halls) built by kings and wealthy patrons over the
centuries. They are choultry, or a place for the pilgrims to rest. Some of these mandapas include:

Main mandapams

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Chinnappa Nayakkar constructed the 100 pillared Mandapa Nayaka Mandapam in the
northeastern part of second courtyard in 1526. This mandapa houses the famed Nataraja statue with
his "right" leg up in dance mudra, instead of the left leg typically found in Nataraja bronzes.

The small six-pillared swing mandapam (Unjal, oonjal) was built by Cheventhi Murthi Chetti
during this period, and this remains in use currently for a Friday ritual. The images of Meenakshi and
Sundareswarar are placed on the swing every Friday evening and swung. The shrine has a 3-
storied gopuram flanked by two Dvarapala (guardians) and supported by golden, rectangular columns
that bear lotus markings. Along the perimeter of the chamber, granite panels of the divine couple are
present. The hall is situated in the western bank of the temple tank. This mandapam also houses the
model of the entire temple complex created in 1985.

Kambathadi mandapam was built by Krishna Virappa Nayakkar (1572- 1595). This choultry hall is
known for intricately carved sculptures and eight Shiva forms: Ardanarishwara (half Parvati, half
Shiva), Rudra (angry Shiva), Bhikshadanamurti (Shiva as a monk), Dakshinamurti (Shiva as yoga
teacher, guru), Lingobhava (Shiva emerging out of a linga), Ekapathamurti, Rishaba, Somaskanda
(Shiva, Parvati and Skanda), Chandrasekara, Nataraja (dancing Shiva) and Somasundara.

Ashta Shakthi Mandapam ("Hall of eight goddesses"), was built by two queens.It is the hall near
the East gopuram, between the main entrance for visitors and the smaller gopuram leading to the
Meenakshi shrine tower. The passage was named for eight forms of goddess Shakti carved on its
pillars: Koumari, Roudri, Vaishnavi, Maha-lakshmi, Yagnarupini, Shyamala, Maheswari and
Manonmani. These reflect the feminine and power aspects of all major traditions of Hinduism. Other
sculptures and paintings depict the Tiruvilayadal (holy games of Shiva). The sculptures of heroes
of Mahabharata, the Pancha pandavas can be seen in the Pancha Pandava Mandapam (Hall of
Pandavas). The hall also has four sculptures of Shiva scholars, as well as a statue of Mahatma
Gandhi added in 1923.

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 One of the pillared halls in Meenakshi temple.

Kilikoondu Mandapam, also called Sangili mandapam (E), is near the Meenakshi shrine. The word
Kilikondu means "parrot cage", and in past the parrots kept here were trained to say "Meenakshi". This
pillared hall was completed in 1623 by Muthu Veerappa Nayakar. The cages were later removed.In
contemporary times, girls perform the kolattam dance, a type of stick dance that involves acrobatics and
forming chains with long ropes hanging from the ceiling, which is why it is called sangili. These dances
celebrate Hindu festival days. The Kilikoondu Mandapam is notable for its sculpture of characters from
the Mahabharata, a Hindu epic. It also has a yali sculpture on a pillar, inside whose mouth is carved a
stone ball that freely rotates.

The Kambatadi Mandapam ("Hall of temple tree") with its seated Nandi (sacred bull) has various
manifestations of Shiva carved and also contains the famous "Marriage of Meenakshi" sculpture.Other
sculptures here include those Shiva and Kali in a dance competition, a golden flagstaff, Durga as Siddar.
The Vira vasantha raya mandapam is to the south of the 1,000 pillar mandapam, and was completed in
1611 by Muthu Veerappa Nayakar I. It contains a Nandi facing the main Sundaresvara sanctum. To the
south of this hall is the kalyana mandapam, or wedding hall. It is here that the marriage of Shiva and
Parvati is celebrated every year during the Chithirai festival which falls sometime in or abouts April.
Pudumandapam, also called Vasantha mandapam (bottom of plan) was completed by Thirumalai Nayak in
the 17th century. It is in front of the eastern tower, outside the current walled complex. It leads to the
unfinished Eastern gopuram. It has 124 pillars, each with intricately carved sculptures of Meenakshi's
wedding to Shiva, Kali, Nataraja, Surya, Chandra as well as common life scenes such as elephants eating
sugarcane stalks are found in this mandapam. Its popularity led to shopkeepers occupying the pillared hall,
some of which hide or make a complete view of the sculpture difficult.

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Golu mandapam was built by Thittiyappa Chetti, a common man, in 1565 during the rule of Krishnappa
Nayakkar. This mandapam is used during the Navaratri festival every year when goddess Meenakshi is
decorated like a golu doll, in nine different forms on each of the nine days of the autumn festival.

The Thousand Pillar Hall (Q) contains 985 (instead of 1000) carved pillars, with two shrines occupying the
space of the remaining 15. The hall was built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar in 1569 and blends engineering skill
and artistic visionAriyanatha Mudaliar was prime minister and general of Viswanatha Nayaka, the first
Nayaka of Madurai (1559–1600). At the entrance of the hall is the statue of Ariyanatha Mudaliar seated on
a horse-back, flanking one side of the entrance to the temple. Each pillar in the hall is a carved sculpture.
The more prominent among the carved figures are those of Rati (wife of Kama), Karthikeya, Ganesha,
Shiva as a wandering mendicant. The Meenakshi Nayakkar Mandapam ("Hall of 1000 pillars") has two
rows of pillars carved with images of yali (mythological beast with body of lion and head of an elephant).
It is situated to the north of Sundareswarar flag staff hall. There is a Temple Art Museum in the hall where
icons, photographs, drawings, and other exhibits of the temple are displayed. Just outside this hall, towards
the west, are the Musical Pillars. Each pillar, when struck, produces a different musical note.

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Other mandapams

o Lakana Nayakar expanded and renovated the Mahamandapa in late 15th-century.

o The Urchava Nayanar Mandapa and the small six pillared mandapa in front of the
Mahamandapa was rebuilt by Sundaratolydaiya Mavali Vanathirayar in the 15th century.
o Chettiappa Nayakkar rebuilt the Dvarapala mandapam in front of the Sannadhi gopuram, as
well as the north colonnade of the Golden Lotus Tank in the late 16th century.
o Vanniyadi Natarajar Mandapam and Annakkuli Mandapam were built by a woman named
Chellappen Mannikkam in the late 16th century.
o Murthiyamman mandapam and Nandi mandapam were built by Krishnappa Nayakar (1564-
1572). The Nandi mandapam was renovated again in 1877.
o The Mudali Pillai Mandapam or Iruttu Mandapam (dark hall) is a wide and long hall built by
Muthu Pillai during 1613. On the pillars of the halls, there are fine sculptures of Shiva
narrating the legend of Bikshadanar.

The Mangayarkarasi mandapam is a newly built hall situated opposite to the wedding halls and bears
the name of queen Mangayarkarasi who contributed to Saivism and Tamil language.To the south
of Mangayarkarasi mandapam lies the Servaikarar Mandapam, a hall built by Marudu brothers in
1795. The Nagara mandapam (Hall of beating drums) lies opposite to Sundareswarar shrine was built
by Achaya Rayar, the minister of Rani Mangammal in 1635. The Kolu Mandapam is a hall for
displaying dolls during the Navarathri festival celebrated during September–October. This hall is
situated in the second corridor of the Meenakshi shrine at the western side.The mandapas also feature

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community gathering halls. The Kanaka Sabha and Ratna Sabha are in the first prahara, Rajata Sabha
in Velliambalam, Deva Sabha in the 100 pillar mandapam and Chitra Sabha in the 1000 pillar
mandapam.

Sculptures: There are an estimated 33,000 sculptures all over the temple. The temple wasn’t
always so vividly painted. The original structure was probably unpainted granite. Then people
started painting the sculptures because they wanted the temple to look colorful during big
events and festivals.
Concept of Thousand Pillared Halls has been there for over at least 3500 years. The
halls in Madurai and Sirangam are shining in their full glory and splendour.

Rig Vedic Concept-- Huge mansion of a 1000 columns:-

What is the origin of the 1000 pillared halls? Who conceived the idea

It is in the Rig Veda, the oldest scripture in the world!!RV 5-62-1 (Hymn to Mitra – Varuna)
“B y your high law, firm order is established there where they loose for Surya’s horses.
Ten hundred stood together; there I looked on this the most marvellous Deities’ one chief
glory.
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RV 5-62-6
With hands that shed no blood, guarding the pious, whom Varuna, you save amid oblations.
You two, together, kings of willing spirit, uphold dominion based on thousand pillars.
Probably this hymn inspired our sculptors to construct a thousand pillared halls.
Decimal system was invented by the Hindus. We have got hundreds of references to decimal
numbers such as 1000, 10,000, lakh and crore in the Vedic scriptures and post Vedic Hindu
scriptures. One of the architectural wonders of the world is Thousand Pillar Mandap (hall) in
South Indian Temples. It originated in the Rig Vedic period and went up to Central America.
All the thousand pillared halls in the South Indian temples are sculptural museums.Madurai,
Rameswaram, Srirangam, Tirunelveli, Tiruvannamalai, Chidambaram and several other
temples of Nayak period have got huge stone halls called 1000 pillar Mandapas. The
celebrated thousand pillar mandap/hall in Madurai has 985 pillars now. It was erected in 1569
by Aryanatha Mudaliyar, whose statue riding a horse is at the entrance. The hall is measuring
76.2 metres by 73 metres. There is a central shrine for lord Shiva in his dancing form. There
are beautiful sculptures on every pillar. On ceiling near the entrance there is a wheel which
gives the cycle of sixty years of the Tamil calendar. Aryanatha Mudaliyar who built this huge
mandap was the minister for 71 years under four Nayak kings. Probably he was the minister
who served the longest period in Indian history or world history. He served them between
1529 and 1600 CE.

The Madura hall is famous for its Kuravan-Kurathi statue (nomads) with a basket on
Kurathi’s houlders. The workmanship of it is unparalleled. She has a child on her bac , one
inside the basket and a third clinging on to her breasts. Kuravan is loaded with jewels
according to the custom of his clan. Puranic King Harichandra and queen Chandramathi are
sculpted in one pillar. Rati-Manmatha, Kannappa and Pandava brothers are also sculpted
beautifully. There are 22 pillars in a corner which emit different musical notes when struck
with a piece of stone or metal.
Ferguson in his “Indian and Eastern Architecture” says, “it is not the number of pillars but
their marvellous elaboration that makes this hall the wonder of the place”. Thousand pillar
mandap in Srirangam is larger than Madurai mandap. Measuring 152 metres by 48.8 metres,
it contains 953 granite pillars. As in Madurai each pillar has got beautiful sculptures and the
pillars are monoliths.
Research paper written by London SwaminathanPost No.1151; Dated 5th July 2014.

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6 Temples in Madurai after Meenakshi Temple

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 1. Koodal Azhagar Temple
2. Azhagar Kovil Temple
3. Tirupparam Kunram Murugan Temple
4. Vandiyur Mariamman Temple
5. Narasingam Yoga Narasimha Perumal Temple
6. Sri Mavoottru Velappar Temple

1. Koodal Azhagar Temple

Located at a distance of about 2 kilometers to the west of the city, the Koodal Azhagar Temple is
dedicated to Lord Vishnu and features three altars in which Lord Vishnu resides in three different
postures – sitting, standing, and reclining. This ancient temple reflects the true cultural heritage of the
land in keeping with the tradition of the land. Built-in Dravidian craftsmanship, this temple attracts
pilgrims, archaeologists, and history buffs alike.

This temple is believed to be older than the Meenakshi Temple and is one of the prominent religious
sites in Madurai. The temple possesses wonderful architecture and artwork and has a corridor around
the main shrine, which has rustic color paintings on the walls depicting different gods and goddesses.
The vimana over the sanctum has beautiful sculptures that are wonderfully carved. The other
impressive features of the temple include the ornamental windows that are spectacularly carved and
reflective of the exceptional skills of the stonemasons.

3. Azhagar Kovil Temple

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Azhagar Kovil, also called Thirumaliruncholai Temple, is located 21 kilometres away from the city
centre and continues to be one of the most celebrated temples around Madurai. The temple worships
Lord Vishnu and has beautiful large gopurams and pillared mandapams like most other South Indian
temples of the region. The main tower entrance houses the holy shrine of Karupana Swami, which is
permanently closed and opens for one day in a year. The statue of the lord is composed entirely of
stone and is a splendid masterpiece created from Kallalgar. Apart from that, several other statues in
different postures of the Lord are enshrined within the temple complex, which also features
spectacular halls and other facilities to perform different rituals with sacred mantras in the holy
environ.

4. Tirupparam Kunram Murugan Temple

This colossal temple dates back to the 6-century and has been mentioned in holy ancient epics. The
temple is dedicated to Lord Murugan also known as Kartikeya who is the Hindu God of War and the
son of Lord Shiva. It is believed that Murugan married Deivayani, the daughter of the King of
Heaven, Indra, at this very spot. The main shrine has the idol of Murugan along with those of Lord
Shiva, Lord Vishnu, Lord Vinayaka, and Goddess Durga. Carved out of rock, this sacrosanct place
was built during the Pandyan reign while the life-sized sculptures in the mandapams of this temple
were built during the Nayakar rule. Besides, the place is also good for capturing hues of colors of the
hilly terrain and is also known as the southern Himalayas of India. The sanctum sanctorum is
constructed by combining nine minerals called Navabashana and has the statue of Lord Murugan
carved in his standing posture. An interesting feature of this temple is that the Gods Shiva and Vishnu
face each other in the main shrine, which is a rare scene in ancient Hindu temples in India. Outside the
temple, there is a beautiful pond where, according to temple tradition, the fishes are served with salt
and rice flakes by the devotees.

5. Vandiyur Mariamman Temple

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Vandiyur Mariamman Temple is an ancient temple with a legacy of 2000 years and is dedicated to the
Hindu Goddess of Rain, Mariamman. The temple is one of the famous religious sites in Madurai and
beautifully sits on the banks of Vaigai River and has its own huge water pond.Built in the honour of
Lord Vigneshwara, this divine temple is situated about 5 kilometres from the Meenakshi Temple. It is
believed that the idol of the temple emerged from the bottom of the tank, while it was dug in the olden
times. Since then the tank continued to gain its popularity and the temple too was constructed in its
memory. In the middle of the pond is housed a Maiya Mandapam that has the Vinayakar temple and
garden, dedicated to Lord Ganesh. Several different kinds of festivals are celebrated in the temple and
all rituals are done with great pomp and pleasure including the grand float festival of Thaipusam,
which is celebrated at a grand scale over a span of ten days. The renowned Float Festival, celebrated
in the Tamil month of Thai in January and is organized on a full moon night, called Thaipusam. On
this occasion, the temple is beautifully lit-up and its glittering shadow makes the pond shine equally
well. The idols of the main deities of Meenakshi Amman Temple along with Lord Sundareshwarar
and Goddess Meenakshi are called from the respective temples and are made to float on the calm
waters of the pond.

6. Narasingam Yoga Narasimha Perumal Temple

Narasingam Yoga Narasimha Perumal Temple is located 11 kilometres away from Madurai and is
dedicated to Yoga Narasimha Perumal. The cave temple is built atop the Yanaimalai Hills and the
presiding idol is carved out of the hill itself. The temple is a fine specimen of the cave sculpturing of
the Pandya Dynasty. It is said that Lord Siva was prone to Brahma Hathi Dosha as he plucked one of
the five heads of Lord Brahma. In order to get rid of the sin, he visited this temple worshipped Lord
Narasimha and took a dip in the holy Chakra theertham or the adjoining Lotus pond. Yoga
Narasimhar features a lion face, and the Goddess Lakshmi in his heart, and worshippers appease him
by offering lemon, sandalwood or chandan, tulsi leaves, coconut, lotus, and ghee deepam.

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7. Sri Mavoottru Velappar Temple
Velappar Temple is located amidst dense forests and mountains and to reach the temple, one has to
climb a series of 300 steps. The presiding deity here is Lord Murugan. The temple has a perennial
stream on the side, which comes out as a natural spring from among the roots of a bunch of mango
trees, which cascades down into a pond. It is believed that a bath in this spring and eating food cooked
with this water can cure the most difficult of diseases.

Legend has it that the Varushanadu Hills, which come under the ambit of the Kandamanur region,
was populated only by local tribal people called Paliyars. Apart from collecting the forest products,
their mainstay was to collect roots of a creeper called Valli Kizhangu, which served as their staple
food. Once when a Paliyar had started cutting the creeper’s root, it did not end but went on endlessly
and at the end of the root, the paliyar discovered the present day idol of Velappar or Murugan. When
the local landlord heard the story, he made special arrangements for constructing proper steps to reach
the hill top and also established a small temple to honour Murugan along with Vinayakar and
Sapthamatha. And even today, people from the Paliyar community are given the first right of worship
in this temple.

These famous temples in Madurai have become a shining example of the cultural heritage and
diversity of the South group of temples and embody some of the finest architectural creations fostered
over a period of thousands of years by historic dynasties. The rich history of these incredibly divine
Madurai temples transports you back to the history and legends of the ancient times and is motivating
enough for anyone to go out explore them. From the architectural perfection, unique rituals, and
divine aura to the historical relevance of the temples, these religious sites in Madurai are worth
visiting and exploring.

R E F E RE N C E S

1. 'The Tank, Madura, India' – 1877, Oil painting on paper depicting the tank at Madurai by Marianne North, dated
1877-79.Initially, Marianne North (1830-1890) painted botanical specimens and travelled around the world in
search of interesting subject matter. She visited India in 1877-79 and completed over 200 paintings whilst there, at
this point she was mainly painting landscapes. This painting is of the Vandiyur Mariamman Theppakkulam, a
large temple tank about 5kms east of the Minakshi Sundareshvara temple at Madurai. It was built in the 17th
century by Tirumala Nayaka and is the biggest of its kind in Tamil Nadu. In her autobiography, 'Recollections of a
happy life' of 1892, Marianne North wrote, "I painted a sunset view of the grand tank outside the town, with its
island-temple and palm-trees, grand old banyan-trees and other temples on its edge. The English people drive
round and round it every evening, and make that drive their chief gossiping spot."

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 CHAPTER 8
ARCHITECTURE OF NAGPUR TEMPLES

A recurring scenario of Revivalism and metamorphosis

Maratha temples, built between the mid-seventeenth and early nineteenth centuries in Maharashtra
(Western India), were influenced by the preceding traditions of Hindu temple architecture of the
Yadavas and the religious and secular buildings of Deccani Sultanates and Mughals. As a resident of
Nagpur, I have had the pleasure to witness the many architectural creations in and around the city. It
was on becoming a Architect that I took a scholastic interest in these and hence this paper.

The Kingdom of Nagpur came under the rule of the Kshatriya Marathas of the Bhonsale dynasty in
the mid-18th century and was a kingdom in east-central India founded by the Gond rulers
of Deogarh in the early 18th century when it became part of the Maratha Empire. The city
of Nagpur was the capital of the state. There is very little material regarding the architecture of the
earlier period covering the reigns of Shivaji, Sambhaji, Rajaram and Shahu. The earlier Maratha rulers
had neither the time nor the resources to indulge in such activities due to their protracted wars with
the Mughals. After the Third Anglo-Maratha War, it became a princely state of the British Empire in
1818, and was annexed to British India in 1853 becoming Nagpur Province.

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Gond Kingdom: The historical record of the Nagpur kingdom begins in the early 18th century, when
it formed part of the Gond Kingdom of Deogarh, in what is now Chhindwara District. Bakht Buland,
the ruler of Deogharh, founded the city of Nagpur taking i9nspiration after his visit to Delhi as the
records reveal. To this end he encouraged both Hindu and Muslim artisans and cultivators to settle in
the plains. Chand Sultan , his successor, continued the development of the country, and moved his
capital to Nagpur. On Chand Sultan's death in 1739, there were disputes as to his succession, and his
widow invoked the aid of the Maratha leader Raghoji Bhonsale, who was governing Berar on behalf
of the Maratha Chhatrapati Shahu. The Bhonsale family were originally headmen from Deur, a village
in Satara District. Raghoji's grandfather and his two brothers had fought in the armies of Shivaji, and
to the most distinguished of them was entrusted a high military command and the role of
collecting chauth (tribute) in Berar. Raghoji, on being called in by the contending Gond factions,
replaced the two sons of Chand Sultan on the throne from which they had been ousted by a usurper.
Raghoji then retired back to Berar with a suitable reward for his assistance. Dissentions, however,
broke out between the brothers, and in 1743 Raghoji again intervened at the request of the elder
brother and drove out his rival. But he had not the heart to give back, for a second time, the country he
held within his grasp. Burhan Shan, the Gond raja, though allowed to retain the outward insignia of
royalty, became practically a state pensioner, and all real power passed to Raghoji Bhonsale who
became the first Maratha ruler of Nagpur.

His successor Janoji took part in the wars between the Peshwa and the Nizam of Hyderabad.After he
had in turn betrayed both of them, they united against him but he fought bravely against them till
1765.

On Janoji's death on 21 May 1772, his brothers fought for the succession, until Mudhoji shot the other
on the battlefield of Panchgaon, six miles (10 km) south of Nagpur, and succeeded to the regency on
behalf of his infant son Raghoji II Bhonsale who was Janoji's adopted heir. In 1785 Mandla and the
upper Narmada valley were added to the Nagpur dominions by treaty with the Peshwa who had lost
all his power. Mudhoji had courted the favor of the British East India Company, and this policy was
continued for some time by Raghoji II, who acquired Hoshangabad and the lower Narmada valley.
But in 1803 he united with Daulatrao Sindhia of Gwalior against the British. The two leaders were
decisively defeated at the battles of Assaye and Argaon, and by the Treaty of Deogaon of that year
Raghoji ceded Cuttack, southern Berar, and Sambalpur to the British, although Sambalpur was not
relinquished until 1806.
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Until the close of the 18th century the Maratha administration had been on the whole good, and the
country had prospered.. Up to 1792 their territories were seldom the theater of hostilities, and the area
of cultivation and revenue continued to increase under a fairly equitable and extremely simple system
of government. After the treaty of Deogaon, however, all this changed. Raghoji II was deprived of a
third of his territories, and he attempted to make up the loss of revenue from the remainder. It was at
this time that most of the numerous village forts were built; on the approach of these marauders the
peasantry retired to the forts and fought for bare life, all they possessed outside the walls being
already lost to them.

Rulers of Nagpur Kingdom

 Raghoji I Bhonsale (1730 – 14 Feb 1755)

 Janoji Bhonsale (1755 – 21 May 1772)
 Madhoji Bhonsle(1772 – 19 May 1788)
 Raghoji II Bhonsale (1788 – 22 Mar 1816)
 Parsoji Bhonsale (1816 – 2 Feb 1817)(b. 1778 – d. 1817)
 Mudhoji II Bhonsale "Appa Sahib" (1817 – 15 Mar 1818)(b. 1796 – d. 1840)
 Raghoji III Bhonsale (1818 – 11 Dec 1853)(b. 1808 – d. 1853)

Mudhoji II Bhonsale (1817–1818)

On the death of Raghoji II in 1816, his son Parsoji was supplanted and murdered by Mudhoji II
Bhonsale, also known as Appa Sahib, son of Vyankoji, brother of Raghoji II, in 1817. A treaty of
alliance providing for the maintenance of a subsidiary force by the British was signed in this year, a
British resident having been appointed to the Nagpur court since 1799. In 1817, on the outbreak of
war between the British and the Peshwa, Appa Sahib threw off his cloak of friendship, and accepted
an embassy and a title from the Peshwa. His troops attacked the British, and were defeated in the
action at Sitabuldi, and a second time close to Nagpur city. As a result of these battles the remaining
portion of Berar and the territories in the Narmada valley were ceded to the British. Appa Sahib was
reinstated to the throne, but shortly afterwards was discovered to be again conspiring, and was
deposed and sent to Allahabad in custody. On the way, however, he bribed his guards and escaped,
first to the Mahadeo Hills and subsequently to the Punjab.

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Raghoji III (1818–1853) Bhonsale and British rule

A grandchild of Raghoji II was then placed on the throne, and the territories were administered by the
resident from 1818 to 1830, in which year the young ruler known as Raghoji III was allowed to
assume the actual government. He died without a male heir in 1853, and the kingdom was annexed by
the British under the doctrine of lapse. The former kingdom was administered as Nagpur Province,
under a commissioner appointed by the Governor-General of India, until the formation of the Central
Provinces in 1861. During the revolt of 1857 a scheme for an uprising was formed by a regiment of
irregular cavalry in conjunction with the disaffected Muslims of the city, but was frustrated by the
prompt action of the civil authorities, supported by Madras troops from Kamptee. Some of the native
officers and two of the leading Muslims of the city were hanged from the ramparts of the fort, and the
disturbances ended. The aged princess Baka Bai, widow of Raghoji II, used all her influence in
support of the British, and by her example kept the Maratha districts loyal.

ORIGIN: The Kshatriya Bhonsale family were originally headmen from Deor or Deur (presently in
Koregaon Taluka, District Satara and was under Deshmukhi rights of Bhoite Clan), a village in Satara
District. Raghoji's grandfather and his two brothers had fought in the armies of Shivaji, and to the
most distinguished of them was entrusted a high military command and the collection
of chauth (tribute) in Berar.Dost Ali Khan ordered Chanda Sahib to march against the Rajah of
Tirusivapuram. There upon the Rajah invited the assistance of the Maratha Empire.

Soon afterwards took place the battle of Damalcherry, which was a major confrontation between
the Mughal Empire's Nawab of the Carnatic, Dost Ali Khan and his Maratha opponent Raghoji I
Bhonsale. The battle concluded with the fall of Dost Ali Khan and three years of Maratha occupation
in the Carnatic.

Flourishing of Art and Architecture: When, Raja Raghuji-I (1730-1755 A.D.) of Nagpur, he
found the political situation quite congenial he paid due attention to the development of the capital
city of Nagpur. They were lovers of art and architecture, which is reflected in their buildings,
gardens and palaces. I was enamoured with marvel at the architecture of Bhoslas and I was
influenced by its intensity. Moreover no research was taken up so far on the Architecture of

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Bhoslas. This inspired me to work on this subject. The interior of the palace and Wadas display
their affinity towards religious practice and rituals. The Bhosla Rajas were no doubt staunch
Hindus, but they were tolerant towards Islam and Muslim, saints and savant.

"The emphasis was laid here on beautiful design, art and architecture with layout of the city done
during the Bhosla was specially planned during the regime of Raghuji-II. The Architectural
supremacy of Raghuji-II was unparalled. Around 443 Temples were constructed by the Bhosla
rulers. During his rule out of it, the largest 98 Temples were built. Some of these temples are nicely
described with their Art, Architecture, Plan, elevation sections etc. in this book. It was Raghuji-II
who was the first planner to develop the massive town into architectural design during his regime.
Before him it contained only 12 hamlets of small sizes called as 'Rajapur Barsa'.

The political history and data on socio-economic conditions of the Bhosla state for Nagpur is
elaborated, besides examining the prevailing trends in the art and architecture of this dominion. The
survey maps of the sites, monuments, plans and drawings are the unique feature of this book. All
these first hand material have been included in this work to acquaint scholars and researchers with
the grandeur of the Bhosla monuments.

In order to understand the ethos and philosophy of the Marathas during the course of evolution of
their temple architecture, it is essential to have an understanding of the preceding architectural
traditions in the Deccan. This has been achieved through an overview of the Yadava temple tradition
and Sultanate architecture. The understanding of the political, cultural and religious aspects of the
Maratha period and Islamic rule in the Deccan has been essential. This is because of the generally
poor impression about the Maratha artistic spirit. Maratha rule generated a great cultural and religious
activity in Maharashtra because of the re-establishment of Hinduism and as a result of the changes
that took place within the indigenous society under the Islamic rule. The religious, cultural and artistic
exchanges between the Muslims and the indigenous population, are an indication of the influences the
two communities exercised on each others’ values and life styles. Though tension between the Hindus
and Muslims often erupted in violence, massacre and abuse, there was generally a positive interaction
between the two communities, the level and nature of which differed from class to class and within
various segments of the society.

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Temples and religion are an essential part of Hindu life in Maharashtra and such concentrations
attracted patronage. The understanding of the architectural tradition in Maharashtra prior to the
Marathas and the social, cultural and political history of the region, created a basis for the selection of
temple sites to be surveyed. Information collected from these sources helped to establish the
concentration of population, economic, political and religious activity. This was the earliest clue to
identify' the probable/potential temple sites in the Maratha kingdom. Important regions in the 31
Maratha kingdom were identified, which on examination gave clues to the important temple sites. An
example of this are the regions of Nasik, Satara, the river banks of Wai and Mahuli, the city of Pune
and Nagpur of the Bhonsales. These were important reference points in Maratha history and
encouraged religious patronage through temple construction. This was the basis of the selection of
temple sites for further survey and documentation. Field trips revealed what appeared to be important
temples followed by the lesser known sites

Many temples have been rebuilt to such an extent that almost nothing of the original structure can be
seen. Though the major Maratha temples have been covered by the studies of the Archeological
Survey of India study, there may be interesting monuments that remain to be surveyed for lack of
information. Over 100 temples have been documented, not counting the ones of the Yadavas and
some Maratha temples outside Maharashtra. The site work consisted of recording the monuments in
the form of analytical sketches of the temple and the temple complex. Particular emphasis was given
to understand the proportions, geometry and size of the temples. The other part of the site drawings
included sketches of the exterior features and the interior details, including the treatment of columns,
beams, walls, floor and the ceilings. The plinth and eaves treatment are also recorded and most
importantly the shikhara of the, temple. The study of the shikhara is very important because of the
interesting variations. This 32 often is the most remarkable, and at times the only distinguishing
feature of the monument. Emphasis was therefore laid on recording the shikhara in detail. This study
is based primarily on the observations, notes, sketches and sketch plans made during the field work
and the photographs taken therein. Drawings explaining the compositional features of the monuments
and the various architectural elements have been made in order to explain the anatomy of the temples.
With the help of these analytical drawings and the photographs that form the most authentic recorded
information, textual explanation of the architecture has been achieved.

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The Marathas were firmly embedded in the politi-cal and social milieu of the Islamicate
Deccan from the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries. The Maratha sardars shifted alliances between
the various sultans, and had differences among themselves,but they all operated within the cultural world of
the sultanates. It is pos sible to conclude that there was no nationhood or polity based on an ethnic identityand that
their ethnic identity was only a marker of asocial rise through mil itary service. In spite of the aspirations to carve a
separate identity for themselves, the architectural expressions of the newstate were limited by the dominant
sultanate culture. Thus, the cultural forms of the greater Islamic world, were also adopted by
the Maratha courts.

T h e e a r l y m o d ernDeccan was culturally rich and religiously pluralistic,with a shared visual repertoire
of architectural forms..Therefore, in conception, execution, and ornament, the architecture of the early Marathas
was exactly the same as that of their sultanate overlords and peers. The Maratha temples were sponsored
by the emerging families of the indigenous Deccani community in the service of the Sultanates. The
evolution of Maratha tradition started in the 1620's and this constitutes to the Early Phase of their
temple architecture that continues up to the emergence of the Peshva. The Middle Phase takes us to
the matured form of temples rather suddenly, under a stable and prosperous Maratha state. The Late
Phase indicates how the flourishing temple tradition came to an abrupt end, coinciding with the fall of
the Marathas at the hands of the British. The architecture in Nagpur is studied on its own because
Nagpur under the Bhonsale rule maintained its autonomous status. It was less affected by the politics
and the other developments in heartland Maharashtra. The phase-wise structure of classification is
limited to give a general idea about the changing nature of Maratha architect

Mixing of disparate vocabularies and creation of new forms: The influence of preceding
architectures in Maharashtra are confined to specific areas, though occasionally they exceed the usual
limits. Maratha temples were conceived as Hindu monuments, and therefore they show little Islamic
influence in plan and disposition of the temples spaces. The planning of the garbhagriha, mandapa,
antarala and the porches is a continuation of the earlier Hindu traditions, both Northern and Southern.
Only one Maratha temple, the Omkareshvar in Pune, is based on the plan of a mosque.

However, a reverse development is seen in Nagpur where stone temples were subscribed to. The
extreme Revivalist and decorated architecture incorporated many Mughal elements which are seen on

215
their walls, either as niche arched frames, mouldings or as bands of decorative motifs. Nagpur designs
also included the cypress order and cusped arches in brick, stone and timber combining them with
their Revivalist sanctuaries. On one hand, there was a total negation of the Muslim presence in the
Revivalist vocabulary, on the other, Islamic elements penetrated Nagpur architecture in subtle ways
and were completely Hinduised. An example of this are the cypress columns repeated in a row
without cusped arches between them, forming a horizontal band of mouldings on the plinths.
Diametrically opposite views exist about the origin of Maratha temple architecture. According to
some, the skills of craftsmanship and design were available in Maharashtra when need arose to build
temples in the early 17th century. Whereas according to others, the tradition of Yadava temples in
Maharashtra had died out within the 300 years of Islamic rule and no strands of those skills survived
in the 17th century as a part of a continuous tradition. In short Mate's theory advocates and supports
the survival of the Yadava tradition, whereas according to Michell the development of Maratha
architecture took place through a deliberate revival of the Indian temple traditions. Both the theories
are incomplete and inadequately substantiated through monuments.

Through the temples of the Middle Phase, emerged the stylistics of the Revivalist Maratha
architecture. The general impression regarding the Islamic impact on the Yadava tradition is biased
and often negative. Sultanate architecture is believed to have destroyed the Yadava tradition, actually
their patronage. Though this is largely true, the unavailability or continuation of Yadava
craftsmanship in the 17th century is the weakness as well as the strength of Maratha temple
architecture. Weakness is seen through the forms of Maratha temples which could not benefit from
the skills of the Yadava tradition. The strength arises out of this loss because the extinction of Yadava
skills motivated an original approach of the Marathas. The Indigenous type temples evolved out of
this necessity and a lack of choice. Yadava skills had limited application in the Islamic regime of
brick and plaster architecture though some of them continued to be used in Islamic buildings. What
happened to the Yadava craftsmen following the Muslim invasion is unknown, but it can be
confidently assumed that most of the Yadava craftsmen were forced to divert their skills to the
construction of Islamic buildings. As the Maratha tradition progressed, its architects developed a
better understanding of Yadava architecture. The application of Yadava principles to the Indigenous
type temples increased along with this knowledge.

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Hemadpanti : The term hemadpanti evoked the notions of an architecture belonging to the medieval
period built by the Yadavas. Thus the concept of stone temple architecture was not totally forgotten or
abandoned by the 17th century. The Revivalist type temples and their tentative origins are a
combination of the sources mentioned above. Revival happened at various stages of Maratha
architecture and was not limited only to the temples of the Revivalist type. Survival of skills also
carries with itself an element of revival. Revival in the Maratha tradition took place in two ways. One
way was the occasional revival of Yadava bhumzja design, and other was a general revival of the
grand forms of shekhari temples, that were built in Maharashtra from the end of the Middle Phase.
'Revivalism' in this study signifies the creation of grander forms of stone temples. They were aimed at
recreating the visual imagery and the impact carried by the temples of the earlier stone traditions. The
typical Maratha architecture depends a lot on the tiled and wooden roofs, the carved wooden ceilings
and the suru shaped pillars. The floorings were also supported by wooden members.

The shekhari was popular from the 10th century onward and can be observed on most Central Indian
temples; the Lakshmana and Kandarya Mahadeva temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, have
excellent examples.

Shikhara, (Sanskrit: “mountain peak”)also spelled shikara, also called shikari, in North Indian
temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the sanctuary and also above the
pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most dominant and characteristic feature of the
Hindu templein the north. The North Indian shikhara is basically of two types: (1) the latina,
curvilinear in outline, the type most usually found above the sanctuary; and (2) the phamsana,
rectilinear in outline and capped by a bell-shaped member, the form more usually found above
the mandapa.

The latina shikhara is composed of a series of horizontal roof slabs gradually receding toward the top
and provided with projections that extend from the base and wall of the temple. The surface of the
shikhara is covered with a vinelike tracery composed of diminutive chandrashalas (ogee arches).
Above the truncated top (skandha) projects a necking on which rests a large grooved disk
(amalasaraka), and above it sits a pot with a crowning finial. Each story is indicated by
miniature amalasarakas at the four corners, repeated all the way to the top. The latina shikhara has

217
two further variations: the shekhari and the bhumija. The shekhari consists of the central latina spires
with one or more rows of half spires added on either side and miniature shikharas clustered along the
base and corners.

The shekhari was popular from the 10th century onward and can be observed on most Central Indian
temples; the Lakshmana and Kandarya Mahadeva temples at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, have
excellent examples.
The bhumija variation has a flat vertical projection in the centre of each of the four sides, the
quadrants between being filled with rows of miniature shrines all the way up to the top of the tower.
The bhumija temple was particularly popular in Malwa, in the western part of Madhya Pradesh, and in
the Deccan; an example is the 11th-century Udayeshvara temple at Udayapur, Madhya Pradesh

Understanding of the principles of the earlier traditions by Maratha architects was never perfect. This
can be seen through the debased and understudied geometry of the stellate or stepped plans of the
sanctuary. No complete understanding of the proportions of Yadava temples was ever attained.
Temples at Toke are especially out of proportion in comparison to the earlier styles and appear squat
or stunted.

It was only in Nagpur that architecture appears true to the principles of the earlier traditions.
Revivalism did not always take place in stone. At the Grishneshvara temple in Ellora there was an
attempt to create the bhum/a form in the techniques of brick work and plaster. It is in these temples
that the divisions between Revivalist architecture and the Indigenous forms is weak, if not
overlapping. The Revivalist stone temples in the heartland of Maharashtra adhere to the shekhari style
and those in Nagpur to the bhumUa style. Sophistication and innovativeness achieved in the
Indigenous type temples is also achieved in the Revivalist temples through the mixing of
vocabularies. Similar mixings are seen in other Indian temple styles and form an important aspect of
temple traditions in India. Thus the bhumzja shikhara of the Rukmini temple in Nagpur has its
cardinal band composed of stepping surfaces that resemble the projecting surfaces of shekhari
shikhara. Similar combinations had been seen in earlier periods as in the 15th century Sun temple at
Ranakpur in Rajasthan. The discontinuity of the Yadava tradition has not resulted in the extinction of
such subtle games typical to the temple traditions in India. Further examples of sophistication are seen

218
in Nagpur Revivalist temples which incorporated prominent Islamic elements, blending them with the
Revivalist vocabulary. Thus rows of cusped arches and cypress order are seen in the form of walls-
shrines or secondary aedicules on the walls of Nagpur temples. The Maratha temples are created by
such revivals and survivals of the earlier architectural traditions in Maharashtra.

The history of Indian civilisation is marked by three political cycles, viz. Hindu, Muslim and the
British. The Hindu populace in India came largely under the domination of the Muslim dynasties for
over six centuries. This led to interactions with the Islamic culture and politics that became as much a
part of India as those of the Hindus. Such interactions gave rise to a hybrid cultural spectrum that was
later infused by the British (European) resulting in hybrid cultural forms typical of India.' During each
cycle, attempts were made by the dominated Indian populace to overthrow the political and cultural
influence of the prevailing dominant cycle, which they perceived as 'foreign'. Maratha temple
architecture is another manifestation of this Indian phenomenon, influenced by the disparate traditions
of Hindu and Islamic architectures, from its conception to its extinction

The 'surviving' and 'revived' traits from preceding cycles re-surfaced in new hybrid forms becoming a
cultural phenomena embracing socio-cultural, religious and political ideologies. Examples of food,
language, clothing, and dress carry Hindu, Muslim and British influences that are still evident at the
turn of the 21st century. Early Phase (1650AD -1719 AD) The Marathas formally proclaimed
themselves an independent State in 1674. This was accompanied with the coronation of their first king
or chhatrapati - Shivaji. Patronage for Hindu religious buildings was available from 1630. This
included the restoration and repair of the dilapidated Yadava monuments and the construction of the
new temples. The temple building activity gathered momentum around the coronation of Shivaji.
Many temples were built in different parts of the Maratha kingdom.

Middle Phase (1719 AD - 1763 AD) A major change in Maratha politics took place when the last
chhatrapati Shahu retired from active politics to settle in Satara. He entrusted the administration of the
State to the Peshva and placed important Maratha leaders in charge of distant parts of the kingdom.
Under the leadership of the Peshva, the Marathas embarked on a series of grand successes and their
territorial limits expanded to bring large parts of the country under their rule. The Maratha - Mughal
relations improved after the death of Aurangzeb. The Marathas accepted the vassalage of the

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crumbling Mughal empire. This was also the period when the Marathas fostered their contacts with
the Rajputs. which led to many artistic and cultural exchanges. The friendly relations with the
Mughals, increasing prosperity and an exposure to the northern cultures, brought major changes in
Maratha outlook and lifestyles. The manifestation of this affluence is reflected through the temple
architecture that spread to the major centres in Maharashtra that were favoured by the patron. The
families of the Peshva, Holkars, Sindias along with the other patrons built temples in Pune, Nasik,
Toke, Satara and elsewhere in Maharashtra. The Bhonsales embarked on a temple building activity in
Nagpur that developed into a tradition of its own. The architectural vocabulary of the Middle Phase
was influenced by the Islamic tradition in Maharashtra combined with the Yadava tradition which
developed into an innovative combination.

Late Phase (1763 AD - 1818 AD) Temple construction continued to flourish in Maharashtra until the
Marathas had to face another crisis of invasion. This time it came in the form of the Afghani invader
Ahmad Shah Abdali. Having assumed a pan-Indian approach and being the strongest force in India,
the Marathas decided to confront Abdali's forces. The battle of Panipat was the scene of Maratha
humiliation and disaster. It resulted in the defeat of the Marathas and huge losses, including their
important leaders. Ahinad Shah Abdali left India with his loot and the Marathas were once again left
as the only force in India to reckon with. Under the leadership of Peshva Madhavrao, the Marathas
rose from the ashes of Panipat and thus began another phase of their achievements. The new position
strengthened Maratha control over their distant territories and brought them more prosperity. This was
reflected through a fostered temple sponsorship which continued after the death of Peshva. The death
of Peshva Madhavrao was followed by the assassination of his brother Narayanrao who succeeded
him. At this stage the next successor in the Peshva family was a minor. Hence the control of the State
was handed to the administrators - Mahadji Sindia who ruled from Indore and Nana Phadnis a
statesman from Pune. These were the last two important personalities in the Maratha State. Their
death was a fatal blow from which the Marathas could never recover.

Maratha temples prospered due to the patronage given by the ruling establishment as well as the
economic prosperity of the time. Morphological transformations arising out of these influences led to
the creation of new elements and their compositions in Maratha temples. Islamic invasion of the
Deccan was responsible for the extinction of the Yadava temple tradition. But the Yadava

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craftsmanship and design skills were not completely wiped out they continued to exist and underwent
modifications to suit the needs of Sultanate architecture and patronage.Stone carving became less
popular in Islamic buildings replaced by plaster and stucco work. The Yadava decorative patterns and
motifs were replaced by floral and geometric patterns that were carved in the new mediums and
occasionally in stone. Conversely, Yadava concepts and motifs penetrated Sultanate buildings.

If the Yadava tradition had survived the Muslim onslaught, original Maratha contribution to Indian
temple architecture would never have emerged. The Indigenous type temples may never have been
created. The prevalent Islamic building techniques and craftsmanship, along with an 'unselfconscious'
incorporation of bhumUa features, led to the creation of the Indigenous temple vocabulary. In another
way, bhumija principles in the Indigenous type temples are elements of 'revival' of the Yadava
tradition. The early 'unselfconscious' incorporation of Yadava principles in the Maratha Indigenous
type temples later became a deliberate attempt. It paved the way for further revival, in the form of
Revivalist temples. An interesting aspect of the Maratha tradition is the actual 'process' of the
morphological transformation in its architecture. The 'processes' by which the Maratha architects
created the Indigenous temple forms in brick, plaster and stucco have been demonstrated in chapter
nine. Limitations of the Indigenous vocabulary led the Maratha architects to re-engineer forms and
elements that were worthy substitutes for their Yadava precedents. Though the physical attributes of
the hybrid forms are radically different from their original forms in precedent traditions, they share
the same conceptual value. Some elements of Islamic architecture were substituted for bhumzja
forms. The identified 'processes' of the morphological transformations including
adaptability,substitution, replacement and displacement share characteristics with the hybrid language
of more general artistic and cultural expression in India. Thus the temples of the Marathas are a
cultural phenomenon, wherein the strands of survival and revival coexist in harmony typical of the
Indian sub-continent. Survival and revival in Maratha temples spread beyond craftsmanship and
architectural vocabularies. One form of survival was the 'dream' of Yadava architecture that was kept
alive through the idea of hemadpanti temples. Another aspect of survival and revival is seen through
the sophisticated mixing of architectural styles in the Maratha temples. Such sophistication combining
the strands of contradictory languages is a prominent aspect, which the Maratha tradition shares with
the other temple traditions in India. Thus elements of survival and revival of the earlier traditions are
brought together in Maratha temples of Nagpur. Temples continued to be built in the types that were

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established by the end of the Middle Phase which meant 1719-1763. Minor changes continued to
appear in their architecture. However, the bankruptcy of the Marathas and liquidation of the State at
the hands of the British brought an end to the Maratha rule and their temple patronage. Temples
continued to be built in Maharashtra by minor patrons. But the tradition of the Marathas that
developed during the 150 years of their rule, gradually ceased to exist. Nagpur under the Bhonsales,
managed to remain out of British control until 1857 and therefore the tradition lasted longer and
resulted in several examples of grand stone temples.

Ganesha Temple in Kadbi Chowk, situated in the city is erected by the Bhonsale family. This is the
only Indigenous type temple in Nagpur city and consists of a square garbhagriha and a mandapa. The
Indigenous design is built in a structure of stone. The wall is stepped and the shikhara follows the
profile of the stepped wall. The Indigenous kutas are also built and carved out in stone and have been
conventionalised in their design. The shikhara is crowned with a bulbous dome for the kalasha.

Gopal Krishna temple on Kelibaug Road. Two Shiva temples on Kelibaug road situated in the city
have been ereccted by the Bhonsale family. Gopal Krishna Temple and the two Shiva Temples on
Kelibaug Road. These three temples are situated in the busy market area of the city and have
commonalities in their design. Built in red sandstone, these Revivalist type temples have a angulated
plan sanctuary. The shikhara follows the profile of the plan and is curvilinear. The 190 temples are
decorated with bands of mouldings and abundant human and animal sculpture which are very
interesting. The mandapas are built in timber with the heartland Maharashtra plan of a central wide
aisle with two narrow side aisles.

Jagnath (Shiva) temple in Budhwari: Temple erected by the Bhonsale family (Source: Bombay
Gazetteer and MARG). Jagnath Budhvari Temple in Budhvari is an earlier example built in stone and
shows a very strong Islamic influence in its design. The plan consists of bays on all the four sides. The
central one is the garbhagriha. The bays on the four sides are arched and roofed with domes on the
upper level. The projecting plinth provides a pradakshina pat ha. Decoration is abundant on the arches
and columns. The structure is covered by a domical roof and bangla cornice.

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Shiva temple near Shukravari lake situated in the city: Temple erected by the Bhonsale family.
Adhering to the Revivalist type, this stone temple consists of a stellate sanctuary attached to a open
mandapa through a antarala. The external treatment of the temple consists of the moulded plinth. The
sanctuary walls are moulded in horizontal layers, and infused with human sculptures and geometric
and floral decorations carved in bands in shallow relief. The mandapa is a open structure of columns
supporting cusped arches holding the flat roof This is similar to the timber mandapas. The shikhara is
a curvilinear structure following the profile of the stellate plan topped with a kalasha. The surface of
the shikhara consists of layers of mouldings of a single type.

Murlidhara and Shiva temple of Tarabai Buti situated in the city near a river. Temples erected by
the Buti family: These two temples built by the Buti family are Revivalist stone temples with a
stepped plan for the sanctuary built in stone, and a open timber mandapa. The stepping of the
sanctuary is uniform and is continued on to the walls. The shikharas repeat these stepping and are
conical. The Murlidhara shikhara has layers of compressed cushion like elements arranged along the
profile of the sanctuary, whereas the Tarabai temple has layers of a single bands of mouldings. The
shikharas are continued over the antarala in their smaller forms. Both the shikharas enclose rooms
within them at the roof level which can be entered through from the flat terrace over the mandapa.
Rukmini temple complex consists of two temples enclosed in a walled courtyard and are built in red
sandstone. The sanctuary of both the temples is highly decorated and has a stellate plan which is
carried up to the shikhara. The shikharas are based on the bhurnija shikhara and consists of kutas,
cardinal bands and other characteristic elements of the bhumUa composition. The open mandapas are
built in beautifully carved timber columns and ceilings, and there is a marble garuda mandapa with
the statute of the deity carved in Jaipur, in front of the temples. The walls of both the temples are
highly decorated. Apart from the regular bands of mouldings they consist of abundant animal and
human figures as well as decoration of a floral and geometric type which is carved on the plinth and
the walls.
Among the temples constructed during the period, we may refer to the Vitthalwadi temple near Poona
and the temple of Shambhu Mahadvat Shinganapur. Both of them are said to have been constructed
during the time of Shivaji. These temples followed the earlier style of the Yadava temples.1

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Herman Goetz writes about their architectural style in his work ‘Five Thousand Years of Indian Art’:
“The Maratha temples generally provided with a huge lampstand (deepmala), represents a renaissance
of the medieval western Chalukyan or Shilhara sanctuary often combined with the Mughal arches and
coupolas, its spire is a curious transposition of the ancient shikara (tower) into Deccani-Mughal
forms, a bulbous lotus dome (in place of amalaka) rising on top of several storeys of domed chhattris
(pavilion).”
The Maratha architecture lacked the beauty and grace of the buildings of the Mughals, and the
Rajputs. But the Marathas excelled in fort architecture. The wood work they used to decorate their
palaces and other civil buildings was intricate and minute. Maratha art could have developed and
attained a distinctive character but it was not possible because of the turbulent times.

The ambiguities intrinsic to Maratha temple architecture result out of disparate socio-cultural and
architectural influences and create ideal circumstances for an authentic vernacular experience.1

The Foundation year of NAGPUR is the year of 1702 . The history of Nagpur, in central India, spans
over 5,000 years, including the Kingdom of Nagpur in the 18th and 19th century. Human existence
around present-day Nagpur city (in Maharashtra, India) can be traced back 3,000 years to the 8th
century BC. Menhir burial sites at Drugdhamna (near Mhada colony) indicate megalithic culture
existed around Nagpur and is still followed in present times.

The first a reference to the name "Nagpur" is found in a 10th-century copper-plate

inscription discovered at Devali in the neighbouring Wardha district. The inscription is a record of
grant of a village situated in the visaya (district) of Nagpura-Nandivardhana during time
of Rastrakuta king Krsna III in the Saka year 862 (940 CE). Inscription found at Ramtek show that
during the 12th century AD Nagpur and its surrounding regions formed the part of the thickly wooded
country called Jhadimandala under Yadavas of Devagiri. However, tradition ascribes the founding of
Nagpur to Bakht Buland Shah, a prince of the Gond kingdom of Deogarh in the Chhindwara district.

In 1743, the Maratha leader Raghoji Bhonsale of Vidarbha established himself at Nagpur, after
conquering the territories of Deogarh, Chanda and Chhattisgarh by 1751. After Raghoji's death in
1755, his son and successor Janoji was forced to acknowledge the effective supremacy of the
Maratha Peshwa of Pune in 1769. Regardless, the Nagpur statecontinued to grow. Janoji's
successor Mudhoji I Bhonsale (d. 1788) came to power in 1785 and bought Mandla and the

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upper Narmada valley from the Peshwa between 1796 and 1798, after which Raghoji II Bhonsale (d.
1816) acquired Hoshangabad, the larger part of Saugor and Damoh. Under Raghoji II, Nagpur
covered what is now the east of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and parts of Madhya
Pradesh and Jharkhand.

In 1803 Raghoji II joined the Peshwas against the British in the Second Anglo-Maratha War. The
British prevailed, and Raghoji was forced to cede Cuttack, Sambalpur, and part of Berar. After
Raghoji II's death in 1816, his son Parsaji was deposed and murdered by Mudhoji II Bhonsale.
Despite the fact that he had entered into a treaty with the British in the same year, Mudhoji joined the
Peshwa in the Third Anglo-Maratha War in 1817 against the British, but was forced to cede the rest of
Berar to the Nizam of Hyderabad, and parts of Saugor and Damoh, Mandla, Betul, Seoni and the
Narmada valley to the British after suffering a defeat at Sitabuldi in modern-day Nagpur city. The
Sitabuldi fort was the site of a fierce battle between the British and the Bhonsale of Nagpur in 1817.
The battle was a turning point as it laid the foundations of the downfall of the Bhonsales and paved
the way for the British acquisition of Nagpur city. Mudhoji was deposed after a temporary restoration
to the throne, after which the British placed Raghoji III Bhonsale the grandchild of Raghoji II, on the
throne. During the rule of Raghoji III (which lasted till 1853), the region was administered by a
British resident. In 1854 the British annexed Nagpur, after Raghoji III had died some months before
without leaving an heir.

In 1861, the Nagpur Province (which consisted of the present Nagpur region, Chhindwara, and
Chhattisgarh and existed from 1854 to 1861) became part of the Central Provinces and came under
the administration of a commissioner under the British central government, with Nagpur as its capital.

REFERENCES

1. The search for vernacular identity: Maratha temples in Maharashtra, India

Article in Journal of Heritage Tourism 5(3):175-188 · August 2010 with44 Reads

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 CHAPTER9
Sacred Hindu Architecture- Design and deified Shrines (Roadside & Others)

A Taoist temple on the road in Hong Kong.The Indian wayside temple starts with a tree-giving solace to the farmers in the
field and less so to the traveller.

“If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him.”

Voltaire, the 18th Century French polymath

Literature(Must) pay attention to several key themes, particularly, the politics and poetics of religious
place, identity and community
LILY KONG

Here we look at mythology and geography together, in a single view, to see what we can learn of this
complex conception of the land of India. Rather than focusing exclusively on texts, however, we
begin “on the ground,” with shrines, rivers, and hilltops where pilgrims have enacted the sense of
connectedness that is part of pilgrimage. This intersection of mythology and geography reveals how
the people who have come to be called Hindus have “mapped” their world and how they have
understood the land they have called Bhārata in relation to the larger universe. There is arguably no
other major culture that has sustained over so many centuries, and across such diverse regions, a
fundamentally locative or place-oriented world-view.
India’s Sacred Geographies, https://harvardmagazine.com/2012/03/indias-sacred-geography

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 ABSTRACT
The task of the Architect is to bring succour, harmony and a divine experience, while designing a so called
sacred or religious space. Church, temple, chapel, mosque or synagogue, buildings that are built specifically for
religious activities have been with us for centuries. The weighty power that religion has wielded through the
ages has meant that these buildings are often some of the most permanent, expressive and influential within their
specific community. The studio is not the exclusive place of focus that define architectural accomplishments.
The idea of architecture grows with the custodians, culture and the geography and last but not least the
client. This is a comprehensive assessment of this rare topic.A common sight in India is a crowd of people
gathered in the courtyard of a temple or at a doorway of a streetside shrine for the darsan or glimpse of the
deity. This paper examines the origin and design aspects of the temporary temples.

Spatial /ˈspeɪʃ(ə)l/ adjective

Relating to or occupying space. "The spatial distribution of population"

Foreword: Architects support beauty, sacred space, spiritually based life, and organic lifestyle
through their concepts and precepts. Its offerings are truly beneficial for people and the planet and are
based on human intention to shift consciousness, nourish, enlighten, and bring more beauty into the
world. Traditionally a sacred space, typically, featured a soaring, high ceiling that indicated a sense of
connection with God and the heavens above. When a high ceiling is not present, the space often opens
outwards instead – to nature and to the community. Glazed features create transparency and indicate a
welcoming, open attitude that many religions promote today.

The task of the Architect is to bring succour, harmony and a divine experience, while designing a so
called sacred or religious space. Church, temple, chapel, mosque or synagogue, buildings that are
built specifically for religious activities have been with us for centuries. The hefty influence that
religion has wielded through the ages has meant that these buildings are often some of the most
permanent, expressive and influential within their specific community. Modern architecture spans
several styles with similar characteristics resulting in simplification of form and the elimination of
ornament. While secular structures clearly had the greater influence on the development of modern
architecture, several excellent examples of modern architecture can be found in religious buildings of
the 20th century. These and other architecturally-designed contemporary sacred spaces often eschew

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conventional religious imagery, lacking traditional symbolic elements such as the altar and pulpit and
the grandiose, embellished exteriors of the past.

Sacred architecture (also known as religious architecture) is a religious architectural practice

concerned with the design and construction of places of worship or sacred or intentional space, such
as churches, mosques, stupas, synagogues, and temples. Many cultures devoted considerable
resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst
the most impressive and permanent monolithic buildings created by humanity. Conversely, sacred
architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely
private, personal and non-public.

Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings in the
world, prior to the modern skyscraper. While the various styles employed in sacred architecture
sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the
contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise of particularly in
Christianity and Islam, religious buildings increasingly became centres
of worship, prayer and meditation. The Western scholarly discipline of the history of
architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture. Sacred geometry, iconography,
and the use of sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols and religious motifs are endemic to
sacred architecture. (See my paper on ARABESQUE academia.edu)

Spiritual aspect of religious architecture

Sacred or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space. The goal of sacred architecture is to
make "transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit" said Architect Norman
L. Koonce. Meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a
metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship.

Sacred architecture spans a number of ancient architectural styles including Neolithic

architecture, ancient Egyptian architecture and Sumerian architecture. Ancient religious buildings,
particularly temples, were often viewed as the dwelling place, the temenos, of the gods and were used
as the site of various kinds of sacrifice. Ancient tombs and burial structures are also examples of
architectural structures reflecting religious beliefs of their various societies. The Temple of Karnak at
Thebes, Egypt was constructed across a period of 1300 years and its numerous temples comprise what
may be the largest religious structure ever built.
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Classical Architectural Design: Since temples are the only buildings which survive in numbers,
most of our concept of classical architecture is based on religious structures. The Parthenon which
served as a treasury building as well as a place for veneration of deity, is widely regarded as the
greatest example of classical architecture.(Although the Parthenon is architecturally a temple and is
usually called so, it is not really one in the conventional sense of the word. A small shrine has been
excavated within the building, on the site of an older sanctuary probably dedicated to Athena as a way to
get closer to the goddess.)

Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as well as to the
geography and geology of the Indian subcontinent. India was crisscrossed by trading routes of
merchants from as far as China and also weathering invasions by foreigners, resulting in multiple
influences of foreign elements on native styles. The diversity of Indian culture is represented in its
architecture which comprises of a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types,
forms and technologies from West, Central Asia, and Europe.

Buddhism

Buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two types of
structures are associated with early Buddhism: viharas and stupas. Originally, Viharas were temporary
shelters used by wandering monks during the rainy season, but these structures later developed to
accommodate the growing and increasingly formalized Buddhist monasticism. An existing example is
at Nalanda (Bihar).

The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha. The
earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In accordance with changes in
religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (stupa halls). These reached
their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes
of Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra).In China, Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia you will
find the pagoda which is an evolution of the Indian stupa. Temples of the Buddhists developed rather
later and outside South Asia, where Buddhism gradually declined from the early centuries. The
architectural structure of the stupa spread across Asia, to China and the Asian region by Araniko,
a Nepali architect in the early 13th century for Kublai Khan.Hindu temple architecture is based
on Sthapatya Veda and many other ancient religious texts like the Brihat Samhita, Vastu
Shastra and Shilpa Shasta’s in accordance to the design principles and guidelines believed to have

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been laid by the divine architect Vishvakarma. It evolved over a period of more than 2000 years. The
Hindu architecture conforms to strict religious models that incorporate elements
of astronomy and sacred geometry. In Hindu belief, the temple represents the macrocosm of the
universe as well as the microcosm of inner space. While the underlying form of Hindu temple
architecture follows strict traditions, considerable variation occurs with the often intense decorative
embellishments and ornamentation. Yet 1,000 of shrines and smaller temples under many trees and on
the roadside dot this great country divorcing itself from what we just said

But there is a new sacred space-in the thousands or hundreds of thousands in numbers of shrines
that dot the landscape in India, Africa, 1. China, Malaysia, Bali, Indonesia, and so on. Small in size,
ex-tempo, sometimes just a stone with some vermillion, many times a little brick structure above it.
“These ‘new’ geographies emphasize different sites of religious practice beyond the ‘officially
sacred’; different sensuous sacred geographies; different religions in different historical and place-
specific contexts; different geographical scales of analysis; different constitutions of population and
their experience of and effect on religious place, identity and community; different dialectics (socio-
spatial, public-private, politics-poetics); and different moralities, embellishments and ornamentation.” 2

A shrine (Latin: scrinium "case or chest for books or papers"; Old French: escrin "box or case") is a
holy or sacred place dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon, or similar
figure of respect, wherein they are venerated or worshipped. Shrines often contain idols, relics, or
other such objects associated with the figure being venerated. A shrine at which votive offerings are
made is called an altar. In some magical traditions, people build a shrine to the deity they’ve chosen to
honour. While this is slightly different than an altar, it serves a similar purpose.
The Purpose of a Shrine
An altar, for instance, may be dedicated to a specific deity or theme, but it is often set up as a
workspace as well, to be used in ritual and spell work. A shrine, on the other hand, is generally used
only as a place to pay tribute to the selected deity. In some religions, shrines are incorporated to
honour a saint, demon, ancestor, or even mythological hero. Shrines are also, in many cases, much
larger than the simple altar. A shrine can take up an entire room, a hillside, or the bank of a river.
The word “shrine” comes from the Latin scrinium, which refers to a chest or case used to store holy
books and tools.

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In many Pagan traditions, practitioners choose to have a shrine to the deity of their path or a
household god. This is often left in a place of permanent honour, and may be near the family altar, but
not necessarily. If, for example, your patron goddess is Brighid, you might set up a small shrine near
your fireplace, in celebration of her role as a hearth goddess. You could include a Brighid’s cross, a
corn doll, some statuary, candles, and other symbols of Brighid. Often, a shrine is a place where
people hold daily devotional prayers and make offerings. Patheos blogger John Halstead points
out that for many Pagans, a shrine makes more sense than an organized temple environment. He says:
"The [Pagan temple] concept seems modeled on the Christian concept of a church. But if we look
back at ancient pagan places of worship, many of them looked less like community centers, and more
like what I would call “shrines.” For many Western religions, these two functions are merged in one
building. And when Pagans talk about building “temples,” we often follow this model, which unifies
the community center with the shrine. It’s another manifestation of the conflation of “church” with
“religion."

In some religions, the shrine is actually the centerpiece within a temple or larger structure. A church
or building might be constructed around a holy well, a sacred relic, or other object associated with the
spiritual teachings of the religion. Some Catholics have small outdoor shrines in their yards, which
include a small alcove featuring a statue of the Virgin Mary.Followers of cults in the ancient world
often made pilgrimages to holy shrines. In Rome, a shrine to the fire god Vulcan, or Volcanus, was
erected at the foot of the Capitoline Hill by the emperor Titus Tatius. Centuries later, after much of
Rome burned to the ground, an even bigger and better shrine was built by Domitian, on the Quirinal
Hill, and offerings were made to keep the city safe. Many of the temples in the classical world were
erected around small shrines.

Sometimes, shrines pop up spontaneously, at places which have spiritual significance to people. For
instance, in the 1990s, a bank office in Clearwater, Florida, became a spontaneous shrine when people
claimed to see an image of the Virgin Mary in the building's windows. Faithful believers came from
all over to leave candles, flowers, and prayers at the site until several windows were shot out in 2004
by vandals. The shrine had become especially important to the local Hispanic community, who saw
the image as the Virgin of Guadalupe, the patron saint of Latin America.

Shrines are found in many of the world's religions,

including Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Chinese folk religion, Shinto, and Asatru as well
as in secular and non-religious settings such as a war memorial. Shrines can be found in various
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settings, such as churches, temples, cemeteries, museums, or in the home. Although, portable
shrines are also found in some cultures.

Chinese Taoist household shrine 1850–1860, Bankfield Museum

TYPES

Temple shrines

Many shrines are located within buildings and in the temples designed specifically for worship, such
as a church in Christianity, or a mandir in Hinduism. A shrine here is usually the centre of attention in
the building, and is given a place of prominence. In such cases, adherents of the faith assemble within
the building in order to venerate the deity at the shrine. In classical temple architecture, the shrine may
be synonymous with the cella.

Household shrines

Historically, in Hinduism, Buddhism and Roman Catholicism, and also in modern faiths, such
as Neopaganism, a shrine can commonly be found within the home or shop. This shrine is usually a
small structure or a setup of pictures and figurines dedicated to a deity that is part of the official
religion, to ancestors or to a localised household deity.

Yard shrines

Small outdoor yard shrines are found at the bottom of many peoples' gardens, following various
religions, including historically, Christianity. Many consist of a statue of Christ, Virgin Mary or
a saint, on a pedestal or in an alcove, while others may be elaborate booths without ceilings, some

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include paintings, statuary, and architectural elements, such as walls, roofs, glass doors and ironwork
fences.[

In the United States, some Christians have small yard shrines; some of these resemble side altars,
since they are composed of a statue placed in a niche or grotto; this type is colloquially referred to as
a bathtub madonna.

Wayside shrines.

Religious images, usually in some sort of small shelter, placed by a road or pathway, sometimes in a
settlement or at a crossroads.

Hindu Shrines

Establishment of a shrine.

Each deity in the Hindu pantheon is an embodiment of an idea or philosophy. Each therefore is
different from the other in the tasks they perform and the portfolio or office they hold. Accordingly
every individual deity is furnished with powers and the other support mechanism necessary to
perform his/her task. Here we present the results of an investigation that aims at providing the viewer
with a brief idea of the encoded messages in the image.3

In Hinduism, a shrine is a place where gods or goddesses are worshipped. Shrines are typically
located inside a Hindu temple of various forms. Most Hindu families have a household shrine as well.
Image of a deity was placed and offered prayers, instead of visits to a temple. Among Tamil Hindu

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homes, according to Pintchman, a shrine in Kitchen is more common. If the family is wealthy, it may
locate the household shrine in a separate room. Shrines are found in many religions. As distinguished
from a temple, a shrine usually houses a particular relic or cult image, which is the object
of worship or veneration. A shrine may also be constructed to set apart a site which is thought to be
particularly holy, as opposed to being placed for the convenience of worshipers. Shrines therefore
attract the practice of pilgrimage.

Merits of Building a Temple (and /or Shrine-place for a deity)

On The Merits of Building a Temple, the Agni-purana,' XXXVIII, 1-50 reads: “Agni said: I will now
describe the fruits of making temples for the residence of Vasudeva and other deities. He who
attempts to erect temples for gods is freed from the sins of a thousand births. Those who think of
building a temple in their minds are freed from the sins of a hundred births. Those who approve of a
man's building a temple for Krishna go to the region of Acyuta [Vishnu] freed from sins. Having
desired to build a temple for Hari, a man immediately takes a million of his generations, past and
future, to the region of Vishnu. The departed manes of the person who builds a temple for Krishna
live in the region of Vishnu, well adorned and freed from the sufferings of hell. 4

“The construction of a temple for a deity dissipates even the sin of Brahmanicide. By building a
temple one reaps the fruit which he does not even gain by celebrating a sacrifice. By building a temple
one acquires the fruits of bathing at all the sacred shrines. The construction of a temple, which gives
heaven, by a religious or an irreligious man, yields the fruit reaped by persons slain in a battle
undertaken on behalf of the celestials. By making one temple one goes to heaven; by making three
one goes to the region of Brahma; by making five one goes to the region of Shambhu

“He who builds a temple for Krishna, the son of Vasudeva, is born as a man of good deeds and his
family is purified. He who builds temples for Vishnu, Rudra, the sun-god, and other deities, acquires
fame. What is the use to him of wealth which is hoarded by ignorant men? Useless is the acquisition
of riches to one who does not have a temple built with hard earned money for Krishna, or whose
wealth is not enjoyed by the Pitris, Brahmanas, celestials, and friends.

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Reasons for Idol Worship in Hinduism

An idol or an image is a living embodiment (arca) of God. It is not a lifeless form. Life is poured into
every image or idol when it is reverentially worshipped with devotion. Devotion has such power.
According to our Puranas, with devotion you can awaken the divine power which is hidden in any
object. By overcoming the duality of the subject and the object or the knower and the known you can
experience oneness with the divinity who is present in all things.

Many Hindus have reservation about the use of the word idol in reference to the practice of
worshipping the forms of God. They are justified in their response because in recent times many
meanings have been attached to the word. We are using it here because it is how many people know
the practice and search for the information about it.

Importance in Hinduism

Idol worship (murthi puja) or image worship in Hinduism refers to the worship of the names and
forms (murti) of God, any divinity or reverential person such as a guru or a saint. The practice is
unique to Hinduism. Image worship is also practiced in Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhists worship
Buddha, Bodhisattvas and several deities. Jains worship the Thirthankaras and other Jinas. However,
both religions do not believe in creator God. Hence, image worship of God is found only in Hinduism.

According to Hinduism, the whole creation is a form of God. Every aspect and form in it reflects his
glory because God is hidden in each of them. The whole creation is sacred because it is suffused with
the presence of God. Hence, every aspect of it is worthy of worship. When you say, "God is this or
that," you are limiting him. When you say, "God should be worshipped in this or that manner only,"
you are again defining and limiting your methods of worship.

Devout Hindus accept idol worship as a simple way of expressing their faith, love and devotion to
God. There is a childlike innocence and purity of approach when a person stands reverently in front of
an idol or an image and bows to it in total submission. It is possible only when a person has strong
faith and no egoism. Worldly people or intellectuals who have strong egos cannot easily surrender to
God or worship his images with simple faith. However, those who worship God with devotion and
humility know that idol worship connects them to God and open their hearts to divine love. A devout
Hindu is not ashamed of going to a temple and bowing before an idol. He has no hesitation to stand in

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front of it and speak to it as if he is talking to an individual with exemplary faith and devotion which
is not of this world. He may be rich or poor, seeking something or simply praying without any
expectation, educated or uneducated, his devotion and dedication to God and his service are
unquestionable.

The idols may not speak to him, but he knows that his prayers will surely be heard, and his devotion
and love to the deity will surely be reciprocated. Even if his prayers are not answered, he continues
his worship considering it a part of his karma, fate or the way God sometimes chooses to respond.
Deep in his heart he knows that he is engaged in a spiritual practice, and in the end it will only do him
good and take him closer to God.

However, amidst all the mayhem by Muslim invasions, the period witnessed the rise of the devotional
(bhakti) movement and renewed interest in idol worship. Numerous saints appeared on the scene and
helped people connect to their deities through reverential prayers, ritual worship and worship of God’s
images at homes and in the temples. The wanton violence and desecration of Hindu temples by the
invaders could not shake the devotion of Hindus to their gods and goddesses and their commitment
and dedication to the faith of their ancestors.

Hindus do not worship the idols of their gods in vain. An idol or an image of a deity is just a symbol,
or a form, which serves as the object of worship or concentration and meditation and helps the
devotees to connect to him. When you greet a person, you actually greet the body or the form of that
person. You assume that the body is the person although the person is hidden in the body. The same
holds true in case of idol worship. Ignorant people see the idol. The devotees see the deity. It is a
matter of perspective or belief. The devotees know that the ultimate reality is beyond the senses,
beyond names and forms and beyond the field of Maya or illusion. They know that although the
objective reality does not truly represent God, it has its own value and importance in our
understanding of truths, in our worship of God and in our experience of transcendental states.

Origin of the practice

The Vedic Aryans did not worship idols although they invoked various gods and goddesses through
elaborate rituals and sacrificial ceremonies. Idol worship probably entered the Vedic religion or
Brahmanism in the post Vedic period, when many other native traditions of the Indian subcontinent
were integrated into it during the eastward and southward expansion of the Sindhu Saraswathi

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civilization, which originally thrived in the western region, on the banks of the now extinct River
Saraswathi. Probably Shaivism and Vaishnavism played an important role in elevating it as an
acceptable form of divine worship and domestic worship. The practice was definitely popular during
the Mauryan period both in the North and the South. It gained further popularity in the Post Mauryan
period when idols and temples, first in wood and later in stone, began appearing in various parts of
India. The temples legitimized idol worship and further elevated its ritual and spiritual importance.
The Guptas were great worshippers and patrons of Brahmanism. They built many temples in honor of
Hindu gods, especially Vishnu.

Justification for idol worship

There are enough reasons why Hindus worship idols to express their devotion and communicate with
gods and goddesses. There is no doubt that idol worship is a superior form of divine worship, a very
simple way of declaring one’s faith in God, if we put aside the empty ritualism and the pompous
display that are generally found associated with it. In the hands of sattvic people it becomes a
transformative practice while in the hands of tamasic people it degenerates into a vain and delusional
practice. We are presenting below a few insights into why a devout Hindu worships his idols so dearly
while the rest of the world looks at him with mixed feelings of scorn, incredulity, amusement and
disbelief.

1.It is the easiest way to instill faith and devotion in people.

Ordinary people who are busy with their own lives and who are not well versed in the scriptural
knowledge or religious scholarship, may find it difficult to grasp the deeper knowledge of the Self or
the abstract notions of an invisible, formless God. For them, idols and concrete images are extremely
useful and convenient to express their simple devotion and connect to the idea of God.

2. It is a way of acknowledging the omniscience and omnipresence of God.

If God is omnipresent, then everything in the universe, including the idol one worships, is filled with
his presence.

3. Traditionally, it is an approved practice.

Hinduism approves idol worship as a legitimate practice. The scriptures sanction it. The epics and the
Puranas are replete with instances of the practice. According to them even gods and demons practice

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it to impress the higher gods and obtain boons from them. In the epic Ramayana both Rama and
Ravana worshipped the images and symbols of Shiva. In the epic Mahabharata, Arjuna worshipped
Shiva to obtain the might Pasutpatha weapon.

4. The idols help the devotee become deeply religious.

A devout Hindu worships his favourite deities in the temples or at home to fill his mind with their
thoughts and keeps himself in a certain, reverential and devotional state as he engages himself in
worldly activities and obligatory duties. The practice reinforces his faith and his confidence to face
the problems and difficulties in life.

5. They serve as objects of concentration and meditation.

More than any abstract concept, an image or a symbol (yantra) serves as the best aid in practicing
concentration and meditation. By keeping the mind concentrated on a particular image, one can bring
it under control and stabilize it in the thoughts of the deity.

6. In idol worship the "true" worshipper becomes God!

At the physical level, the statute or object in a shrine is just a piece of stone, clay, wood or some other
material. However, in the mind of the devotee it comes to life as he pours his love and devotion into it
and makes offerings to it. It happens repeatedly whenever a devotee worships it. Hence, it is believed
that not all idols are alike. Those which are more frequently worshipped by more people accumulate
higher power in proportion to the offerings they receive. Thus in worship, devotees step into the role
of God. They put life into the materiality of the idols and make them alive.

7. The idols help us cultivate sameness and equanimity.

Hindus not only worship idols in temples, but also natural objects and phenomena such as the rivers,
sacred trees, mountains, natural symbols, the sky, the earth, the oceans, the stars, the sun and the
moon and other planetary bodies.

8. It is a very powerful technique to cultivate purity and relate to the deity.

In idol worship you combine the power of prayer with the power of concentration and meditation.
Your further reinforce it with ritual and spiritual power. When you worship the idols with devotion,

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you combine all these energies into a powerful force and channel them in their direction, creating in
the process a powerful field of sacred energy.

9. It is a declaration of simple faith in the universal presence of God.

A devotee who worships the idols is not deterred by any of the limitations that God cannot be seen or
felt. He takes them in his stride or ignores them and conducts his worship with complete faith,
reducing the infinity of God into a concrete image.

10. It is a transformative and purifying practice

Idol worship is a transformative practice which contributes to the predominance of sattva. It is not
known to many that before a devotee worships an idol in the most reverential manner, he has to
ritually install it and breathe life (prana) into it. The same is done when he worships a symbol or
tantric diagram (yantra). It is called establishing life breathe into the idol (prana pratishta).

11. Puja: In the puja ceremony which is usually performed in the households, as well as in such
shrines the deities are ritually worshipped according to the standard procedure. Hindus have images,
called murtis, or pictures of one or more of the gods in theirshrine. These help Hindus to think about
God when they worship. By showing love and respect towards the murtis, Hindus believe that they
are showing devotion and love to God.Worshippers will ring the bell to let God know that they have
come to worship and to invite him into the home. Such bells are kept hanging suspended from the
ceiling once the temple or shrine assumes a certain size or proportion. Worshippers will light the lamp
and move it around in circles to bring light to the shrine. This light is a symbol of God’s presence.
Worshippers will light an incense stick and move it around the shrine in circles. This purifies the air
and brings a pleasing aroma to the shrine for the gods. Worshippers will light an incense stick and
move it around the shrine in circles. This purifies the air and brings a pleasing aroma to the shrine for
the gods.

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Worship: Worshippers will offer water to the gods on a spoon. This is to show respect to the gods.
Traditionally in India, people welcome a guest into the house by offering them water to drink and to
wash. At the start of the day, the mother of the household will wash the murtis – again to show
devotion and respect to them. “We human beings are geographical beings transforming the earth and
making it into a home, and that transformed world affects who we are. Our geographical nature
shapes our world and ourselves. Being geographical is inescapable––we do not have to be conscious
of it. Yet, realizing that we are geographical increases the effectiveness of our actions, the clarity of
our awareness, and the inclusiveness and generosity of our moral concerns. It helps us see more
clearly our world and our place in it.6 "When you visit a spiritual place, you are not simply admiring a
cute quirk of geology or a clever bit of architectural engineering," writes Sarah Baxter, a British
author who was Associate Editor of Wanderlust Magazine, the bible for independent-minded
travellers. She continues: "While the Eiffel Tower is excellent, it won't send transcendent shivers
down your spine. No, at a spiritual place you are also seeing and sensing the stories behind the rocks,
bricks, mud and mortar. You are channelling the ancestors who have stood where you now stand, and
the dreams and fears that they brought with them. No matter what your own faith or feeling, there's no
denying that these holy sites have meant a great deal – maybe everything – to the hundreds,
thousands, millions who have come before."

If you believe your faith has arrived at ultimate truth, you might reject the idea that it will change at
all. But if history is any guide, no matter how deeply held our beliefs may be today, they are likely in
time to be transformed or transferred as they pass to our descendants – or simply to fade away.
Architecture and Shrines holds them down to the earth. Anchors them so to say. Near to you. Almost
in your pocket
Roadside shrines,
Despite these recent developments in India, Hindu roadside shrines, and similar structures are
ubiquitous features of the Indian landscape, particularly in Indian cities. These shrines house divine
images favored by their local population. Regardless of the saints and deities covered by them, they
play an integral role in the everyday religious experiences of many citizens, particularly those that live
in close proximity to them. The presence of divine images and objects situated on the pavements, or
within buildings facing the street front, modifies their divine experiences, movements and

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perceptions. In conditions modern times, ‘new’ geographies of religion must take on board more
actively:

1) Different sites of religious practice beyond the ‘officially sacred’

2) Different sensuous sacred geographies;
3) Different religions in different historical and place-specific contexts;
4) Different geographical scales of analysis;
5) Different constitutions of population;
6) Different dialectics; and

7) Different moralities.5

Design: The most powerful pilgrim spot is the roadside shrine. Across India, in villages and towns, in the
heart of cities, next to railway stations, in the middle of slums, we find shrines dedicated to various gods
and goddesses. It may be a simple vermillion smeared rock, or a photo of Durga riding on a tiger, or an
image of Ganesh, or Sai Baba, or the dramatic saffron coloured image of Hanuman with garlands of leaves
and flowers. It may be the Christian crucifix with candles before it, or a dargah, replicating the shrine of a
Sufi Saint, with a cloth with tassels covering it. In most places, no one really knows who sets up these
shrines.

It is all organic. The banyan or pipal trees are favourite spots. Someone places the image, someone
prays, eventually some people get together and build a shrine around it, and before you know it, it becomes
the local pilgrim spot, giving its name to the neighbourhood. And once it becomes popular, everyone
insists the shrine was always there – or at least has been around for five thousand years, that it is self-
created, swayambhu, and so cannot be removed for development projects. Many powerful people have
figured out that with a temple they can grab public land. Many poor people have figured out that with a
temple next to their slum, it becomes difficult for the authorities to kick them out. Religion is a powerful
lever in India that informs politics as well as economics.

The best part of the road shrine is to see how it is a multi-functional space. Usually under a tree, it is a lot
more crowded with devotees in the morning and in the evening, who stand before it, pray, make offerings,
and go around it. In the afternoon, it is a place where old people sit and chat, children play, people go
about their business ignoring the shrine. At night, dogs enter the shrine, eat some of the leftover offerings,
and sleep next to the gods. No one minds.
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The shrine, if it becomes slightly popular, becomes a small market, sustaining a small economy, where
there are things needed for worship can be bought and sold – flowers, incense, candles, cloth, fruit, sweets,
images of deities, threads to tie around the wrist, vermillion powder in small plastic sachets. The shops are
mobile, confined to a basket mostly, which appears magically on holy days – like Fridays for Santoshi,
Tuesdays for Ganesh, and Saturdays for Hanuman. On festival days, the shrine comes alive with lights and
music and tents and a whole line of beggars who make the devotees feel guilty for having so much more
than them, while asking the deity for more.

Water Body: Traditionally in India, a holy spot was one associated with a water body (tirtha), usually a
pond or a confluence of two rivers, or a bend of a river with a flight of stairs (ghat), or a ford, the shallow
part of a river where one can walk across to the other bank. The Puranas are full of lists of such tirthas.
And we are told of magical events that happen when one goes to that pilgrim spot: diseases get cured, lost
relatives meet, fortune is restored, children are found. Sages travelled from one water body to another
water body, carrying with them their ideas and their gods. And so in pilgrim spots around India, we find
different religious denominations – there is a shrine of Vishnu and Shiva and the Goddess, even of a tribal
god, a local saint, even a mosque and church, built by people whose ancestors may have converted yet
value the old pilgrim spots. The idea of India was created not by the British – as Westernised scholars
insist – but by the humble pilgrim, who travelled north to south, east to west, meeting his gods.

To create a deity shrine, statues or images of the god or goddess that is honored is included, along
with symbols that represent them, candles, and an offering dish. If you want to set up a shrine to your
ancestors, use photos, family heirlooms, genealogy charts, and other symbols of your heritage.
Shrines were just temporary structures earlier erected to a particular purpose. Later on the idea of
permanent shrines and much of architecture's vocabulary was born. The presence of entrance or
Gokulum, the verandas, lanterns, and elaborate gates are examples of this influence.

The composition of a roadside shrine is extremely variable, and none of its possible features are
necessarily present. Even the sanctuary or the sanctum- the part which houses the idol and which is
the centrepiece of a shrine, can be missing. However, since its grounds are sacred, they usually are
surrounded by a fence made of stone or wood, while access is made possible by an approach
called Gokulum. The entrances themselves are straddled by gates – darwaza. A shrine may include
within its grounds several structures, each destined to a different purpose. Sometimes, you might even
want to build a shrine that has a specific purpose. In some magical traditions, for instance, people use
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healing shrines. If you decide to do this, you may want to think about including an image or photo of
the person who needs to be healed, along with magical herbs and crystals associated with healing. For
a healing shrine set up for general wellness, use blue candles–blue being associated with healing–and
herbs such as chamomile, feverfew, and eucalyptus, just to name a few. You can also methods of
creating healing sounds, like a singing bowl, a rain stick, or other methods of making sacred sounds.
Evolution into simple temple plans: The characteristic temple plan of the northern India was
developed in the 5th century under the rule of Hindu dynasty. These temple consisted of all the basic
elements; the garbhagriha surrounded by an ambulatory path, an outer portico with columns in front
and a flat roof of stone. The temples constructed during this period were simple and less impressive
compared to the temple constructed during the 10th -13th century temples. Some of the examples
from this period are temples at Sanchi, Tigawa and Deogarh. The development of sikhara started at
the temple of Deogarh in Madhya Pradesh (Brown, 1942). The temples constructed in the 8th century
had smaller shrines and the sikhara became the crowning feature of the temples. The addition of
mandapa (the pillared hall) to the temple started during this period itself. The other distinct character
of this period was the rectangular wall around the temple and addition of subsidiary shrines at each
corner. The most common examples of this period are the temples at Osian Rajasthan and the cluster
of Jain temples built between 8th -12th century in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The temple of Teli-ka
mandir, Gwalior and Vaital Deul, Bhubaneshwar were unique and inspired from the early Buddhist
architecture with rectangular plan and the barrel vault roof of chaitya hall. These temples don’t make
the full composition of Hindu temple as they only consist of main sanctuary with neither the mandapa
nor the portico. This form of architecture was abandoned by the architects in the north but was
accepted in the architecture of south India. A distinct architectural style developed in the temples of
Orissa (7th to 11th century). The elliptic curve of sikhara from the earlier periods were modified as a
perpendicular prismatic tower and converged near the peak. For the first time in history special
attention was given to the construction of mandapa; the roof of the mandapa was now pyramidical
with tapering at the top and lower than the sikhara. The finest examples of this period are the
Lingaraja temple, Bhubaneshwar, the Jaganath temple Puri and the Sun temple Konark with there
sikhara height ranging from 43 m to 57 m high. A parallel development to the Orissa temple, took
place in the central India during the 9th to 11th century. The temples of Khajuraho are famous for
their conical tower made of piles of stone with an arrangement of miniature towers called sikhara .
Each of these temples has portico, entrance hall and the sanctum. The roofs of various sections of the

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temple have distinct form. Each and every facade, wall, ceiling of these temples have carved figures
from the mythology and history. The finest examples are the Khandriya Mahadev temple, and
Lakshmana temple, Khaj

India is dotted with gods. In every village, there are deities at the entrance, at the border, in the central
square, next to farms, some visited only in times of crisis. In cities, we see gods brought in by the
migrants – the Khandoba of Marathas, the Momaji and Khatu-shyamji of Rajasthanis, the Shanta
Durga of Goans, the Jagannath of Odias, the Durga of Bengalis, and the Vaishno devi of Punjabis.
There are gods on the roads interconnecting roads and highways. There is a Hanuman shrine just
before you are about to climb a mountain, and a Hanuman shrine at the exit. Drivers throw money at
the shrine, and pray for their safety as they make those tough turns and steep climbs. There are gods in
every shop, in every tea-stall, in every dhaba. And as if that is not enough, there are gods inside every
vehicle, decorated with tassels and flowers.

These are not grand temples built by kings and patronised by Brahmins. These shrines are not
regulated by the state. In Europe and America, this will be forbidden. You have to take a license for
all religious establishments like you take licenses for shops. But in India, a temple, a mosque, a
church can appear just about anywhere, in a small room of the neighbourhood and simply under a
tree, to create a sense of community, to give support to the lost and the hopeless and the hopeful, a
moment of peace, a moment of connection, with a force that cares more than humanity.

The great and lesser Hindu gods are worshiped in a number of concentric circles of public and private
devotion. Because of the social basis of Hinduism, the most fundamental ceremonies for every Hindu
are those that involve the rites of passage (samskaras). These begin with birth and the first time the
child eats solid food (rice). Later rites include the first haircutting (for a young boy) and the
purification after the first menstruation (for a girl); marriage; and the blessings upon a pregnancy, to
produce a male child and to ensure a successful delivery and the child's survival of the first six
dangerous days after birth (the concern of Shashti, goddess of Six). Last are the funeral ceremonies
(cremation and, if possible, the sprinkling of ashes in a holy river such as the Ganges) and the yearly
offerings to dead ancestors. The most notable of the latter is the pinda, a ball of rice and sesame seeds
given by the eldest male child so that the ghost of his father may pass from limbo into rebirth. In daily
ritual, a Hindu (generally the wife, who is thought to have more power to intercede with the gods)

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makes offerings (puja) of fruit or flowers before a small shrine in the house. She also makes offerings
to local snakes or trees or obscure spirits (benevolent and malevolent) dwelling in her own garden or
at crossroads or other magical places in the village.

Many villages, and all sizable towns, have temples where priests perform ceremonies throughout the
day: sunrise prayers and noises to awaken the god within the holy of holies (the garbagriha, or
“womb-house”); bathing, clothing, and fanning the god; feeding the god and distributing the remains
of the food (prasada) to worshipers. The temple is also a cultural center where songs are sung, holy
texts read aloud (in Sanskrit and vernaculars), and sunset rituals performed; devout laity may be
present at most of these ceremonies. In many temples, particularly those sacred to goddesses (such as
the Kalighat temple to Kali, in Kolkata), goats are sacrificed on special occasions. The sacrifice is
often carried out by a special low-caste priest outside the bounds of the temple itself. Thousands of
simple local temples exist; each may be nothing more than a small stone box enclosing a formless
effigy swathed in cloth, or a slightly more imposing edifice with a small tank in which to bathe. In
addition, India has many temples of great size as well as complex temple cities, some hewn out of
caves (such as Elephanta and Ellora), some formed of great monolithic slabs (such as those at
Mahabalipuram), and some built of imported and elaborately carved stone slabs (such as the temples
at Khajuraho, Bhubaneshwar, Madurai, and Kanjeevaram). On special days, usually once a year, the
image of the god is taken from its central shrine and paraded around the temple complex on a
magnificently carved wooden chariot (ratha).

Many holy places or shrines (tirthas, literally “fords”), such as Rishikesh in the Himalayas or Benares
on the Ganges, are the objects of pilgrimages from all over India; others are essentially local shrines.
Certain shrines are most frequently visited at special yearly festivals. For example, Prayaga, where the
Ganges and Yamuna rivers join at Allahabad, is always sacred, but it is crowded with pilgrims during
the Kumbha Mela festival each January and overwhelmed by the millions who come to the special
ceremony held every 12 years. In Bengal, the goddess Durga's visit to her family and return to her
husband Shiva are celebrated every year at Durgapuja, when images of the goddess are created out of
papier-mâché, worshiped for ten days, and then cast into the Ganges in a dramatic midnight ceremony
ringing with drums and glowing with candles. Some festivals are celebrated throughout India: Diwali,
the festival of lights in early winter; and Holi, the spring carnival, when members of all castes mingle

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and let down their hair, sprinkling one another with cascades of red powder and liquid, symbolic of
the blood that was probably used in past centuries.

The architecture of the 1,000’s of roadside or under the tree shrines in India varies depending on
geographical location, the deity worshipped, and the date of foundation. The earlier Hindu shrines
tend to be simpler and less decorative affairs than those which came later on after the economic
revival of India. Later shrines are brightly painted and have more sculptural elements, but there are
many common features to all shrine from the distinctive Gokulum( gateways) to the gently sloping
roofs of even the smallest structures. In addition, balance and harmony with natural surroundings and
an aesthetic of elegant but overstatement are always essential considerations for the architect who
assembles these make shift shrines- creating a home on earth for the spirit of one or more of the
Hindu gods.

General Features

The buildings or creation of a shrine is typically done under some tree, which may be left plain or
painted with vermillion. Some shrines are highly decorative while others can be very austere. Early
shrines, which first appeared got converted into larger temples depending on the region, the wealth of
the surrounding settlements or the deep pockets of the visitors who come for darshan. Typically a
shrine in Mumbai would fetch more money than one on some roadside out of the town or on a
Highway.Because shrine grounds or precincts are considered "sacred", some kind of separating device
is used to demarcate the shrine grounds from outside "profane" areas. The road or path approaching
the shrine generally featuresone or more ritual arches or gateways or lined with stones which may be
coloured. The area around the sanctuary may be open, depending on the nature of the shrine, but
most are surrounded by wooden or stone fences; in imitation of Buddhist practice, verandas were
often added around the perimeter of shrine buildings, and large Gokulums or gateways were also
introduced later on once the shrine was either adopted by the surrounding settlement of by a high
dignitary who was interested to pour in monies to better the complex.

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Type of tree: Not any tree will do for a Shrine. Regardless of whether the originators of the Shrine sat
under it for extensive period or just chose it for its appropriateness for a holy site.

Tree hole shrine may refer to:

1. Tree hollow, a natural cavity in a tree.
2. Tree throw, a cavity left in the soil after a tree has fallen or otherwise been removed.
3. A tree mould hole, Formed by lava burning out the tree but retaining the exterior shape and form.

A stump is the bottom part of a tree left projecting from the ground after most of the trunk has fallen or been cut
down. I guess the tree base is the part of the trunk that gets wider at the bottom. Three types of trees are apt to be
chosen:

SHRINE IN SHIMLA

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BANYAN TREE

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MANY SHRINES ARE REGULARLY REBUILT AND/OR REFURBISHED AND MOVED

1. Peepal tree

Peepal tree is one of the most worshipped tree of India and is also popularly known as the Bodhi tree. It is
sacred for Buddhist people because it is believed that Gautam Buddha attained enlightenment under this
tree. In hinduism, the peepal tree represent the three supreme gods- Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva. The roots
represent Brahma, the trunk represent Vishnu and the leaves of the tree represent Shiva. Peepal tree has its
uses in Ayurveda medicines as well and is known to treat many ailments. A cloth or thread of red colour is
tied around the tree to worship it.

2. Banyan

Banyan tree is generally said to be the humble abode of Krishna. Banyan trees are always found either
near a temple or there is a shrine below the tree itself. It is also the national tree of our country and has
a large foliage which provides a vast field of shade. In the scorching summers, many people jaded by
the blistering heat take shelter under the shade of the banyan tree.

3. Bael
Bael is a very sacred tree of India and is associated with the almighty Lord Shiva. The bael leaves are
always offered to Shiva. The religious ceremonies are considered incomplete if the Bael leaves
and fruits are not offered to him.
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 4. Mango

Sometimes the Mango tree is also adorned by a Shrine underneath. The devotees can eat mangoes as
PRASHAD. The leaves and fruits of the sacred mango tree are used in many religious ceremonies. The
mango tree has been cited in the epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata and even in the Puranas. The fruit
of the mango tree is an emblem of purity, love and fertility. The leaves of the mango tree are always
hung by a string express the auspiciousness of any occasion.

A grotto shrine: (Italian grotto and French grotte) is a natural or artificial cave used by humans in
both modern times and antiquity, and historically or prehistorically. Naturally occurring grottoes are
often small caves near water that are usually flooded or liable to flood at high tide. Sometimes,
artificial grottoes are used as garden features. Whether in tidal water or high up in hills, grottoes are
generally made up of limestone geology, where the acidity of standing water
has dissolved the carbonates in the rock matrix as it passes through what were originally small
fissures.

A classic example of a shrine under a tree is the Bodhi tree in Gaya. It has gone through 3
stages.
1. At the time the Buddha occupied its base. Many pilgrims came to visit him there.
2. A 1810 picture shows a small temple under the tree erected by some believers of the Buddha.
3. King Asoka in 1 00 AD (CE) built a more majestic temple there but not on the tree. Near it.

The Bodhi Tree or Bodhi Fig Tree ("tree of awakening") is a large and ancient sacred fig tree (Focus
religiosa), also called the Bo Tree, located in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, India, under which Siddhartha Gautama,
the spiritual teacher who became known as the Buddha, is said to have attained enlightenment or Bodhi. In
religious iconography, the Bodhi Tree is recognizable by its heart-shaped leaves, which are usually
prominently displayed. The term "Bodhi Tree" is also widely applied to existing trees, particularly the
sacred fig (Focus religiosa) growing at the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya, which is often cited as a
direct descendant of the original specimen planted in 288 BCE. This tree is a frequent destination
for pilgrims, being the most important of the four main Buddhist pilgrimage sites. Other holy Bodhi trees
which have a great significance in the history of Buddhism are the Anandabodhi tree in Sravasti and
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the Bodhi tree in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. Both are believed to have been propagated from the original
Bodhi Tree.

1810 picture of a small temple beneath the Bodhi tree, Bodh Gaya.

The same tree in Bodhgaya today

Illustration of the temple built by Asoka at Bodh-Gaya around the Bodhi tree.
Sculpture of the Satavahana period at Sanchi, 1st century CE.

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It is said that the Buddha meditated without moving from his seat for seven weeks (49 days) under this
tree. A shrine called Animisalocana cetiya, was later erected on the spot where he sat. The spot was used as
a shrine even in the lifetime of the Buddha. King Asoka was most diligent in paying homage to the Bodhi
tree, and held a festival every year in its honour in the month of Kattika. Legend has it that his
queen, Tissarakkhā, was jealous of the Tree, and three years after she became queen (i.e., in the nineteenth
year of Asoka's reign), she caused the tree to be killed by means of mandu thorns.The tree, however, grew
again, and after several hundred years a great monastery was attached to the Bodhimanda called the
Bodhimanda Vihara. Among those present at the foundation of the Mahā Thūpa are mentioned thirty
thousand monks from the Bodhimanda Vihara, led by Cittagutta.
The tree was again cut down by King Pushyamitra Shunga in the 2nd century BC, and by
King Shashanka in 600 AD. In the 7th century AD, Chinese traveler Xuanzang wrote of the tree in detail.
Every time the tree was destroyed, a new tree was planted in the same place. In 1862 British
archaeologist Alexander Cunningham wrote of the site as the first entry in the first volume of the India:
The celebrated Bodhi tree still exists, but is very much decayed; one large stem, with three branches to the
westward, is still green, but the other branches are bark less and rotten. The green branch perhaps belongs
to some younger tree, as there are numerous stems of apparently different trees clustered together. The tree
must have been renewed frequently, as the present Pipal is standing on a terrace at least 30 feet above the
level of the surrounding country. It was in full vigour in 1811, when seen by Dr. Buchanan (Hamilton),
who describes it as in all probability not exceeding 100 years of age.

Another example is the Tekdi ganesh in Nagpur, India which was originally as per 1 of 2 theories,
a stone under a pipal tree erected by shepardsor cowheards who grazed their goats/cattle in the
vicinity of the tree. Site was visited by the King of Nagpur who was out hunting and on liking the
spot he spent monies to construct a small temple there. Read my paper on GANESH TEKHI
TEMPLE in academia.edu.
In the above pics one can see the tree behind the Ido; as well as emanating out of the construction.

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Building material: It plays a very important role in the construction. Bricks are one of the oldest
building materials which are still a prominent and leading building material because of its low cost,
wide availability, durability and easy handling. Most commonly used brick is Clay bricks which are
used for building interior and exterior walls, piers, partitions, footings and other load-bearing
structures.The word ‘brick’ is used to describe a small block of burnt clay of such a size which can be
conveniently held in one hand and is slightly longer than twice its width.

The common burnt clay bricks are usually pleasing to look at with warm colours ranging from cream
to orange to sandy and to brown or even blue brown in colour. When built into a wall, interesting but,
simple and pleasing patterns appear, just like people who all have one nose, one mouth, two ears and
two eyes but, no two person looks exactly the same. So, each brick although simple in shape, has its
own individuality.

Flooring:Brick flooring is commonly provided in such temples or shrines as they have a smaller
area and bricks are easiest to procure even though now a days, warehouses, stores and godowns
or in places where heavy goods are stored have brick floorings. The brick flooring may be done
with brick laid flat or on edge arranged in herring bone fashion or set at right angle to the walls.
The earth filling under floor is well compacted first and thereafter 4″ to 6″ thick layer of cement
or lime concrete is laid over the entire area of floor. This layer is known as subgrade. The floor is
laid directly over the subgrade. The slope required to be given to the floor to take care of floor
washing etc., is provided in subgrade itself. Before using, the bricks should be properly soaked
and wetted in water. The bricks are laid on edge on 12 mm. thick mortar bed in such a manner
that all the joints are full of mortar. Where the floor has to be plastered or painted, all the face

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joints should be raked to a depth of about 15 mm. during the progress of work (when the mortar
is green). This is necessary to ensure adequate bond between the flooring and the mortar of
pointing or plastering. In case, however, pointing or plastering is not needed, the joints need not
be raked and instead rendered flush and finished during laying of bricks. The brick flooring is to
be cured for a minimum period of seven days before use.

Brick Flooring
Merits of brick flooring:
 It is durable and sufficiently hard.
 It is cheaper than cement concrete, wooden or mosaic flooring.

Floors:Concrete floor: Concrete is incredibly hard and strong. As a flooring material, it has all the
strength and durability of a highway. It cannot be scratched or dented. Apart from making a fashion
statement, it is easier to laydown than bricks and hence may be preferred by those building shrines in
remote areas. Added dyes and etching techniques can turn grey, boring concrete into attractive one.
Because concrete is heavy putting it in new area, the weight should not be be a concern. If it has to be
installed over a subfloor supported by joists, a structural engineer is needed to determine if the floor
can stand the weight. Lightweight concrete may be a solution.
Pros of Concrete Floors
 Low-maintenance: The same properties that make concrete floors so durable also make them
easy to care for. Properly sealed concrete floors shrug off dirt, grit, stains, spills, and hard
impacts. A little sweeping and damp mopping is all that’s required to keep them looking like
new.

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  Beautiful design options: Modern techniques for concrete finishing have moved concrete
floors from ho-hum to luxurious. Dyes added as the wet concrete is being mixed produces
concrete in a huge range of earthy colours. Surface treatments such as acid stains, concrete
stains and paint made for concrete floors turn plain concrete into beautiful, one-of-a-kind
finishes. Also, concrete can be stamped with rubber stencils to give it texture. Combined with
the right dyes or coloring agents, finished concrete can be made to mimic ceramic tile, natural
stone, brick, even dirt!
Cons of Concrete Floors
 Hardness: There’s no denying that concrete is hard underfoot, a quality that some find
uncomfortable. It’s also unforgiving — a dropped glass definitely won’t survive — and it
may be a concern if there are small children or elderly folks in the household. Area rugs can
help alleviate concerns.
 Moisture: In below-grade basements, moisture migrating up from underneath the slab may
make concrete unacceptably damp and damage any surface treatments, such as paint. Proper
sealing of the concrete helps, as does mitigation of any outside problem areas like leaky
gutters and poor soil drainage.

 Cracking: Like it or not, even expertly installed concrete may develop cracks over time.
That’s because the large expanse of a slab has to endure changes in temperature, moisture and
settling. Colored cement paste and patching materials help disguise cracks.

 Environmentally suspect: While concrete itself is an inert, biodegradable material, the process
of making cement requires a lot of energy and produces carbon dioxide. Compared to other
building materials such as steel, wood and glass, concrete has by far the most embodied
energy.

Walls : The walls made of bricks are cheap : Cost can be as follows

1. 9″ Brick wall For Built-Rs. 110/Sft

2. 6″ Brick wall for built -Rs.90/sft
3. 4″ brick Wall for built-Rs. 70/Sft Its only include plastering bothside of building and not
include the scoffoldings and all. Its worth rate of engineer and building contractor.

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Basic form of a Hindu temple

When you browse our earlier articles on Hindu Temple Architecture, you would realize one thing. It
was a gradual evolution starting from the rock cut- cave temples to monolithic rathas which finally
culminated in structural temples.The basic form of a Hindu structural temple consists of the
following.

1. Garbhagriha:

 It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like a sanctum.

 In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
 Later it grew into a larger complex.
 The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much
ritual attention.

2. Mandapa:

 It is the entrance to the temple.

 It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular intervals) hall that
incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.
 Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.
 Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa,
and Mahamandapa.

3. Shikhara or Vimana:

 They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.

 Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples.
 Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.

4. Amalaka:

 It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North Indian
temples.

5. Kalasha:

 It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.

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6. Antarala (vestibule):

 Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall (mandapa).

7. Jagati:

 It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.

8. Vahana:

 It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar
or Dhvaj which is placed axially before the sanctum.

Makeshift temples. Extreme right is a SHINTO shrine in Japan. The first two pictures show stones
that have been transformed into deities by the worshippers. Probably some one grazing goats or cattle
nearby and to pass time he takes a stone and makes it look like his favourite God.

Gumbad (hollow round pyramid shape )on top roof.

There are three or four type of temples which are made with special design to form spiritual vibration
on human beings when he or she stands under roof of these temples. In India, temples are designed to
make as in structure of hollow round pyramid (from inside) and specially it is kept in mind - roof of
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temple should be structured as open sky from inside. What is reason to make these gumbad (top of
temple like hollow pyramid from inside)? It is only for human beings to understand spiritual vibration
when he or she chants any mantra or chant of OM. If you chant any mantra or chant of OM in open
sky - then it will lose your voice because open sky is infinite, it has infinite limits where our human
voice will lose its existence. Thus hollow round pyramid ( gumbad - as you see in picture as attached
to understand ) is structured on roof of any temple so that any devotee when chant mantra - by that
time chanted words may return to that human beings and have great impact on human body . it is the
only main purpose to make hollow round pyramid (gumbad ) on top of hindu temples.

It is art to make round hollow pyramid on top of hindu temples. Because how much well structured
hollow round pyramid returns echo sound of chanted mantra to human body who are standing or
sitting under that. Some stone are searched which are capable to return echo sound with perfectness
and much louder. When chants are made under that hollow round pyramid - it returns very fast.- a
circle of spiritual vibration created between the chanter and hollow round pyramid. By chanting more
and more one is put in deep stage of meditation - it is totally scientific process which are given by
ancient Hindu saints.

'sacred perception.': The central act of Hindu worship from the point of view of the lay person is to
stand in fromt of the diety and behold the image with one’s own eyes to be seen and see the diety,
Since in the Hindu understanding the diety is present in the image the visual apprehension of the
images charged with religious meaning. Beholding the image is an act of worship and through the
eyes one gains the blessings of the divine.5 "A common sight in India is a crowd of people gathered in
the courtyard of a temple or at a doorway of a streetside shrine for the darsan of the deity. Darsan
means 'seeing.' In the Hindu ritual tradition it refers especially to religious seeing, or the visual
perception of the sacred. When Hindus go to a temple, they do not commonly say, 'I am going to
worship,' but rather, 'I am going for darsan.' They go to 'see' the image of the deity — be it Krsna or
Durga, Siva or Visnu — present in the sanctum of the temple, and they go especially at those times of
day when the image is most beautifully adorned with fresh flowers and when the curtain is drawn
back so that the image is fully visible. The central act of Hindu worship, from the point of view of the
lay person, is to stand in the presence of the deity and to behold the image with one's own eyes, to see
and be seen by the deity. Darsan is sometimes translated as the 'auspicious sight' of the divine, and its
importance in the Hindu ritual complex reminds us that for Hindus 'worship' is not only a matter of
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prayers and offerings and the devotional disposition of the heart. Since, in the Hindu understanding,
the deity is present in the image, the visual apprehension of the image is charged with religious
meaning. Beholding the image is an act of worship, and through the eyes one gains the blessings of
the divine.

"Similarly, when Hindus travel on pilgrimage, as they do by the millions each month of the year, it is
for the darsan of the place of pilgrimage or for the darsan of its famous deities. They travel to Siva's
sacred city of Banaras for the darsan of the Lord Visvanath. "Often such places of pilgrimage are
famous for particular divine images, and so it is for the darsan of the image that pilgrims come. The
close relationship between the symbolic importance of the image and the symbolic act of pilgrimage
has been explored in a Western context by Victor and Edith Turner in Image and Pilgrimage in
Christian Culture. In the West, of course, such traditions of pilgrimage were often attacked by those
who did not 'see' the symbolic significance of images and who, like Erasmus, denounced the
undertaking of pilgrimages as a waste of time. In the Hindu tradition, however, there has never been
the confusion of 'image' with 'idol,' and in India, pilgrimage is the natural extension of the desire for
the darsan of the divine image, which is at the heart of all temple worship.

"It is not only for the darsan of renowned images that Hindus have traveled as pilgrims. They also
seek the darsan of the places themselves which are said to be the natural epiphanies of the divine: the
peaks of the Himalayas, which are said to be the abode of the gods; the river Ganga, which is said to
fall from heaven to earth; or the many places which are associated with the mythic deeds of gods and
goddesses, heroes and saints. "In popular terminology, Hindus say that the deity or
the sadhu 'gives darsan ' (darsan dena is the Hindi expression), and the people 'take darsan' (darsan
lena). What does this mean? What is given and what is taken? The very expression is arresting, for
'seeing' in this religious sense is not an act which is initiated by the worshiper. Rather, the deity
presents itself to be seen in its image, and the people 'receive' their darsan. One might say that this is
'sacred perception.'

Most Hindus have a small shrine in their home where they can worship daily. This worship is called
‘Puja’. The shrine will contain at least one image, called a 'murti', of their gods, for example, Lord
Ganesh or Lord Krishna. These images help the Hindu to focus on different aspects of God. Similarly
on the wayside temples there is an image to worship. This image will be a small statute or a small

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rock or stone.This object may look like a God having human like features either created by nature or a
carved statute.Some shrine once they have a Priest in the vicinity or manning the temple itself contain
a puja tray which holds some seven items. These items are used in the worship. They help the Hindu
to use all their senses when they worship, as a symbol that the whole person is taken up with the
worship.Hindus believe in one God, yet many images of that one gods. They call them AVATARS(
much like the film of the same name where the protagonist has 2 different forms yet he is 1
individual). They believe that there is one universal, invisible spirit called Brahman which is
everywhere in the universe, including inside every living thing. However, they believe that God has
shown himself to human beings in many different forms, both animal and human. These gods and
goddesses help us to understand what God is like. Two such gods are Ganesh and Krishna.

Speaking of North American Indigenous folks and their spatial reltionships to holy places, “sacred
geographies are bound up with histories, religious practices, and cosmologies. Axis mundi and
memory anchors create connections across spatial and temporal realities. High places (peaks, mesas)
are the home of mythic beings or entry points into a world above. Openings in the earth (canyons,
springs) lead to a world below. Special places demarcate cosmologies on current (Tewa) and ancient
(Chaco Canyon) landscapes. Sacred geographies are marked by shrines, rock art, votive deposits,
trails, alignments, and archaeological sites. Pilgrimages are undertaken to natural and archaeological
memory anchors and axis mundi. Sacred places are increasingly threatened by groups with divergent
interests 7
But in India- “Architecture and sculpture are inextricably linked in India. Thus, if one speaks of
Indian architecture without taking note of the lavish sculptured decoration with which monuments are
covered, a partial and distorted picture is presented. In the Hindu temple, large niches in the three
exterior walls of the sanctum house sculpted images that portray various aspects of the deity enshrined
within. The sanctum image expresses the essence of the deity. 8

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 REFERENCES

1. Nagar, R. 1997: The making of Hindu communal organizations, places, and identities in
postcolonial Dar es Salaam. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 15, 707–30.
Nagata, J. 1999: The globalisation of Buddhism.

2. Iconography in Hinduis- Decoding the pictorial script,Sherline Pimenta K.,IDC, IIT Bombay
3. Manmatha Nath Dutt, A Prose English Translation of Agni Puranam, vol. I,(Calcutta, 1903),
PP. 142-6

4. .Darshan: seeing the divine image in India. Ech. D.L. 3rd edition,N.Y. Columbia Uni. Ptress
1998:3(Quoted by Karline McLain,Visual and Media Culture, in the book Hinduism in the
Modern World)
5..Homo Geographicus, Robert David Sack, ,The Johns Hopkins University Press (June 16,
1997

6.Mapping ‘new’ geographies of religion: politics and poetics in modernity Lily Kong.
Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, 1 Arts Link, Singapore 117570,
Progress in Human Geography 25,2 (2001) pp. 211–233

7. Ruth Van Dyke,The Oxford Handbook of Southwest Archaeology,Edited by Barbara Mills

and Severin Fowles Print Publication - Oct 2017

8. Vidya Dehejiam Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University.

Metropolitan Museum of Art]

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 CHAPTER 10
Hindu Religious Endowments and Temples-Who controls this
Empire?

Uncommon facts about Ancient Hindu Temple Architecture-Part II

Short Round: What is Sankara?

Indiana Jones: Fortune and glory, kid. Fortune and glory.
Dialogue from Indiana Jones- The Temple of Doom

Land of Temples: India is a country which has earned the privilege of being called a land of temples.
Big and small temples are virtually littered all over its territory, especially in South India. These
sacred places emerged not out of chance but through choice. Temples rose out of devotion of the
commoners and with donations from the public. Piety also caused the appearance of small pillar
temples at almost all streetcorners. People believed that temples for Gods would bring them peace and
prosperity. Small Amman Koils also sprang in all places with monotonous regularity, because people
considered Shakthi to be the embodiment of power and protection. Even these small temples
generated extensive economic, commercial and other activities, paving the way for the emergence of
villages, and small towns. Legends, stories and miracles came into circulation, creating awe and

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discipline among the inhabitants. Social cohesion was achieved as various castes and communities
started living harmoniously.

Rulers built temples: A large cohesive unit emerged out of the territorial ambitions of Rulers. While
occupying other kingdoms, they fulfilled their individual, egotistic aspirations by constructing temples
of gigantic dimensions in places considered appropriate. They deployed immense financial and human
resources to build places of worship and fine arts. This temple-raising activity gained historic
importance as each temple became a permanent testimony to the devotional fervour and artistic
sensibilities of the Rulers. The historic significance of the Rulers' predilections was that Shiva and
Vishnu temples adorned the Indian landscape in large numbers. Inscriptions found on the walls of
these holy shrines offer eloquent proof of the history of their origin. The Prahadeeswarar Temple (Big
Temple) at Tanjavur is a concrete example: Eaja Raja Chola oversaw the construction activities and
earned a niche in the annals of history. The historic temple brought fame to Tanjavur then, and, now,
it has developed into a tourist centre. Whatever be the reasons, historic compulsions or religio-social
necessities, the fact remains that the temple has been the centre of activities influencing human life
from the ancient times to the present day. Sculptured inscriptions on the Pillars and walls of the
temples provide us an insight into the social fabric of the period. In ancient times, the village was an
economic unit and the temple became the hub of activities. An excerpt from a Government
Publication throws light on the role of the temple in the economic sphere: "The temple deity was a
leading landowner and received generous gifts from kings, chiefs, merchants, and the common
people, in addition to some local taxes. Temples thus became rich enough to function as banks and
could even lend money to needy agriculturists. The daily routine of temple ritual gave assured
employment to a large number of people - priests, learned men, musicians, dancing girls, teachers,
florists, tailors, clerks, accountants, and functionaries of various kinds. 1

Hindu Worship: The Gods have distinct forms ascribed to them and their worship at home and in
temples is ordained as certain means of attaining salvation. These injunctions have had such a
powerful hold over the minds of the people that daily worship of the deity in temple came to be
regarded as one of the obligatory duties of a Hindu. It was during this period that temples were
constructed all over the country dedicated to Vishnu, Rudra, Devi, Skanda, Ganesha and so forth, and
worship in the temple can be said to have become the practical religion of all sections of the Hindus.

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The great temples were—and still are—wealthy institutions. The patrons who endowed them with
land, money, and cattle included royalty as well as men and women from several classes of society.
The temples were also supported by the transfer of the taxes levied by kings on specific areas of the
nearby countryside, by donations of the pious, and by the fees of worshipers. Their immense wealth
was one of the factors that encouraged the Ghaznavid and Ghūrid Turks to invade India after the 11th
century. The temples were controlled by self-perpetuating committees—whose membership was
usually a hereditary privilege—and by a large staff of priests and temple servants under a high priest
who wielded tremendous power and influence.

In keeping with their wealth, the great walled temple complexes of south India were—and still are—
small cities, containing the central and numerous lesser shrines, bathing tanks, administrative offices,
homes of the temple employees, workshops, bazaars, and public buildings of many kinds. As some of
the largest employers and greatest landowners in their areas, the temples played an important part in
the economy. They also performed valuable social functions, serving as schools, dispensaries,
poorhouses, banks, and concert halls.

The temple complexes suffered during the Muslim occupation. In the sacred cities
of Varanasi (Benares) and Mathura, no large temple from any period before the 17th century has
survived. The same is true of most of the main religious centres of northern India but not of the
regions where the Muslim hold was less firm, such as Orissa, Rajasthan, and south India. Despite the
widespread destruction of the temples, Hinduism endured, in part because of the absence of a
centralized authority; rituals and sacrifices were performed in places other than temples.
The purohitas, or family priests who performed the domestic rituals and personal sacraments for the
laypeople, continued to function, as did the thousands of ascetics.

With the growth in importance of temples and of worship therein, more and more attention came to be
devoted to the ceremonial law relating to the construction of temples, installation of idols therein and
conduct of worship of the deity and numerous are the treatises that came to be written for its
exposition. These are known as Agamas, and there are as many as 28 of them relating to the Saiva
temples, the most important of them being the Kamikagama, the Karanagama and the
Suprubedagama, while the Vikhanasa and the Pancharatra are the chief Agamas of the Vaishnavas.
These Agamas, contain elaborate rules as to how the temple is to be constructed, where the principal

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deity is to be consecrated, and where the other Devatas are to be installed and where the several
classes of worshippers are to stand and worship. The following passage from the judgment of
Sadasiva Aiyar J. in Gopala Muppanar v. Subramania Aiyar 1, gives a summary of the prescription
contained in one of the Agamas:
" In the Nirvachanapaddhathi it is said that Sivadwijas should worship in the Garbagriham, Brahmins
from the ante chamber or Sabah Mantabam, Kshatriyas, Vysias and Sudras from the
Mahamantabham, the dancer and the musician from the Nrithamantabham east of the
Mahamantabham and that castes yet lower in scale should content themselves with the sight of the
Gopuram."The other Agamas also contain similar rules. According to the Agamas, an image becomes
defiled if there is any departure or violation of any of the rules relating to worship, and purificatory
ceremonies (known as Samprokshana) have to be performed for restoring the sanctity of the shrine.

Agama Shastra, a collection of ideas that lays down the rules for worship, temple building, spirituality
and rituals, has for long been a guideline for many people of the Hindu faith. It is a collection of
Sanskrit, Tamil and Grantha scriptures that contains, mainly, methods of temple construction, idol
creation, philosophical doctrines and meditative practices. As a compendium of sorts that came into
being after years of assimilation and from a variety of sources, the Agama shastra as a whole cannot
be dated; some parts of it being pre vedic while the others are post vedic.

Role of Agama Shastra in Temple finances:

As a complete guide, Agama Shastra plays a very important role in consecration and construction of
holy places; most Hindu places of worship follow the tenets of the Agama Shastra.
The Four Padas
While the Agama are many in number, each of them consists of four parts: Kriya Pada, Charya Pada,
Yoga Pada and Jnana Pada. While Kriya Pada expounds more tangible rules– rules of construction,
sculpting, carving consecration of Idols etc. the Jnana Pada deals with something more lofty, the
philosophy and spirituality of temple worship.

Temples and places of worship cannot be built arbitrarily or on the strength of some local notion, for
everything is laid down categorically in the Agama shastra. For example, for a pilgrimage the three
essentials are Sthala, Tirtha and Murthy, where the Sthala refers to the place of the temple, the Tirtha

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signifies the temple tank and Murthy stands for the idol. There are rules in the Agama Shastra for just
about every aspect, including the smallest detail, from the positioning of the holy figurine to the
materials from which the temple is to be constructed.

Unlike the Vedic guidelines, that focus more on Havan Building, Agama Shastra dwells at length on
idols and figurines of the deities. It dwells in such detail that it is in places almost like a scientific blue
print for temple making. Given how temples in India are spread, over a vast territorial space, it is
amazing how Agama Shastra is employed and followed throughout the majority of these temples,
notwithstanding the cultural and regional differences; perhaps, there is something divine about the
Agama Shastra.
British rulers and Hindu temples

Until the British came to India, temples were managed by local communities. They were centres of
dance and art, and at the heart of a massive decentralised trade network. Every temple had charitable
endowments, including property given to temples, for the benefit of the community. The benefits
included rest-houses, pathshalas, gaushalas, and institutions for the advancement of education and
feeding of the poor. For the British agenda of colonisation and conversions to succeed, the temple
organisation had to be weakened. So, temples were brought under government control mainly in south
India because not too many temples in the north possessed such massive property or wealth. The
British introduced The Madras Regulation VII of 1817 to do this.

The 1840 directive: In 1840, there was a directive from the East India Company to return the temples
to their trustees, because Christian missionaries, in India and abroad, did not like the idea of
Christians managing Hindu temples. Thus, temple management was slowly, handed over to trustees
and in case of prominent temples to Mutts by 1845. The Board of Revenue supervised the
administration of large temples.

The Religious Endowments Act 1863: Next came The Religious Endowments Act
1863, which handed over temple administration to the trustees from the British government. The
primary purposes of worship and utilisation of funds for the upkeep of temples were never lost sight
of by the Mutathipatis or other trustees. Hundreds of temples in the Madras Presidency were handed

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over to the respective trustees with the government playing little or no role in supervising them.
Trustees ran the temple following the tenets applicable to the temple.

The Madras Religious and Charitable Endowments Act 1925: The introduction of the Madras
Religious and Charitable Endowments Act 1925. It drew large protests from Muslims and Christians.
Thus, it was redrafted to exclude them, made applicable to Hindus only and renamed as the Madras
Hindu Religious and Endowments Act 1927.Ironically, in 1925, the Sikh Gurdwaras Act was passed
that brought gurdwaras under the control of an elected body of Sikhs. So the British had one set of
laws for Hindus and another for the Sikhs, Muslims and Christians. Even today, Hindu educational
institutions, temples, religious traditions are subject to government control and judicial review.

Constitution of India: Adopted in 1950, Article 17 of the Indian Constitution legally abolished
untouchability—the ancient Hindu system of social discrimination—forbade its practice in any form,
and made the enforcement of any discrimination arising out of this disability a criminal offence. At
the same time, the Indian Constitution guaranteed freedom of religious belief and practice under
Article 25 and autonomy of religious institutions under Article 26. How odd, since that is exactly
what happened in India in the 1950s and 1960s. In those decades, Article 26 was brandished all over
India in response to reformist legislation passed in most states in order to give effect to Article 17.
These “Temple Entry” laws opened Hindu temples to Dalits—people considered untouchable by caste
Hindus. However, unlike American jurists and judges, the makers of the Indian Constitution had
foreseen constitutional conflict, hence the freedom of religion clauses (Articles 25 and 26) came
qualified ab initio with declarations of the ability of the Indian state to regulate the non-religious
aspects of religion and to undertake social reform. Thus, when Gouda Saraswath Brahman trustees
attempted to keep the temple of Sri Venkataramanah, in Mulki, South Karnataka, free of pollution
from untouchables by claiming that it was a denominational temple and hence entitled to limit its
benefits to members of the denomination or those admitted at their discretion, the Supreme Court
stated that the constitutional clauses enabling the state to open Hindu temples to all Hindus (i.e.
including Dalits) overrode other considerations. And when the Gujarati Swaminarayan Sampradaya,
or Satsangis, claimed exception, in Sastri Yagnapurushdasji v. Muldas Bhundardas, on the basis that
they were not Hindus at all, an activist judiciary, led by then Chief Justice P.B. Gajendragadkar,

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committed all those epistemic sins that writers in this series have discussed: he reduced Hinduism to
certain basics, and then told Satsangi escapists that they jolly well were Hindus and had better behave
like good, modern, but also authentic Hindusnstance at the Supreme Court order on the Sabarimala
temple.

But a radical change had been introduced in the legislation by way of Act XII of 1935, through which
temples could be notified by the government and their administration taken over. That was to help the
British It introduced a Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Department, Government of
Tamil Nadu, as per the provisions of The Tamil Nadu Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments
Act, 1959 and in exercise of power under Section 4(1) of "The Ancient Monuments and
Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958" [hereinafter referred to as "the Central Act"] have
issued a notification expressing the intention of the Central Government to declare the said Temple as
an ancient monument, which is of national importance. This way the Hindu Religious Endowment
Board assumed powers to take over and administer temples. The board consisted of three to five
members. Indic scholar and author Subhash Kak, -‘The state governments have based their policy on
the recommendation of the Hindu Religious Endowments Commission headed by CP Ramaswamy
Aiyer in 1960 that Hindu temples and maths be considered as belonging to the public. The
government entered into the religious sphere when the Indian government was very aggressively
pushing state control over all aspects of Indian life.”

Post-Independence, Hindu religion is one of the oldest religions available in India. It has the backing
of centuries old scriptures, belief etc., those believes, rituals, practices etc., are to be protected, unless
the same is totally opposed to any part of the Constitution of India. Therefore, while on one hand, the
religious rights in terms of Article 25 are to be protected and on the other hand, mal administration,
financial irregularities by any religious institution has to be taken serious note of in the larger interest
of temple discipline itself.

The Tamil Nadu government took control of temples and their funds by an act passed in 1951 called
the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act, 1951 so did the state of Andhra Pradesh( as it
then was encompassing Telangana also- but I will restgrict my discussion to the Tamilnadu Act as
both Acts are similar and hope to usurp temple properties). The act’s provisions were challenged in

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the Madras High Court and subsequently in the Supreme Court in the Shirur Math case. Many
provisions of the 1951 act were struck down by both courts. With some changes, The Tamil Nadu
Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments Act was passed in 1959. The Congress was in
power in the country then. It said that the purpose of the act was to see to it that religious trusts and
institutions are properly administered and ensure that the income is not misused. The new act
abolished the Hindu Religious Endowments Board and vested its authority in the Hindu religious and
charitable endowments department of the government headed by a commissioner. If the government
believes that any Hindu public charitable endowment is being mismanaged, it may direct the
commissioner to inquire and bring the endowment under government control. This provision of
mismanagement does not apply to Muslim and Christian communities.Article 25 of the Constitution
of India says "all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess,
practice, and propagate religion subject to public order, morality and health." Further, Article 26 says
that all denominations can manage their own affairs in matters of religion.

"matters of religion ": Now, the precise connotation of the expression "matters of religion " was
considered to embrace not merely matters of doctrine and belief pertaining to the religion but also the
practice of it, or to put, it in terms of Hindu theology, not merely its Gnana but also its Bakti and
Karma Kandas. The following observations of Mukherjea J., (See f.n.1) are particularly appropriate to
the present discussion : " in the first place, what constitutes the essential part of a religion is primarily
to be ascertained with reference to the doctrines of that religion itself. If the tenets of any religious
sect of the Hindus prescribe' that offerings of food should be given to the idol at particular hours of
the day, that periodical ceremonies should be performed in a certain way at certain periods of the year
or that there should be daily recital of sacred texts or oblations to the sacred fire, all these would be
regarded as parts of religion and the mere fact that they involve expenditure of money or employment
of priests and servants or the use of marketable commodities would not make them secular activities
partaking of a commercial or economic character; all of them are religious practices and should be
regarded as matters of religion within the meaning of Article 26(b) of the Constitution of India.Article
25 says "all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right to freely profess,
practice, and propagate religion subject to public order, morality and health." Further, Article 26 says
that all denominations can manage their own affairs in matters of religion.Article 27 –
Constitution of India – Notes. Article 27 prohibits the levying of a tax the proceeds of which are

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meant specifically for payment of expenses for the promotion or maintenance of any particular
religion or religious denomination.

A religious sect or denomination has the undoubted right guaranteed by the Constitution to manage its
own affairs in matters of religion and this Includes the right to spend the trust property or its income
for the religious purposes and objects indicated by the founder of the trust or established by the usage
obtaining in a particular institution. To divert the trust properties or funds for purposes which a
statutory authority or official or even a court considers expedient or proper although the original
objects of the founder can still be carried out, is an unwarrantable encroachment on the freedom of
religious institutions in regard to the management of their religious affairs. A statute cannot therefore
empower any secular authority to divert the trust money for purposes other than those for which the
trust was created as that would constitute a violation of the right which a religious denomination has
under Articles 25 and 26 of the Constitution to practice its religion and to manage its own affairs in
matters of religion.

Wealthy Hindu temples such as this one are repositories for much of the $1 trillion worth of privately
held gold in India — about 22,000 tons, according to an estimate from the World Gold Council .

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The 10 most RIGHEST temples in the world are all found in India. In an article in India Today
magazine, 2016, it was said thatIf these 10 temples give away their wealth, India's poverty will be
solved.

History: The story of the government taking interest in temple trusts in India goes back to around the
1840s when the British government — unable to control temples — asked several prominent
mutts(religious orders) to administer temples and endowments. This was because while a temple was
located in one place, a devotee might have donated his lands located far away to the temple. It was
difficult for the tax authorities to reconcile ownership of lands with temple managements.
In the 1920s, the local legislature in Madras State (much of which later became Tamil Nadu)
passed the Madras Hindu Religious Endowments Act, 1923 (Act of 1925). This led to the
setting up of a Hindu Religious Endowments Board (Board) with the object of providing for
better governance and administration of certain religious endowments. Its validity was
challenged.
By 1926, the Madras Hindu Religious Endowments Act 1926 – ACT II of 1927 was passed
thus repealing the Act of 1925. This was subsequently amended several times.
By 1939 the Madras High court ruled that the Board cannot undertake the notification process
(for takeover of temple trusts) on frivolous grounds.
By December 1951, after independence, the Madras High Court Division Bench passed two
orders questioning amendments and orders passed by the TN government in August 1951.
Dikshitars (Brahmin priests and aretakers) are recognised as a religious denomination.
By 1954, the Supreme Court dismissed TN’s appeals as the state itself decided to withdraw
the earlier notifications.
In 1959, the state introduced the Act of 1959, Section 45, which empowered the state’s
authorities to appoint an Executive Officer to administer the religious institutions, but with
safeguards.
On 31 July 1987, the commissioner of religious endowments appointed an Executive Officer
for the adinistration of the Chidambaram Temple. The Dikshitars challenge this order by
filing a writ petition. The High Court of Madras grants stay of operation of the order, but the
writ petition was dismissed on 17 February 1997.

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 After several more attempts at the High Court of Madras, the Digshitars along with
Subramaniam Swamy, member of Parliament, file a writ appeal with the Supreme Court —
appeal No 181 of 2009, followed by a civil appeal No 10620 of 2013 contesting that Article
26 of the Constitution confers certain fundamental rights upon the citizens and particularly on
a religious denomination which can neither be taken away or abridged.
On 6 January 2014, the Supreme Court upholds the contention. The apex court curtails the
State’s right to administer temples.

The Supreme Court on Article 26 of the Constitution: On 6 January 2014, the SC pronounced a
judgement on the role that governments should not play with temples. It ruled that no government had
the absolute right to take over the management of temple trusts. By implication it was also stating that
the government takeover of temple trusts of Shirdi, Siddhvinayak, Vaishnodevi and even Tirupati
were patently illegal and could be challenged.

The Supreme Court ruled that Article 26 of the Constitution confers certain fundamental rights upon
the citizens which can neither be taken away nor abridged. The Court made this observation while
deliberating over the case against the Tamil Nadu (TN) government, which wanted to take over the
management of the Chidambaram (Nataraja) temple.This order is extremely significant. It could
reopen other temple cases as well. After all, ever since Independence, state governments, with a wink
and a nod from the Centre, have coveted the power and the wealth that temple trusts have enjoyed.
People still remember how NT Rama Rao, former chief minister of Andhra Pradesh, ‘nationalised’ the
Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams or TTD (Tirupati Trusts), which administer the famous
conglomeration of temples, educational and social organisations under the Tirupati banner.TN holds
the distinction of having ‘nationalised’ most of the temples. There are instances where temple funds
have been used to finance mid-day meals with the chief minister’s picture painted on the walls of the
venue where these meals are served.

The government of Maharashtra similarly ‘took over’ the management of important Hindu shrines
like Shirdi and temples like Siddhi Vinayak. It may be recalled that the state government wanted the
temple to finance the funding of the airport strip that was to be built near the shrine.But this had to be

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shelved after violent protests by devotees who objected the government trying to pass on what was a
state expenditure to the temple trust.

Many other states have followed similar practices and have ‘nationalised’ temple trusts. In all cases,
the trusts have been Hindu temple trusts. None of the religious trusts of other denominations and
religions have been touched. Thus the Hindus have lost the most critical source of funding of
community welfare programmes. The beneficiary has been the government which has prevented the
Hindus from carving out a sensible vision for their own community. As mentioned above, TN has the
worst record. It today controls 36,425 temples, 56 mutts or religious orders (and 47 temples belonging
to mutts), 1,721 specific endowments and 189 trusts. It has misused temple property, promoted
politically expedient programmes using temple funds, and emasculated the mainstream religion in that
state and even the country.

In the absence of the mainstream Hindu community having independent funding sources for its own
vision, the vacuum has been exploited by politicians. They have propped up other godmen, who build
their own community of devotees. They are allowed use of all the money they collect. And they
eventually use their parish as a vote bank for some leader or the other. They thus erode the ability of a
community to preserve its value system. They actually encourage ‘lumpenisation’ of the community,
and later even of society.

Supreme Court has reiterated that the provisions of Article 26 of the Constitution are inviolable. As
the court observed,
“Even if the management of a temple is taken over to remedy the evil, the management must be
handed over to the person concerned immediately after the evil stands remedied. Continuation
thereafter would tantamount to usurpation of their proprietary rights or violation of the fundamental
rights guaranteed by the Constitution in favour of the persons deprived. Therefore, taking over of the
management in such circumstances must be for a limited period.Supercession of rights of
administration cannot be of a permanent enduring nature.”

This order goes a long way in restoring to the majority community the right to govern itself.

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 Better to leave temples alone if properly managed and audited

Dr. Karan Singh, Former Rajya Sabha MP, and son of Maharaja Hari Singh, last Dogra king of
Jammu and Kashmir

The whole question of central or stte governments taking over temples is a vexed one. On one hand, it
is generally better to leave the temples alone provided they are properly managed and their accounts
regularly audited. The two circumstances in which government should intervene are: first, if there is
gross and visible corruption and mismanagement by sub-standard trusts, and second, when the
pilgrimages or places of worship are too massive to be run by a private trust, such as the Vaishno
Devi and Amarnath yatra in Jammu and Kashmir, and the Kashi Vishwanath Temple in Varanasi.
Even in such cases, it is important to have an advisory group of concerned citizens, who are devout
believers and can give advice on better management of the temples. To leave the matter purely in the
hands of officials is not correct, because the concerned officers may or may not happen to be
religious-minded. It is also important that in the event of the government taking over a temple, its net
revenues should be ploughed back into

Here is the list of 10 wealthy temples of India

1. Sree Padmanabhaswamy temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Vishnu.The temple is one of
the 108 Divya Desams (Holy abodes of Vishnu).It is believed that Lord Vishnu’s idol was found
in this place.In this temple Lord Vishnu can be seen in a state of sleep on Sheshnaag.The idol of
this temple is made up of 12008 salagramams that compose the reclining Lord.The temple has
blend of Dravidian and Kerala architecture. It has become as one of the richest temples in India
with more than 1 lakh crore rupees of worth treasures.

2.Tirupati Venkateshwara Temple, Tirumala, AndraPradesh

Tirupati Venkateshwara Temple is the ancient and sacred temple of Lord Venkateswara, a form of the
Hindu God Vishnu.The temple is located on the seventh peak of the Tirupati Hills and is also known
as the “Temple of Seven Hills”.About 60,000 pilgrims visit the temple every.It is said that people
drop bags of gold at the feet of Shri Venkateswara.The temple gets up to 650 crore in donations every
year.The temple has more than 50,000 crore rupees of worth treasures.This is one of the famous and
richest temple in India.

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3.Shirdi Sai baba Temple, Shirdi, Maharashtra

Shirdi Sai baba Temple is one of the richest and famous temple in India.Sai baba was an Indian saint
and many devotees consider him an incarnation of Lord Vishnu.The Sai Baba Mandir in Shirdi is
visited by around 20,000 pilgrims a day. The temple has ornaments worth over Rs 50 crore and a
total fixed deposits worth Rs 6275,697,488.

4.Puri Jagannath Temple, Puri, Orissa

Puri Jagannath Temple is a famous Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Jagannath meaning “the Lord of
the Universe” and located in Puri in the state of Orissa, India.Lord Jagannath, Balabhadra and
Subhadra are the three images that are worshiped at the Jagannath,Puri temple.The temple is famous
for its annual Rath Yatra or chariot festival.The temple is one of the holiest Hindu Char Dham( four
divine sites).The temple has huge collection of gold ornaments ,diamonds and other jewelry in its
possession. Therefore the richest temple in eastern side.

5.Siddhivinayak Temple, Mumbai, Maharashtra

Siddhivinayak Temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shri Ganesh.The temple has a small
mandap hall with the shrine for Siddhi Vinayak “Ganesh who grants your wish”.Famous Bollywood
stars and politicians frequently visit the temple to seek blessings of Lord Ganesha.The Siddhivinayak
temple receives donations of around Rupees 100-150 million every year that makes Mumbai city’s
richest temple - is one of the richest temple in Mumbai and the fifth richest temple in the world.

6.Vaishno Devi Temple, Katra, Jammu and Kashmir

Vaishno Devi Temple is one of the holy Hindu temples dedicated to Goddess Vaishno
Devi(manifestation of the Mother Goddess). Vaishno Devi Temple is near the town of Katra, Jammu
and Kashmir.The temple is supposed to be one of the wish fulfilling places, where lakhs of devotees
from India and abroad gather for Maa Vaishno Devi’s blessings.Highly religious and one of the
richest temple in northern India.

7.Somnath Temple, Saurashtra, Gujarat

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Somnath Temple is one of the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines of the God Shiva. Somnath means “The
Protector of the Moon God”.The Present temple is built in the Chalukya style of temple
architecture.The temple is situated at such a place that there is no land in straight-line between
Somnath seashore till Antarctica. Each day about 1,00,000 to 5,00,000 devotees visit this place.
Somnath Trust’s land assets are valued Rs163,914 crore.This makes the temple the richest in India.

8.Meenakshi Temple, Madurai, TamilNadu

Meenakshi Temple is an ancient temple dedicated to Goddess Parvati known as Meenakshi

Amman.The temple attracts 15,000 visitors a day, around 25,000 during Friday.There is an estimated
33,000 sculptures in the temple.The most important festival associated with the temple is the
“Meenakshi Thirukalyanam”(The divine marriage of Meenakshi).It is considered to be the third
richest temple in southern part of India.

9.Golden Temple, Amritsar, Punjab

The Harmandir Sahib also Darbar Sahib and informally referred to as the Golden Temple is a
prominent Sikh Gurdwara located in the city of Amritsar, Punjab, India.The Gurdwara is surrounded
by a holy tank, known as the Sarovar, that consists of Amrit (“holy water”).The upper floors of the
Gurdwara is covered with gold which gives it its distinctive appearance and English name the Golden
Temple.Around 35,000 devotees visit temple every day.Extremely well-crafted and richest temple in
North.

10.Kashi Vishwanath Temple, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

Kashi Vishwanath Temple is one of the most famous Hindu temples dedicated to Lord Shiva and is
located in Varanasi.The temple stands on the western bank of the holy river Ganges, and is one of the
twelve Jyotirlingas, the holiest of Shiva temples. The main deity is known by the name Vishwanatha.
Kashi Vishwanath Temple is also popularly known as the ‘Golden Temple’ due to the gold plating
done on its 15.5-meter high spire.

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 REFERENCES

1. The Director of Publication Division, Temples of India, Ministry of Information and

Broadcasting, Government of India, New Delhi, 1979, p.10
2. The Commissioner, Hindu Religious Endowments, Madras v. Sri Lakshmindra Thirtha
Swamiar of Sri Shirur Mutt (1) [1954] S.C.R. 1005.

Bibliography
Books:
# Ronojoy Sen, Legalizing Religion: The Indian Supreme Court and Secularism, East-West center
Washington, 2007.
# The National Foundation for Communal Harmony, Secularism and the Law, New Delhi, 2010.

Articles:
# B.R. Haran, HR & CE Act: A Fraud on the Constitution, bharatabharati.wordpress.com.
# T.R. Ramesh, HR & CE Act, www.vijavaani.com.
# The Object of the HR & CE Act, www.malabardevaswom.kerala.gov.in.

Documents:

278
# Constitution of India.
# The Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment Act.

Journals:
# All India Reporter.
# B.R. Haran, HR & CE Act: A Fraud on the Constitution, bharatabharati.wordpress.com.
# T.R. Ramesh, HR & CE Act, www.vijavaani.com.
# The Object of the HR & CE Act, www.malabardevaswom.kerala.gov.in.
# The National Foundation for Communal Harmony, Secularism and the Law, New Delhi, 2010, p. 1-5.
# Ronojoy Sen, Legalizing Religion: The Indian Supreme Court and Secularism, East-West center
Washington, 2007, p.46.

Cases

# AIR 1958 SC 536

# AIR 2005 SC 3053
# 1959 Mys.LJ 709
# 1970 (1) MLJ 170
# AIR 1978 Kerala 68
# AIR 2005 SC 3172
# AIR 1954 SC 388
# AIR 1954 SC 282
# 1958 SCR 895
# (1959) 61 BOMLR 1016.
# 2005 SC 3172.
# 1958 SC 536
# 1964 (9) FLR 355
# 1980 SC 1
# AIR 1954 SC 388
# 1997 (4) SC 124
# AIR 1980 SC 1.

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 PART II
CAMBODIA or

कम्बोजदेश

280
 C H A P T E R 11

Cambodian Hindu Temple Architecture -Mystery of

Architecture and Science.
Most Comprehensive paper existing

"The general appearance of the wonder of the temple is beautiful and romantic as well as impressive and
grand..." - Frank Vincent, 1872 describing Angkor Wat

Khmer people, believed themselves to be descended from the union of an Hindu Brahman and a
serpent princess from Cambodia

“By restoring Angkor Vat, the Indian team is in fact healing our souls”-Cheng Phon, Cambodia’s
then-minister of culture -1988- addressing the restoration work done by the Archeological Survey of
India

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 ABSTRACT

Cambodia also Kampuchea or Royaume du Cambodge is a country located in the southern portion of
the Indochina peninsula in Southeast Asia hosting the biggest Hindu Temple complex in the world,
but more than 4000 Hindu temples are spread all over the country.Cambodian architecture is very
diverse in style, design and features-illustrating that Hindu temple architecture was in its formative
stage and was yet to arrive at the standardised situation of later centuries. Nevertheless, the influence
of Gupta-era buildings on later Cambodian temple architecture is indisputable and continued right
through to the medieval period. The Indianised kingdom facilitated the spread of first Hinduism(and
later Buddhism) and the construction of numerous temples- on a gigantic scale and magnificence.
The How, Why and What is explained in this paper.Most comprehensive paper on Cambodian
Temples and Its Hindu Architecture

How the biggest and most intricate temple complex on the face of this earth which is also its largest
religious building- in the construction of which it is estimated that 5 million tonnes of Sandstone were
used and that too without any machinery is a scientific and historical mystery.
I have used the following techniques to make this a comprehensive paper which is a scopic review of
knowledge found on the WWW as well as the following techniques to determine the validity of my
hypotheses.
1. Deduction: I arrived at (a fact or a conclusion) by reasoning; I drew as a logical
conclusion.
2. Inference: A conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning
3. Study and compilation of all research on the Net on Cambodia in order to answer the
following questions:

 How Cambodia became a Hindu nation is explained in this paper.

 How Hinduism reached Cambodia and then the Cambodians seesawed to Buddhism and why
is explained.
 How could such gigantic structures representing Hindu temple Art and architecture be built so
far away from India-(Hindusthan), so as to have more inscriptions that in India itself.
 What Architecture and style was used and why?

Introduction:History of Temples

In the Indian Vedic period, there were no temples. The main object of worship was the fire that stood
for God. This holy fire was lit on a platform in the open air under the sky, and oblations were offered
to the fire. It is not certain when exactly the Indo-Aryans first started building temples for worship.
The scheme of building temples was perhaps a concomitant of the idea of idol worship. As the race
progressed, temples became important because they served as a sacred meeting place for the
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community to congregate and revitalize their spiritual energies. Large temples were usually built at
picturesque places, especially on river banks, on top of hills, and on the seashore. Smaller temples or
open-air shrines can crop up just about anywhere - by the roadside or even under the tree.

Holy places in India are famous for its temples. Indian towns — from Amaranth to Ayodhya,
Brindavan to Banaras, and Kanchipuram to Kanya Kumari— are all known for their wonderful
temples. The architecture of Hindu temples evolved over a period of more than 2,000 years and there
is a great variety in this architecture. Hindu temples are of different shapes and sizes — rectangular,
octagonal, and semi-circular — with different types of domes and gates. Temples in southern India
have a different style than those in northern India. Although the architecture of Hindu temples is
varied, they mainly have many things in common. The temples of ancient India have also received
substantial treatment with regard to their cosmic meaning, but the interpretation of sacred architecture
in India has been influenced by the significant body of ritual and architectural texts known as ãstras,
which provide detailed rules and conventions for all aspects of planning and construction and ritual
practice. The use of these texts has not only supplemented understanding of the symbolism of temple
architecture, but encouraged research into the meaning of plans, proportions, and architecture as
science. The question of the interrelationship between cosmos and architecture has also been
investigated in ancient Greece, where the use of proportion and geometry is considered vital to this
topic. The question of whether similar constraints existed in other cultures, such as the example of
Mesopotamia, also arises, with the possibility that they were perhaps articulated in the form of
metrological texts.1

The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted
in South Indian, and Indianise architecture of Cambodian, Annamese (Khmer)
and Javanese temples. Therefore in any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasiswill necessarily
be on Hindu religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature-the
religion being Hinduism.2

Cambodia also Kampuchea or Royaume du Cambodge as the French called it, is a country located in
the southern portion of the Indochina peninsula in Southeast Asia. Today it is 181,035 square
kilometres (69,898 square miles) in area, bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the
northeast, Vietnam to the east and the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest. In 802 AD, Jayavarman
II declared himself king, uniting the warring Khmer princes of Chenla under the name "Kambuja.
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This marked the beginning of the Khmer Empire, which flourished for over 600 years, allowing
successive kings to control and exert influence over much of Southeast Asia and accumulate immense
power and wealth. The Indianised kingdom facilitated the spread of first Hinduism and
then Buddhism to much of Southeast Asia and undertook many religious infrastructural projects
throughout the region, including the construction of more than 1,000 temples and monuments in the
city of Angkor alone.

Name: The Khmer endonym of Cambodia- Kampuchea derives from the Hindu Sanskrit
name कम्बोजदेश kambojadeśa, composed of देश deśa ("land of" or "country of") and कम्बोज kamboja,

which alludes to the foundation myths of the first ancient Khmer kingdom. This itself alluding to its Hindu
Origins. The term Cambodia was already in use in Europe as early as 1524.

HINDU

Date Name Notes

50/68 AD – 550
Funan Empire Nokor Phnom – (alternate name)
AD

Division of Land Chenla and Water Chenla in the 8th

550–802 Chenla Empire
century AD.

802–1431 Khmer Empire One of the most powerful empires in Southeast Asia.

Middle Period (Chaktomuk

1431–1863 Cambodia
era, Longvek era, Oudong era)

1863–1941, Kingdom of Cambodia (French

1945–1953 Protectorate)

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 CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS

1. 300 CBE Chola Empire

2. 100 CBE evidence of contact between India and Cambodia
3. 100AD potteries state merchant contacts between the two
4. AD 314-543 Gupta empire
5. 300- 400 AD - Inscriptions in Sanskrit in Pallava grantha, relate to a Cambodian queen,
Kula Prabhavati, who established a temple to Vishnu in the kingdom.
6. 400AD Inscriptions testified to Vedic sacrifices by Brahmans
7. 600 AD onwards, both Sanskrit and Tamil were used in government documents in Khmer.
Bilingual inscriptions are seen in Khmer and in Sanskrit
8. 690 AD Jayavarman I of Chenla empire in Cambodia died around 690
9. 790-850 AD Jayavarman II reigned; declares independance from Java
10. 802 AD, Jayavarman II declared himself king, uniting the warring Khmer princes of
Chenla
11. 802 Cambodia formed by name Kampuchia
12. 881 AD Bakong built by Indravarman I
13. 900 AD to1400 splendid temples built in Cambodia
14. 900 Ninth Century.The Capital city of Yashodharpur established by Yashodharman I
15. AD 890, King Yashodharman I moved his capital to Angkor, till 1210,
16. Trilogy of temples built
a) 889-910 Phnom Bok
b) 889- 910 Phnom Krom between
c) end of 900 Phnom Bakeng
17. 900ADThe 500 Lords of Ayyavole- Tamil merchants associations that sailed to cambodia
18. 900 AD-1500AD period of temple construction in Cambodia
19. 900 to 1400 successive kings built splendid temples to Siva and Vishnu.

20. 928 Reign of King Isanavarman II

21. 921 to 928 AD. Angkor and Koh Ker, existed simultaneously as 2 capitals
22. AD 921-944 Koh Ker temples
23. 1000 AD. Banteay Srei, temple built by Yagnavaraha, priest to Rajendravarman II
24. 1000 Shaivanism
25. 1002 Maritime conquests of Rajendra Chola
26. 985- 1014 Rajaraja Chola reign
27. Rajendra chola1014 son of Rajaraja Chola reign starts
28. 1025 CE, Rajendra led Chola forces across the Indian Ocean and invaded Srivijaya
29. 1070 – 1122 AD. Kulothunga I Son of Rajendra Chola In India and Suryavarman II in
Cambodia
30. 1000 AD YashovarmanI in Angkor
31. 1025,Gangaikonda Cholapuram capital of the Chola dynasty during the reign of Rajendra
Chola I, and served as the Chola capital for around 250 years.
32. 1025 Chola Invasion of Sri Vijaya in South Sumtra. Cptured by Rajendra Chola
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 33. 1116-1150 timeline for Angkor wat construction
34. 1181-1218AD Yasodharapura a parallel capital set up by King Jayavarman VII
35. 1181-1218AD King Jayavarman VII Angkor being build.
36. 13th to 14th century, some Brahmanas went from Rameswaram to Cambodia
37. 1113 AD to 1145-1150 AD Khmer King Suryavarman II who built Angkor was a descendant
of Cholas
38. 1300 ADS monks from Sri Lanka introduced Theravada Buddhism to Southeast Asia.
39. 1295 Buddhism Official state religion when Indravarman III took power.
40. 1200 Angkor Thom established by King Jayavarman VII

To understand the ancient architecture of Cambodia, we must focus on two Indian dynasties-both of
which extraordinarily influenced Cambodia.

I.The Chola dynasty was a Tamil dynasty of southern India, one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the
world's history. The earliest datable references to the Chola are in inscriptions from the 3rd century
BCE. The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the
building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola
kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship
but also as centres of economic activity. The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity,
extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia- probably even to Cambodia. The
market structure and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale,
cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song Dynasty. It is believed that the
Cholas went to Cambodia and the Hindu Kingdoms were formed with unions of the cholas and
Cambodians. The prolific temple building activity of the Cambodian kings bears heart to exactly
similar ones of the Cholas yet the temple architecture is of the Guptas because the Gupta designs and
temple building techniques were the best and adopted not only in Chola temples of India but
Cambodia.

II.The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire existing from the mid-to-late 3rd century CE to
543 CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 543 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent.
This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by some historians. The Gupta period is
generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the major religious groups. Although
painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period
saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art. The most famous remaining
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monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta and Ellora (respectively Buddhist,
Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the
monumentality and balance of Guptan style.The high points of this period are the great cultural
developments which took place primarily during the reigns of Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and
Kumaragupta I. Many of the literary sources, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, were canonised
during this period. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa,Aryabhata, Varahamihira,
and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.

Earliest temples of Cambodia resemble both Chola and Gupta architecture. From the 8th century
arose granite structures that look like South Indian temples. There is definite evidence of the South
Indian style of architecture morphed to the Cambodian surroundings-the Meru system of temple
construction. The form, dress and expressions of the deities and figures give the temples a local
flavour.The Guptas were Brahmanical by religion with special devotion to Vishnu, but they showed
exemplary tolerance for both Buddhism and Jainism. They were the first architects of purpose-
built Hindu temples (but also Buddhist) which evolved from the earlier tradition of rock-cut shrines.
Adorned with towers and elaborate carvings, these temples were often dedicated to all the Hindu
gods. Unfortunately, relatively few of the large number of Gupta temples built have survived. The
Gupta period may be described as ‘classic’ in the sense of the degree of perfection it achieved-
something that was never achieved before and has seldom been achieved since-and in the perfect
balance and harmony of all elements in style and iconography. Cambodian temples worship Shiva.
Puranic Hinduism with its three deities-Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti, as the consort of Shiva- came to the
forefront. While Shaivism developed in the south and south-east and Shaktism in eastern India and in
some parts of south-west Malabar, Vaishnavism, with its emphasis on Krishna as its main exponent,
flourished mostly in the northern and central parts of India. Popular worship was given formal
sanction and temples and images dedicated to each of these cults came up everywhere. Krishna
worship is not found in the Cambodian culture though Krishna as a God is depicted in the sculptures
there.

III. Arrival of Shaivism in Cambodia: Shaivanismशैवसंप्रदाय is one of the major traditions within

Hinduism that venerates Shiva as the Supreme Being. Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became
popular in the 1st millennium CE, rapidly becoming the dominant religious tradition of many Hindu
kingdoms. It arrived in Southeast Asia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of thousands of
Shaiva temples on the islands of Indonesia as well as Cambodia and Vietnam, co-evolving with
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Buddhism in these regions. In the contemporary era, Shaivism is one of the major aspects of
Hinduism.

The followers of Shaivism are called "Shaivites" or "Saivites". It is one of the largest sects that
believe Shiva, worshipped as a creator and destroyer of worlds, is the supreme god over all. It
considers both the Vedas and the Agama texts as important sources of theology. The origin of
Shaivism may be traced to the conception of Rudra in the Rig Veda

Virabhadra devotional plaque

Shaivism has ancient roots, traceable in the Vedic literature of 2nd millennium BCE, but this is in the
form of the Vedic deity Rudra. The ancient text Shvetashvatara Upanishad dated to late 1st
millennium BCE mentions terms such as Rudra, Shiva and Maheshwaram. In the early centuries is the
first clear evidence of Pāśupata Shaivism. Shaivism theology ranges from Shiva being the creator,
preserver, and destroyer to being the same as the Atman (self, soul) within oneself and every living
being. It is closely related to Shaktism, and some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples. It is the
Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasizes yoga, and like other Hindu traditions
encourages an individual to discover and be one with Shiva within. Shaivism is one of the largest
traditions within Hinduism. This aspect of Hinduism was brought to Cambodia by the Tamils- either

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as merchant-explorers or missionaries or due to their forceful interpretations and discussions with the
Cambodians.
Tamil rule of the Cholas: Their maritime conquests meant that the Cholas exacted tribute
from Thailand and later on the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia as is explained below. It is now known
that Cholas did not rule the areas they conquered directly, but installed vassals and collected tributes.
This continued for the next 150 or so years. (3rd century BCE onwards). At the time, Sri Vijaya was a
mightly empire controlling the Strait of Malacca who began monopolizing the trade route which
Cholas had taken and caused impediments in the path of the Chola vessels. During the rule of Raja
Rajendra Chola, relationship with Sri Vijaya deteriorated. Sri vijaya battled with Rajendra Chola but
was defeated and Rajendra Chola went on to put out successful expedition to conquer parts of what
today is Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma, some parts of Cambodia and Vietnam.

This earned Rajendra Chola the title ‘Gadaram vendran (one who conquered Gadaram)’ and also
made all the kings his vassals. Like most other far off expeditions vassals were duly appointed to
collect revenue from conquered territories. It was during the reign of Rajendra Chola’s son -
Kulothunga I, that Suryavarman II ascended the throne in Cambodia( AD 1113) . He too maintained
friendly and trade relations with the Cholas. The Southeast Asia was abundant with Tamils reining
control in trade and polity by and large. Though all the kingdoms were Saivists (followed God Shiva),
the Khmer king Suryavarman II however, followed Vishnu but there is some ambiguity about this.

Chola Conquests: Like all temples in South India, Angkor Wat also was built to function as a
garrison. The temples of South India that stand today and which are from the Chola dynasties are all
built like a city in themselves. They provided shelter and protection for the people during emergencies
like war or calamities. That is the reason they have layered defence structures (wall inside wall inside
wall with water and other obstacles in between) similar to forts. The architecture of Angkor Wat is
therefore heavily influenced by and resembles the South Indian Temple architecture. However,
Angkor Wat was built as a city in itself to celebrate the victory of Suryavarman II over the
expeditions. This is also characteristic of the Chola Empire. Rajendra chola II built Gangai konda
Cholapuram to celebrate his victory over the Ganges country. Angkor Wat It is a fusion of Chola and
Khmer architecture.

Srivijaya was a kingdom centered on Palembang in Sumatra, ruled by the Sailendra dynasty. Khmer
was ruled by Emperor Suryavarman I who desired a war on the kingdom of Tambralinga (in the
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Malay Peninsula). Suryavarman I requested aid from Rajendra Chola who had now assumed power of
the chola dynasty. After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, Tambralinga
requested aid from Srivijaya. This eventually led to the Chola expedition against the Srivijiya Empire.
This alliance somewhat also had a religious nuance, since both the Chola Empire and the Khmer
Empire were Hindu Shivaist, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya were Mahayana Buddhist.

In 1025 CE, Rajendra led Chola forces across the Indian Ocean and invaded Srivijaya, attacking
several places in Malaysia and Indonesia. The Chola sacked Kadaram (the capital) and Pannai in
Sumatra and Malaiyur in the Malay Peninsula. Rajendra also invaded Tambralinga and the
Langkasuka Kingdom in modern Malaysia and south Thailand. The Chola forces captured the last
ruler of the Sailendra Dynasty Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman bringing an end to Srivijaya
conquering large portions of Srivijaya, including its ports of Ligor, Kedah, and Tumasik (now
Singapore).This is how Cholas entered Cambodia.

Tamil Merchant associations: For the next century, Tamil trading companies from southern India
dominated Southeast Asia. The Chola invasion had furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant
associations such as the Manigramam. Manigiramam, or manigramam, typically referred to a
medieval merchant guild, organised by itinerant ethnic Indian traders, primarily active in south
India. Along with the ainurruvar (the Ayyavole Five Hundred) and the anjuvannam (the anjuman), the
manigiramam played a major role in the commercial activities of the region. Unlike the anjuvannam
which was confined to the port-towns of south India, the manigramam is found both in the port-towns
and in the hinter-land trade centres. Establishing trade contacts with merchants of the Khmer, these
associations and representatives are said to have made extensive contacts into Southeast Asia.

The Five Hundred Lords of Ayyavole were a merchant guild from Aihole in now Tamilnadu that
provided trade links between trading communities in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
They have been mentioned in inscriptions from the 9th century. Aihole was formerly a major city of
the Chalukyas of Badami and a place with many temples and brahmans, some of whom seem to have
become involved in the trading activities of the Five Hundred. But most of the Ayyavolu Lords were
merchants, especially those engaged in long-distance trade.

They became more powerful under the Cholas. They were protectors of the Veera-Banaju-Dharma,
that is, law of the heroic or noble merchants. The Bull, the symbol of the Saivaites was their symbol
which they displayed on their flag; and they had a reputation for being daring and enterprising. t
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would seem that when the Ayyavole-500 guild became a big overreaching guild of Southern India,
most of the existing indigenous and local trade guilds became associated with it. Due to the various
Chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia and the support provided by the Cholas to the Ayyavole
guild, the Ayyavole guild emerged as a maritime power and continued to flourish in the kingdom of
SriVijaya (a dominant thalassocratic city-state based on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia). This is well
documented in an inscription of the Ayyavole guild of the year 1088 AD found in Barus of West
Sumatra, Indonesia. South Indian merchants were also active in Burma and the Thai peninsula.

IV. Contact with India: There is reason to believe that there was contact between the Hindu
Kingdoms of “India” and Cambodia from the 1st century BCE. Chinese travellers who came to
Cambodia then, found a significant colony of Brahmins there. From Cauvery and the Krishna,
people sailed along the coast to the Gulf of Thailand and landed in the country. Merchants from
India came to Cambodia - attested by potteries belonging to 1st century AD from India. They
carried the Brahmi script from India to Thailand, Cambodia and other South East Asian countries.
Some of the interesting inscriptions pertain to Kaundinya a Brahmin who went to Cambodia and
married the ruling princess; their progeny became the rulers later. Whether it is history or legend
we do not know. In Tamil Nadu, Kaundinya was known as “Chozhiyan” (from the Chola Nadu)
during the Sangam period. Kaundinya belonged to a family of Vedic scholars and was a staunch
Saivite. Saivism, Buddhism and Vaishnavism integrated in Cambodia and a composite culture
came to be: Saiva-Vaishnavite-Buddhism.
From the ninth to the 14th centuries, successive kings built splendid temples to Siva and Vishnu.
Banteay Srei, 20 km from Bayon was built in the 10th century by Yagnavaraha, priest and
counsellor to Rajendravarman II. The emaciated figure of Karaikal Ammaiyar in one of the carved
panels of the temple shows its strong Tamil influence. The earliest inscriptions in Cambodia are
from 3rd and 4th century AD -are in Sanskrit in Pallava grantha. The earliest written inscriptions
relate to a Cambodian queen, Kula Prabhavati, who established a temple to Vishnu in the
kingdom.

The maximum number of Sanskrit inscriptions is to be seen in Cambodia rather than in India. Siva
linga pratishta is seen in almost every village. A 500-year old inscription shows how the same
astronomical calculation practised in India was also practised in the Khmer empire. In Khmer,
Ramayana and the Mahabharata chapters were recited daily in the temples.
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Sanskrit and Tamil: In the literary sphere, the works of Kalidasa, Bhairavi, Patanjali, and the
Natya Sastra all travelled to Cambodia. From the sixth century onwards, both Sanskrit and Tamil
were used in government documents in Khmer. Bilingual inscriptions are seen in Khmer from the
6th century - in the regional language of Khmer and in Sanskrit. The regional language became
classical because of contact with Sanskrit.

Dharmashastra: The architecture, sculpture, grammar, literature and lifestyles of Cambodia were
controlled by the Dharmasastra (Manu dharma). The iconography too was influenced by Hindu
culture. The kings were called Rajendravarman, Jayavarman, Indravarman — Varman is
traditionally Sanskrit.

Vastu Sastra and astronomy were followed in the Khmer kingdom. And just as in the Big
Temple in Thanjavur, hundreds of dancers were dedicated to the temples in the Khmer
empire.After the 14th century, however, the land turned to Buddhism owing to the influence of Sri
Lanka. Somewhere around the 13th to 14th century, some Brahmanas went from Rameswaram to
Cambodia. They took the Thevaram, Divya Prabhandam and Pooja Vedas from here to Cambodia
-some people say that they came from Chidambaram. In Cambodia there are still such priests. Our
connection with South East Asia is documented from the third century BCE, the time of Emperor
Ashoka. He sent his Buddhist emissaries to Thailand and also to Cambodia, which had by then

become a great power.3

Hindu Influences: For more than 2,000 years, what was to become Cambodia absorbed influences
from what was Hindu Kingdoms of the now India, passing them on to other Southeast Asian
civilisations that are now Thailand and Laos. It is said that Khmer King Suryavarman II who built
Angkor was a descendant of Cholas, the rulers of Tamil Nadu hence the similarities of Angkor
temples with temples of Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu buttressing the migration of architectural
trends from” India” to Cambodia. During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries, the states of Funan had
become principally Hindu. This State and its successor, Chenla, coalesced in present-day Cambodia
and southwestern Vietnam. Little else is known for certain of these polities. Some Chinese chronicles
suggest that after Jayavarman I of Chenla died around 690, turmoil ensued which resulted in division
of the kingdom into Land Chenla and Water Chenla which was loosely ruled by weak princes under

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the dominion of Java.

The Khmer Empire grew out of these remnants of Chenla becoming firmly established in 802
when Jayavarman II (reigned c790-850) declared independence from Java and proclaimed himself
a Devaraja- Sanskrit word for GODLY KING. He and his followers instituted the cult of the God-
king and began a series of conquests that formed an empire which flourished in the area from the 9th
to the 15th centuries. Around the 13th century, monks from Sri Lanka introduced Theravada
Buddhism to Southeast Asia. The religion spread and eventually displaced Hinduism and Mahayana
Buddhism as the popular religion of Angkor; however it was not the official state religion until 1295;
when Indravarman III took power.

The Khmer Empire was Southeast Asia's largest empire during the 12th century. The empire's
centre of power was Angkor, where a series of capitals were constructed during the empire's zenith. In
2007 an international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other modern techniques
concluded that Angkor had been the largest pre-industrial city in the world with an urban sprawl of
2,980 square kilometres (1,151 square miles). The city, which could have supported a population of
up to one million people and Angkor Wat, the best known and best-preserved religious temple at the
site, still serves as a reminder of Cambodia's past as a major regional power. The empire, though in
decline, remained a significant force in the region until its fall in the 15th century.The Khmer temples,
also known as the Khmer monuments, were constructed by the Khmer people between the 9th and
15th centuries AD. These temples are distributed throughout Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam.
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The center of the Khmer Empire was located around Siem Reap, close to the northern coast of the
Tonle Sap Lake. The Khmer monuments around Siem Reap are called the Angkor monuments. Koh
Ker, one of the provincial cities of the Khmer Empire, was located approximately 85 km northeast of
the Angkor monuments, along the north east royal road continuing on to Wat Phu. The temples in the
Koh Ker monuments were constructed between 921 and 944 AD, when the capital was moved from
the Angkor area to the Koh Ker area. During this time, Koh Ker was under the reign of Jayavarman
IV, while the Angkor area was under the reign of Isanavarman II until 928 AD. The two capitals,
Angkor and Koh Ker, existed simultaneously from 921 to 928 AD.

Yasodharapuraयशोधरपुर in Sanskrit, also known as Angkor was the second capital of the Khmer

Empire, established by King Yasovarman I in the late 9th century and centred on the temple of Phnom
Bakheng. Yasodharapura was referred to in the inscriptions as Phnom Kandal (Central Mountain).
Phnom Bakheng ( See Later) was a Hindu Temple- one of a trinity of temples constructed just before
the foundation of Yasodharapura due to Yasovarman's belief that the mountain was among the holiest
of places to worship the Hindu deities. Yashodharapura was linked to an earlier capital, Hariharalaya,

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by a causeway. The urban complex included the Yashodharatataka. The succeeding capitals -Angkor
Thom, built in the same area were called Yasodharapura by King Jayavarman VII (1181-1218AD).

The city of Angkor (ancient name: Yasodharapura) was the royal capital from which Khmer kings
ruled one of the largest and most sophisticated kingdoms in the history of Southeast Asia. From 890,
when King Yasovarman I moved his capital to Angkor, until about 1210, the kings of Angkor
controlled an area that extended from the southern tip of the Indochina peninsula northward to
Yunnan and from Vietnam westwards as far as the Bay of Bengal. During this era, these kings
implemented a series of massive construction projects designed to glorify both themselves and their
dynastic capital. After the death of King Jayavarman VII (1181-1215), the Angkor Empire went into
decline, although as late as 1280 Angkor was still a thriving metropolis and one of the most
magnificent cities in Asia. However, the great construction boom was over, Angkor Wat had been
turned into a Buddhist shrine, and Thai armies were watching. In 1431 they sacked the city which was
then abandoned. From the early 15th century to the late 19th century, interest in Angkor was limited
almost entirely to the Angkor Wat temple complex which, having been maintained by Buddhist
monks.

Temples of Cambodia

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Royal arms of Cambodia with the 2 Lions called Gajaraja which is Sanskrit for Lion King( on Right) Flag is left showing Angkor Wat
temple

Religion
The main religion of Cambodia was Hinduism, followed by Buddhism later on. Initially the kingdom
revered Hinduism as the main state religion. Vishnu and Shiva were the most revered deities,
worshipped in Khmer Hindu temples. Temples such as Angkor Wat are actually known as Preah
Pisnulok (Vara Vishnuloka in Sanskrit) or the realm of Vishnu, to honour the posthumous
King Suryavarman II as Vishnu.

Hindu ceremonies and rituals performed by Brahmins (Hindu priests), usually only held among ruling
elites of the king's family, nobles, and the ruling class. The empire's official religions
included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism until Theravada Buddhism prevailed, even among
the lower classes, after its introduction from Sri Lanka in the 13th century. The civilizations of
Southeast Asia developed forms of Hinduism and Buddhism that incorporated distinctive local
features and in other respects reflected local cultures, but the framework of their religious life, at least
in the upper classes, was largely Indian. Stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata became
widely known in Southeast Asia and are still popular there in local versions. In Indonesia the people
of Bali still follow a form of Hinduism adapted to their own genere. Versions of the Manu-smriti were
taken to Southeast Asia and were translated and adapted to indigenous cultures until they lost most of
their original content. As early as the 5th century, Kulaprabhavati, a Cambodian queen, endowed a
Vishnu temple in her realm.4

Pre Angkor Hindu Architecture: Many temples had been built before Cambodia became a powerful
Kingdom of Khmer Empire which dominated most of the Indochina region. At that time, Cambodia
was known as Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of Khmer empire. Chenla or Zhenla is the
Chinese designation for the successor polity of the Kingdom of Funan preceding the Khmer
Empire that existed from around the late sixth to the early ninth century in Indochina. The name was
still used in the 13th century by the Chinese envoy Zhou Daguan, author of The Customs of
Cambodia. It appears on the Mao Kun map. However, modern historiography applies the name
exclusively to the period from the late 6th to the early ninth century. It is dubious if "Chenla" ever
existed as a unitary kingdom or if this is a misconception by Chinese chronologists. Most modern
historians assert that "Chenla" was in fact just a series of loose and temporary confederations of

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principalities.Chenla started falling during the 700s as a result of both internal divisions and external
attacks by the Shailendra dynasty of Java, who eventually took over and joined under the Angkor
kingdom of Jayavarman II.

Individually, historians reject a classical decline scenario, arguing there was no Chenla to begin with,
rather a geographic region had been subject to prolonged periods of contested rule, with turbulent
successions and an obvious incapability to establish a lasting centre of gravity. Historiography
discontinues this era of nameless upheaval only in the year 802, when Jayavarman II establishes the
appropriately named Khmer Empire, which explains the later design journeys.

There are three pre-Angkorean architectural styles.

1. Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk also known as Isanapura where
was the capital of Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor Prei Kuk were built in round
shape, plain colonettes with capitals that include a bulb.

2. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of sculpture but

architecture scarce. Colonettes are larger than previous style. Buildings were more
heavily decorated but they had general decline of standards.

3. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings on colonettes
which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued

How Hinduism reached Cambodia: Is still a mystery with scholarly disagreements. But the fact is
that Hinduism reached Far East the same way that Buddhism followed Hinduism- by Conversion of
people not so firmly entranched in their own concepts of religiosity.

Indian merchants of the Chola kingdoms may have settled there, bringing Brahmans and Buddhist
monks with them. These religious men were patronized by rulers who converted to Hinduism or
Buddhism. The earliest material evidence of Hinduism in Southeast Asia comes from Borneo, where
late 4th-century Sanskrit inscriptions testify to the performance of Vedic sacrifices by Brahmans at
the behest of local chiefs. Chinese chronicles attest an Indianised kingdom in Vietnam two centuries
earlier. The dominant form of Hinduism exported to Southeast Asia was Shaivism, though
some Vaishnavism was also known there. Later, from the 9th century onward, Tantrism, both Hindu
and Buddhist, spread throughout the region.

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Beginning in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, many of the early kingdoms in Southeast Asia
adopted and adapted specific Hindu texts, theologies, rituals, architectural styles, and forms of social
organization that suited their historical and social conditions. The history of Angkor Wat dates back to
the kingdom of Funan. This kingdom was established by an Indian Brahmin, and in AD 200, the
country was peacefully settled by Indian traders. Four hundred years later, the kingdom had become a
prosperous trading region. As the area was located on the Pilgrim rout between China and India,
Hinduism and Chinese Buddhism was adopted by the new settlers. The Indian and Chinese influence
can still be felt in Cambodia, and the temples of Angkor Wat closely resembles Hindu and Buddhist
temples that can be found in Northern India and in Nepal. In the end of AD600, the Funan Empire lost
much of its power to the kingdom of Chenla. The capital of this new empire, Sambor, was located
about 40 miles to the Southeast of Angkor. During this time, beautiful sculptures and carvings in
sand-stone was popular. In AD750, a king with a reputation of being a war-like person, who was able
to expand the Chenla kingdom. However, trade with India stopped, and the Indonesian Empire rose to
power.

Power and prestige of Hindu traditions in the region: Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests, and,
occasionally, princes travelled to Southeast Asia from India in the first few centuries of the Common
Era and eventually settled there. Enormous temples to Shiva and Vishnu were built in the ancient
Khmer empire, attesting to the power and prestige of Hindu traditions in the region. Angkor Wat, built
in the 12th century in what is now Cambodia, was originally consecrated to Vishnu, although it was
soon converted to (and is still in use as) a Buddhist temple. One of the largest Hindu temples ever
built, it contains the largest bas-relief in the world, depicting the churning of the ocean of milk, a
minor theme of Indian architecture but one of the dominant narratives in Khmer temples.

Southeast Asia is full of Hindu temples and iconography as well as Sanskrit inscriptions, the nature
and extent of Hindu influence upon the civilizations of the region can be debated but it definitely
stands out to scholarship.

Divinity and Royalty of the monarch: Classical Khmer kings promoted the idea (known as
"devaraja") that there was an intersection of the ruling king and a validating god. Usually the Hindu
god chosen for this personal identification was Siva, but sometimes it was Vishnu, or, for some, a
godly image of Buddhist origins. Khmer temples thus often portray the ruling king incarnated as the
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god, whose shrines are within a monument on earth that models the design of the cosmos and
heavens. The faces depicted on the Bayon temple towers (see below) clearly resemble faces on known
portrait statues of Jayavarman VII. Given his Buddhist leanings, it is thought that the huge faces
portray him in semi-divine form as a "boddhisattva," an enlightened being conceived in Mahayana
Buddhism who postpones entering Nirvana in order to remain on earth helping others towards
salvation

Angkor temples modelled on traditional Indian cosmology, were built in order to provide a means
whereby Khmer kings could be assured of immortality by becoming closely identified with Shaiva or
one of the other important deities of the realm. Angkor Wat, for instance, was built by King
Suryavarman II as a huge funerary temple and tomb to serve as a home for his earthly remains and to
confirm his immortal and eternal identitification with Vishnu. Interestingly, claims of early Hindu
contacts farther east are more doubtful. There is little evidence of direct influence of Hinduism on
China or Japan, which were primarily affected by Buddhism. Boddhisattvas are somewhat like
Mahayana Buddhist saints. According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the
ruler, whose essence, if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga housed in the central sanctuary which
served as a temple-mausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained
shrines dedicated to the royal ancestors and thus became centers of ancestor worship.”5

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Why build temples? The building of temples by Khmer kings was a means of legitimizing their
claim to political office and also to lay claim to the protection and powers of the gods. Hindu temples
are not a place for religious congregation; instead; they are homes of the god. In order for a king to lay
claim to his political office he had proved that the gods did not support his predecessors or his
enemies. To this end, the king had to build the grandest temple/palace for the gods, one that proved to
be more lavish than any previous temples. In doing so, the king could make visible his ability to
harness the energy and resources to construct the temple, and assert that his temple was the only place
that a god would consider residing in on earth.

However, there are around 4000 temples in Cambodia, out of which most of them are located at Siem
Reap, Battambang, Preah Vihar, and Kampong Thom. The 72 major and several hundred additional
temples spread over 500 acres of land known as Angkor Wat were discovered by French missionaries
in 1860, and have typical Hindu Architectural designs. We use the word HINDU because at the time
they were built, there was no India.Cambodian architecture is very diverse in style, design and
features. This very diversity illustrates that Hindu temple architecture was in its formative stage and
was yet to arrive at the standardised situation of later centuries. Nevertheless, the influence of Gupta-
era buildings on later Cambodian temple architecture is indisputable and continued right through to
the medieval period.

The Khmer empire produced numerous temples and majestic monuments to celebrate the divine
authority of Khmer kings. Khmer architecture reflects the Hindu belief that the temple was built to
recreate the abode of Hindu gods, Mount Meru, with its five peaks and surrounded by seas
represented by ponds and moats. The early Khmer temples built in the Angkor region and
the Bakong temple in Hariharalaya (Roluos) employed stepped pyramid structures to represent the
sacred temple-mountain.

Temples of Hariharalaya: Hariharalaya was an ancient city and capital of the Khmer
empire located near Siem Reap, Cambodia in an area now called Roluos .All that remains of the city
are the ruins of several royal temples: Preah Ko, the Bakong, Lolei.

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 This 7th century sculpture of Harihara is from Phnom Da in Cambodia.
The name "Hariharalaya" is derived from the name of Harihara, a Hindu deity prominent in pre-
Angkorian Cambodia. The name "Harihara" in turn is a composite of "Hari" (one of Vishnu's names
listed in Vishnu sahasranama) and "Hara" (meaning the Hindu god Shiva). Cambodian representations
of Harihara were of a male deity whose one side bore the attributes of Vishnu and whose other side
bore the attributes of Shiva. For example, the deity’s head-covering consisted of a mitre-type hat (the
attribute of Vishnu) on one side and as twisted locks of hair (the attribute of Shiva) on the other.
Alaya is a sanskrit word meaning "basis," or "home," so Hariharalaya is home of Harihara or home of
the deity representing both Hari (Vishnu) and Hara (Shiva).

The Bakong is the royal temple mountain founded by King Indravarman I at Hariharalaya.
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Toward the end of the 8th century A.D., the Cambodian king Jayavarman II conquered vast territories
near the great lake Tonle Sap. For at least part of this time, he established his capital at Hariharalaya.
However, when he declared himself the universal monarch of the country in 802 A.D., he did so not at
Hariharalaya, but at Mahendraparvata on the Phnom Kulen Plateau. Later, he returned the capital to
Hariharalaya, where he died in 835.

Jayavarman II was succeeded by Jayavarman III and then by Indravarman I, who were responsible for
the completion of the royal temple mountain known as the Bakong and the construction
of Indratataka baray. Indravarman I consecrated the temple’s dominant religious symbol,
a lingam called Sri Indresvara (the name is a combination of the king’s name with that of Shiva), in
881. Indravarman I also constructed the much smaller temple today called Preah Ko ("Sacred Bull"),
dedicated in 880. In 889, Indravarman I was succeeded by his son Yasovarman I, who constructed the
temple of Lolei (the name may be a modern corruption of "Hariharalaya") on an artificial island in the
middle of Indratataka. Yasovarman also founded a new city at the site of Angkor Thom north of
modern Siem Reap and called it Yasodharapura. Yasovarman made the new city his capital and
constructed a new royal temple mountain, known as the Bakheng. Yasodharapura was to survive until
the 1170s when it was sacked by invaders from Champa.

However, after the construction of many such temples over several centuries and now perfecting the
art of temple building-art, design, architecture and construction methods, the flight of fancy of the
Angkor kings took off in successive generations. Khmer art and architecture can be said to have
reached their aesthetic and technical peak with the construction of the majestic temple Angkor Wat.
Other temples are also constructed in the Angkor region, such as Ta Phrom and Bayon. The
construction of the temple demonstrates the artistic and technical achievements of the Khmer Empire
through its architectural mastery of stone masonry.The temple has drawn praise above all for the
harmony of its design. According to Maurice Glaize, 6 a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the
temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements
and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style."

Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped
like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the
cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements
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are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The
statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier
work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time,
including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling
panels and doors.
Religious Architecture: In any study of Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on
religious architecture, since all the remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the
period of Angkor, only temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone. Non-religious
buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as wood, and so have not
survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic structures, elements, and motifs,
which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of different architectural styles succeeded
one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these features were equally in evidence
throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the presence or absence of such features as
one source

Temple complexes
Although early temples in south India may have been made of disposable materials as early as the first
few centuries of the Common Era, permanent temple structures appear about the 3rd and 4th
centuries, as attested in early Tamil literature. From the Gupta period onward, Hindu temples became
larger and more prominent, and their architecture developed in distinctive regional styles.

The 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat is based on Dravidian architecture, it was designed as a
pyramid representing the structure of the universe: the highest level at the center of the temple
represented Mount Meru, the home of the Hindu gods, with the five towers on the highest level
representing the five peaks of the mountain. The broad moat around the complex represented the
oceans that surround the world.

It is also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Buddhist,
Jain, and Hindu cosmology and is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and
spiritual universes.Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well as Hindu temples have been built
as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne" xūmízuò style base is a common

303
feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat, a Burmese-style multi-
tiered roof, represents Mount Meru.

The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted
in South Indian, and Indianised architecture of Cambodian, Annamese (Khmer) and Javanese temples
(of the Greater India. of evidence for dating the remains. Khmer architecture known also
as Angkorian architecture is the architecture produced by the Khmers during the Angkor period of
the Khmer Empire from approximately the latter half of the 8th century CE to the first half of the 15th
century CE. But is basically the same architecture as visualized by the designers of temples in the
Chola and Gupta dynasties. The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture.
It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II as a temple complex dedicated to Vishnu in the early
12th century in Yaśodharapura present-day Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state
temple and eventual mausoleum. Its architecture takes a break from the earlier Shaiva tradition of
previous kings. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only one to have remained a
significant religious centre since its foundation. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its
national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors.

Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the
later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu
mythology: within a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres
(2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple
stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west;
scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and
harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its
walls.Angkor Wat is said to be a ‘miniature replica of the universe in stone’ and represents an earthly
model of the cosmic world.
Astronomical designs: Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and
arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka 7 argues that the structure represents a
claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time
cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to
consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate
the deities manifest in the heavens above. Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture
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of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others,
such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the

constellation Draco.8Draco is a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name is Latin for dragon. It

was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the
88 modern constellations today. The north pole of the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco is circumpolar (that
is, never setting), and can be seen all year from northern latitudes. The Angkor Wat temple's main
tower aligns to the morning sun of the Spring Equinox. Angkor Wat as a Mandala.
Mandala: According to ancient Sanskrit and Khmer texts, religious monuments and specifically
temples must be organized in such a way that they are in harmony with the universe, meaning that the
temple should be planned according to the rising sun and moon, in addition to symbolizing the
recurrent time sequences of the days, months and years. The central axis of these temples should also
be aligned with the planets, thus connecting the structure to the cosmos so that temples become
spiritual, political, cosmological, astronomical and geo-physical centers. They are, in other words,
intended to represent microcosms of the universe and are organized as mandalas—diagrams of the
universe.9
Concentric galleries: Angkor Wat, located at 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E, is a unique combination of
the temple mountain (the standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of
concentric galleries. The construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that there was a celestial
significance with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east-west orientation,
and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise
location of the sunrise on a solstice. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the
gods: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and
moat symbolize the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple
was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level. Freeman
and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern
orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was
associated with the west.

Mount Meru: Mount Meru also recognized as Sumeru, Sineru or Mahāmeru, is the sacred five-
peaked mountain Hindu cosmology and is considered to be the center of all
physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes. Many famous Buddhist and similar Jain as well
as Hindu temples have been built as symbolic representations of this mountain. The "Sumeru Throne"
305
style base is a common feature of Chinese pagodas. The highest point (the finial bud) on the pyatthat,
a Burmese-style multi-tiered roof, represents Mount Meru.

Etymologically, the proper name of the mountain is Meru to which is added the approbatory
prefix su, resulting in the meaning "excellent Meru" or "wonderful Meru". Meru is also the name of
the central bead in a mālā. The dimensions attributed to Mount Meru, all references to it being as a
part of the Cosmic Ocean, with several statements that say, "The Sun along with all the planets circle
the mountain," make determining its location most difficult, according to most scholars. Some
researchers identify Mount Meru or Sumeru with the Pamirs, northwest of Kashmir. 8

There exist several versions of cosmology in existing Hindu texts. In one of them, cosmologically,
the Meru mountain was also described as being surrounded by Mandrachala Mountain to the east,
Suparshva Mountain to the west, Kumuda Mountain to the north and Kailasa to the south. The
concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into
ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara , a Sanskrit word translating literally to "mountain
peak". Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata Temple and Harshnath
Temple of the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also continued outside India
such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers of Hindu temples.9

Indigenous to the Cambodian architecture and not at all the Gupta or Chola forms the Angkor, and
other temples in Cambodia were built as a symbolic representation of Mount Meru. Mount Meru
of Hindu traditions is described as 84,000 yojanas high (about 1,082,000 km (672,000 mi), which
would be 85 times the Earth's diameter. The Sun along with all the planets in the Solar System
revolve around Mt. Meru as one unit.

One yojana can be taken to mean about 11.5 km (9 miles) though its magnitude seems to differ over
time periods, e.g. the Earth's circumference is 3,200 yojanas according to Vārāhamihira and slightly
less so in the Āryabhatiya, but is said to be 5,026.5 yojanas in the Suryasiddhānta. The Matsya
Purana and the Bhāgvata Purāna along with some other Hindu texts consistently give the height of
84,000 yojanas to Mount Meru which translates into 672,000 miles or 1,082,000 kilometers. Mount
Meru was said to be the residence of King Padamja Brahma in antiquity.

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According to Charles Allen, Mount Kailash10is identified with Mount Meru. One description in

the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis
lazuli. It is a pillar of the world and is located at the heart of six mountain ranges symbolizing a lotus.

The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into
ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to
"mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found in Rajasthan, western India. This concept
also continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.In Buddhist temples
the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is an earliest example of the 5th-6th century. Many other
Buddhist temples took on its form such as in Thailand the Wat Arun and in Myanmar the Hsinbyume
Pagoda.4

The temple proper is comprised of three galleries (a passageway running along the length of the
temple) with a central sanctuary, marked by five stone towers.The five central towers of Angkor
Wat symbolize the peaks of Mount Meru, which according to Hindu mythology is the
dwelling place of the gods. The mountain is said to be surrounded by an ocean, and the

complex's enormous moat suggests the oceans at the edge of the world. 10.

Chaturmukha-type Jain Influences: Angkor designs copied by Jains? Jainism: n South East
Asia, magnificent temples were projected as Borobudur and Loro Jonggrang in Java (Indonesia), from
Phnom Bakheng to Bayon in Khmer (Cambodia). However,built during the 11th to 12th centuries,
that is comparable with the temple at Ranakpur and has similarities with the ideal plan of Jaina
temple, not only in the large scale of the grounds but also in terms of the architecture.

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The main building of Angkor Wat is surrounded by threefold cloisters. The scale of the 2nd
cloister is about 100m x 120m.Though this is a plan of inside of the 2nd cloisters, there is a
larger 1st cloisters. As the temple is modeled on Mt. Meru, the central part is separated from the
2nd cloisters and on the height of 13m. So the space of central shrine is connected with the 3rd
cloisters only. Although the plan is a type of "Panchayatana," it is not "Mandapa" (hall) but
linear corridor that connects five shrines. That is the biggist difference from Jaina Temples.
PLAN 3 shows the premises inside the 2nd cloisters of Angkor Wat, and outside this plan there are
the 1st cloisters. The scale of the 2nd cloisters is about 100m x 120m, and the composition has so
much in common with the Jaina ideal plan. And we get to know the central shrine of Angkor Wat is
also four-faced-type. That is, in making a plan of large-scale temple spreading to its four directions, it
invariably requires that the central shrine is the chaturmukha-type.11
A piece of architecture that mediates the chaturmukha of Jaina temple and Angkor Wat is the
Buddhist tempele Somapura Mahavihara from 8th to the 9th centuries which is a ruin in Paharpur,
Bangladesh. Thus through the temple of Paharpur, which was the only example among Buddhist
temples in India that had a plan of chaturmukha-type, this planning method was introduced to South
East Asia. It evolved finally into the plans of Mandala-like large temples in Khmer and Java.Although
Hindu temples in India did not develop chaturmuka-type.

Temples to God Brahma: As far as names go this is as generic name- city of temples- but Angkor
Wat was not the original name given to the temple when it was built in the 12th century. There is no
knowledge of how this temple was referred to during the time of its use, as there are no extant texts or
inscriptions that mention the temple by name—this is quite incredible if we consider the fact that

Angkor Wat is the greatest religious construction project in Southeast Asia. One of the main temples

in Angkor Wat was dedicated to Brahma. Brahma is the Hindu God of Creation – without him, there
would be no Universe and no people. In mythology, He is the first of the Trimurti or holy trinity of
Hinduism - Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the Preserver) and Shiva (the Destroyer). Yet there are
very few temples dedicated to him in India? Also,they are scattered in hard-to-reach locations. Not far
away, in Java, Indonesia, is Prambanan, another massive Hindu temple built in the 9th century CE.
There is a Brahma temple here with a magnificent statue of Brahma; the walls are carved with
detailed stories from the Ramayana. The hamsa or vehicle of Brahma gets a shrine for itself! 12

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Periodization of Angkorean architectural styles: Scholars have worked to develop a periodization
of Angkorean architectural styles. All of these,no matter what period, show extreme refinement of its
decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian
mythology. The following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular
temple regarded as paradigmatic for the style.

1. Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a period of innovation
and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower is mainly square and relatively high as
well as brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal colonettes
begin to appear.
2. Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of the Khmer empire located
in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area now called Roluos some fifteen kilometers
southeast of the modern city of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple of Hariharalaya is
Preah Ko; the others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the Preah Ko style are known for
their small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy of their lintels.
3. Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in the area of
Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the state temple of King Yasovarman, who built
his capital of Yasodharapura around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one of the
most endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for tourists eager to
witness a glorious sundown at Angkor.
4. Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV, capital of Khmer empire
was removed from Angkor region through the north which is called Koh Ker. The
architectural style of temples in Koh Ker, scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick
still main material but sandstone also used.
5. Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer built the
temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style is named after the
state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
6. Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple constructed
not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and the extreme refinement
of its decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes
from Indian mythology.

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 7. Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries. Cruciform gopuras.
Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this
style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
8. Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most impressed the Chinese
traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward the end of the 13th century. Its unique
relief carvings have a naive dynamic quality that contrast with the rigidity of the figures
typical of some other periods. As of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot currently
be appreciated in its full magnificence.
9. Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and perhaps the
mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the Angkorian temples and defines
what has come to be known as the classical style of Angkorian architecture.
10. Other temples in this style are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor,
and Phimai in modern Thailand.
11. Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII freed
the country of Angkor from occupation by an invasionary force from Champa. Thereafter, he
began a massive program of monumental construction, paradigmatic for which was the state
temple called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in the style of the Bayon,
and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom, and Banteay Chmar. Though grandiose
in plan and elaborately decorated, the temples exhibit a hurriedness of construction that
contrasts with the perfection of Angkor Wat.
12. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction under
Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline. The 13th
century Terrace of the Leper King is known for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings,
dancers, and nāgas.

Angkorian temples evolved from modest structures consisting of a few basic sanctuaries to the
masterpieces we know as Angkor Wat and the Bayon from the very beginning up though the ‘Banteay
Srei’ style of art and architecture.

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KULEN STYLE (825 - 875)
The Khmer Empire was not born at Angkor, but on top of the mountain of Kulen, when Jayavarman II
declared independence from the Javanese. Today, many of these original structures are little more
than piles of bricks hidden deep in the mountain jungles. temples from this period typically consisted
of simple layouts of a single prasat. The ‘colonettes’ of the doors (more below) started to transition
from their circular to octagonal shape that would be common throughout most periods of Angkorian
architecture. Meanwhile, the ‘lintel’carvings showed strong Javanese influence.
The mysterious carvings of Kbal Spean, located on Mt. Kulen
PREAH KO STYLE (875 - 893)
It was the third king of the Khmer Empire, Indravarman I, who decided to leave Kulen and build a
new capital city called Harihalaya. Today, these temples are located in a village called Roluos, around
10km east of Siem Reap. Indravarman I would start his new city by building an ancestral temple, and
shortly afterward, a large state temple – a trend that would be followed by most subsequent Angkorian
kings.
PREAH KO (879)
Preah Ko is a prime example of the ‘trimurti’ temple layout, a very common style up throughout the
10th century. This arrangement consists of one taller prasat, or sanctuary, in between two shorter ones
of equal height. Typically, as is the case here, the taller central sanctuary represented Shiva and the
two others represented Brahma and Vishnu. The name ‘Preah Ko,’ in fact, translates to ‘sacred bull,’
and numerous statues of Nandin the bull, Shiva’s vehicle, can be found around the complex.
The bricks of the Preah Ko’s prasats are now exposed, but they were originally entirely covered in
stucco. Fragments of fresco were discovered inside one of the sanctuaries, revealing how they were
likely colorful and bright back in their day. As was the case in nearly all Angkorian temples, all of the
prasats were built facing east.On either side of the prasat door are two columns referred to
as colonettes. Here’s one of the first instances of octagonal colonettes, as opposed to the circular ones
of the pre-Angkorian Period.Inside those are what are known as door jambs. As in the case of Preah
Ko, these sometimes bear ancient inscriptions.
At the top of the door is the lintel. These always feature intricate carvings of mythological beings,
oftentimes gods on top of the demon kala, or Indra riding his three-headed elephant. These are always
worth examining, as many lintels throughout Angkor are one of a kind.

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Interestingly, despite being so old, Preah Ko contains some of the best examples of lintel carvings of
any of the early Khmer temples.
As will be a common theme from here on out, the level of detail at this temple is striking. The purpose
of the intricate carvings all over the structures was to make them resemble the abode of the gods. This
would help encourage the deities to descend from the heavens and visit the temples during special
ceremonies and rituals.
 FALSE DOORS: In this era of Angkorian architecture, the prasats only had one entrance
(facing east) with false doors on the other three sides. Here, the fake door knobs take on the
form of lions’ heads.
 THE INNER CHAMBER: As this was a temple dedicated to Shiva, the interior of the
prasats contained a shiva-linga which symbolized the deity. Prasats in Angkor normally
contained a shiva-linga or a scultpure, whether of a deity or the Buddha. The small interiors
only allowed room for a priest to conduct special rituals.
 An ancient inscription in the door jamb
 One of many intricate lintel carvings depicting Garuda
 Two lion guardians and a bull, symbolizing Shiva
 This enclosure near the entrance featured round colonettes, reminiscent of pre-Angkorian
architecture
 LIBRARIES: Here we see the first instance of a ‘library’ at Angkor, though we have no idea
what they were actually called at the time. Some scholars have guessed that they probably
contained important palm leaf manuscripts, as well as idols.
 Another likely possibility, however, is that in addition to the prasats, religious rituals were
also carried out in these structures – probably to the fire god Agni or to worship of the
planetary and directional gods.
 For some reason, when there was only one library in a temple complex, as is the case at Preah
Ko, it would be in the southwest corner. Later temples would consist of many more of these
structures.
BAKONG (881)
Only a couple years after Preah Ko, Indravarman I consecrated his state temple known as Bakong.
Made of sandstone, this pyramid temple consists of five tiers that stood 14 meters high. The temple

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architects made the higher tiers smaller, making clever use of perspective to make Bakong appear
taller than it really is.
Approaching the temple, one of the first things you’ll notice is the large moat surrounding it, meant to
symbolize the cosmic ocean.
THE MOUNTAIN TEMPLE: Bakong is considered the very first ‘mountain temple’ of Angkor. All
Angkorian mountain temples featured a central prasat on top of a large tiered pyramidal structure. The
central tower, surrounded by shorter towers, represented the peaks of Mt. Meru, the mythological
home of the gods. What’s missing at Bakong, however, is the quincunx layout (more below).
With Bakong as his state temple, Indravarman I started a tradition of mountain temples that would
develop until it reached its apex at Angkor Wat.
It seems safe to say that Bakong was influenced by the temple of Borobudur in central Java,
Indonesia, which was also constructed in the 9th century. The extent of communication between
Indravarman I and Java’s Sailendra Dynasty, however, remains unknown.
Borobudur, Indonesia
THE FIRST NAGA BALUSTRADE: Here we have the first instance of a naga balustrade, which
stretches across either side of the causeway. These would persist up through the very last phases of
Angkorian architecture, and are still a common feature of modern-day Buddhist temples.Near the
entrance, you’ll encounter two long halls that actually may be from a much later period. We know that
the prasat at the very top of the pyramid was built by a later king, so these halls may also date from
around that time. In any case, they’re fun to walk around and explore.Before or after ascending the
pyramid, take some time to check out the eight prasats surrounding its base. These eight brick
sanctuaries feature some excellent carved lintels (at least where they still exist). The circular
collonettes are also a throwback to the pre-Angkorian era.The central prasat was rebuilt hundreds of
years later in the 12th century. However, much of Bakong, including its highest sanctuary, had to be
rebuilt in the 1930’s due to being near collapse.
Lions guard each side of the central prasat, while the lintels depict scenes involving Vishnu and his
avatar Krishna.
THE FIRST BAS-RELIEF: On the fourth level of the pyramid, you can find the first example of a
bas-relief at Angkor. It depicts asuras (demons) in a battle scene, with the art style showing strong
Javanese influence.

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BAKHENG STYLE (893 - 925)
The Bakheng Style is defined by the works Indravarman I’s son and successor, Yashovarman I. He’s
also the king to found the actual city of Angkor, then known as Yasodharapura. After constructing the
ancestral temple of Lolei, located just nearby Preah Ko, he’d go on to build his state temple of Phnom
Bakheng.
PHNOM BAKHENG (C. 907)
Phnom Bakheng is the second Khmer mountain temple – that is, a temple built on top of a large
stepped pyramid. But what makes Phnom Bakheng special is that it’s a mountain temple… built on
top of a mountain! This is the only “mountain mountain” temple to have been attempted in Angkor’s
history.
THE QUINCUNX LAYOUT: Phnom Bakheng is the first example of the quincunx layout that
would be utilized at all future state mountain temples. The layout is meant to symbolize the mythical
Mt. Meru, which consisted of one central peak surrounded by four smaller ones. Visiting Phnom
Bakheng today, only a few of these mountain-top prasats survive. The layout is much more apparent
at the temples built by successive kings.
The central prasat at the top of Phnom Bakheng is rather unique for its era. Rather than a single
eastern-facing door and three false doors, this sanctuary has four doors – one for each side.
Meanwhile, the other sanctuaries at the top of the pyramid have two doors each.
Prasats with four doors would not become utilized again for about 100 years, with the late 10th
century temple Ta Keo.
Another unique, and simply astonishing, fact about Phnom Bakheng is that all of its smaller
sanctuaries added up to a total of 108! This is a highly symbolic number in Hinduism, and it also
would’ve been mindblowing to look at in its prime. Sadly, Phnom Bakheng is in rather poor condition
compared to the other major temples of Angkor, and most of the sanctuaries have disappeared. You’ll
just have to use your imagination.
PHNOM KHROM & PHNOM BOK
Yashorvarman I was so fond of hilltops that he built two other temples in this setting: Phnom Khrom
and Phnom Bok. Neither are “mountain mountain” temples, however, but utilize the classic trimurti
layout we saw at Preah Ko. This would continue to be a popular layout for smaller temples throughout
the rest of the 10th century.

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KOH KER STYLE (921 - 944)
For reasons we may never know, king Jayavarman IV moved the capital away from Angkor to a new
location around 90km away called Koh Ker. Though it was only capital for a couple of decades, the
amount of temples they built in the city is quite remarkable.
The main state temple, Prasat Thom, is one of the most unique structures in all of Cambodia. It’s a
tiered pyramid but with no prasats on top – only a large linga. If anything, it resembles Mesoamerican
architecture more than it does your typical Khmer temple. Today, Koh Ker is mainly remembered for
its sculptures, which were among the finest ever carved in the empire.
Prasat Thom
PRE RUP STYLE (944 - 968)
After over two decades of abandonment, Angkor (Yasodharapura) was finally revitalized thanks to a
king named Rajendravarman II. As was the common trend, he built a public waterwork followed by
an ancestral temple and a new state mountain temple.
EAST MEBON (952)
East Mebon was built in the middle of a large baray (artificial reservoir) that has since dried up. In
fact, one could only take a boat to get there. It must’ve been a stunning to sight to witness from across
the water.
While it lacks the stepped pyramidal structure of a typical mountain temple (well, it does have a
couple of tiers), it features a quincunx layout that is even more pronounced than at Phnom Bakheng.
Around the five prasats in the center are eight more sanctuary towers at the lower level. Additionally,
the temple was home to five libraries.
HOLES: At East Mebon, along with pretty much every other temple, you’ll come across all sorts of
holes indented in the stone. In many cases, wooden beams were placed in these to hold up wooden
structures, none of which remain.
Other times, as seen in the picture on the left, small holes were made in brick sanctuaries to allow the
outer stucco layer to better stick to them.
Though not a mountain temple itself, East Mebon is a sign of things to come with future mountain
temples such as Pre Rup and Ta Keo. This temple gets relatively few tourists and is fun to explore.
BAT CHUM (C. 952)

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Built around the same time as East Mebon is the small temple of Bat Chum. It again utilizes the
trimurti arrangement, demonstrating that this style remained as popular as ever. There are a few
interesting details, however, that sets this one apart from our previous examples.
This is not a Hindu temple, but a Mahayana Buddhist one. And rather than the Hindu trinity of Shiva,
Vishnu and Brahma, this temple is dedicated to Buddha and two Bodhisattvas known as Vajrapani
and Prajnaparamita. This is a slightly different Buddhist triad from the later 12th century temples of
Jayavarman VII, which would replace Vajrapani with Lokeshvara.
An inscription tells us that Bat Chum was built by Buddhist architect Kavindrarimathana, the man
behind East Mebon. In fact, this is the only Angkorian architect whose name has been revealed to us.
PRE RUP (961)
Pre Rup, Rajendravarma II’s state temple, takes a lot of clear inspiration from East Mebn. Only this
time, the temple was built on land and there were no issues constructing a pyramidal base for the
uppermost sanctuaries. In addition to the quincunx arrangement at the top, there are twelve small
sanctuaries at the pyramid’s second level.
Five brick sanctuaries were added to the east side at a later date. Oddly, their lintels are incomplete,
while the space where a 6th sanctuary should be is entirely empty. Pre Rup also has two large
libraries. Inside one of them, a tablet depicted 9 planets, giving credence to theory that these structures
were used by a planetary worship cult and not houses for manuscripts.
Also surrounding the pyramid are a number of long halls which would be the precursor to the entirely
connected outer galleries of later mountain temples.One sanctuary features a rare depiction of
Brahma's consort Saraswati.
This mysterious structure in the corner was possible built to house the temple's center. It also shows
us how the halls, or galleries, were not connected with one another, something that would change at
later temples. East Mebon,is very similar to Pre Rup. It is the only temples open for sunset.
BANTEAY SREI STYLE (967 - 1000)
From around the year 967, two different architectural styles existed concurrently: the Banteay Srei
style and the Khleang style. Banteay Srei temple, after which the style was named, is one of the most
unique temples of Angkor, largely due to the intricate details which seem to cover nearly every square
inch of it. But its creators also introduced a few new architectural elements that would become
standard at future Angkor temples.

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BANTEAY SREI (967)
Taking a break from the grandiose and imposing mountain temples, we come to Banteay Srei, one of
the most eloquent temples in all of Angkor. This is a rare major temple to have not been
commissioned by a king, but by a pair of Brahmin priests. Their names were Yajnavaraha, one of king
Jayavaraman V’s gurus, and his brother Vishnukumara.
Their temple is clearly smaller than those commisioned by kings at the time. Perhaps it was out of fear
of drawing too much attention away from the royal temples. Or perhaps it was because the brothers
knew the level of extreme detail they wanted to implement in their temple, and only a smaller size
would’ve made the project feasible.Constructed out of a special pinkish high-grade sandstone, this
temple is nicknamed the “Citadel of Women.”
PEDIMENTS: Above we went over the basic elements which make up your typical Angkorian door.
But another feature, which became especially pronounced at Banteay Srei, is the pediment, situated
above the lintel.
These crowning slabs of stone provided even more room for intricate carvings. Banteay Srei, in fact,
was the first temple to portray specific scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata Indian epics.
THE FIRST USE OF A GOPURA: Banteay Srei was the first temple to introduce a gopura, a
chamber attached to the entrance of the central prasat. The gopura would later be heavily utilized in
the Angkor Wat style or architecture that was prominent in the 12th century.
The size of the temple gates progressively diminish, giving the visitor the impression that the center is
farther away than it really is. In addition to the central prasats are two libraries which are considered
to be the most impressive structures at the temple. The level of artwork is so sophisticated that experts
originally assumed that this was one of the last Angkor temples ever built..

Architectural Elements(Components) of the Temples

Shikhara tower or spire in Indian temple architecture

Although Angkor Wat appears, at first glance, to be a mass of stone with a central causeway, it actually
consists of a series of elevated towers and covered galleries on different levels connected by stairs.The
galleries and its columns set the boundaries for the first and second levels, while the third level supports
five towers - one in each corner, and one in the centre.

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Each tower features graduated tiers that create a cone shape, and the highest tower within the temple
complex is 699ft (213m).

The outer gallery of the temple contains bas-reliefs that stretch for almost 1,960ft (600m), including the
Ramayana gallery in the western section.

The bas-reliefs were designed to be viewed from left to right in the order of a Hindu funeral ritual, and
this supports the funerary claims.

Latina shikhara of Adinatha temple, Khajuraho

On the left, the Sekhari shikhara of the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho

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This article is about the type of architecture. Shikhara (IAST: Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating
literally to "mountain peak", refers to the rising tower in the Hindu temple architecture of North India,
and also often used in Jain temples. A shikhara over the garbhagriha chamber where the presiding
deity is enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temple of North India. In South
India, the equivalent term is vimana; unlike the shikhara, this refers to the whole building, including
the sanctum beneath. In the south, shikhara is a term for the top stage of the vimana only, which is
usually a dome capped with a finial; this article is concerned with the northern form. The southern
vimana is not to be confused with the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples, called
gopuram, which are often taller and more prominent features in large temples.
Shikhara can be classified into three main forms:
1. Latina. The shikhara has four faces, which may include projections or ratha within each face.
All the elements run smoothly up the face in a curve. The most common. They are also
sometimes called "homogeneous" shikhara, as opposed to the next two types, which may be
called "heterogeneous".
2. Sekhari. The latina shape has added engaged (attached) sub-spires or spirelets called
urushringa echoing the main shape. These may run up most of the face. There may be more
than one size of these, sometimes called secondary and tertiary. Tertiary spirelets are typically
near the ends of the face or on the corners.
3. Bhumija. The tower has miniature spires, in horizontal and vertical rows, all the way to the
top, creating a grid-like effect on each face. The tower is generally less strongly vertical in
overall shape, often approaching a pyramidal shape. Mainly found in the northern Deccan and
West India.

The Mahabodhi Temple: a stepped pyramid with stupa finial on top.

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The early history of the Hindu shikhara is unclear but the BuddhistMahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya
has a straight-sided shikhara tower over 55 metres (180 feet) high, with an amalaka near the top. The
current structure dates from the Gupta Empire, in the 5th–6th century CE. When the temple acquired
its shikhara tower, today considered more characteristic of Hindu temples, is uncertain.The forms
with smaller subsidiary spires begin in the 10th centuryand from then on tend to predominate. The
Khajuraho Group of Monuments has several early forms from early in the century, though Latina ones
reappear after about 1050, in examples like the Vamana Temple. The bhumija spire probably first
appears around 1000-1025, with other temples begun in the 1050s, such as the Shiv Mandir,
Ambarnath. In every style of shikhara/vimana, the structure culminates with a "kalasha", or urn for
offerings, or water-pot, at its peak.

Nagara shikhara of Rameshwar Temple in Bhubaneswar

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Dravidian vimana of Murudeshwara Temple

Vesara style of Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura. Towers are in 16 pointed star plan.

Archeoastronomical Site: The International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and
the International Astronomical Union (IAU) jointly published a thematic study on heritage sites of
astronomy and archaeoastronomy to be used as a guide to UNESCO in its evaluation of the cultural
importance of archaeoastronomical sites around the world, which discussed sample sites and provided
categories for the classification of archaeoastronomical sites. The editors, Clive Ruggles and Michel
Cotte, proposed that archaeoastronomical sites be considered in four categories: 1) Generally
accepted; 2) Debated among specialists; 3) Unproven; and 4) Completely refuted.Angkor Wat and
Phnom Bakheng are both Category 1. According to Jean Filliozat of the École Française, the center
tower represents the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones represent the 4 lunar phases each with
27 days.

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Temple mountain

The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of the
Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods
in Hinduism. The style was influenced by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures represented
the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean. The temple itself
took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was represented by the elevated
sanctuary at the center of the temple.Both Angkor and Phnom Bakheng at Angkor, are in the form of
a temple mountains.

The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by
King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid, popularly identified as
temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of the Bakong
and Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to the upper
terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the prototype of Bakong. There must
have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom and the Sailendras in Java.
Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details of Borobudur,
including arched gateways in corbelling method.

Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker, the Phimeanakas, and
most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor.

Shiva

In pre-Angkorian Cambodia from the 7th century CE, Harihara statues fusing the characteristics
of Shiva and Vishnu are known.Harihara is the fused representation of Vishnu (Hari) and Shiva
(Hara) from the Hindu tradition. Also known as Shankaranarayana ("Shankara" is Shiva, and
"Narayana" is Vishnu). Hinduism and worship of god Shiva has been practiced in Cambodia
for a long time. Today many temples and ruins in Cambodia tell the story of the glory days of
Hinduism.Most temples at Angkor are dedicated to Shiva. In general, the Angkorian Khmer
represented and worshipped Shiva in the form of a lingam, though they also fashioned
anthropomorphic statues of the god. Anthropomorphic representations are also found in Angkorian
bas reliefs. A famous tympanum from Banteay Srei depicts Shiva sitting on Mount Kailasa with his
consort, while the demon king Ravana shakes the mountain from below. At Angkor Wat and Bayon,

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Shiva is depicted as a bearded ascetic. His attributes include the mystical eye in the middle of his
forehead, the trident, and the rosary. His vahana or mount is the bull Nandi.Originally dedicated to the
Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple by the end of the 12th century.

Vishnu
Angkor Wat is dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu who is one of the three principal gods in the Hindu
pantheon (Shiva and Brahma are the others). Among them he is known as the “Protector.” The major
patron of Angkor Wat was King Suryavarman II, whose name translates as the “protector of the
sun.”Angkorian representations of Vishnu include anthropomorphic representations of the god
himself, as well as representations of his incarnations or Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama. In
religion and mythology, anthropomorphism is the perception of a divine being or beings in human
form, or the recognition of human qualities in these beings. Some anthropomorphic deities
represented specific human concepts, such as love, war, fertility, beauty, or the seasons. Depictions of
Vishnu are prominent at Angkor Wat, the 12th-century temple that was originally dedicated to
Vishnu. Bas reliefs depict Vishna battling with against asura opponents, or riding on the shoulders of
his vahana or mount, the gigantic bird-man Garuda. Vishnu's attributes include the discus, the conch
shell, the baton, and the orb.Even though Angkor Wat means "Temple City" or "City of Temples". Its
original name was Vrah Vishnuloka or Parama Vishnuloka, meaning the sacred dwelling of Vishnu in
Sanskrit.

Indra

Indra is associated with the East; since Angkorian temples typically open to the East, his image is
sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing that direction. Typically, he is mounted on the
three-headed elephant Airavata and holds his trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or vajraIn the ancient
religion of the Vedas, Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In the medieval Hinduism of Angkor,
however, he had no religious status, and served only as a decorative motif in architecture. The
numerous adventures of Indra documented in Hindu epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor,
unlike those of Krishna that are.

Krishna galleries are galleries that delimit four courtyards of the Angkor Wat. Its walls are decorated
with devatas, apsaras and rishis, while the pediments contain carvings of Vishnu and Krishna, one of
Vishnu’s incarnations. The literary sources for these scenes are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and
the Bhagavata Purana. Scenes from the life of Krishna, a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu, are

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common in the relief carvings decorating Angkorian temples. The following are some of the most
important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna:

1. A series of bas reliefs at the 11th-century temple pyramid called Baphuon depicts scenes of
the birth and childhood of Krishna.

2. Numerous bas reliefs in various temples show Krishna subduing the nāga Kaliya.
3. In Angkorian depictions, Krishna is shown effortlessly stepping on and pushing down his
opponent's multiple heads.

4. Also common is the depiction of Krishna as he lifts Mount Govardhana with one hand in
order to provide the cowherds with shelter from the deluge caused by Indra.

5. Krishna is frequently depicted killing or subduing various demons, including his evil
uncle Kamsa.

6. An extensive bas relief in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat depicts Krishna's battle with
the asura Bana. In battle, Krishna is shown riding on the shoulders of Garuda, the traditional
mount of Vishnu.

7. In Baphuon temple there is a bas-relief illustrating the legend of Krishna (second level,
gopura II/N, south face, east section)

8. In some scenes, Krishna is depicted in his role as charioteer, advisor and protector of Arjuna,
the hero of the Mahabharata. A well-known bas relief from the 10th-century temple
of Banteay Srei depicts the Krishna and Arjuna helping Agni to burn down Khandava forest.

French archaeologists originally excavated the torso and head of the Krishna in 1912 at Phnom Da,
an important Hindu site in southern Cambodia where monumental sculptures had been installed in
mountain caves.Colonial authorities exported the head and torso, which were purchased in 1920 by
the Belgian banker, art collector and architectural patron Adolphe Stoclet.Of the numerous Krishna
statutes is the eastern section of the north gallery shows Vishnu incarnated as Krishna riding
a garuda. He confronts a burning walled city, the residence of Bana, the demon king.
The garuda puts out the fire and Bana is captured. In the final scene Krishna kneels before Shiva and
asks that Bana’s life be spared.

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Krishna Lifting Mount Govardhan, c. 600. Southern Cambodia, Takeo Province, Phnom Da, Pre-Angkorean period.
Sandstone; overall without base: 244 cm. The Cleveland Museum of Art, John L. Severance Fund, 1973.106

Garuda

Garuda guardian sculptures (two on right side), Banteay Srei temple, Cambodia.

Symbolism: The word Garuda is literally derived from Sanskrit. In Cambodia, Khmer architects have
used the Garuda sculptures as the exquisite ornate to equip on temples, Viharas of wat and many elite
houses since ancient time, especially from Khmer empire era until nowadays. Garuda is also
mentioned in many legendary tales as the vehicle of Vishnu and its main rival is Naga.Garuda's links
to Vishnu – the Hindu god who fights injustice and destroys evil in his various avatars to
preserve dharma, has made him an iconic symbol of king's duty and power, an insignia of royalty or
dharma. His eagle-like form is shown either alone or with Vishnu, signifying divine approval of the
power of the state. He is found on the faces of many early Hindu kingdom coins with this symbolism,

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either as a single-headed bird or a three-headed bird that watches all sides.Throughout the
Mahabharata, Garuda is invoked as a symbol of impetuous violent force, of speed, and of martial
prowess. Powerful warriors advancing rapidly on doomed foes are likened to Garuda swooping down
on a serpent. Defeated warriors are like snakes beaten down by Garuda. The Mahabharata
character Drona uses a military formation named after Garuda. Krishna even carries the image of
Garuda on his banner.

Garuda is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds, the mythologial enemy
of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu. Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the thousands,
and though Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer. They may be classified as
follows:

 As part of a narrative bas relief, Garuda is shown as the battle steed of Vishnu or Krishna,
bearing the god on his shoulders, and simultaneously fighting against the god's enemies.
Numerous such images of Garuda may be observed in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat.
 Garuda serves as an atlas supporting a superstructure, as in the bas relief at Angkor Wat that
depicts heaven and hell. Garudas and stylized mythological lions are the most common atlas
figures at Angkor.
 Garuda is depicted in the pose of a victor, often dominating a nāga, as in the gigantic relief
sculptures on the outer wall of Preah Khan. In this context, Garuda symbolizes the military
power of the Khmer kings and their victories over their enemies. Not coincidentally, the city
of Preah Khan was built on the site of King Jayavarman VII's victory over invaders
from Champa.
 In free-standing nāga sculptures, such as in nāga bridges and balustrades, Garuda is often
depicted in relief against the fan of nāga heads. The relationship between Garuda and the nāga
heads is ambiguous in these sculptures: it may be one of cooperation, or it may again be one
of domination of the nāga by Garuda.

Linga

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This segmented linga from 10th century Angkor has a square base, an octagonal middle, and a round tip.

In the Khmer empire, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself, and were housed in royal
temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Siva. The lingas that survive from the
Angkorean period are generally made of polished stone. The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of
the god Shiva and of creative power. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of
worship and ritual, and only secondarily that of decoration.

The lingas of the Angkorian period are of several different types.

1. Some lingas are implanted in a flat square base called a yoni, symbolic of the womb.
2. On the surface of some lingas is engraved the face of Siva. Such lingas are called mukhalingas.
3. Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal
middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a round tip- symbolic of Shiva.

Kbal Spean ("Bridge Head") consists of a series of stone rock relief carvings in sandstone formations
of the river bed and banks. It is commonly known as the "Valley of a 1000 Lingas" or "The River of a
Thousand Lingas". The motifs for stone carvings are mainly myriads of lingams (phallic symbol
of Hindu god Shiva), depicted as neatly arranged bumps that cover the surface of a sandstone bed
rock, and lingam-yoni designs. There are also various Hindu mythological motifs, including
depictions of the gods Shiva, Vishnu, Brahma, Lakshmi, Rama, and Hanuman, as well as animals
(cows and frogs)

This site is located on the southwest slopes of the Kulen Hills to the northeast of Angkor in Siem
Reap District, Siem Reap Province, Cambodia. It is situated along a 150m stretch of the Stung Kbal

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Spean River, 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the main Angkor group of monuments, which lie
downstream. The site

Makara
In Khmer temple architecture, the motif of the makara is generally part of a decorative carving on a lintel,
tympanum, or wall. A Makara is a mythical sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk of an
elephant, and a head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a crocodile, or a dragon. Often the
makara is depicted with some other creature, such as a lion or serpent, emerging from its gaping maw. In
Hindu astrology, Makara is equivalent to the Zodiac sign Capricorn. Makara appears as the vahana
(vehicle) of the river goddess Ganga, Narmada and of the sea god Varuna.The Makara is a central
motif in the design of the famously beautiful lintels of the Roluos group of temples: Preah
Ko, Bakong, and Lolei. At Banteay Srei, carvings of Makaras disgorging other monsters may be observed
on many of the corners of the buildings.

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 Never Seen Before Makara Statue Found in Cambodia,29 JANUARY, 2020 - 13:59 ED WHELAN

In Cambodia, a magnificent but mysterious statue has been found in a forested area in a national park. The
statue is of a mythical creature known as Makara. This discovery is like nothing else that has been found
before and it is expected to throw light on the culture in Cambodia before the emergence of the Khmer
Empire (800 AD to 1431 AD).
The amazing sculpted figure was found in Phnom Kulen National Park, which is in Siem Reap province.
This area has many important temples, and the area holds a special place in the history of the Khmer
Empire. The find was made by a local craftsman Chhim Samrithy, 38, who stated that, ‘I usually walk in
the forest to look for some unique and sacred objects and suddenly spotted this rare statue,’
reports Archaeology News Network . He came across a massive head that had been carved into a rock and
he immediately contacted local officials.

Nāga

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Shesha (Sanskrit: Śeṣa), also known as Sheshanaga (Śeṣanāga) or Adishesha (Ādi Śeṣa), is
the nagaraja or King of all Nāgas and one of the primal beings of creation. In the Puranas, Shesha is
said to hold all the planets of the universe on his hoods and to constantly sing the glories of the
God Vishnu from all his mouths. He is sometimes referred to as Ananta Shesha, which translates as
endless-Shesha or Adishesha "first Shesha". It is said that when Adishesa uncoils, time moves forward
and creation takes place; when he coils back, the universe ceases to exist. Vishnu is often depicted as
resting on Shesha. Shesha is considered a servant and a manifestation of Vishnu. He is said to have
descended to Earth in two human forms or avatars: Lakshmana, brother of Vishnu's avatar Rama, and
as Balarama, brother of Vishnu's avatar Krishna.

"Shesha" in Sanskrit texts, especially those relating to mathematical calculation, implies the
"remainder"—that which remains when all else ceases to exist. Nāgas are frequently depicted in
Angkorian lintels. The composition of such lintels characteristically consists in a dominant image at
the center of a rectangle, from which issue swirling elements that reach to the far ends of the
rectangle. These swirling elements may take shape as either vinelike vegetation or as the bodies of
nāgas. Some such nāgas are depicted wearing crowns, and others are depicted serving as mounts for
human riders.

To the Angkorian Khmer, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the myths of origin for the
Khmer people, who were said to be descended from the union of an Indian Brahman and a serpent
princess from Cambodia. Serpents, or nāgas, play a particularly important role
in Cambodian mythology. A well-known story explains the emergence of the Khmer people from the
union of Indian and indigenous elements, the latter being represented as nāgas. According to the story,
an Indian brahmana named Kaundinya came to Cambodia, which at the time was under the dominion
of the naga king. The naga princess Soma sallied forth to fight against the invader but was defeated.
Presented with the option of marrying the victorious Kaundinya, Soma readily agreed to do so, and
together they ruled the land. The Khmer people are their descendants. Nāgas were also characters in
other well-known legends and stories depicted in Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of
Milk, the legend of the Leper King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the Bayon, and later the story
of Mucalinda, the serpent king who protected the Buddha from the elements. Mucalinda,
the Nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite motif for Cambodian
Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated between 1150 and 1175 CE
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Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer architecture as well as in free-
standing sculpture. They are frequently depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number,
arranged in a fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra.

This multi-headed nāga is part of a decorative lintel from the end of the 9th century.

Nāga Bridge

Stone Asuras hold the nāga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th century city of Angkor Thom.

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Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by stone balustrades shaped as nāgas. Mucalinda,
the nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite motif for Cambodian
Buddhist sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated between 1150 and 1175 CE. Mythical
serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer architecture as well as in free-standing
sculpture. They are frequently depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in number, arranged
in a fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra.

In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the entrances to 12th century city
of Angkor Thom, the nāga-shaped balustrades are supported not by simple posts but by stone statues
of gigantic warriors. These giants are the devas and asuras who used the nāga king Vasuki in order to
the churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of the amrita or elixir of immortality. The story of the Churning
of the Ocean of Milk or samudra manthan has its source in Indian mythology.

Quincunx

A quincunx is a geometric pattern consisting of five points arranged in a cross, with four of them
forming a square or rectangle and a fifth at its center. It forms the arrangement of five units in the
pattern corresponding to the five-spot on six-sided dice, playing cards, and dominoes. It is represented
in Unicode as U+2059 ฀ FIVE DOT PUNCTUATION or (for the die pattern) U+2684 ⚄ DIE FACE-
5. In architecture, a quincuncial plan, also defined as a "cross-in-square", is the plan of an edifice
composed of nine bays. The central and the four angular ones are covered with domes or groin
vaults so that the pattern of these domes forms a quincunx; the other four bays are surmounted
by barrel vaults. In Khmer architecture, the towers of a temple, such as Angkor Wat, are sometimes
arranged in a quincunx to represent the five peaks of Mount Meru.This arrangement conveys a
symbolic identification with the sacred mountain. Mount Meru. A quincunx is a spatial arrangement
of five elements, with four elements placed as the corners of a square and the fifth placed in the
center. The five peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit this arrangement, and the five brick
towers of the 10th-century temple known as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a
quincunx. The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed
carvings of Kbal Spean. Kbal Spean.12

Kala

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 A kala serves as the base for a deity at the 10th-century Hindu temple Banteay Srei.

Kala is a Sanskrit term with dual meanings. The first meaning is translated as "black" or "dark
colored," and the second as "time," "destiny," "fate" or "death." Kala is also used in reference to one
of the forms of Yama, the Hindu god of death. It is a common decorative element on lintels, tympana
and walls of cambodian temples is the kala - a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring
aspect and associated with the destructive side of the god Siva. In Khmer temple architecture, the kala
serves as a monstrous head with a large upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower
jaw. Some kalas are shown disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the base for other figures.

Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in Khmer temple
architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls of human victims were incorporated
into buildings as a kind of protective magic or apotropaism. Such skulls tended to lose their lower
jaws when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of Angkor may represent
the Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of elements derived from long
forgotten primitive and Non-Hindu antecedents. The temple at Baphuon is the archetype of the
Baphuon style with intricate carvings covering every available surface. It is located in Angkor Thom,
northwest of the Bayon. Built in the mid-11th century, it is a three-tiered temple mountain built as the
state temple of Udayadityavarman II, dedicated to the Hindu God Shiva.The temple adjoins the
southern enclosure of the royal palace and measures 120 metres east-west by 100 metres north-south

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at its base and stands 34 meters tall without its tower, which would have made it roughly 50 meters
tall. 13

Perimeter: The outer wall, of Angkor for instance was 1,024 m (3,360 ft) by 802 m (2,631 ft) and
4.5 m (15 ft) high, is surrounded by a 30 m (98 ft) apron of open ground and a moat 190 m (620 ft)
wide and over 5 kilometres (3 mi) in perimeter. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east
and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly
replacing a wooden bridge. The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres (203 acres),
which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple,
the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather
than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area
is now covered by forest. A 350 m (1,150 ft) causeway connects the western gopura to the temple
proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side
also features a library with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the
entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the
design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure.
Fact that Bopuran temple was also surrounded by a wall 125 by 425 m the central tower was probably
gilded wood, which has not survived gives basis to our theorey that all temples had a wall on the
perimeter.13

The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to
whom the site was dedicated- typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or
a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented by a statue (or in the case
of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the temple was not considered a place of worship for use
by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed only to be large
enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres across. Its importance was
instead conveyed by the height of the tower (prasat) rising above it, by its location at the centre of the
temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls. Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount
Meru, the legendary home of the Hindu gods.

Prang

The prang is common to much Khmer religious architecture and is the tall finger-like spire, usually
richly carved. Today it is described as” a type of South-East Asian temple spire”.
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 Prang at Angkor wat

Gopuras:
The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Pallava kings, and relate to the
central shikhara towers of North India. Between the twelfth and sixteenth century, during the Pandya,
Nayaka and Vijayanagara era when Hindu temples increasingly became a hub of the urban life, these
gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the
inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram's colossal size and courtyards. It
also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one
gopuram. Besides South India, they appear in architecture outside India, especially Khmer
architecture, as at Angkor Wat.

The Ta Prohm temple showing the Gopura

Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in
the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the mythical

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home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and
the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards. The
walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by galleries, while passage
through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points.A gopura is an entrance building.
At Angkor, passage through the enclosure walls surrounding a temple compound is frequently
accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just an aperture in the wall or a doorway.
Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with a gopura at each of the four cardinal points. In
plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall; if the wall is
constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected to the arms of the gopura.
Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross. The lintels and pediments are often
decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed or carved on either side of the doorways.

Gallery

A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat.

A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often
open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during the 10th century from
the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary of a
temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century, additional half galleries
on one side were introduced to buttress the structure of the temple.

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Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman VII toward the end of the 12th century, such as
this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces of Avalokiteshvara. Since
Avalokiteśvara or Padmapani is a bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of all Buddhas it is a
later non-Hindu architectural addition of the entire Gopura itself. This bodhisattva is variably
depicted, described and portrayed in different cultures as either male or female.

Dharmasala

House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found only in temples
constructed during the reign of late 12th-century monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta
Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-
facing windows.Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire" for
travellers. An inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor.
The Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited
Angkor in 1296 CE. Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the repository
the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies.

Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West.

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Library: Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of Khmer temple
architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as religious
shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they were normally
placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west.

Reservoirs:

An artificial body of water which is a common element of the architectural style of the Khmer Empire of
Southeast Asia. The building of such water bodies might have originated from the tradition of building
large reservoirs called dighi in Eastern India.

Historians are divided on the meaning and functions of these. Some believe that they were primarily
spiritual in purpose, symbolizing the Sea of Creation surrounding Mount Meru, font of the Hindu cosmos.
Others have theorized that they held water for irrigation of fields. It is possible that the function was a
combination of these explanations, or others. The largest are the East Baray and West Baray in the Angkor
area, each rectangular in shape, oriented east-west and measuring roughly five by one and a half miles.
Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation and embankment, respectively.

Another reservoir -The baray is associated with Preah Khan temple is the Jayataka lake, in the middle
of which stands another 12th-century temple of Neak Pean. Preah Khan was built by King
Jayavarman VII to honor his father. It is located northeast of Angkor Thom and just west of the
Jayatatakabaray, with which it was associated, it was the centre of a substantial organisation, with
almost 100,000 officials and servants. The temple is flat in design, with a basic plan of successive
rectangular galleries around a Buddhist sanctuary complicated by Hindu satellite temples and
numerous later additions. Like the nearby Ta Prohm, Preah Khan has been left largely unrestored,
with numerous trees and other vegetation growing among the ruins. Scholars have speculated that the
Jayataka represents the Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its miraculous healing powers.

Architectural elements: There are 6 main elements and form, space are some of them. The other 5
more elements include dot, line, shape, texture, and colour. All works should incorporate
these elements in the design because it defines the creation on the platform of art and functionality it
stands on. Architectural elements are the unique details and component parts that, together, form
the architectural style of houses, buildings and structures.

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Bas Relief: figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not as drawings but as sculpted
images projecting from a background. Sculpture in bas-relief is distinguished from sculpture in haut-relief,
in that the latter projects farther from the background, in some cases almost detaching itself from it. The
Angkorian Khmer preferred to work in bas-relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-
relief. Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about the 11th
century, the Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on the tympana above
doorways. The most famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the tympana at the 10th-century temple
of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as well as scenes from the great works of Indian
literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were
covering entire walls with narrative scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery wall is
covered with some 12,000 or 13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some
mythological. Similarly, the outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the
everyday life of the medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman VII.

A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt to extinguish the fire
created by Agni.

The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of this bas-relief at Angkor Wat.

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This scene from the outer gallery at the Bayon shows Chinese expats negotiating with Khmer merchants at an
Angkorean market.
The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous Angkorian narrative bas-
reliefs:
 bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century)
 the duel of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva, and the intervention of the human
hero Rama on behalf of the latter
 the duel of Bhima and Duryodhana at the Battle of Kurukshetra
 the Rakshasa king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, upon which sit Shiva and his shakti
 Kama firing an arrow at Shiva as the latter sits on Mount Kailasa
 the burning of Khandava Forest by Agni and Indra's attempt to extinguish the flames
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer gallery at Angkor Wat (mid-12th century)
 the Battle of Lanka between the Rakshasas and the vanaras or monkeys
 the court and procession of King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat
 the Battle of Kurukshetra between Pandavas and Kauravas
 the judgment of Yama and the tortures of Hell
 the Churning of the Ocean of Milk
 a battle between devas and asuras
 a battle between Vishnu and a force of asuras
 the conflict between Krishna and the asura Bana
 the story of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer and inner galleries at the Bayon (late 12th century)
 battles on land and sea between Khmer and Cham troops
 scenes from the everyday life of Angkor
 civil strife among the Khmer
 the legend of the Leper King
 the worship of Shiva
 groups of dancing apsaras

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Blind door and window

Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the east. The other three sides
featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along otherwise
blank walls.

Blind door at Bantey serey

Colonette is a small column, usually decorative in Khmer architecture, standing at either side of a
doorway. Colonettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the beams
and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on the period, they were round, rectangular, or
octagonal in shape. Colonettes were often circled with molded rings and decorated with carved leaves.

Corbelling

Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom.

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Corbelled hallway at Ta Prohm.

A corbel arch (or corbeled / corbelled arch) is an arch-like construction method that uses
the architectural technique of corbeling to span a space or void in a structure, such as an entranceway
in a wall or as the span of a bridge. A corbel vault uses this technique to support the superstructure of
a building's roof.Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms,
passageways and openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding layers of stones to the
walls on either side of an opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards the centre than the
one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch is structurally weaker
than the true arch. The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian engineers from constructing large
openings or spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and made such buildings particularly prone to collapse
once they were no longer maintained. These difficulties did not, of course, exist for buildings constructed
with stone walls surmounted by a light wooden roof. The problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled
structures at Angkor remains a serious one for modern conservation.

Lintel, pediment, and tympanum

A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two vertical columns between which runs a door or passageway.
Because the Angkorean Khmer lacked the ability to construct a true arch, they constructed their
passageways using lintels or corbelling. A pediment is a roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A
tympanum is the decorated surface of a pediment.

The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a result, the
study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars have endeavored to
develop a periodization of lintel styles.The most beautiful Angkorean lintels are thought to be those of
the Preah Ko style from the late 9th century.

Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the nāga and the makara, as well as various
forms of vegetation. Also frequently depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the four cardinal
directions, with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment depending on the direction
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faced by that element. Indra, the god of the sky, is associated with East; Yama, the god of judgment and
Hell, with South; Varuna, the god of the ocean, with West; and Kubera, god of wealth, with North.[31]

List of Khmer lintel styles

1. Sambor Prei Kuk style: Inward-facing makaras with tapering bodies. Four arches joined by three
medallions, the central once carved with Indra. Small figure on each makara. A variation is with
figures replacing the makaras and a scene with figures below the arch.
2. Prei Khmeng style : Continuation of Sambor Prei Kuk but makaras disappear, being replaced by
incurving ends and figures. Arches more rectilinear. Large figures sometimes at each end. A
variation is a central scene below the arch, usually Vishnu Reclining.
3. Kompong Preah style : High quality carving. Arches replaced by a garland of vegetation (like a
wreath) more or less segmented. Medallions disappear, central one sometimes replaced by a knot
of leaves. Leafy pendants spray out above and below garland.
4. Kulen style : Great diversity, with influences from Champa and Java, including the kala and
outward-facing makaras.
5. Preah Ko style : Some of the most beautiful of all Khmer lintels, rich, will-carved and
imaginative. Kala in center, issuing garland on either side. Distinct loops of vegetation curl down
from garland. Outward-facing makaras sometimes appear at the ends. Vishnu on Garuda common.
6.

Rich-carved decoration of Preah Ko lintel.

7. Bakheng style : Continuation of Preah Ko but less fanciful and tiny figures disappear. Loop of
vegetation below the naga form tight circular coils. Garland begins to dip in the center.
8. Koh Ker style : Center occupied by a prominent scene, taking up almost the entire height of the
lintel. Usually no lower border. Dress of figures shows a curved line to the sampot tucked in
below waist.
9. Pre Rup style : Tendency to copy earlier style, especially Preah Ko and Bakheng. Central figures.
Re-appearance of lower border.
10. Banteay Srei style : Increase in complexity and detail. Garland sometimes makes pronounced loop
on either side with kala at top of each loop. Central figure.
11. Khleang style : Less ornate than those of Banteay Srei. Central kala with triangular tongue, its
hands holding the garland which is bent at the center. Kala sometimes surmounted by a divinity.
Loops of garland on either side divided by flora stalk and pendant. Vigorous treatment of
vegetation.
12. Baphuon style : The central kala surmounted by divinity, usually riding a steed or a Vishnu scene,
typically from the life of Krishna. Loops of garland no longer cut. Another type is a scene with
many figures and little vegetation.

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 13. Angkor Wat style : Centered, framed and linked by garlands. A second type is a narrative scene
filled with figures. When nagas appear, they curls are tight and prominent. Dress mirrors that
of devatas and apsaras in bas-reliefs. No empty spaces.
14. Bayon style : Most figures disappear, usually only a kala at the bottom of the lintel surmounted by
small figure. Mainly Buddhist motifs. In the middle of the period the garland is cut into four parts,
while later a series of whorls of foliage replace the four divisions.
Stairs

The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat

Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of the riser exceeds that of the tread,
producing an angle of ascent somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for this peculiarity
appear to be both religious and monumental. From the religious perspective, a steep stairway can be
interpreted as a "stairway to heaven," the realm of the gods. "From the monumental point of view,"
according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize, "the advantage is clear – the square of the base not
having to spread in surface area, the entire building rises to its zenith with a particular thrust."

Motifs:

Two apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th-century Buddhist temple the Bayon.
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Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their origin
is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, or samudra manthan, found in
the Vishnu Purana. The starkness of the exterior of the second level gallery is offset by the decoration
of the interior. Over 1,500 Apsaras (celestial dancers) line the walls of the gallery offering endless
visual and spiritual enchantment. Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual
apsaras, who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons,
heroes and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of
temples and other religious buildings, however, was a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions of
Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also to other
minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing rather than dancing are
more commonly called "devatas" Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are most
common in the foundations of the 12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for
example, in the Hall of Dancers at Preah Khan, in the pillars that line the passageways through the
outer gallery of the Bayon, and in the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the
Ocean of Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat, where they appear
individually and in groups.

Dvarapala
This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei.
Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs. They are
presented either as a stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and other buildings,
generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples. Dvarapalas may
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be seen, for example, at Preah Ko, Lolei, Banteay Srei, Preah Khan and Banteay Kdei.Even today the
word dyarapal is used in India to represent the security guards at the door. They were common in 10th
century temples, two dvarapalas, or male guardians, are carved into the sanctuary walls. Davarapalas
would remain a staple of Angkorian artwork up until the very end.

Gajasimha and Reachisey

The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant. At Angkor, it
is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a mount for some warriors. The gajasimha may be found
at Banteay Srei and at the temples belonging to the Roluos group.

The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the head of a lion, a short
elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas reliefs of
the outer gallery.

Materials: The major construction materials used for the Angkor monuments are sandstone and
laterite, which were supplied from several quarries in and around the Angkor area [Sites16,17,19].
Wood was also used.The ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite, the wood elements
having been lost to decay and other destructive processes.

In a study sponsored by the UNESCO and Japanese Trust Fund, titled “The Stone Materials of the
Angkor Monuments” a detailed study of the composition of the sandstones used has been done, which
points to use of sandstones from several quarries. Five to ten million sandstone blocks weighing up to
1.5 tons that were hewn from quarries at the base of nearby Mount Kulen.

Brick

The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are the temple towers
of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations were usually carved into a stucco applied
to the brick, rather than into the brick itself.

Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples that are similar in
style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam. A Cham story tells of
the time that the two countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building contest
proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a standard brick tower, Po
Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and wood. In the end, the

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Cham replica was more impressive than the real brick tower of the Khmer, and the Cham won the
contest.

Sandstone

The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from the Kulen mountains. Since
its obtainment was considerably more expensive than that of brick, sandstone only gradually came
into use, and at first was used for particular elements such as door frames. The 10th-century temple
of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less entirely from Sandstone. By the
12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather than
brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are of sandstone blocks,
while laterite was used for the outer wall and for hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to
join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime has been suggested.

Laterite

Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the ground but that hardens when
exposed to the sun, for foundations and other hidden parts of buildings. Because the surface of laterite
is uneven, it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with stucco. Laterite was
more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself.

Craftsmanship: The builders of the Cambodian temples were able to recruit the services of very
skilled craftsmen-whether from India or trained by Hindus there from is not clear.The temple
represents the height of architectural skills of the Khmer builders. Its very detailed carved bas reliefs
that cover much of the temple shows impressive craftsmanship. Unlike other Angkor temples, Angkor
Wat is oriented towards the West and dedicated to Vishnu, where previous temples face east and are
dedicated to Shiva.
Angkor Wat was the state temple of King Suryavarman II, who built the temple ruled for almost 40
years and expanded the Khmer empire.

Angkor is a good representative of Hindu Temple designs. Situated some 4 miles (6 km) north
of the modern town of Siem Reap in northwestern Cambodia (Kampuchea), the temple was built
about 1115-1145 in Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, by King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-
1150), to serve as his mausoleum. Angkor Wat operated first as a Hindu shrine dedicated to Vishnu,

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then a Theravada Buddhist temple in the late 13th century. Today Angkor Wat is Cambodia's most
famous site of religious art and its silhouette appears on the Cambodian national flag. The temple is
renowned for its high classical style of Khmer architecture, derived and modified from the Hindu
Temple Architecture of the Indian Gupta Period, as well as the staggering quantity of its relief
sculpture and architectural carvings. Artifacts taken from the site and large sections cast from the
temple buildings were exhibited in Paris in 1867, announcing a great and
unknown civilization rivalling in sophistication the work of the greatest architects in the West. In
1992, along with a sister temple Angkor Thom, Angkor Wat was proclaimed a UN World Heritage
Site.

Architecture and Construction of Angkor

If Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone, each of which has an average
weight of 1.5 tons then one can say that it required more stone than all the Egyptian
pyramids combined, and originally occupied an area considerably greater than modern-day Paris.
Given the additional complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear that Angkor was designed
and managed by some of the finest architects in southeast Asia.

The temple was designed and built on the basis of religious and political ideas imported from India,
albeit adapted to local conditions. From the time of King Yasovarman I, for whom the city (originally
called Yasodharapura) was named Angkor Wat defines what has come to be understood as the
classical style of Angkorian architecture: other temples designed in this idiom include Banteay Samre
and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. It combines two basic
features of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the galleried temple, founded on
early Dravidian architecture, with key features including the "Jagati" - a raised platform or terrace
upon which many buddhist and hindu temples were built. In addition to Angkor Wat, another famous
shrine with a jagati is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, at Khajuraho.

Built on rising ground and surrounded by an artificial moat, the temple of Angkor Wat is laid out
symmetrically on tiered platforms that ascend to the central tower (one of a quincunx), which rises to
a height of 213 feet (65 metres). Long colonnades connect the towers at each stepped level in
concentric rings of rectangular galleries, whose walls are lined with sculpture and relief carvings. The

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temple is approached across the moat, via a stone causeway lined with stone figures. The ascending
towers represent the spiritual world and mountain homes of the gods and were probably built in
homage to ancestral deities. The temple's structures are chiefly built in stone with detailed bas-reliefs
carved into the walls; the corbelled block work and pseudo-vaulted towers are covered with highly
animated figures chiseled into the sandstone and volcanic rock.

The Angkor Wat temple is world famous for its stone sculpture which can be seen on almost all of its
surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs. There are literally miles of reliefs, typically in the form of bas-
relief friezes illustrating scenes from Indian mythology, and featuring a bewildering array of animal
and human figures, as well as abstract motifs like lotus rosettes and garlands. They
include: devatas (Hindu gods or spirits), griffins, unicorns, lions, garudas, snakes, winged dragons,
dancing girls and warriors. Khmer sculptors - surely some of the greatest sculptors in south-east Asia -
paid meticulous attention to the headdresses, hair, garments, posture and jewellery of the deities and
human figures. In addition to reliefs, Angkor Wat contains numerous statues of Buddhas and
Bodhisattvas.

Carved pediments and lintels decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. While the inner
walls of the outer gallery, for example, are decorated with a series of large-scale scenes depicting
episodes from Hindu sagas like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. On the southern gallery walls
there is a representation of the 37 heavens and 32 hells of Hindu mythology, while the eastern gallery
houses one of the most celebrated friezes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, featuring Vishnu showing
88 devas and 92 asuras.

Along with the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho, Central India, and the Taj Mahal in
northern India, the Cambodian Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks among the greatest
examples of religious architecture in the whole of Asia, comparable to the finest specimens of Gothic
architecture or Baroque architecture in Europe.

Henri Mahout, a French botanist started intensive research and restoration programs. Initially, he did
not believe that the temples were built by Cambodians, but by another race which had concurred and
occupied Cambodia for over 2000 years ago. His theory would later be proven to be incorrect, after
that researchers discovered scripts on the walls of the temples, and stone sculptures, that have made it

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possible for archeologists to piece together the history of Cambodia. The earliest and most detailed
account of Angkor was written by the Portuguese Diego de Couto in the mid 16th century and
described how a Cambodian King came upon the ruins while hunting elephants. During the 15th and
16th centuries various Spanish missionaries traveled to the site and left written reports about their
visits. In 1603 the Spaniard Gabriel Quiroga wrote "In 1507 a city was brought to light that had never
been seen or heard of by the natives".

Moreover, the 17th century brings us accounts of Japanese settlements at Angkor. An inscription with
Japanese calligraphic characters found on a pillar on the second floor of Angkor Wat dating back to
1632 is good proof of it. Another Japanese man, Kenryo Shimano, is the author of the oldest
known Angkor Wat plan. During his travels to Angkor some time between 1632 and 1636 he drew a
very detailed map of the temple.

Now it is known that Angkor, was the great capital city of the Khmer empire from the city’s founding
in about AD 880 until about 1225.Angkor Wat is the largest religious monument on the
planet. Angkor Wat is spread across over 400 acres / 1.6 km², and is said to be the largest religious
monument in the world. It was listed as a UNESCO's World Heritage Site in 1992, which encouraged
an international effort to save the complex- mainly from the Archeological Survey of India.
Constructed in the early 12th century (between 1113 and 1150), Angkor Wat is considered to be the
largest religious monument in the world. Angkor Wat was shifted from Hindu to Buddhist use
sometime around the late 13th century. The temple is still used by Buddhists as a place of worship
today. The construction of the complex is said to have taken 35 years and 300,000 employees and
6,000 elephants participated. It was built without the aid of machinery as none was available then.

The building of Angkor Wat is likely to have necessitated some 300,000 workers, which included
architects, construction workers, masons, sculptors and the servants to feed these workers.
Construction of the site took over 30 years and was never completely finished. The site is built
entirely out of stone, which is incredible as close examination of the temple demonstrates that almost
every surface is treated and carved with narrative or decorative details.

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The construction of Angkor Wat likely began in the year 1116 C.E.—three years after King
Suryavarman II came to the throne—with construction ending in 1150, shortly after the king’s death.
Evidence for these dates comes in part from inscriptions, which are vague, but also from the
architectural design and artistic style of the temple and its associated sculptures.

Transportation of the Huge stone blocks: The 12th century temple complex is built from five to ten
million sandstone blocks weighing up to 1.5 tons that were hewn from quarries at the base of nearby
Mount Kulen. Since it was built during the reign of only one king questions came up as to how so many
stones could have been transported from the sacred mountain to the temple site in just a few
decades.Scholars had previously assumed the Khmers must have floated the stones used to build Angkor
Wat 22 miles down a canal to Tonle Sap Lake, carried on rafts another 22 miles to the Siem Reap River,
then arduously rowed upstream the final 10 miles to the site.

Canals: The Khmer empire was noted for its use of canals as a means of transportation, and the
archaelogists discovered traces of a network leading directly from the foot of Mount Kulen to Angkor.
But the difficulty of moving so many stones via this 56 mile route led Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda
of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan, to scour satellite images to see if there could have been a
shortcut.14 Field surveys confirmed their findings, and the pair now believe this gentle 21 mile route was
a far more likely proposition than the journey of more than twice that length previously suggested. They
also discovered a series of quarries along the way with stones that matched those of the temples.The
huge stones from which the Cambodian temple complex Angkor Wat is built were carried to the area by
a series of since-filled in canals, a new study claims.000 Satellite images have revealed that the Khmer
rulers dug a 21 mile long canal across their kingdom to transport the sandstone blocks from a
mountainside quarry to their capital city. This explains how the enormous temple was constructed in
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just 35 years despite estimates that it should have taken several hundred using the technology
available at the time.It was originally thought that each stone block was dragged on a tortuous 55 mile
journey that could have taken several days over land, along rivers and across a lake to Angkor.
Instead, with the findings of a network of canals that cuts across the country, occasionally merging
with short stretches of river the stones could have been floated on rafts. Remnants of canals still
containing water can still be found whereas others have disappeared beneath roads or had dried up
and become overgrown.Large sandstone blocks that have fallen off the rafts and lying on the canal
banks at various points along the route. Discovery has also been made of a further 50 new quarries
along the route of the canal where stone had been dug out.At Koh Ker temples also (see later) there is
a large reservoir known as Rahal that extends approximately 1200 m in a north–south direction and
600 m in an east–west direction, located southeast of the city of Prasat Thom. The main axis line of
Rahal reservoir also is shifted 14 degrees in a counterclockwise direction from the due east–west axis
line. Since the Koh Ker monuments occur in an area that slopes downwards from the south to the
north, it is generally believed that the main axis line of the Rahal reservoir was dictated by the
topography of the Koh Ker area. Angkorit has been found meets the material requirements of a
“hydraulic city” in that it possessed an immense, integrated, and highly complex system of water
catchment, storage, and redistribution. Although ground-based archaeological investigations at
Angkor are nowhere near as advanced as at comparable sites in Mesoamerica, for example, surface
surveys and excavations have consistently demonstrated that the features identified through remote
sensing are of Angkorian origin and have the potential to provide crucial data about the rise and fall of
urbanism in this area and the role of water management systems in that process. Around the ponds
and the local temples and on the occupation mounds it is now possible to see the fabric of residential
life stretching around and far beyond the infrastructural network.15

Weight of each block: The carefully carved stone blocks used to construct the temple and the
surrounding monuments were up to three feet across in some places and weighed around 1.6
tons.Experts had previously believed these blocks were dragged over land from Mount Kulen to a
river that carried them to the Tonle Sap Lake, where they were sailed up to Siem Reap River and then
pulled upstream to the construction site in Angkor. It is estimated that the construction of the canals
took only a few years. Since the flow was downstream in the Siem Reap River the blocks would have
been transported faster and with little effort.16

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Funerary temple: Some historians believe that the temple also served as a funerary temple for the
King. This could explain its orientation to the West; the setting sun (in the West) symbolizes the end
of the cycle of life. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the
east. This has led many (including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman
intended it to serve as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-
reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—prasavya in Hindu terminology—as this is
the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services.
The archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar
which was recovered from the central tower. It has been nominated by some as the greatest
expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse. Most Angkorian temples are commonly directed to
the east, with the exception of Angkor Wat which is oriented to the west, a direction associated with
death in Hindu culture. Also, the direction means it faces the sunset, which adds to its beauty and
attracts many visitors at this time.

Approach to the Angkor temple consisting of walkway and moats:

It is quiet possible that just as in the Angkor temple which is surrounded by a 190 meter wide moat
other temples though in runis now, may have such delienation. At the Western end of the Angkor is a
12 meter wide bridge, in front of which is a terrace where lions and Naga snakes guard the temple.
Crossing the bridge the visitor approaches the impressive Western gate, which was build to resemble
the front view of the temple itself. The structure consists of long galleries with a three
part gopura topped by towers that have partly collapsed. At both ends of the structure is a pavilion,
large enough to enable elephants to go through. The Western gate contains apsaras and devatas as
well as magnificent carvings on its lintels showing Vishnu, Garuda, warriors and scenes from the epic
Ramayana. Only after passing the Western gate, the Angkor Wat temple comes in sight.

Behind the Western gate is a 350 meter long processional walkway elevated about 1½ meters above
the ground towards the temple. On either side of the walkway is a library building. Past the libraries
are two lakes, reflecting the silhouette of the of Angkor Wat’s towers. The temple itself is build on
raised platform about 330 meters long and 255 meters wide. The structure comprises of three
rectangular tiers each higher one smaller than the one below it encircled by long galleries with corner
towers and a gopura in the center of its sides.

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 Ta Prohm- The “Jungle temple”

Angkor Thom-Capital city of the Khmer

Hindu bas relief’s galleries of the third tier

The third tier is surrounded by long concentric galleries. Its walls contain some of the finest and best
preserved bas reliefs of Angkor Wat, including:

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 Ramayana: The battle of Lanka, a storey from the epic Ramayana, where Rama fights Ravana who
abducted his wife Sita

1. The abduction of Shiva by Ravana

2. Other scenes from the Ramayana

Mahabharata: The battle of Kurukshetra from the epic Mahabharata, between the Kauravas and
the Pandavas, depicting soldiers and commanders on elephants or riding chariots.

1.The churning of the ocean of milk, a 50 meter long panel. This storey from the Mahabharata
tells how an elixir of immortality over which the Gods and the demons fight is produced by
churning the ocean with Mount Meru used as the churning rod
1. The Heavens and Hells and the Judgement of Sinners by Yama, the Hindu God of Death.
Depictions of the 37 heavens with palaces with servants and the 32 hells and the punishments
and tortures received there, each one for a specific sin committed
a. Vishnu and his incarnation Krishna
b. The victory of Vishnu over the asuras

A 90 meter panel of the Royal Procession. Two sections depict King Suryavarman II and a procession
of court ladies, another section shows a procession of soldiers on foot or on horses and elephants and
a parade of Brahmin priests

The galleries also contain a number of Buddha images, placed there after Angkor Wat was converted
into a Buddhist temple.

The platform with 5 lotus bud shaped towers

The second tier measuring 100 by 115 meters is enclosed by galleries. On each of its four corners are
towers that have partly collapsed. On top of the structure is a square platform about 55 meters wide
that contains five towers shaped like lotus buds. The platform is surrounded by galleries, with a
sanctuary tower on each if its corners. In the middle stands the 42 meter high central sanctuary on
each side opening to a vestibule in which Buddha statues are found. The walls of the tower are
decorated with on one side of the causeway, fifty-four guardian deities (called "devas") pull the head
of a mythical serpent or "naga." On the other side, fifty-four images of demon gods (called "asuras")
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push the tail of the serpent. The whipping motion of the serpent's body was said to churn the ocean
and recreate the cosmos anew. The dancing female deities (each known as an "apsaras") were the first
beings to emerge from the sea of creation.

According to Hindu scriptures, these dancing divinities, whose name means "moving in water" in
Sanskrit, were the first beings to emerge from the Churning of the Sea of Milk in the Hindu myth of
creation.

Angkor Thom was a fortified city built from the early eleventh to the late twelfth centuries A.D.
during the reigns from Suryavarman I to Jayavarman VII. Because it was built over a long time by
successive kings, it has two city centers and differing architectural and sculpture styles. Angkor
Thom, located just north of the Angkor Wat site is the largest building complex in the Angkor area.

The Bayon Temple complex within Angkor Thom was built under the direction of the Mahayana
Buddhist ruler Jayavarman VII, who ascended to the Khmer kingdom's throne at Angkor in 1181 A.D.
He erected the site for Buddhist worship, although it later was renovated and used as a Hindu temple.
Various forms of Hindu and Buddhist worship were practiced side-by-side and successively in the
ancient royal courts of Southeast Asia.

Towers: There are 54 standing towers at Bayon Temple but there may once have been between 100
and 200 towers. Four faces, looking toward the cardinal directions, are carved on the sides of each
tower. The preservation of many of the towers, however, is poor so it is difficult to know exactly how
all the towers were carved. Over 200 giant smiling faces remain, each with four faces. These
structures are known as "face towers."

The bas-relief carvings on the outer walls of the Bayon towers depict heroic historical tales as well as
scenes of everyday Khmer life. Jayavarman VII was a capable military commander who repelled
attacks by the Champa kingdom before becoming the Khmer king and undertaking a massive effort to
construct stone temples and other monuments. Ultimately, it was the Siamese kingdom based in what
is now Thailand, that sacked Angkor in 1431 and ended the kingdom's regional power.

"architectural triad" brought about an element of experimentation in architectural style in the

Angkorian period. From the astronomical references planned for three temples, out of the four noted

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alignments three, namely, equinox and winter and Solar Solstices could be observed from inside the
western entrance of Phnom Bok hill temple, which is also known for the triple sanctuary dedicated to
the Hindu Trimurti which is the triple deity of supreme divinity in Hinduismin which the cosmic
functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified as a triad of deities,
typically Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer. The Puranic period saw
the rise of post-Vedic religion and the evolution of what is fondly called "synthetic Hinduism". This
period had no homogeneity, and included orthodox Brahmanism in the form of remnants of older
Vedic faith traditions, along with different sectarian religions, notably Shaivism, Vaishnavism,
and Shaktism that were within the orthodox fold yet still formed distinct entities. One of the important
traits of this period is a spirit of harmony between orthodox and sectarian forms. Regarding this spirit
of reconciliation.

Earliest 3 Hindu hilltop temples in the Angkor region

The site of the three hills was chosen by Yashovarman I in the 10th century.Those days the shrines
had high religious value during the Angkorian rule. The temples called as part of an "architectural
triad"

1. Phnom Bok is a hill in the northeast of Eastern Baray in Cambodia, with a prasat (temple) of the
same name built on it. It is one of the "trilogies of mountains", each of which has a temple with
similar layout. The creation of the temple is credited to the reign of Yasovarman I (889–910) between
9th and 10th centuries; established after he moved his capital to Angkor and named it Yasodharapura.
The two other sister temples, named after the contiguous hills, are the Phnom Bakheng and Phnom
Krom.

2. Phnom Krom is a 140 m high hill close to Siem Reap city, Cambodia. There is a temple on the top
which derived its name from the hill, Prasat Phnom Krom. Phnom Krom is about 12 kilometers
southwest of Siem Reap town. The area here is very rocky and legend has it that the rocks were
exposed by the monkey general Hanuman during a hunt for medicine in the Ramayana epic. The area
beyond the temple’s west gate affords views of the Tonle Saplake .
3. Phnom Bakheng at Angkor, Cambodia, is a Hindu temple in the form of a temple mountain
dedicated to Shiva. It was the architectural centerpiece of a new capital, Yasodharapura, that
Yasovarman built when he moved the court from the capital Hariharalaya in the Roluos area located
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to the southeast. It was built at the end of the 9th century, during the reign of King Yasovarman (889-
910). Located atop a hillone can see the bigger temple Angkor Wat, which lies amid the jungle about
1.5 km to the southeast. Constructed more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, Phnom Bakheng
was in its day the principal temple of the Angkor region, historians believe. A Thai inscription dated
1052 AD and found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple in present-day Thailand states in Sanskrit: "When
Sri Yasovardhana became king under the name of Yasovarman, the able Vamasiva continued as his
guru. By the king's order, he set up a linga on Sri Yasodharagiri, a mountain equal in beauty to the
king of mountains."

Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods, a status
emphasized by the temple's location atop a steep hill 65 m above the surrounding plain. The temple is
built in a pyramid form of seven levels, representing the seven heavens. At the top level, five
sandstone sanctuaries, in various states of repair, stand in a quincunx pattern—one in the center and
one at each corner of the level's square. Originally, 108 small towers were arrayed around the temple
at ground level and on various tiers; most of them have collapsed.

The temple sits on a rectangular base and rises in five levels and is crowned by five main towers. One
hundred four smaller towers are distributed over the lower four levels, placed so symmetrically that
only 33 can be seen from the center of any side. Thirty-three is the number of gods who dwelt on
Mount Meru. Phnom Bakheng's total number of towers is also significant. The center one represents
the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones represent the four lunar phases, each with 27 days. The
seven levels of the monument represent the seven heavens and each terrace contains 12 towers which
represent the 12-year cycle of Jupiter. According to University of Chicago scholar Paul Wheatley, it is
"an astronomical calendar in stone."18 Surrounding the mount and temple, labor teams built an outer
moat. Avenues radiated out in the four cardinal directions from the mount. A causeway ran in a
northwest-southeast orientation from the old capital area to the east section of the new capital's outer
moat and then, turning to an east–west orientation, connected directly to the east entrance of the
temple.

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Later in its history, Phnom Bakheng was converted into a Buddhist temple. A monumental Sitting
Buddha, now lost, was created on its upper tier. Across its west side, a Reclining Buddha of similar
scale was crafted in stone. The outlines of this figure are still visible.

Angkor Thomand Bayon: Angkor Thom was a nomenclature given to Yashodharpura. Meaning
"Great City," alternative name: Nokor Thom, located in same site as Yashodharpura it was the last
and most lasting capital city of the Khmer empire. The word Nokor is literally derived

from Sanskrit word of Nagara ( नगर), which means City, combining with Khmer word Thom which

means Big or Great so as to form Nokor Thom then being altered to current name of Angkor Thom.
The Khmers did not draw any clear distinctions between Angkor Thom and Yashodharapura until
16th century. Established in the late twelfth century by King Jayavarman VII, it covers an area of
9 km², within which are located several monuments from earlier eras as well as those established by
Jayavarman and his successors. At the

centre of the city is Jayavarman's state temple, the Bayon, a richly decorated Khmer temple. Built in
the late 12th or early 13th century as the state temple of the MahayanaBuddhist King Jayavarman VII.
Angkor Thom was established as the capital of Jayavarman VII's empire, and was the centre of his
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massive building program. Angkor Thom seems not to be the first Khmer capital on the site,
however. Yasodharapura, dating from three centuries earlier, was centred slightly further northwest,
and Angkor Thom overlapped parts of it. The most notable earlier temples within the city are the
former state temple of Baphuon, and Phimeanakas, which was incorporated into the Royal Palace.
The last temple known to have been constructed in Angkor Thom was Mangalartha, which was
dedicated in 1295. Thereafter the existing structures continued to be modified from time to time, but
any new creations were in perishable materials and have not survived. Angkor Thom was abandoned
some time prior to 1609.

The Ayutthaya Kingdom, led by King Borommarachathirat II, sacked Angkor Thom, forcing the
Khmers under Ponhea Yat to relocate their capital southeast to Phnom Penh. It is believed to have
sustained a population of 80,000–150,000 people. The Architecture of Angkor Thom is in the Bayon
style which is exemplified by large scale of the construction and in the widespread use of laterite, in
the face-towers at each of the entrances to the city and in the naga-carrying giant figures which
accompany each of the towers.

South gate of Angkor Thom along with a bridge of statues of gods and demons. Two rows of figures
each carry the body of seven-headed naga. The city lies on the west bank of the Siem Reap River, a
tributary of Tonle Sap, about a quarter of a mile from the river. The south gate of Angkor Thom is
7.2 km north of Siem Reap, and 1.7 km north of the entrance to Angkor Wat. The walls, 8 m high and
flanked by a moat, are each 3 km long, enclosing an area of 9 km². The walls are of laterite buttressed
by earth, with a parapet on the top. There are gates at each of the cardinal points, from which roads
lead to the Bayon at the centre of the city. As the Bayon itself has no wall or moat of its own, those of
the city are interpreted by archaeologists as representing the mountains and oceans surrounding the
Bayon's Mount Meru. Another gate—the Victory Gate—is 500 m north of the east gate; the Victory
Way runs parallel to the east road to the Victory Square and the Royal Palace north of the Bayon. It is
around 30 minutes from central Siem Reap.

The faces on the 23 m towers at the city gates, which are later additions to the main structure, take
after those of the Bayon and pose the same problems of interpretation. They may represent the king
himself, the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, guardians of the empire's cardinal points, or some
combination of these. A causeway spans the moat in front of each tower: these have a row of devas on
the left and asuras on the right, each row holding a naga in the attitude of a tug-of-war. This appears

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to be a reference to the myth, popular in Angkor, of the Churning of the Sea of Milk. The temple-
mountain of the Bayon, or perhaps the gate itself would then be the pivot around which the churning
takes place. The nagas may also represent the transition from the world of men to the world of the
gods (the Bayon), or be guardian figures. The gateways themselves are 3.5 by 7 m, and would
originally have been closed with wooden doors. The south gate is now by far the most often visited, as
it is the main entrance to the city for tourists. At each corner of the city is a Prasat Chrung—corner
shrine—built of sandstone and dedicated to Avalokiteshvara. These are cruciform with a central
tower, and orientated towards the east.

Within the city was a system of canals, through which water flowed from the northeast to the
southwest. The bulk of the land enclosed by the walls would have been occupied by the secular
buildings of the city, of which nothing remains. This area is now covered by forest.

Bas Reliefs: Most of the great Angkor ruins have vast displays of bas-relief depicting the various
gods, goddesses, and other-worldly beings from the mythological stories and epic poems of ancient
Hinduism (modified by centuries of Buddhism). Mingled with these images are actual known animals,
like elephants, snakes, fish, and monkeys, in addition to dragon-like creatures that look like the
stylized, elongated serpents (with feet and claws) found in Chinese art. But among the ruins of Ta
Prohm, near a huge stone entrance, one can see that the "roundels on pilasters on the south side of the
west entrance are unusual in design."

What one sees are roundels depicting various common animals—pigs, monkeys, water buffaloes,
roosters and snakes. There are no mythological figures among the roundels, so one can reasonably
conclude that these figures depict the animals that were commonly seen by the ancient Khmer people
in the twelfth century.
Preah Vihear: is a temple located in the province of the same name, and is one of Cambodia’s most
celebrated monuments not only because of its scenic location and its extraordinary beauty on the
natural border between northern Cambodia and northeastern Thailand. On July 8, 2008, Preah Vihear
was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. As a traditional place of worship, Preah Vihear was
honoured and modified by many successive Khmer kings. This is why it is a collection of several
architectural styles, even the rare most artistic Banteay Srei style from the late tenth century shapes
some decorations, but the Angkor Wat style of the last major construction phase is dominant.

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The modern name "Preah Vihear" simply means "holy abode", "holy shrine" or "holy monastery".
The complex is sometimes called "Prasat Preah Vihear" or "Phnom Preah Vihear". Thais call it "Kao
Pravihan" meaning "mountain temple".

It is dedicated to the Hindu deity Shiva, in his mountain god forms called Shikhareshvara and
Bhadreshvara. Its total height is 625 metres above sea level atop a mountain site "Shikara" is well-
known term for main temple-towers in India surmounting the sanctum, its original meaning is "peak".
"Ishvara means "Lord". Shiva resides on Mount Kailash, "Shikhara-ishvara" melted to
"Shikahereshvara" is only one of his many names. A local mountain god identified with Shiva and
venerated under this Sanskrit name seems to be the original patron of Preah Vihear. "Bhadreshvara",
meaning the "promising Lord", originally is the guardian deity of the Cham, the arch rival of the
Khmer kingdom. Wat Phu in today's southern Laos, located on a hill, too, seems to have been founded
by the Cham, but became a Khmer sanctuary, it remained to be dedicated to Bhadreshvara. According
to an inscription at Preah Vihear (K 380) Bhadreshvara of Wat Phu (called Lingapura) arrived
miraculously at Preah Vihear (called Shikheshvara) to manifest the splendour of Shiva in the form of
light.

Preah Vihear is unusual among Khmer temples in many respects, not only because of its unique
setting. The complex is arranged along a north-south axis, instead of having the usual orientation to
the east. Most strikingly, it does not consist of concentric enclosures inside one another, but of a row
of five Gopuram structures leading uphill, one behind the other, on a length of 800 metres. Such a
layout is called linear temple. Each of the Gopuras is prededed by a set of steps emphasizing the rising
of the next level.

Building activities are said to have started as early as the ninth century, when Phnom Kulen and
Roluos were the capitals of what should become the Angkor empire. The earliest remaining parts of
the temple date from the Koh Ker period in the second quarter of the tenth century. Most of the
structures of the current complex are from the heydays of Angkor, from the 11th and 12th century.
The buildings were erected in the eras of Suryavarman I. (1005-1050) and Angkor Wat founder
Suryavarman II. (1113 -1150), two of three most influential Khmer kings in history. Detailed
inscriptions at Preah Vihear from the reign of Suryavarman II. inform about religious rituals and

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festivals and gifts to the king's religious advisor, the priest Divakarapandita, who donated a sculpture
of the dancing Shiva.

Remarkably, the outer Gopuram Gate (counted from the centre as "fifth") is the oldest one, it is in the
Koh Ker style. It once had a tiled roof. The next (fourth) Gopuram, with a long crossways hall, is
from the reign of Suryavarman I, the Baphuon period. Its southern pediment has one of the most
celebrated bas-relief depiction of the common motif "Churning of the Ocean of Milk". The third
Gopuram is the largest. Finally, there are two connected successive courtyards leading to the main
shrine.

Mahabalipuram mystery: It has been said that Angkor Wat, the intriguing temple complex of
Cambodia was inspired by Mahabalipuram sculptures? Some call this places as Vaikuntha, an abode
of the preserver of the universe. When one looks at the sculptures of Angkor Wat and the ancient
temples of Mahabalipuram, one find a number of similarities. The Pallava kings ruled Tamil Nadu for
400 years, from the 6th century to the 9th. Kanchipuram was their capital and Mamallapuram their
seaport. Long before the Pallavas took power, Mamallapuram (or Mahabalipuram) was known for its
flourishing seaport where ships from Greece and elsewhere came to trade.The Mahabalipuram
monuments were built between the 7th and 8th centuries under the reigns of the Pallava kings
Mahendravarman I (600–630), his son Narasimhavarman I (630–668), Mahendravarman II (668–
672), Paramesvaravarman I (670–695) and Narasimhavarman II (695–722).

Most of the monuments were built under Narasimhavarman I, the “great warrior” or
“Mamallan”, after whom the place is named. They are said to have been built as a kind of
memorial to the Pallava victory over king Chalukya Pulakesin II. The fortune Mamallan acquired
through conquest was invested in embellishing the town with splendid buildings.

Use for defensive capacity : Angkor Wat is the first and only known example of an Angkorian temple
being systematically modified for use in a defensive capacity. Researchers from the University of
Sydney, leading the Greater Angkor Project in Cambodia, dug up the artefacts using laser airborne laser
scanning (LiDAR) technology, along with ground penetrating radar. Sprawling structures forming the
shape of a giant spiral and an ensemble of buried towers have been dug up from the grounds of Angkor

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Wat, spurring new mysteries about the ancient temple.It was once believed that the Cambodian temple
was surrounded sacred precincts, or 'temple cities.'After finding a massive sand structure and other
buried remnants of the long-gone society, archaeologists are now saying Angkor Wat was much more
complex than imagined.

+8Using laser airborne scanning (LiDAR) technology and ground penetrating radar, researchers were
able to map the locations of eight buried towers found on the grounds of Angkor Wat. These are
indicated in bright yellow.
The discovered structure is more than 1500 m long, running along the south side of Angkor Wat,buried
towers, which were demolished during construction of the main temple, possibly the remains of an
ancient shrine. Wooden structures also found at the site suggest that Angkor Way may have enhanced its
defense capabilities near the end of its operation.The spiral structure is difficult to make out from the
ground, and is largely a mystery to the researchers. Huge, unique and problematic structure of the
‘rectilinear spirals’, has never previously been recognized or even predicted, or supposed, and it still
defies explanation.'Along with this, they found buried towers, which were demolished during
construction of the main temple. The researchers believe this may be the remnants of an ancient shrine.

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'This structure, which has dimensions of more than 1500m x 600m, is the most striking discovery
associated with Angkor Wat to date, its function remains unknown and, as yet, it has no known
equivalent in the Angkorian world. The spiral structure was not in use for long. A canal that cut through
the spiral design was built later in the 12th century.It is possible the spiral structure was never
completed.Evidence of low-density communities now have researchers questioning the social structure
that once was. Evidence of roads, ponds, and mounds, which may have been used by workers of the
temple signifies the temple precinct, bounded by moat and wall, may not have been exclusively the
preserve of the wealthy of priestly elite.It has previously been assumed that enclosed spaces within
Angkor Wat indicated cities or towns. Moats, walls, and other infrastructure kept each area contained.
Researchers believe that these closed off urban areas differed significantly from the regions outside.AS
1297 and 1585, with earlier defensive constructions, or between 1585 and the 1630s, to mark the
beginning of the end of Angkor, as the neighbouring city, Ayutthaya bore down upon it.Either date
makes the defences of Angkor Wat one of the last major constructions at Angkor and is perhaps
indicative of its end.19

8Koh Ker, one of the provincial cities of the Khmer Empire, was located approximately 85 km
northeast of the Angkor monuments. The temples in the Koh Ker monuments were mainly
constructed from laterite, sandstone and brick between 921 and 944 AD. The laterites used in the Koh
Ker monuments were classified using a portable X-ray fluorescence analyser.In doing so 5 different
stages of construction were identified in the buildings of the Koh Ker monuments; each characterized
by a different laterite source rock likely supplied from quarries around the Srayang village, which is
located immediately to the south of the Koh Ker monuments. 20
The Koh Ker monuments consist of Prasat Thom, the largest temple, and several other small to
medium-scale temples . To date, the remains of 76 temples have been confirmed in the Koh Ker area.

Prang, which is a five-tiered stepped pyramid surmounted by a huge linga with two-tiered platforms,
is located at the west end of Prasat Thom.

Unlike the Angkor monument site, where temples are positioned along a main axis that runs east to
west, at the Koh Ker monument site, the main axes of some of the temples, including Prasat Thom,
are shifted approximately 14 degrees in a counterclockwise direction from the due east–west axis;

365
while other temples are orientated along this east–west axis. As mentioned earlier there is a large
reservoir known as Rahal. Thus, the main axis line of Prasat Thom was consequently also rotated
from the east–west line. The north east royal road is located approximately 6 km northwest of Prasat
Thom, and there is a causeway to Prasat Thom from the royal road. There are more than 14 different
temples where laterite was used as a major construction material. These temples include:

1. Prasat Thom,
2. Prasat Krachap,
3. Prasat Neang Khmau,
4. Prasat Chen,
5. Prasat Kraham,
6. Prasat Damrei,
7. Prasat Bak, Prasat G,
8. Prasat D,
9. Prasat Trapean Rosei,
10. Prasat Banteay Pir Chan,
11. Prasat Pram, Prasat Khtum, and
12. Prasat Chrap. Prasat Andong Kuk,
The sandstone used for the construction of the Koh Ker monuments is a gray to yellowish brown
sandstone (feldspathic arenite), which also was used to build the Angkor monuments. It is generally
believed that this material is derived from the Jurassic Grés Rouge Formation. Sandstone blocks of
the Koh Ker monuments likely originate from the surrounding area rather than from Mt. Kulen, which
was used to supply sandstone blocks to the Angkor area
Using the assumption that the temples were constructed in an outwardly propagating manner, 5
different construction stages were distinguished using latrices of differing Sr content and magnetic
susceptibility values. Almost all of the buildings in the Koh Ker monuments belong to the first three
stages, with only three and two buildings belonging to the fourth and fifth stages, respectively.
Buildings belonging to the fifth stage remained unfinished.

Since around 1850, Angkor Wat has been featured in the center of the national flag of Cambodia, as if
to show their incredible pride in the ancient monument. Their pride is also reflected by putting images
from Angkor Wat on many denominations of the riel (Cambodia's currency).The bas-reliefs on the
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walls represent important deities and figures in the Hindu and Buddhist religions and key events in
their narrative tradition.

REFERENCES

.
Footnote 8
Origins:
The origins of the temple lie in what may be the world's oldest religious text, the Rigveda, one of the
four Veda Samhitas of Hindu literature. This text describes the gods of heaven and earth, including
the earthly god Vishnu, The Preserver. It is to Vishnu that Angkor Wat is consecrated, and with more
than mere symbolic intent. Hindu temples were built to be earthly abodes for the gods. The central
sanctuary was the most sacred place, directly in line with the vertical axis of the central spire that
provided the connection between the realms of heaven and Earth. The surrounding architecture of the
temple would then mirror Hindu cosmology, being essentially a mandala in stone a diagram of the
cosmos itself. Furthermore, the Khmer civilization had by the time of Angkor Wat's construction
incorporated the idea that a king would, after his death, be transmuted into one of the gods. Hence, it
was at Angkor Wat that Suryavarman II, after his death, was believed to reside as Vishnu.
Astronomical significance:
Astronomy and Hindu cosmology are inseparably entwined at Angkor Wat. Nowhere is this more
evident than in the interior colonnade, which is dedicated to a vast and glorious carved mural, a bas-
relief illustrating the gods as well as scenes from the Hindu epic the Mahabharata. Along the east wall
is a 45-meter (150-foot) scene illustrating the "churning of the sea of milk," a creation myth in which
the gods attempt to churn the elixir of immortality out of the milk of time. The north wall depicts the
"day of the gods," along the west wall is a great battle scene from the Mahabharata, and the south wall
portrays the kingdom of Yama, the god of death. It has been suggested that the choice and
arrangement of these scenes was intended to tie in with the seasons—the creation scene of the east
wall is symbolic of the renewal of spring, the "day of the gods" is summer, the great battle on the west
wall may represent the decline of autumn, and the portrayal of Yama might signify the dormancy, the
lifeless time of winter.
The architecture of Angkor Wat also has numerous astronomical aspects beyond the basic mandala
plan that is common to other Hindu temples. As many as eighteen astronomical alignments have been
identified within its walls. To mention but three of them: when standing just inside the western
entrance, the Sun rises over the central tower on the spring (vernal) equinox; it rises over a distant
temple at Prasat Kuk Bangro, 5.5 kilometers (3.4 miles) away, on the winter solstice; and on the
summer solstice it rises over a prominent hill 17.5 kilometers (10.9 miles) away.
According to Graham Hancock, Angkor Wat and all the temples were conceived by its builders as a
symbolic diagram of the universe. The notion of a land that is the image of heaven on which are built
cosmic temples with halls that resemble the sky was an idea that took root in Angkor Wat. Angkor
Wat consists of a series of five inter nested rectangular enclosures. The short dimensions are aligned
with high precision to true north-south, showing no deviation whatever according to modern surveys.

367
The long dimensions are oriented, equally precisely, to an axis that has been deliberately diverted 0.75
degrees south of east and north of west.
The first and outermost of the five rectangles that we find ourselves looking down on from the air is
the moat. Measured along its outer edge it runs 1300 meters north to south and 1500 meters from east
to west.Its ditch, (moat) 190 meters wide, has walls made from closely fitted blocks of red sandstone
set out with such precision that the accumulated surveying error around the entire 5.6 kilometers of
the perimeter amounts to barely a centimeter.
Angkor Wats principal entrance is on the west side where a megalithic causeway 347 meters long and
9.4 meters wide bears due east across the moat and then passes under a massive gate let into the walls
of the second of the five rectangles. This second enclosure measures 1025 x 800 meters. The
causeway continues eastward through it, past lawns and subsidiary structure and a large reflecting
pool, until it rises on to a cruciform terrace leading into the lowest gallery of the temple itself. This is
the third of the five inter nested rectangles visible from the air and precision engineering and
surveying are again in evidence with the northern and southern walls, for example, being of identical
lengths, exactly 202.14 meters.
Ascending to the fourth rectangle, the fourth level of Angkor Wats gigantic central pyramid, the same
precision can be observed. The northern and southern walls measure respectively 114.24 and 114.22
meters. At the fifth and last enclosure, the top level of the pyramid which reaches a height of 65 mts
above the entrance causeway the northern wall is 47.75 mts in length and the southern wall 47.79 mts.
According to a study published in the journal Science, these minute differences, less than 0.01
percent, demonstrates an astounding degree of accuracy on the part of the ancient builders.
The Draco-Angkor Correlation
The principal monuments of Angkor model the sinuous coils of the northern constellation of Draco.
There seems to be no doubt that a correlation exists: the correspondence between the principal stars of
Draco and at least fifteen of the main pyramid-temples of Angkor are too close to be called anything
else.
Cycles of the Ages
A detailed survey of Angkor Wat published in Science magazine in July 1976 reveled that even the
causeway incorporates cosmic symbolism and numbers encoding the cycles of time. After
establishing the basic unit of measure used in Angkor as the Khme hat (equivalent to 0.43434 meters)
the authors of the survey go on to demonstrate that axial lengths along the causeway appear to have
been adjusted to symbolize or represent the great world ages of Hindu cosmology.These periods begin
with the
1. Krita Yuga or golden age of man- 1,728,000 years
2. Treta Yuga, 1,296,000 years
3. Dvarpara Yuga 864,000 years and
4. Kali Yuga, the last being the most decadent age of man- 432,000 years.

It therefore cannot be an accident that key sections of the causeway have axial lengths that
approximate extremely closely to 1,728 hat, 1,296 hat, 864 hat, and 432 hat the yuga lengths scaled
down by 1000. We propose, conclude the authors, that the passage of time is numerically expressed
by the lengths corresponding to yugas along the west-east axis. Angkor wats dominant feature is its
long and massive east-west axis which locks it uncompromisingly to sunrise and sunset on the
equinoxes. In addition, the temple is cleverly anchored to ground and sky by markers for other key
astronomical moments of the year. For example, reports Science:

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It is interesting to note that there are two solstitial alignments from the western entrance gate of
Angkor Wat. These two alignments (added to the equinoctial alignment already established) mean
that the entire solar year was divided into four major sections by alignments from just inside the
entrance of Angkor Wat. From this western vantage point the sun rises over Phnom Bok (17.4
kilometers to the north-east) on the day of the summer solsticeThe western entrance gate of the temple
also has a winter solstice alignment with the temple of Prast Kuk Bangro, 5.5 kilometres of the south-
east.

Finally, some researchers have claimed that the very dimensions of many of the structures at Angkor
Wat have astronomical associations. These associations emerge from consideration of the unit of
length that was in use at that time, a unit known as the hat or "Cambodian cubit." There is some
question as to how long a hat was, and indeed its definition may not have been uniformly applied; but
a value of 43.45 centimeters (17.1 inches) for the length of a hat is suggested by the structures
themselves.

Using this value, archaeologists discovered numerous dimensions of the temple that seem to have
astronomical and cosmological significance for example, the following:
The dimensions of the highest rectangular level of the temple are 189 hat in the east-west direction
and 176 hat in the north-south direction. Added together these give 365, the number of days in one
year.

In the central sanctuary, the distances between sets of steps is approximately 12 hat. There are roughly
12 lunar cycles, or synodic months (from full Moon to full Moon, say the basis for our modern
month) in one year.

The length and width of the central tower add up to approximately 91 hat. On average, there are 91
days between any solstice and the next equinox, or any equinox and the next solstice.

Because of its orbit around the Earth, the Moon's apparent position in the sky relative to the
background stars will appear to shift from night to night. Since it takes the Moon just over 27 days to
complete one orbit (known as its sidereal period), it will, during this time appear to move through 27
successive regions of the sky. In Hindu cosmology, these regions were known as the naksatras, or
lunar mansions. In some contexts there were 27 lunar mansions, while in other contexts an additional
naksatra containing the star Vega was included, giving 28 lunar mansions.

REFERENCES
1. A. Temple Architecture, a Brief Overview and Its Symbolism, Purushottama Bilimoria,
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:http://www.indianheritage.org/temple/symbolism_Pur
ushottama.pdf
2. See our Paper on Hindu Temple Architecture of India –some musings in academia.edu
3. From the book-Record of Cambodia: The Land and Its People, by Zhou Daguan's and his description on the
Angkor Royal Palace.
4. Angkor Wat: A bridge to the past, Kausalya Santhanam,https://www.thehindu.com/society/history-and-
culture/angkor-wat-a-bridge-to-the-past/article24103506.ece
5.Higham, C., 2014, Early Mainland Southeast Asia, Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd.

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6. Angkor by Maurice Glaize – Goodreads, 1944
7. Angkor Wat: Time, Space, and Kingship, Eleanor Mannikka, Allen & Unwin, 1997
8. See above
9. The Hsinbyume Pagoda,Burma, also known as Myatheindan is a large painted white and is modelled on the
physical description of the Buddhist sacred mountain, Mount Meru. The pagoda's design is a great departure
from Burmese pagoda design norms. It is based on descriptions of the mythical Sulamani pagoda on Mount
Meru, and the lower parts of the pagoda represent the mountain. Seven concentric terraces represent the seven
mountain ranges going up to the Mount Meru according to Buddhist mythology.
See my paper on Prambana- the Hindu temple in Indonesia in academia.edu
10. A Mountain in Tibet: The Search for Mount Kailas and the Sources of the Great Rivers of India, Charles
Allen,kobo books,1982
11. The Adhinath Temple at Ranakpur, Takio Kamia,http://www.kamit.jp/03_jaina/6_ranakpur/ran_eng.htm
12."Angkor Vat, Description Graphique du Temple" by Guy Nafilyan, 1969, Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient.
13. Angkor Wat, the Kundalini, and the Quinx: The Human Architecture of Divine
Renewal in the Quincunx." In Twentieth-century Epic Novels, Theodore Louis Steinberg
13.Biphoun temple in Angkor: The sandstone temple-mountain symbolically represents the sacred five-peaked
Mount Meru important in both Hindu and Buddhist cosmology.
14.Etsuo Uchida,Takesi Nakagawa, Journal of Minerology,Petrology and Economic Geology,January 1998
15. A comprehensive archaeological map of the world's largest preindustrial settlement complex at Angkor,
Cambodia,Damian Evans, Christophe Pottier, Roland Fletcher, Scott Hensley, Ian Tapley, Anthony Milne,
and Michael Barbetti,PNAS September 4, 2007 -Edited by Michael D. Coe, Yale University, New Haven, CT,
16. Mystery of Angkor Wat's massive stones solved - they were 'brought to the area by a massive network of
canals'. Findings reveal how 12th century temple complex was built out of millions of stone blocks weighing up to
1.5tons in just a few decades, DAMIEN GAYLE, 2012https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-
2226195/Mystery-Angkor-Wats-massive-stones-solved--brought-area-massive-network-canals.html
17. Suvarnadvipa, Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, Vol.II, Calcutta,,R.C. Majumdar
18. (1983). Nagara and Commandery : Origins of the Southeast Asian Urban Traditions. Chicago, Ill.:
University of Chicago, Dept. of Geography.
19. What ARE the buried buildings of Angkor Wat? Researchers discover ancient temple was surrounded by a 1-
mile long 'mysterious structure' with towers and a giant SPIRAL of sand,CHEYENNE MACDONALD FOR
DAILYMAIL.COMThursday, Mar 12th 2020
20. Construction sequence of the Koh Ker monuments in Cambodia deduced from the chemical composition and
magnetic susceptibility of its laterites,Etsuo Uchida, Kojiro Tsuda &Ichita Shimoda,Heritage Science volume 2,

ANNEXUREI

Links to information on the Significant Angkor Archaeological Sites:

Angkor Thom: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor_Thom

Angkor Wat: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor_Wat
Baksei Chamkrong: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baksei_Chamkrong
Banteay Kdei: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banteay_Kdei
Banteay Samré: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banteay_Samr%C3%A9
Banteay Srei: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banteay_Srei
Baphuon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baphuon
The Bayon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bayon
Chau Say Tevoda: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chau_Say_Tevoda
East Baray: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Baray
East Mebon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Mebon
Kbal Spean: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kbal_Spean
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The Khleangs: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khleangs
Krol Ko: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krol_Ko
Lolei: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lolei
Neak Pean: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neak_Pean
Phimeanakas: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phimeanakas
Phnom Bakheng: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phnom_Bakheng
Phnom Krom: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phnom_Krom
Prasat Ak Yum: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ak_Yum
Prasat Kravan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prasat_Kravan
Preah Khan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preah_Khan
Preah Ko: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preah_Ko
Preah Palilay: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preah_Palilay
Preah Pithu: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preah_Pithu
Pre Rup: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre_Rup
Spean Thma: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spean_Thma
Srah Srang: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srah_Srang
Ta Nei: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta_Nei
Ta Prohm: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta_Prohm
Ta Som: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta_Som
Ta Keo: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta_Keo
Terrace of the Elephants: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrace_of_the_Elephants
Terrace of the Leper King: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrace_of_the_Leper_King
Thommanon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thommanon
West Baray: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Baray
West Mebon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Mebon
Mahendraparvata: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahendraparvata
Video Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BCzpJAm_y_Q

A N N E X U R E II
ANGKOR ARCHITECTURAL STYLES-PRE-ANGKOREAN ARCHITECTURE

Style Dates Rulers

Sambor Prei Kuk c. 610 – c. 650 CE Ishanavarman I, Bhavavarman II
  Round, plain colonettes with capitals that include a bu
Details
Prei Kmeng c. 635 – c. 700 CE Jayavarman I
  Masterpieces of sculpture, but primitive architecture.
 Larger colonettes are more heavily decorated.
 General decline in standards.
Details
Kompong Preah c. 700 – c. 800 CE Various
Found at: Ak Yom
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  More decorative rings on cylindrical colonettes.
 Continuing brick construction.
See also Kompong Preah Lintel Style.

TRANSITIONAL ARCHITECTURE
Kulen c. 825 – c. 875 CE Jayavarman II
 Continuation of pre-Angkorean style, but a period of innovation and borrowing, s
 Relatively high towers are mainly square.
 Mainly brick, with laterite walls and stone door surrounds.
 Square and octagonal colonettes begin to appear.

ANGKOREAN ARCHITECTURE
Indravarman I
Preah Ko 877 – c. 886 CE
Jayavarman III
Bakong
Kutishvara
Found at:
Lolei
Preah Ko
 Simple plan: one or more square brick towers on a single base.
 First appearance of concentric enclosures.
 First appearance of gopuras and ‘libraries’.
 Decorative ‘flying palaces' replaced by dvarapalas and devatas in niches.
 First major temple-mountain at Bakong.
Style Dates Rulers
Yashovarman I
Bakheng 889 – 923 CE
Harshavarman I
Baksei Chamkrong
Prasat Bei
Prasat Kravan
Lolei
Found at:
Phnom Bakheng
Phnom Bok
Phnom Krom
Thma Bei Kaek
 Development of the temple-mountain.
 More use of stone, particularly for major temples.
 More decorative stone carving.

Koh Ker c. 921 – 944 CE Jayavarman IV

Baksei Chamkrong
Found at:
Damrei

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 Koh Ker
Kravan (Prasat)
 Scale of buildings diminishes towards the centre.
 Brick is still the main material, but sandstone also used.
.

Pre Rup 944 – 968 CE Rajendravarman II

Bat Chum
East Mebon
Found at:
Kutishvara
Pre Rup
 Transitional between Koh Ker and Banteay Srei.
 Long halls partly enclose the sanctuary.
 The last great monuments in plastered brick.
 Increasing use of sandstone.
.

Banteay Srei 967 – 1000 CE Jayavarman V

Found at: Banteay Srei
 Ornate, superposed pediments.
 Sweeping gable ends.
 Rich and deep carving.
 Plastered brick replaced by stone and laterite.
 Appearance of mythological scenes in pediments.
 Voluptuous devatas with gentle expressions.
See also Banteay Srei Lintel Style.
Details
Khleang 968 – 1010 CE Jayavarman V
North Khleang
Phimeanakas
Found at:
Royal Palace South Khleang
Ta Keo
 First use of galleries.
 Cruciform (cross-shaped) gopuras.
 Octagonal colonettes.
 Restrained decorative carving.
.
Details
Baphuon 1050 – 1080 CE Udayadityavarman II
Found at: Baphuon

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 Kbal Spean
West Mebon
A return to rich carving: floral motifs, but also lintels with scenes.
Nagas without headdress.
Bas-reliefs appear at the Baphuon temple, carved with narrative panels
Jayavarman VI
Angkor Wat c. 1080 – 1175 CE Suryavarman II
Yashovarman II
Details
Jayavarman VII
Bayon 1181 – 1243 CE
Indravarman II
Angkor Thom
Angkor Thom South Gate
Banteay Chhmar
Banteay Kdei
Banteay Prei
Banteay Thom
Banteay Torp
Bayon
Chapel of the Hospital
Chrungs
Krol Ko
Jayatataka (Baray)
Neak Pean
Preah Palilay
Found at:
Prei
Prei Prasat
Preah Khan
Royal Terraces
Srah Srang
Prasat Suor Prat
Ta Nei
Ta Prohm
Ta Prohm Kel
Ta Som
Terrace of the Elephants
Terrace of the Leper King
Tonle Sgnout
Top East (Prasat)
 The last great Angkor style.
 Hurried construction, often in laterite not stone.
 Carving less elegant.
 Complex plans, huge temples.
 In Cambodia, face-towers, and historical narrative bas-reliefs.
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  Three periods:
1. Large, complex temples on a single level;
2. Face-towers and avenues of giants carrying nagas;
3. Decline of building standards, devatas acquire Angkor Wat

CHAPTER 12
Angkor Vat Temple

Motto of Cambodia
’"Nation, Religion, King"
Angkor’s most impressive and best known temple, Angkor Wat is the best preserved of all the
Angkor monuments. The temple is an object of pride for Cambodia, its depiction appears on the
national flag. It is a richly decorated, very large temple; the total temple area including the moat
measures 1.5 kilometers long by 1.3 kilometers wide, or a total of about 2 square kilometers. Angkor

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 Wat is the biggest Hindu temple in Cambodia.

Cambodia also Kampuchea officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, French: Royaume du

Cambodge), is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina peninsula in Southeast Asia.
It is 181,035 square kilometers (69,898 square miles) in area, bordered by Thailand to the
northwest, Laos to the northeast, Vietnam to the east and the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest.

The sovereign state of Cambodia has a population of over 16 million. The official religion
is Theravada Buddhism, practiced by approximately 95 percent of the population. The country's
minority groups include Vietnamese, Chinese, Chams and 30 hill tribes. The capital and largest city
is Phnom Penh, the political, economic and cultural centre of Cambodia. The kingdom is
an electiveconstitutional monarchy with a monarch, currently Norodom Sihamoni, chosen by
the Royal Throne Council as head of state. The head of government is the Prime Minister,
currently Hun Sen, the longest serving non-royal leader in Southeast Asia, ruling Cambodia since
1985.

In 802 AD, Jayavarman II declared himself king, uniting the warring Khmer princes of Chenla under
the name "Kambuja".This marked the beginning of the Khmer Empire, which flourished for over 600
years, allowing successive kings to control and exert influence over much of Southeast Asia and
accumulate immense power and wealth. The Indianised kingdom facilitated the spread of
first Hinduism and then Buddhism to much of Southeast Asia and undertook many religious

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infrastructural projects throughout the region, including the construction of more than 1,000 temples
and monuments in Angkor alone. Angkor Wat is the most famous of these structures and is designated
as a World Heritage Site.

After the fall of Angkor to Ayutthaya in the 15th century, a reduced and weakened Cambodia was
then ruled as a vassal state by its neighbors. In 1863, Cambodia became a protectorate of France,
which doubled the size of the country by reclaiming the north and west from Thailand.

Cambodia gained independence in 1953. The Vietnam War extended into the country with the US
bombing of Cambodia from 1969until 1973. Following the Cambodian coup of 1970 which installed
the right-wing pro-US Khmer Republic, the deposed king gave his support to his former enemies,
the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge emerged as a major power, taking Phnom Penh in 1975 and
later carrying out the Cambodian genocide from 1975 until 1979, when they were ousted by Vietnam
and the Vietnamese-backed People's Republic of Kampuchea, supported by the Soviet Union in
the Cambodian–Vietnamese War (1979–91).

Following the 1991 Paris Peace Accords, Cambodia was governed briefly by a United Nations
mission (1992–93). The UN withdrew after holding elections in which around 90 percent of the
registered voters cast ballots. The 1997 factional fighting resulted in the ousting of the government by
Prime Minister Hun Sen and the Cambodian People's Party, who remain in power as of 2019.

Cambodia is a member of the United Nations since 1955, ASEAN, the East Asia Summit, the WTO,
the Non-Aligned Movement and La Francophonie. According to several foreign organisations, the
country has widespread poverty, pervasive corruption, and lack of political freedoms, low human
development and a high rate of hunger. Cambodia has been described by Human Rights Watch's
Southeast Asian Director, David Roberts, as a "vaguely communist free-market state with a relatively
authoritarian coalition ruling over a superficial democracy".

While per capita income remains low compared to most neighboring countries, Cambodia has one of
the fastest growing economies in Asia, with growth averaging 7.6 percent over the last decade.
Agriculture remains the dominant economic sector, with strong growth in textiles, construction,
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garments and tourism leading to increased foreign investment and international trade. The US World
Justice Project's 2015 Rule of Law Index ranked Cambodia 76 out of 102 countries, similar to other
countries in the region.

The "Kingdom of Cambodia" is the official English name of the country. The English "Cambodia" is
an Anglicization of the French "Cambodge", which in turn is the French transliteration of the Khmer
kampuciə. Kampuchea is the shortened alternative to the country's official name in Khmer prĕəh
riəciənaacak kampuciə. The Khmer endonym Kampuchea derives from the Sanskrit

name कम्बोजदेश kambojadeśa, composed of देश deśa ("land of" or "country of")

and कम्बोज kamboja, which alludes to the foundation myths of the first ancient Khmer kingdom.

The term Cambodia was already in use in Europe as early as 1524, since Antonio Pigafetta (an Italian
explorer who followed Ferdinand Magellan in his circumnavigation of the globe) cites it in his
work Relazione del primo viaggio intorno al mondo (1524-1525) as Camogia.

Colloquially, Cambodians refer to their country as either srok khmae [srok ˈkʰmae]), meaning
"Khmer's Land", or the slightly more formal prɑteih kampuciə- Country of Kampuchea". The name
"Cambodia" is used most often in the Western world while "Kampuchea" is more widely used in the
East.

There exists sparse evidence for a Pleistocene human occupation of present-day Cambodia, which
includes quartz and quartzite pebble tools found in terraces along the Mekong River, in Stung
Treng and Kratié provinces, and in Kampot Province, although their dating is unreliable. Some slight
archaeological evidence shows communities of hunter-gatherers inhabited the region
during Holocene: the most ancient archaeological discovery site in Cambodia is considered to be the
cave of L'aang Spean, in Battambang Province, which belongs to the Hoabinhian period. Excavations
in its lower layers produced a series of radiocarbon dates around 6000 BC. Upper layers in the same
site gave evidence of transition to Neolithic, containing the earliest dated earthenware ceramics in
Cambodia.

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Archaeological records for the period between Holocene and Iron Age remain equally limited. A
pivotal event in Cambodian prehistory was the slow penetration of the first rice farmers from the
north, which began in the late 3rd millennium BC. The most curious prehistoric evidence in
Cambodia are the various "circular earthworks" discovered in the red soils near Memot and in the
adjacent region of Vietnam in the latter 1950s. Their function and age are still debated, but some of
them possibly date from 2nd millennium BC.

Other prehistoric sites of somewhat uncertain date are Samrong Sen. (not far from the ancient capital
of Oudong), where the first investigations began in 1875, and Phum Snay, in the northern province
of Banteay Meanchey. An excavation at Phum Snay revealed 21 graves with iron weapons and cranial
trauma which could point to conflicts in the past, possible with larger cities in Angkor. Prehistoric
artifacts are often found during mining activities in Ratanakiri.

Iron was worked by about 500 BC, with supporting evidence coming from the Khorat Plateau, in
modern-day Thailand. In Cambodia, some Iron Age settlements were found beneath Baksei
Chamkrong and other Angkorian temples while circular earthworks were found beneath Lovea a few
kilometres north-west of Angkor. Burials, much richer than other types of finds, testify to
improvement of food availability and trade (even on long distances: in the 4th century BC trade
relations with India were already opened) and the existence of a social structure and labor
organization. Also, among the artifacts from the Iron Age, glass beads are important evidence.
Different kinds of glass beads recovered from several sites across Cambodia, such as the Pham Snaky
site in northwest and the Preheat site in the southeast show that there were two main trading networks
at the time. The two networks were separated by time and space, which indicate that there was a shift
from one network to the other at about 2nd–4th century AD, probably with changes in socio-political
powers.

Pre-Angkor an and Angkor an era

During the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries, the Indianised states of Funan and its successor, Chenla,
coalesced in present-day Cambodia and southwestern Vietnam. For more than 2,000 years, what was
to become Cambodia absorbed influences from India, passing them on to other Southeast Asian

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civilizations that are now Thailand and Laos. Little else is known for certain of these polities,
however Chinese chronicles and tribute records do make mention of them. It is believed that the
territory of Funan may have held the port known to Alexandrian geographer Claudius Ptolemy as
"Kattigara". The Chinese chronicles suggest that after Jayavarman I of Chenla died around 690,
turmoil ensued which resulted in division of the kingdom into Land Chenla and Water Chenla which
was loosely ruled by weak princes under the dominion of Java.

The Khmer Empire grew out of these remnants of Chenla, becoming firmly established in 802
when Jayavarman II (reigned c790-850) declared independence from Java and proclaimed himself
a Devaraja. He and his followers instituted the cult of the God-king and began a series of conquests
that formed an empire which flourished in the area from the 9th to the 15th centuries. During the rule
of Jayavarman VIII the Angkor empire was attacked by the Mongol army of Kublai Khan, however
the king was able to buy peace. Around the 13th century, monks from Sri
Lanka introduced Theravada Buddhism to Southeast Asia. The religion spread and eventually
displaced Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism as the popular religion of Angkor; however it was not
the official state religion until 1295; when Indravarman III took power.

The Khmer Empire was Southeast Asia's largest empire during the 12th century. The empire's centre
of power was Angkor, where a series of capitals were constructed during the empire's zenith. In 2007
an international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other modern techniques
concluded that Angkor had been the largest pre-industrial city in the world with an urban sprawl of
2,980 square kilometres (1,151 square miles.The city, which could have supported a population of up
to one million people and Angkor Wat, the best known and best-preserved religious temple at the site,
still serves as a reminder of Cambodia's past as a major regional power. The empire, though in
decline, remained a significant force in the region until its fall in the 15th century.

Dark ages of Cambodia

After a long series of wars with neighboring kingdoms, Angkor was sacked by the Ayutthaya
Kingdom and abandoned in 1432 because of ecological failure and infrastructure breakdown. This led
to a period of economic, social, and cultural stagnation when the kingdom's internal affairs came
increasingly under the control of its neighbors. By this time, the Khmer penchant for monument

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building had ceased. Older faiths such as Mahayana Buddhism and the Hindu cult of the god-king had
been supplanted by Theravada Buddhism.

Angkor Wat (æŋkɔːr ˈwɒt; "City/Capital of Temples")

Height of architectural skills of the Khmer
The temple represents the height of architectural skills of the Khmer builders. Its very detailed carved
bas reliefs that cover much of the temple show impressive craftsmanship. Unlike other Angkor
temples, Angkor Wat is oriented towards the West and dedicated to Vishnu, where previous temples
face east and are dedicated to Shiva.

Angkor Wat was the state temple of King Suryavarman II, who built the temple during the first half of
the 12th century. He was one of Angkor’s greatest Kings who ruled for almost 40 years and expanded
the Khmer empire. Some historians believe that the temple also served as a funerary temple for the
King. This could explain its orientation to the West; the setting sun (in the West) symbolizes the end
of the cycle of life.

Mount Meru, the center of Hindu cosmology

Angkor Wat is a mountain temple build to represent Mount Meru, the center of the world in Hindu
cosmology. The temple’s five prasats or sanctuary towers represent the peaks of the sacred mountain,
while the moats represent the oceans that surround Mount Meru.

The temple’s three tiers are surrounded by large galleries, that were introduced in earlier temples like
the Ta Keo. One of Angkor Wat’s major attractions are the many intricate and well preserved bas
reliefs with depictions of scenes from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as many
hundreds of statues of female devatas, a Hindu deity.

Angkor Wat was cleared at the start of the 20th century, after which extensive restoration work has
been carried out. Around the end of the 13th century Angkor Wat was converted into a Buddhist
temple.

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Approach to the temple
Surrounding the temple complex is a 190 meter wide moat. At the Western end is a 12 meter wide
bridge, in front of which is a terrace where lions and Naga snakes guard the temple. Crossing the
bridge the visitor approaches the impressive Western gate, which was built to resemble the front view
of the temple itself.

The structure consists of long galleries with a three part gopura topped by towers that have partly
collapsed. At both ends of the structure is a pavilion, large enough to enable elephants to go through.
The Western gate contains apsaras and devatas as well as magnificent carvings on its lintels showing
Vishnu, Garuda, warriors and scenes from the epic Ramayana. Only after passing the Western gate,
the Angkor Wat temple comes in sight.

Behind the Western gate is a 350 meter long processional walkway elevated about 1½ meters above
the ground towards the temple. On either side of the walkway is a library building. Past the libraries
are two lakes, reflecting the silhouette of the of Angkor Wat’s towers. The temple itself is build on
raised platform about 330 meters long and 255 meters wide. The structure comprises of three
rectangular tiers each higher one smaller than the one below it encircled by long galleries with corner
towers and a gopura in the center of its sides.

Bas reliefs’ galleries of the third tier

The third tier is surrounded by long concentric galleries. Its walls contain some of the finest and best
preserved bas reliefs of Angkor Wat, including:

 The battle of Lanka, a storey from the epic Ramayana, where Rama fights Ravana who abducted
his wife Sita
 The battle of Kurukshetra from the epic Mahabharata, between the Kauravas and the Pandavas,
depicting soldiers and commanders on elephants or riding chariots
 A 90 meter panel of the Royal Procession. Two sections depict King Suryavarman II and a
procession of court ladies, another section shows a procession of soldiers on foot or on horses
and elephants and a parade of Brahmin priests

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  The Heavens and Hells and the Judgment of Sinners by Yama, the Hindu God of Death.
Depictions of the 37 heavens with palaces with servants and the 32 hells and the punishments
and tortures received there, each one for a specific sin committed
 The churning of the ocean of milk, a 50 meter long panel. This storey from the Mahabharata tells
how an elixir of immortality over which the Gods and the demons fight is produced by churning
the ocean with Mount Meru used as the churning rod
 Vishnu and his incarnation Krishna
 The victory of Vishnu over the asuras
 The abduction of Shiva by Ravana
 Other scenes from the Ramayana

Within the third enclosure, right after passing the main entrance on the West end is galleries that
delimit four courtyards. Its walls are decorated with devatas, apsaras and rishis, while the pediments
contain carvings of Vishnu and Krishna, one of Vishnu’s incarnations. The galleries also contain a
number of Buddha images, placed there after Angkor Wat was converted into a Buddhist temple.

The platform with 5 lotus bud shaped towers

The second tier measuring 100 by 115 meters is enclosed by galleries. On each of its four corners are
towers that have partly collapsed. On top of the structure is a square platform about 55 meters wide
that contains five towers shaped like lotus buds. The platform is surrounded by galleries; with a
sanctuary tower on each if its corners.

In the middle stands the 42 meter high central sanctuary on each side opening to a vestibule in which
Buddha statues are found. The walls of the tower are decorated with well preserved devatas. Inside is
the cella, a chamber that enshrined a large statue of Vishnu.

History

Angkor Wat lies 5.5 kilometers (3.4 mi) north of the modern town of Siem Reap, and a short distance
south and slightly east of the previous capital, which was centered at Baphuon. In an area of
Cambodia where there is an important group of ancient structures, it is the southernmost of Angkor's
main sites.

383
According to legend, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by Indra to serve as a palace for his
son Precha Ket Mealea. According to the 13th-century Chinese traveler Zhou Daguan, some believed
that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect.

The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of the 12th century, during
the reign of Suryavarman II (ruled 1113 – c. 1150). Dedicated to Vishnu, it was built as the king's
state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions
referring to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown, but it may have been known as
"Varah Vishnu-lok" after the presiding deity. Work seems to have ended shortly after the king's death,
leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished. In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death
of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer.
Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and
state temple (Angkor Thom and the Bayon respectively) a few kilometers to the north.Towards the
end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat gradually transformed from a Hindu centre of worship
to Buddhism, which continues to the present day Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples
in that although it was largely neglected after the 16th century it was never completely
abandoned. Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th century discovered in Angkor area testify
to JapaneseBuddhist pilgrims that had established small settlements alongside Khmer locals. At that
time, the temple was thought by the Japanese visitors as the famed Jetavana garden of the Buddha,
which originally located in the kingdom of Magadha, India. The best-known inscription tells
of Ukondafu Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New Year at Angkor Wat in 1632.

Facade of Angkor Wat, a drawing by Henri Mouhot, c. 1860

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 Sketch of Angkor Wat, a drawing by Louis Delaporte, c. 1880

One of the first Western visitors to the temple was António da Madalena, a Portuguese friar who
visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe
it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration
and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of."

In the mid-19th century, the temple was effectively rediscovered by the French naturalist and
explorer Henri Mouhot, who popularized the site in the West through the publication of travel notes,
in which he wrote:

“One of these temples, a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo,
might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left
to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation
is now plunged.
”

Angkor Wat may relate to the architecture of the Greek and Roman record explored in terms of the
west rather than east orientation of the temple. Some architects have written that it is 'correct' for the
construction to be facing to the west. In temple orientations for the Greek and Etruscan context, west
is associated with "right" and the "underworld" to suggest a religious connection of the building.
Mouhot, like other early Western visitors, found it difficult to believe that the Khmers could have
built the temple and mistakenly dated it to around the same era as Rome. His reports inspired the
French government, already an established presence in Indochina, to begin a systematic study of the
ruins. The true history of Angkor Wat was pieced together from stylistic and epigraphic evidence
accumulated during subsequent clearing and restoration work. There were no ordinary dwellings or
houses or other signs of settlement, including cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually
found at ancient sites. Instead there is only the evidence of the monuments themselves. An exploration
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commission began drawing up a list of principal monuments. Subsequent missions copied inscriptions
written on Angkor buildings so scholars might translate them and learn something of Angkor's
history. By 1885 they had worked up a chronology of the rulers and developed the outlines of a
description of the civilization that had produced the temple complex. In 1898 the French decided to
commit substantial funds to Angkor's preservation. Centuries of neglect had permitted the jungle to
recapture many of the more significant structures, and unless efforts were made to free the buildings
from the embrace of huge banyan and silk-cotton trees, they might soon be crushed to destruction.

The 20th century saw considerable restoration of Angkor Wat. Gradually teams of laborers and
archeologists pushed back the jungle and exposed the expanses of stone, permitting the sun once
again to illuminate the dark corners of the temple. Work was interrupted by the Cambodian Civil
War and Khmer Rouge control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s, but relatively little damage
was done during this period. Camping Khmer Rouge forces used whatever wood remained in the
building structures for firewood, and a shoot-out between Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese forces put a
few bullet holes in a bas relief. Far more damage was done after the wars, by art thieves working out
of Thailand, which, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, claimed almost every head that could be lopped
off the structures, including reconstructions.

The temple is a powerful symbol of Cambodia, and is a source of great national pride that has factored
into Cambodia's diplomatic relations with France, the United States and its neighbor Thailand. A
depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of the
first version circa 1863. From a larger historical and even transcultural perspective, however, the
temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of national pride sui generis but had been inscribed
into a larger politico-cultural process of French-colonial heritage production in which the original
temple site was presented in French colonial and universal exhibitions in Paris and Marseille between
1889 and 1937. Angkor Wat's aesthetics were also on display in the plaster cast museum of Louis
Delaporte called musée Indo-chinois which existed in the Parisian Trocadero Palace from c.1880 to
the mid-1920s.

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The splendid artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led
directly to France adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863 and invading Siam to take
control of the ruins. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the
country that had been under Siamese (Thai) control since AD 1351 (Manich Jumsai 2001), or by some
accounts, AD 1431 Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has
controlled Angkor Wat since that time. It is safe to say that from the colonial period onwards until the
site's nomination as UNESCO World Heritage in 1992, this specific temple of Angkor Wat was
instrumental in the formation of the modern and gradually globalised concept of built cultural
heritage.

In December 2015, it was announced that a research team from University of Sydney had found a
previously unseen ensemble of buried towers built and demolished during the construction of Angkor
Wat, as well as massive structure of unknown purpose on its south side and wooden fortifications.
The findings also include evidence of low-density residential occupation in the region, with a road
grid, ponds and mounds. These indicate that the temple precinct, bounded by moat and wall, may not
have been used exclusively by the priestly elite, as was previously thought. The team
used LiDAR, ground-penetrating radar and targeted excavation to map Angkor Wat.

Architecture

Angkor Wat, located at 13°24′45″N 103°52′0″E, is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the
standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentric galleries. The
construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that there was a celestial significance with certain features
of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east-west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces
within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the sunrise on a
solstice. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods: the central quincunx of
towers symbolizes the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolize the surrounding
mountain ranges and ocean.[31] Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more
exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.

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Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led
many (including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to
serve as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-reliefs, which
proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—prasavya in Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of
the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services. The
archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar which
was recovered from the central tower. It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of
energy on the disposal of a corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples
of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was
due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west.

A further interpretation of Angkor Wat has been proposed by Eleanor Mannikka. Drawing on the
temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, she argues
that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the
measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this
divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the
king's power and to honor and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's
suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She
distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of
a representation of the constellation Draco.

The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of the Spring Equinox.

Style

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Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture—the Angkor Wat
style—to which it has given its name. By the 12th century Khmer architects had become skilled and
confident in the use of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of
the visible areas are of sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and for hidden
structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although
natural resins or slaked lime has been suggested.

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The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design. According to Maurice Glaize, a
mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained
monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a
work of power, unity and style."

Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers shaped
like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the
cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements
are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The
statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier
work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time,
including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling
panels and doors.

Outer enclosure

View of the west wall of the outer enclosure of Angkor Wat

The outer wall, 1,024 m (3,360 ft) by 802 m (2,631 ft) and 4.5 m (15 ft) high, is surrounded by a 30 m
(98 ft) apron of open ground and a moat 190 m (620 ft) wide and over 5 kilometers (3 mi) in
perimeter. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west;
the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. There
are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers.
Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper. Under the southern
tower is a statue of Vishnu, known as Ta Reach, which may originally have occupied the temple's
central shrine. Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of
the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals.
These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side.
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The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing
figures; and the east face of the wall with blustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing
animals, and devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her
teeth.

The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square meters (203 acres), which besides the temple
proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all
secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing
remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area is now covered by forest.
A 350 m (1,150 ft) causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with naga balustrades
and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with
entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond
between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the
cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure

Central structure

Aerial view of the central structure; in front of the central structure lies the cruciform terrace.

The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city. It is made of three
rectangular galleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. Mannikka interprets
these galleries as being dedicated to the king, Brahma, the moon, and Vishnu. Each gallery has
a gopura at each of the points, and the two inner galleries each have towers at their corners, forming
a quincunx with the central tower. Because the temple faces west, the features are all set back towards
the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same
reason the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides.

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The outer gallery measures 187 m (614 ft) by 215 m (705 ft), with pavilions rather than towers at the
corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and
buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a
cruciform cloister called Preah Poan (the "Hall of a Thousand Gods"). Buddha images were left in
the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This area has
many inscriptions relating the good deeds of pilgrims, most written in Khmer but others
in Burmese and Japanese. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have
been filled with water. North and south of the cloister are libraries.

Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to each other and to two flanking libraries by
another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards, devatas abound on
the walls, singly or in groups of up to four. The second-level enclosure is 100 m (330 ft) by 115 m
(377 ft), and may originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around Mount Meru. Three sets
of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The very steep
stairways represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods. This inner gallery, called
the Bakan, is a 60 m (200 ft) square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central
shrine, and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers. The roofings of the galleries are
decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of lions or garudas. Carved lintels
and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. The tower above the central
shrine rises 43 m (141 ft) to a height of 65 m (213 ft) above the ground; unlike those of previous
temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four. The shrine itself, originally
occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted
to Theravada Buddhism, the new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George
Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had already been
robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of gold leaf two metres above
ground level.

Decoration

Integrated with the architecture of the building, and one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat's
extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form of bas-relief friezes. The inner walls of the
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outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from the Hindu epics
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Higham has called these, "the greatest known linear arrangement
of stone carving". From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of
Lanka (from the Ramayana, in which Rama defeats Ravana) and the Battle of Kurukshetra (from the
Mahabharata, showing the mutual annihilation of the Kaurava and Pandava clans). On the southern
gallery follow the only historical scene, a procession of Suryavarman II, then the 32 hellsand
37 heavens of Hinduism.

Decoration on the corner

On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, showing
92 asuras and 88 devas using the serpent Vasuki to churn the sea under Vishnu's direction (Mannikka
counts only 91 asuras, and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days
from the winter solstice to the spring equinox, and from the equinox to the summer solstice). It is
followed by Vishnu defeating asuras (a 16th-century addition). The northern gallery shows Krishna's
victory over Bana (where according to Glaize, "The workmanship is at its worst")

Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of apsaras and devata; there are more than 1,796 depictions
of devata in the present research inventory. Angkor Wat architects employed small apsara images
(30 cm (12 in)–40 cm (16 in)) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger

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devata images (all full-body portraits measuring approximately 95 cm (37 in)–110 cm (43 in)) more
prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In
1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair,
headdresses, garments, stance, jewellery and decorative flowers, which Marchal concluded were
based on actual practices of the Angkor period.

Construction techniques

________________________________________________________________

Corridor

The stones, as smooth as polished marble, were laid without mortar with very tight joints that are
sometimes hard to find. The blocks were held together by mortise and tendon joints in some cases,
while in others they used dovetails and gravity. The blocks were presumably put in place by a
combination of elephants, coir ropes, pulleys and bamboo scaffolding. Henri Mouhot noted that most
of the blocks had holes 2.5 cm (0.98 in) in diameter and 3 cm (1.2 in) deep, with more holes on the
larger blocks. Some scholars have suggested that these were used to join them together with iron rods,
but others claim they were used to hold temporary pegs to help maneuver them into place.

The monument was made out of 5 million to 10 million sandstone blocks with a maximum weight of
1.5 tons each. In fact, the entire city of Angkor used up far greater amounts of stone than all the

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Egyptian pyramids combined, and occupied an area significantly greater than modern-day Paris.
Moreover, unlike the Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely 0.5 km (0.31 mi) away
all the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried 40 km (25 mi) (or more)
away. This sandstone had to be transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 25 miles
(40 km) to the northeast. The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometers (22 mi) along a canal
towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometers (22 mi) crossing the lake, and finally 15 kilometres
(9.3 mi) against the current along Siem Reap River, making a total journey of 90 kilometres (56 mi).
However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have discovered in
2011 a shorter 35-kilometre (22 mi) canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite
imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead.

Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and even roofs are carved. There are miles of reliefs
illustrating scenes from Indian literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots
as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing girls with elaborate
hair styles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost 1,000 square metres of bas reliefs. Holes
on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These
were highly prized in ancient times and were a prime target for robbers. While excavating Khajuraho,
Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor, recreated a stone sculpture under 4 feet (1.2 m), this took
about 60 days to carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry
limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone. The labor force to
quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone must have run into the thousands including
many highly skilled artisans. The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of
years earlier, as demonstrated by some artifacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the
Khmer came to power

Is Angkor Wat a wonder of the world?

The classic Seven Wonders of the Ancient World list includes only monuments around the
Mediterranean Sea. There are several other wonders of the world lists, among them wonders of
nature, engineering and the industrial world. Although not on any of these lists, Angkor Wat is often
considered “the 8th Wonder of the World”.

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It is located on a site measuring 162.6 hectares (1,626,000 m2; 402 acres). Originally constructed as
a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu for the Khmer Empire, it was gradually transformed into
a Buddhist temple towards the end of the 12th century. It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman
II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire,
as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings,
Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. As the best-preserved temple at the site, it is the only
one to have remained a significant religious centre since its foundation. The temple is at the top of the
high classical style of Khmer architecture. It has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its
national flag, and it is the country's prime attraction for visitors.

Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the
later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu
mythology: within a moat more than 5 kilometers (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometers
(2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple
stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west;
scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and
harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls.

The modern name, Angkor Wat (Khmer: (alternate name: Nokor Wat, Khmer: means "Temple City"
or "City of Temples" in Khmer; Angkor (Khmer: ) meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular

form of the word nokor (Khmer: which comes from the Sanskrit word nagara (Devanāgarī: नगर).

Wat (Khmer is the Khmer word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit vāṭa (Devanāgarī:

वाट), meaning "enclosure".

The original name of the temple was Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka (Sanskrit), which means
the sacred dwelling of Vishnu.

Modern day Angkor Wat

As with most other ancient temples in Cambodia, Angkor Wat has faced extensive damage and
deterioration by a combination of plant overgrowth, fungi, ground movements, war damage and theft.

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The war damage to Angkor Wat's temples however has been very limited, compared to the rest of
Cambodia's temple ruins, and it has also received the most attentive restoration.

The restoration of Angkor Wat in the modern era began with the establishment of the Conservation
d'Angkor (Angkor Conservancy) by the École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) in 1908; before that
date, activities at the site were primarily concerned with exploration. The Conservation d'Angkor was
responsible for the research, conservation, and restoration activities carried out at Angkor until the
early 1970s and a major restoration of Angkor was undertaken in the 1960s. However, work on
Angkor was abandoned during the Khmer Rouge era and the Conservation d'Angkor was disbanded in
1975. Between 1986 and 1992, the Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the
temple, as France did not recognize the Cambodian government at the time. Criticism has been raised
about both the early French restoration attempts and particularly the later Indian work, with concerns
over damage done to the stone surface by the use of chemicals and cement.

In 1992, following an appeal for help by Norodom Sihanouk, Angkor Wat was listed in
UNESCO's World Heritage in Danger (later removed in 2004) and World Heritage Site together with
an appeal by UNESCO to the international community to save Angkor. Zoning of the area was set up
to protect the Angkor site in 1994, APSARAwas established in 1995 to protect and manage the area,
and a law to protect Cambodian heritage was passed in 1996. A number of countries such as France,
Japan and China are currently involved in various Angkor Wat conservation projects. The German
Apsara Conservation Project(GACP) is working to protect the devatas, and other bas-reliefs which
decorate the temple, from damage. The organization’s survey found that around 20% of the devatas
were in very poor condition, mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone but in
part also due to earlier restoration efforts. Other work involves the repair of collapsed sections of the
structure, and prevention of further collapse: the west facade of the upper level, for example, has been
buttressed by scaffolding since 2002, while a Japanese team completed restoration of the north library
of the outer enclosure in 2005. World Monuments Fund began conservation work on the Churning of
the Sea of Milk Gallery in 2008 after several years of studies on its condition. The project restored the
traditional Khmer roofing system and removed cement used in earlier restoration attempts that had
resulted in salts entering the structure behind the bas-relief, discoloring and damaging the sculpted
surfaces. The main phase of work ended in 2012, with the final component being the installation of
finials on the roof of the gallery in 2013.

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Microbial biofilms have been found degrading sandstone at Angkor Wat, Preah Khan, and the Bayon
and West Prasat in Angkor. The dehydration- and radiation-resistant filamentous cyanobacteria can
produce organic acids that degrade the stone. A dark filamentous fungus was found in internal and
external Preah Khan Samples, while the alga Trentepohlia was found only in samples taken from
external, pink-stained stone at Preah Khan. Replicas were also made to replace some of the lost or
damaged sculptures.

Angkor Wat in Cambodia is the largest religious monument in the world but didn't make the new list
of Seven Wonders of the World? Or that it is actually rented for a profit to an entity outside of
Cambodia? A few of these 20 Angkor Wat facts may surprise you.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia's famous UNESCO World Heritage Site is breathtaking and thrilling to
explore. The temple ruins have a way of igniting the inner archaeologist in all of us. You won't soon
forget wandering the sprawling, carved ruins of a once-great civilization!

 The sandstone used to construct Cambodia's national monument, at least 5 million tons worth,
had to be carried from a quarry 25 miles away.
 Angkor Wat was shifted from Hindu to Buddhist use sometime around the late 13th century.
The temple is still used by Buddhists as a place of worship today.

 One of the first Westerners to see Angkor Wat was Antonio da Madalena, a Portuguese monk,
who visited in 1586. Long before Europeans arrived, a Chinese emissary named Zhou Daguan
lived in Angkor for one year between 1296 and 1297; he created a written account of his
experience there sometime before 1312. Zhou Daguan's book, the only account of 13th-
century Angkor, was translated into English by Peter Harris in the book A Record of
Cambodia.
 Henri Mouhot, a French explorer, helped bring Angkor Wat to fame in the West by
publishing an account of his visit in the mid-19th century. His book is Travels in Siam,
Cambodia, Laos, and Annam.

 Angkor Wat was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. The site suffered from
decades of unregulated tourism and looting; many ancient statues have been decapitated and

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 their heads sold to private collectors. An international collaborative effort has helped to
slowly restore sites and prevent further collapse of unstable structures.
 Sokimex, a private company founded by an ethnic Vietnamese-Cambodian businessman, has
rented Angkor Wat from Cambodia since 1990 and manages tourism there for profit.
Sokimex also has a petroleum division, manages hotels, and runs Sarika Air Services.

 Most of the money to restore Angkor Wat comes from foreign aid. Only an estimated 28% of
ticket sales goes back into the temples.
 A three-day pass to explore the Angkor temples costs US $62. A single-day pass is available
for US $37, or a week-long pass can be purchased for US $72.
 Jacqueline Kennedy risked a visit to Angkor Wat during the Vietnam War to fulfill a "lifelong
dream" of seeing the monument.
 The Angkor temple Ta Prohm—famous for the large vines that strangle the ruins—was used
as the set for the hit movie Tomb Raider. Paramount was charged US $10,000 per day for
seven days to film there. Unfortunately, some of the iconic trees growing through the ruins at
Ta Prohm have had to be removed to preserve the temple from further collapse.

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 PART III

INDONESIA or
भुमीनुसनतारा

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400
 CHAPTER 13
Prambanan, an Hindu temple in Indonesia- general architectural and
morphological analysis

Indonesia officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia , is a country

in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It is the world's largest island
country, with more than seventeen thousand islands, and at 1,904,569 square kilometres
(735,358 square miles), the 14th largest by land area and 7th in the combined sea and land area. With
over 267 million people, it is the world's 4th most populous country.

Names of Indonesia

The name Indonesia derives from Greek Indos and the word nesos meaning "Indian islands".The
name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George
Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his
preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan
Archipelago". In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan,
used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.All this alluding to the fact that Hinduism and
Indian influences ruled here for many centuries

Introduction: Hinduism in Indonesia: Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as

early as first century through traders, sailors, scholars and priests. A syncretic fusion of pre-existing
Javanese culture and Hindu ideas, that from the 6th-century synthesized Buddhist ideas as well,
evolved as the Indonesian version of HinduismIn 4th-century, the kingdom of Kutai in East
Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java, and Holing (Kalingga) in Central Java, were among the
early Hindu states established in the region. Several notable ancient Indonesian Hindu kingdoms
are Mdang i Bhumi Mataram, famous for the construction of the majestic 9th-
century Trimurti Prambanan temple, followed by Kediri, Singosari, and reached the peak of its
influence in the 14th-century Majapahit, the last and largest among Hindu-Buddhist Javanese empires.
Between the 4th century to 15th century, Hinduism and Buddhism was adhered by the majority of the
population, along with native indigenous animism and dynamism beliefs that venerated natural
and ancestral spirits. By 15th to 16th-century Islam had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the

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majority religion in the Indonesian archipelago. The influence of Hinduism has profoundly left its
marks on the culture of Bali, Java, and Sumatra. Bali has become the last remnant of once Hindu
dominated region.

The Hindu civilisations have left their marks on Indonesian culture. The
epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, became enduring traditions among Indonesian art forms,
expressed in wayang shadow puppet and dance performances. Many Indonesian names are Sanskrit-
based, and Bahasa Indonesia contains loads of loandwords of Sanskrit origin. The vehicle of
Vishnu, Garuda, was adopted as both national emblem Garuda Pancasila and flag carrier national
airline named Garuda Indonesia. Today, the Indonesian government has recognised Hinduism as one
of the country's six officially sanctioned religions, along with Islam, Protestantism, Roman
Catholicism, Buddhism and Confucianism.

Hindu Ideas continued to develop during the Srivijaya and Majapahit empires. In tales like the
"Kidung Harșa Wijaya" one reads that "rata bhațțāra Narasingha" supposedly was a scion in the
lineage of Hari, and that Hari is another word for "Vishnu. Therefore, early Hinduism on Java, Bali,
and Sumatra consisted of both main schools of Hinduism. Ancient Chandis (temples) excavated in
Java and western Indonesian islands, as well as ancient inscriptions such as the 8th century Canggal
inscription discovered in Indonesia, confirm widespread adoption of Shiva lingam iconography, his
companion goddess Parvati, Ganesha, Vishnu, Brahma, Arjuna, and other Hindu deities by about the
middle to late 1st millennium AD. Ancient Chinese records of Fa Hien on his return voyage
from Ceylon to China in 414 AD mention two schools of Hinduism in Java, while Chinese documents
from 8th century refer to the Hindu kingdom of King Sanjaya as Holing, calling it "exceedingly
wealthy," and that it coexisted peacefully with Buddhist people and Sailendra ruler in Kedu Plain of
the Java island.

The two major theories for the arrival of Hinduism in Indonesia include that South Indian sea traders
brought Hinduism with them, and second being that Indonesian royalty welcomed Indian religions
and culture, and it is they who first adopted these spiritual ideas followed by the masses. Indonesian
islands adopted both Hindu and Buddhist ideas, fusing them with pre-existing native folk religion and
Animist beliefs. In the 4th century, the kingdom of Kutai in East Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West
Java, and Holing (Kalingga) in Central Java, were among the early Hindu states established in the
region. Excavations between 1950 and 2005,particularly at the Cibuaya and Batujaya sites, suggests

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that Tarumanagara revered deity Wisnu (Vishnu) of Hinduism. Ancient Hindu kingdoms of Java built
many square temples, named rivers on the island as Gomati and Ganges, and completed
major irrigation and infrastructure projects.

Several notable ancient Indonesian Hindu kingdoms were Mataram, famous for the construction of
one of the world's largest Hindu temple complexes - the Prambanan temple, followed
by Kediri and Singhasari. Hinduism along with Buddhism spread across the archipelago. Numerous
sastras and sutras of Hinduism were translated into the Javanese language, and expressed in art form.
Rishi Agastya, for example, is described as the principal figure in the 11th century Javanese
text Agastya parva; the text includes puranas, and a mixture of ideas from
the Samkhya and Vedanta schools of Hinduism.[ The Hindu-Buddhist ideas reached the peak of their
influence in the 14th century. The last and largest among the Hindu-Buddhist Javanese
empires, Majapahit, influenced the Indonesian archipelago.

In the period between the late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming
of classical Javanese art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction.
Temples dotted the landscape of its heartland in Mataram (Kedu and Kewu Plain). The most notable
of the temples constructed in Medang Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all
quite close to present-day city of Yogyakarta. At its peak, the kingdom had become a dominant
empire—not only in Java, but also in Sumatra, Bali, southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of
the Philippines, and the Khmer in Cambodia.

Prambanan (Javanese: Rara Jonggrang) is a Hindu temple complex dating from the 9th century
CE located near Bokoharjo, on the island of Java in Indonesia. Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple
in Indonesia and one of the largest Hindu temples in Southeast Asia. Dedicated to the Trimurti
of Hinduism -- Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva -- Prambanan’s architecture conforms to Hindu
architectural traditions based on the Vastu Shastra, and the temple thus reflects the Hindu conceptions
of the cosmos in its design and layout. Despite its grandeur and rich exterior ornamentation, the
Javanese abandoned Prambanan within 100 years of its completion around c. 950 CE. Although the
ravages of time and natural disasters took their toll on Prambanan, the Javanese never forgot the ruins,
and Prambanan continued to play a part in Javanese folklore. Research and the restoration of
Prambanan began in earnest in the early 20th century CE, and the temple complex was declared a

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UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991 CE. It is today one of the most visited historical sites in
Indonesia.

History & Geography

Prambanan is located some 17 km (11 miles) northeast of the Indonesian city of Yogyakarta, near the
border between the two provinces of Yogyakarta and Central Java, on the island of Java. The ruins
themselves lie 0.5 km south of the village of Prambanan.

The period in which the Javanese constructed Prambanan and neighboring temples is shrouded in
legend and mystery. Strong cultural and religious influence arrived in what is now present-day
Indonesia from the Indian subcontinent, beginning around the 1st century CE. This influence grew
rapidly from c. 400 CE onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and traders, settled in the region,
intermarried with the local population, and facilitated long-distance trade relations between the
indigenous Javanese, ancient India, and the rest of Southeast Asia. Over the centuries, the Javanese
blended the culture and religions of ancient India with their own.

THERE IS A LEGEND THAT A JAVANESE PRINCESS WAS TURNED TO STONE BY HER

CRUEL HUSBAND & SO BECAME THE BEAUTIFUL IMAGE OF THE HINDU GODDESS
DURGA NOW DECORATING THE TEMPLE'S EXTERIOR.

Some historians contend that Prambanan's construction began under the orders of King Rakai Pikatan
(r. 830-860 CE?) at some point between c. 840-850 CE. Rakai Pikatan oversaw the construction and
design of the main temple complex, while other structures were built soon thereafter by later kings,
including Rakai Kayuwangi (r. 850-898 CE), Balitung (r. 899-911 CE), Daksa (r. 910-919 CE), and
Tulodong (r. 919-924 CE). At some point, locals diverted a nearby river to flow past the temple
complex as well. Rakai Pikatan and his successors belonged to the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty, which was
the rival of the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty for power in the “Medang” or Mataram kingdom in central
Java. It is worth noting that the Sailendra dynasty oversaw the construction of the Buddhist temple
of Borobudur. As Borobudur is located only 19 km (12 miles) from Prambanan, some scholars
interpret Prambanan’s genesis as a direct artistic, political, and religious response to that of Borobudur
and in turn the competitive Sailendra dynasty. It is even said that Rakai Pikatan’s wife, Princess
Pramodhawardhani (fl. 820-860 CE), was the daughter of King Samaratungga (r. 812-833 CE) who

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may have overseen Borobudur’s construction. (Despite all this, other Javanese historians see the
“Sailendra” and “Sanjaya” dynasties as one and the same family, interpreting the religious patronage
of Buddhism or Hinduism as the result of a ruler’s personal belief.)

Prambanan Complex Model, by Gunawan Kartapranata (CC BY-SA)

According to ancient Khmer sources, King Jayavarman II (r. 802-835 CE), the founder of the Khmer
Empire (802-1431 CE), spent much of his life in Java, and was appointed by Samaratungga as the
governor of Indrapura, which later became the capital city of Champa around c. 875 CE. It is said that
Jayavarman visited both Borobidur as well as Prambanan, which inspired him to build the city
of Angkor Wat on a grand scale. This is quite possible as the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties exerted
much political and cultural influence through their thalassocracies in what is present-day Java,
Sumatra, Malaya, and southern Cambodia in the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries CE.

VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS FROM MOUNT MERAPI IN THE 10TH CENTURY CE &

COUNTLESS EARTHQUAKES MAY HAVE IMPACTED PRAMBANAN’S APPEAL AS A
PLACE OF WORSHIP & PILGRIMAGE.

Prambanan's abandonment mirrors that of nearby Borobudur. As the center of political power shifted
from central to eastern Java under the reign of King Mpu Sindok (fl. 928 CE), Prambanan became less
important politically and culturally to the ancient Javanese. The Sanjaya dynasty had successfully
usurped power from the Sailendra dynasty, leaving the island of Java under their near complete

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suzerainty. Volcanic eruptions from Mount Merapi in the 10th century CE and countless earthquakes
may have impacted Prambanan’s appeal as a place of worship and pilgrimage as well among the
Hindu faithful.

Over time, Prambanan deteriorated and became surrounded by a dense jungle. The Dutch explorer C.
A. Lons reported his “rediscovery” of Prambanan in 1733 CE to Dutch colonial officials, but the
temple was never completely forgotten by the Javanese in their histories, myths, and legends. A very
popular Javanese legend is that of Rara Jonggrang, which is set in Prambanan and its neighboring
temples. In the legend, a Javanese princess is turned to stone by her cruel husband. The princess is
said to be beautiful image of the Hindu goddess Durga located within the north wing of Shiva’s
temple at Prambanan. Restoration work began in 1885 CE, but accelerated in 1918 CE. These efforts
were halted when Indonesia was invaded in 1941 CE by the Japanese during World War II. In 1953
CE, the Temple of Shiva was reconsecrated to Hindu believers, and Prambanan was restored once
again

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Durga, Shiva Temple, Prambanan

as connections with the afterlife. Historians suggest that the temples of ancient Java were also used to
store the ashes of cremated deceased kings. The statue of god stored inside the garbhagriha of the
temple is often modeled after the deceased king and considered to be the deified person of the king
portrayed as Vishnu or Shiva according to the concept of devaraja. The example is the statue of
king Airlangga from Belahan temple portrayed as Vishnu riding Garuda.

The candi architecture follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on Vastu Shastra. The
temple layout, especially in central Java period, incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and
also the typical high towering spires of Hindu temples. The candi was designed to mimic Meru, the
holy mountain the abode of gods. The whole temple is a model of Hindu universe according to Hindu
cosmology and the layers of Loka.

Architecture

The architecture of Prambanan temple follows the typical Hindu architecture traditions based on
Vastu Shastra. The temple design incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical
high towering spires of Hindu temples. Prambanan was originally named Shivagrha and dedicated to
god Shiva. The temple was designed to mimic Meru, the holy mountain the abode of Hindu gods, and
the home of Shiva. The whole temple complex is a model of Hindu universe according to Hindu

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cosmology and the layers of Loka.

Just like Borobudur 1, Prambanan also recognize the hierarchy of the temple zones, spanned from the
less holy to the holiest realms. Each Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own terms, but the
concept's essentials is identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure
(vertically) are consists of three zones:

Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals also
demons. Where humans are still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The outer
courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhurloka.

Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, occupied by rishis, ascetics,
and lesser gods. People here begin to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the body of each
temple symbolizes the realm of bhuvarloka.

Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm, reserved for the gods. Also
known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temple symbolizes the realm of
svarloka. The roof of Prambanan temples are adorned and crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel), the
shape of Prambanan ratna took the altered form of vajra that represent diamonds. In ancient Java
temple architecture, ratna is the Hindu counterpart of the Buddhist stupa, and served as the temple's
pinnacle.

During the restoration, a well which contains a pripih (stone casket) was discovered under the center
of the Shiva temple. The main temple has a well 5.75 m deep in which a stone casket was found on
top a pile of charcoal, earth, and remains of burned animal bones. Sheets of gold leaves with the
inscription Varuna (god of the sea) and Parvata (god of the mountains) were found here. The stone
casket contained sheets of copper, charcoal, ashes, earth, 20 coins, jewels, glass, pieces of gold and
silver leaves, seashells and 12 gold leaves (which were cut in the shapes of a turtle, Nāga serpent,
padma, altar, and an egg).

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The Temple Compound

Originally there were a total of 240 temples standing in Prambanan. The Prambanan Temple
Compound consist of:

1 Trimurti temples :
Three main temples dedicated to Shiva, Visnu, and Brahma

2 Vahana temples :
Three temples in front of Trimurti temples dedicated to the vahana of each gods; Nandi, Garuda, and
Hamsa

3 Apit temples :
Two temples located between the rows of Trimurti and Vahana temples on north and south side

4 Kelir temples :
Four small shrines located on 4 cardinal directions right beyond the 4 main gates of inner zone

4 Patok temples :
Four small shrines located on 4 corners of inner zone

224 Pervara temples:

Hundreds of temples arranged in 4 concentric square rows; numbers of temples from inner row to
outer row are: 44, 52, 60, and 68

The Prambanan compound also known as Rara Jonggrang complex, named after the popular legend of
Rara Jonggrang. There were once 240 temples stood in this Shivaite temple complex, either big or
small. Today, all of 8 main temples and 8 small shrines in inner zone are reconstructed, but only 2 out
of the original 224 pervara temples are renovated. The majority of them have deteriorated; what is left
are only scattered stones. The Prambanan temple complex consists of three zones; first the outer zone,
second the middle zone that contains hundreds of small temples, and third the holiest inner zone that
contains eight main temples and eight small shrines.

The Hindu temple complex at Prambanan is based on a square plan that contains a total of three zone
yards, each of which is surrounded by four walls pierced by four large gates. The outer zone is a large
space marked by a rectangular wall. The outermost walled perimieter, which originally measured
about 390 metres per side, was oriented in the northeast, southwest direction. However, except for its
southern gate, not much else of this enclosure has survived down to the present. The original function

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is unknown; possibilities are that it was a sacred park, or priests' boarding school (ashram). The
supporting buildings for the temple complex were made from organic material; as a consequence no
remains occur.

History (Construction)

The Prambanan temple is the largest Hindu temple of ancient Java, and the first building was
completed in the mid-9th century. It was likely started by Rakai Pikatan as the Hindu Sanjaya
Dynasty's answer to the Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty's Borobudur and Sewu temples nearby.
Historians suggest that the construction of Prambanan probably was meant to mark the return of the
Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty to power in Central Java after almost a century of Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty
domination. The construction of this massive Hindu temple signifies that the Medang court had
shifted its patronage from Mahayana Buddhism to Shivaist Hinduism.

A temple was first built at the site around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan and expanded extensively by later
kings King Lokapala and Balitung Maha Sambu the Sanjaya king of the Mataram Kingdom. The
project was done by cutting the river along a north to south axis along the outer wall of the Shivagrha
Temple compound. The former river course was filled in and made level to create a wider space for
the temple expansion, the space for rows of pervara (complementary) temples. . Historians suggest
that originally the river was curved further to east and was deemed too near to the main temple.

According to the Shivagrha inscription of 856 CE, the temple was built to honor Lord Shiva, and its
original name was Shiva-grha (the House of Shiva) or Shiva-laya (the Realm of Shiva). According to
the Shivagrha inscription, a public water project to change the course of a river near Shivagrha
Temple was undertaken during the construction of the temple. The river, identified as the Opak River,
now runs north to south on the western side of the Prambanan temple compound

Some archaeologists propose that the statue of Shiva in the garbhagriha (central chamber) of the main
temple was modelled after King Balitung, serving as a depiction of his deified self after death. The
temple compound was expanded by successive Mataram kings, such as Daksa and Tulodong, with the
addition of hundreds of perwara temples around the chief temple. Prambanan served as the royal

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temple of the Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the state's religious ceremonies and sacrifices being
conducted there. At the height of the kingdom, scholars estimate that hundreds of brahmins with their
disciples lived within the outer wall of the temple compound. The urban center and the court of
Mataram were located nearby, somewhere in the Prambanan.Plain.

Abandonment

In the 930s, the court was shifted to East Java by Mpu Sindok, who established the Isyana Dynasty.
An eruption of Mount Merapi volcano, located north of Prambanan in central Java, or a power
struggle probably caused the shift. That marked the beginning of the decline of the temple. It was
soon abandoned and began to deteriorate.
Rediscovery

The Javanese locals in the surrounding villages knew about the temple ruins before formal
rediscovery, but they did not know about its historical background: which kingdoms ruled or which
king commissioned the construction of the monuments. As a result, the locals developed tales and
legends to explain the origin of temples, infused with myths of giants, and a cursed princess. They
gave Prambanan and Sewu a wondorous origin; these were said in the Loro Jonggrang legend to have
been created by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso.

The temple attracted international attention early in the 19th century. In 1918, the Dutch began
reconstruction of the compound and proper restoration only in 1930. Efforts at restoration continue to
this day. The reconstruction of the main Shiva temple was completed around 1953 and inaugurated by
Sukarno. Since much of the original stonework has been stolen and reused at remote construction
sites, restoration was hampered considerably. Given the scale of the temple complex, the government
decided to rebuild shrines only if at least 75% of their original masonry was available. Most of the
smaller shrines are now visible only in their foundations, with no plans for their reconstruction.

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Contemporary Events

In the early 1990s the government removed the market that had sprung up near the temple and
redeveloped the surrounding villages and rice paddies as an archaeological park. In 1992 the
Indonesian government created a State-owned Limited Liability Enterprise (PERSERO), named "PT
Taman Wisata Candi Borobudur, Prambanan, dan Ratu Boko." This enterprise is the authority for the
park management of Borobudur Prambanan Ratu Boko and the surrounding region. Prambanan is one
of the most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.

Since the reconstruction of the main temples in the 1990s, Prambanan has been reclaimed as an
important religious center for Hindu rituals and ceremonies in Java. Balinese and Javanese Hindu
communities in Yogyakarta and Central Java revived their practices of annually performing their
sacred ceremonies in Prambanan, such as Galungan, Tawur Kesanga, and Nyepi.

The temple was damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. Early photos suggested that
although the complex was structurally intact, the damage was significant later that year, the site was
re-opened for visitors. In 2008, 856,029 Indonesian visitors and 114,951 foreign visitors visited
Prambanan. On 6 January 2009 the reconstruction of Nandi temple finished. As of 2009, the interior
of most of the temples remains off-limits for safety reasons.
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 REFERENCES

1. Borobudur, or Barabudur (Indonesian: Candi Borobudur) is a 9th-

century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia, as well as
the world's largest Buddhist temple, and also one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the
world. The temple consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by
a central dome. The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The
central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa.
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple was designed
in Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor
worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple also demonstrates the
influences of Gupta art that reflects India's influence on the region, yet there are enough
indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian

413
414
 C H A P T E R 14

Sea and Volcano Temples of Bali

Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century. Historical
evidence is unclear about the diffusion process of cultural and spiritual ideas from India. Java legends
refer to Saka-era, traced to 78 AD. Stories from the Mahabharata Epic have been traced in Indonesian
islands to the 1st century; whose versions mirror those found in southeast Indian peninsular region
(now Tamil Nadu and southern Andhra Pradesh). The Javanese prose work Tantu Pagelaran of the
14th century, which is a collection of ancient tales, arts and crafts of Indonesia, extensively
uses Sanskrit words, Indian deity names and religious concepts.
Similarly ancient Chandis (temples) excavated in Java and western Indonesian islands, as well as
ancient inscriptions such as the 8th century Canggal inscription discovered in Indonesia, confirm
widespread adoption of Shiva lingam iconography, his companion
Parvati, Ganesha, Vishnu, Brahma, Arjuna, and other Hindu deities by about the middle to late 1st
415
millennium AD. Ancient Chinese records of Fa Hien on his return voyage from Ceylon to China in
414 AD mention two schools of Hinduism in Java, while Chinese documents from 8th century refer to
the Hindu kingdom of King Sanjaya as Holing, calling it "exceedingly wealthy," and that it coexisted
peacefully with Buddhist people and Sailendra ruler in Kedu Plain of the Java island.
Flight to Bali from Indonesian mainland: About 1400 CE, the kingdoms on the Indonesian islands
were attacked from coast-based Muslim armies. Hindus and Buddhists left and concentrated as
communities in islands that they could defend. Hindus of western Java moved east and then to the
island of Bali and the neighboring small islands, thus starting Balinese Hinduism. The Indonesian
archipelago was soon dominated by the Dutch colonial empire. The Dutch colonial empire helped
prevent inter-religious conflict, and it slowly began the process of excavating, understanding and
preserving Indonesia's ancient Hindu-Buddhist cultural foundations, particularly in Java and western
islands of Indonesia.
The population of Indonesian islands is predominantly Muslim (about 90%). The island of Bali is an
exception where 83% of its people identify as Hindu (about 1.7% of the total Indonesian population).[
Balinese Hinduism : Agama Hindu Dharma; Agama Tirtha; Agama Air Suci; Agama Hindu Bali) is
the form of Hinduism practiced by the majority of the population of Bali. This is particularly
associated with the Balinese people residing on the island, and represents a distinct form of Hindu
worship incorporating local animism, ancestor worship or Pitru Paksha, and reverence
for Buddhist saints or Bodhisattava.
Balinese Hinduism is an amalgamation of Indian religions and indigenous animist customs that
existed in Indonesian archipelago before the arrival of Islam and later Dutch colonialism. It integrates
many of the core beliefs of Hinduism with arts and rituals of Balinese people. In contemporary times,
Hinduism in Bali is officially referred by Indonesian Ministry of Religion as Agama Hindu Dharma,
but traditionally the religion was called by many names such as Tirta, Trimurti, Hindu, Agama Tirta,
Siwa, Buda, and Siwa-Buda. The terms Tirta and Trimurti emanate from Indian Hinduism,
corresponding to Tirtha (pilgrimage to spirituality near holy waters) and Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu
and Shiva) respectively. As in India, Hinduism in Bali grew with flexibility, featuring a diverse way
of life. It includes many of the Indian spiritual ideas, cherishes legends and myths of
Indian Puranas and Hindu Epics, as well as expresses its traditions through unique set of festivals and
customs associated with a myriad of hyangs - the local and ancestral spirits, as well as forms of
animal sacrifice that are not common in India.

416
The general beliefs and practices of Agama Hindu Dharma as practiced in Bali are a mixture of
ancient traditions and contemporary pressures placed by Indonesian laws that permit only monotheist
belief under the national ideology of panca sila. Traditionally, Hinduism in Indonesia had a pantheon
of deities and that tradition of belief continues in practice; further, Hinduism in Indonesia granted
freedom and flexibility to Hindus as to when, how and where to traditional Balinese Hindu beliefs and
practices before Indonesia gained independence from Dutch colonial rule.
Some of the Hindu beliefs officially recognized by the Indonesian Ministry of Religion include:
 A belief in one supreme being called 'Ida Sanghyang Widi Wasa', 'Sang Hyang Tunggal', or 'Sang
Hyang Acintya'.
 A belief that all of the gods are manifestations of this supreme being. This belief is the same as
the belief of Smartism, which also holds that the different forms of gods and
goddesses, Vishnu, Siva, Shakti (Devi) are different aspects of the same Supreme Being. Shiva is
also worshipped in other forms such as "Batara Guru" and "Maharaja Dewa" (Mahadeva).
The sacred texts found in Agama Hindu Dharma are the Vedas and Upanishads. They are the basis of
Indian and Balinese Hinduism. Other sources of religious information include the Universal
Hindu Puranas and the Itihasa (mainly Ramayana and the Mahabharata). The
epics Mahabharata and Ramayana became enduring traditions among Indonesian believers,
expressed in shadow puppet (wayang) and dance performances. As in India, Indonesian Hinduism
recognizes four paths of spirituality, calling it Catur Marga. These are bhakti mārga (path of devotion
to deities), jnana mārga (path of knowledge), karma mārga (path of works) and raja mārga (path of
meditation). Bhakti marga has the largest following in Bali.[28] Similarly, like Hindus in India,
Balinese Hindus believe that there are four proper goals of human life, calling it Catur Purusartha -
dharma (pursuit of moral and ethical living), artha (pursuit of wealth and creative
activity), kama (pursuit of joy and love) and moksha (pursuit of self-knowledge and liberation).
God and deities

Some of many Hindu gods and goddesses of Balinese Hinduism: Ganesha (left), Wisnu on Garuda.
Balinese Hinduism includes the Indian trinity concept called Trimurti consisting of:
 Brahma
 Wisnu or Vishnu
 Çiwa or Siwa or Shiva

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In Balinese Hindu texts, the alternate tripartite concept of Shiva of Indian Shaivism is also found. This
is usually referred in Balinese as "Siwa-Sadasiwa-Paramasiwa", where Shiva is the creator, the
maintainer and the destroyer of cyclic existence.
Along with the traditional Hindu trinity, Balinese Hindus worship a range of gods and goddesses
(Hyang, Dewata and Batara-Batari), as well others that are unique and not found in Indian Hinduism.
Sang Hyang Widhi literally means "Divine Order", also known as Acintya "Inconceivable" or Sang
Hyang Tunggal ("Divine Oneness"), is the concept in Balinese tradition of Hinduism that parallels the
metaphysical concept of Brahman among Indian Hindus. Ceremonies include an empty high seated
chair. It is also found at the top of the Padmasana shrine outside houses and temples. This is for Sang
Hyang Widhi Wasa. According to Balinese Hindu precepts, there are many manifestations of Sang
Hyang Widhi Wasa in the form of gods such as Dewi Sri - the goddess of rice, and many other
gods associated with mountains, lakes, and the sea.
Balinese Architecture
Connect to Indian Mahabalipuram: The Shore Temple complex of Mahabalipuram is near the
Mamallapuram shore, Tamilnadu, India. Is the inspiration to the temples of bali. In fact the name Bali
itself is short for Mahabalipuram. The temples there at Mahabalipuram consists of a large temple, two
smaller temples and many minor shrines, open halls, gateways, and other elements, much of which is
buried by sand. The main temple is within a two-tier, compound wall with statues of
Shiva's vahana (vehicle), Nandi, surrounding it. The 60-foot (18 m)-high temple has a 50-square-foot
(4.6 m2) plan. It is a stepped pyramidal tower, arranged in five tiers with Shiva iconography. The
temple includes a path around its main sanctum and a large, barrel vaulted roof above its doorway.
Pilasters on the outer wall divide it into bays. The temple is steeper and taller than the Arjuna and
Dharmaraja rathas, with a similar design in which the superstructure repeats the lower level in a
shrinking square form. An octagonal shikhara and kalasa- (pot)-shaped finials cap the tower. This
historic city is today an UNESCO World Heritage site in Tamil Nadu, India. During the reign of the
Pallava dynasty, between the 3rd century CE and 7th century CE, it was an important centre of
art, architecture and literature. Mahabalipuram was already a thriving sea port on the Bay of Bengal
before this time. A significant amount of coins and other artefacts excavated from this region also
indicate a pre-existing trade relation with the Romans even before it became a part of the
Pallava Empire.

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Early History
Mahabalipuram’s early history is completely shrouded in mystery. Ancient mariners considered this
place the land of the Seven Pagodas. There are others who think that Mahabalipuram suffered from a
great flood between 10,000 and 13,000 BCE. Divers from Indian National Institute of Oceanography
who surveyed the ocean bed near Mahabalipuram in 2002 CEwere more inclined to believe the flood
theorypointing to the vast extent of submerged ruins of the city. Many opinions exist about the origin
of the name of the site too. The most popular explanation is that the place is named after benevolent
King Bali, also known as Mahabali. The ancient Indian text of Vishnu Puran documents his exploits.
After sacrificing himself to Vaman, an incarnation of Vishnu, he attained liberation. “Puram” is
a Sanskrit term for a city or urban dwelling. Mamallapuram is the Prakrit version of the original
Sanskrit name.
During the rule of Mahendravarman I (600 CE – 630 CE), Mahablipuram started to flourish as a
centre of art and culture. He himself was a well known poet, playwright and orator. His patronage
helped the creation of a number of the city’s most iconic landmarks. This period of artistic excellence
was duly continued by his son Narasimhavarman I (630 CE – 680 CE) and subsequent Pallava kings.
A small temple in the original forecourt of the larger temple. The other two temples in the complex
are behind the main temple, face each other and are known as the Rajasimhesvara (or Nripatisimha
Pallava Vishnugriha) and the Kshatriyasimhesvara. The main shrine has Vishnu and Durga images.
The rear temple walls are carved with Somaskanda bas-relief panels depicting Shiva, Parvati and the
infant Skanda. Most of its Nandi sculptures were in ruins and scattered around the main temple
complex. Twentieth-century restoration efforts replaced them in accordance with the inscriptions,
descriptions of the temple in medieval texts and excavations of layers which confirmed that Nandi
bulls were seated along its periphery.

The Shiva temples have been dated to the early 8th century and are attributed to the reign of the
Pallava king Rajasimha (700-728). The Vishnu temple, with an image of a reclining Vishnu
discovered after excavations, has been dated to the 7th century.

Balinese are not Hindu, as is thought by almost everyone. They actually practice and follow a mix
of three religions that only became merged as one in the 12th century. When the first Shiva Hindu
priests arrived on Bali in the 8th century,after travelling through Myanmar, Cambodia, Sumatra, and

419
Java in a search that was passed down over generations for six centuries. They were searching for a
place similar to their homeland of Mahabalipuram, an area near Chennai, India. On Bali, they finally
found what they had been seeking (this is also the reason why there is no Hindu influence east of
Bali). The priests brought the artistry of carving and the knowledge of cultivation. When the priests
arrived back in the 8th century, they found the locals already had a cultural tradition known simply as
“respect your ancestor” — a tradition found throughout Asia. The priests suggested that the
inhabitants of Bali could follow the Shiva teachings and ways of life but in their own way. This soft
approach meant that Hinduism flourished.

In the 10th century, in the founding village, the priests then built what was quite possibly the only
working Hindu–Buddhist temple in Southeast Asia. Then, some 200 years on the three leaders of
Hinduism, Buddhism, and the “respect your ancestor” tradition decided it was time to stop trying to
be better, or the best, or the most common religion, and instead why not become one? After seven
meetings, spaced out one every six months, they finally created Bali Darma or Balinese Hindu.
As a result, the Balinese have many temples and many different ceremonies, because they are really
honouring three religions rolled into one. The name of Bali actually comes from the temple in India,
Balipuram, or small Bali.
Balinese Hinduism Background
Hinduism in Bali is a mix of animism, ancestor worship and Hinduism of India. The deified ancestor
worship is similar to the ancient Tamilnadu in India, where hero worship or “Nadukal Vazhipadu” is a
prominent part of the Hindu culture in those parts of the country and is practiced even today. Though
this practice is not a part of the mainstream Hinduism, it was included in the Hindu belief and a
connection was established through Sthalapuranas between these idols and Vedic gods. The current
form of Hinduism, Shaivaite Hinduism was introduced by Dang Hyang Nirarth, who traveled from
the Majapahit Kingdom in Central Java in the 15th century after the Islamic forces conquered most of
the Java and many Hindus were forced to relocate (some located to Probolinggo and villages around
Mount Bromo in East Java and rest of them to Bali).
Widi Wasa or Brahman: Religion play a significant part in the everyday lives of Balinese. Every
morning,the Balinese perform Puja with offerings -called Canang Sari in their shops or to the idols of
Gods and Padmasana - on the streets and roads. Their primary almighty is Ida Sang Hyang Widi Wasa
or Acintya and all the gods they pray to, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva along with Saraswati and Ganesha

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are all believed to be the manifestation of the primary almighty, Widi Wasa. Though many people
have the idea that Indonesian Hinduism is different from Indian Hinduism, Widi Wasa is none other
than Brahman (the highest Universal Principle) in India (not to be confused with one of the
Trimurthys, Brahma). Widi Wasa has been popular.

Balinese temple or pura (Sanskrit for:"walled city") are designed as an open air place of worship
within enclosed walls, connected with a series of intricately decorated gates between its compounds.
This walled compounds contains several shrines, meru (towers), and bale (pavilions). The design,
plan and layout of the pura follows the Tri Mandala concept of Balinese space allocation.[6] The
three mandala zones are Nista Mandala (jaba pisan): the outer zone, Madya Mandala (jaba tengah):
the middle zone, and Utama Mandala (jero): the holiest and the most sacred zone.
Balinese temple usually contains a padmasana, the towering lotus throne of the highest
god, Acintya (Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa in modern Balinese), the pelinggih meru, (a multiple roofed
tower similar in design to the Nepali or Japanese pagoda), and various pavilions, including bale
pawedan (vedic chanting pavilion), bale piyasan, bale pepelik (offering pavilion), bale
panggungan, bale murda, and gedong penyimpenan (storehouse of the temple's relics).

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A pura is a Balinese Hindu temple, and the place of worship for adherents of Balinese
Hinduism in Indonesia. Puras are built in accordance to rules, style, guidance and rituals found
in Balinese architecture. Most puras are found on the island of Bali, where Hinduism is the
predominant religion; however many puras exist in other parts of Indonesia where significant numbers
of Balinese people reside. Mother Temple of Besakih is the most important, largest and holiest temple
in Bali. Many puras have been built in Bali, leading it to be titled "the Island of a Thousand Puras".

The pagoda-like Pelinggih Meru shrine of Pura Ulun Danu Bratan is a distinctive feature of a Balinese
temple.
The term pura originates from the Sanskrit word (-pur, -puri, -pura, -puram, -pore), meaning "city",
"walled city", "towered city", or "palace", which was adopted with the Indianization of Southeast
Asia and the spread of Hinduism, specially in the Indosphere. During the development of the Balinese
language the term pura came to refer to a religious temple complex, while the term puri came to refer
to palace, the residence of kings and nobles, similar to Javanese kratons.
Unlike the common towering indoor Hindu temples of the Indian Subcontinent, puras are designed as
an open air place of worship within enclosed walls, connected with a series of intricately decorated
gates between its compounds. These walled compounds contain several shrines, meru (towers),
and bale (pavilions). The design, plan and layout of the pura follows the trimandala concept of
Balinese space allocation. Three mandala zones arranged according to a sacred hierarchy:
1.Nista mandala (jaba pisan): the outer zone, which directly connects the pura compound with the
outer realm, and the entrance to the temple. This zone usually takes the form of an open field or a

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garden that can be used for religious dance performances, or act as an additional space for
preparations during religious festivals.
2.Madya mandala (jaba tengah): the middle zone of the temple, where the activity of adherents takes
place, and also the location for supporting facilities of the temple. In this zone usually several
pavilions are built, such as the bale kulkul (wooden Slit drum tower), bale
gong (gamelan pavilion), wantilan (meeting pavilion), bale pesandekan, and bale perantenan, the
temple's kitchen.
3.Utama mandala (jero): the holiest and the most sacred zone within the pura. This enclosed and
typically highest of the compounds usually contains a padmasana, the towering lotus throne of the
highest god, Acintya (the Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa, or "All-in-one God", in modern Balinese),
the pelinggih meru (a multi-tiered tower-shrine), and several pavilions, such as bale
pawedan (vedic chanting pavilion), bale piyasan, bale pepelik (offering pavilion), bale
panggungan, bale murda, and gedong penyimpenan (storehouse of the temple's relics).
However, the layout rules for arrangements the facilities of the two outer zones, nista mandala and
madya mandala, are somewhat flexible. Several structures, such as the bale kulkul, could be built as
outer corner tower; also, the perantenan (temple kitchen) could be located in the Nista mandala.
Gates

Towering kori agung gate at Pura Taman Saraswati Ubud

Stairs and terraces leading to the
candi bentar split gate of Pura Besakih.

423
 Pura Taman Ayun

There are two types of gates within Balinese architecture: the split gate, known as candi bentar, and
the roofed tower gate known as paduraksa or kori agung. Both types of gates have specific roles in
Balinese architectural design. Candi bentar is the gate used in the nista mandala, while the kori agung
is employed as the gate between the madya mandala and Utama mandala inner compounds. The rules
for gate types are also valid for non-religious compounds such as puri, nobles' and kings' residences.
Types: There are several types of pura, each serving certain functions of Balinese rituals throughout
the Balinese calendar. The Balinese temples are arranged according to the physical and spiritual realm
of Balinese people, which corresponds to kaja-kelod sacred axis, from mountain tops the realms of
gods, hyang spirits, the middle fertile plain the realm of humans and other beings, all the way to the
beach and ocean, and the many realms in Indonesia.
Pura kahyangan jagad
Pura that are located in the mountainous region of the island, built upon mountain or volcano slopes.
The mountains are considered as the sacred magical and haunted realm, the abode of gods or hyang.a
The most important pura kahyangan in Bali is Mother Temple of Besakih complex on the slopes
of Mount Agung. Another example is Pura Parahyangan Agung Jagatkarta on slopes of Mount Salak,
West Java.
Pura tirta
"Water temples", a type of pura that other than religious function, also have water management
function as part of Subak irrigation system. The priests in these temples have authority to manage the
water allocation among rice paddies in the villages surrounds the temple. Some tirta temples are noted
for its sacred water and having petirtaan or sacred bathing pool for cleansing ritual. Other water
temple are built within lakes, such as Pura Ulun Danu Bratan. The best example of this type of temple
is Pura Tirta Empul.

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Pura desa
A type of pura dedicated to the worship of Brahma the Gods and deities, that are located within
villages or cities, serving as the center of Balinese people's religious activities.
Pura puseh
A type of pura dedicated to the worship of Vishnu.
Pura dalem
A type of pura dedicated to the worship of Shiva, Durga, Mother nature, Banaspatiraja (barong), Sang
Bhuta Diyu, Sang Bhuta Garwa, and other deities, Usually Shiva's shakti, Durga, is venerated in this
temple. In human life cycle, the temple is connected to rituals concerning death. It is also common for
a pura dalem to have a big tree like a banyan tree or a kepuh which is usually also used as a shrine.
The Pura Dalem is typically located next to the graveyard of the deceased prior to ngaben (cremation)
ceremony.
Pura mrajapati
A type of pura to worship prajapati (the lord of people) or the cosmic might. Most often, in this
temple Shiva is worshipped in his form as prajapati.
Pura segara
"Sea temples", a pura that are located by the sea to appease the sea Gods and deities. It is usually
important during the Melasti ritual. One example of this type of temple is Pura Tanah Lot and Pura
Uluwatu.
The Sad Kahyangan, Sad Kahyangan Jagad or the "six sanctuaries of the world" are the six holiest
places of worship on Bali. According to Balinese beliefs, they are the pivotal points of the island, and
are meant to provide spiritual balance to Bali. The number of these most sacred sanctuaries always
adds up six, but depending on the region, the specific temples that are listed may vary.[7] A list of the
Sad Kahyangan may include:
1. Pura Besakih in Karangasem, the "mother temple" of Bali and almost always included
2. Pura Lempuyang Luhur in Karangasem
3. Pura Goa Lawah in Klungkung
4. Pura Luhur Uluwatu in Badung
5. Pura Luhur Batukaru in Tabanan
6. Pura Pusering Jagat (Pura Puser Tasik) in Gianyar

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Dang Kahyangan
Based on the ejection of Dwijendra Tattwa, which in this study was determined as Dang Hyang
Nirartha's history, which in Balinese society is commonly called the History of Gede, mentioned Pura
Parama Dharma, which is to pretend that Dang Kahyangan was built by Dang Hyang Nirartha or was
awakened by the community to respecting and remembering Dharmayatra (religious holy journey)
Dang Hyang Nirartha mentioned a number of 34 temples, some of them:
1. Pura Yeh Jeruk in Gianyar
2. Pura Pekendungan near Tanah Lot in Tabanan
3. Pura Dalem Sakenan on Serangan island
4. Pura Tirta Empul in Tampaksiring
5. Pura Penataran Sasih in Pejeng
6. Pura Dasar Bhuana in Gelgel
Bali Topography and Hindu cosmology
The Bali topography is based on the Hindu cosmology. The mountains are the heaven or Swarga loka,
where Gods and ancestors reside and most temples in Bali are located on the mountains. As an
example, their mother temple, Pura Besakih, sits on the Mount Agung volcano. Balinese believe
Mount Agung to be Mount Meru. Besakih is a temple complex of 23 different temples. Each temple
has Pelinggihs or Merus (pyramidal structure typical of Bali architecture representing Mount Meru).
These temples are in parallel ridges offering a panoramic view. The main temple is Pura Penataran
Agung sitting at 6 levels in a single axis in a stepped Pyramidal structure. At the center of the temple
is a Padmasana or a throne representing Ida Sang Hyang Widi Wasa (or Acintya or Brahman), the
supreme God from whom all the Gods of Hinduism manifest. This temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
On the right side as you face the Mount Agung is Pura Dangin Kreteg, a temple dedicated to Lord
Vishnu in a parallel ridge. On the other side is Pura Batu Madeg, a temple dedicated to Lord Brahma.
The rest of the temples are dedicated to other Gods including ancestors of royals of Klungkung,
Karangesam, Bangli.The plains and foothills are called Bhu loka or abode of man and most of the
Balinese villages are located in the foothills and the plains.
The sea was once considered impure and is the underworld or Bhuvar loka. Not many temples were
found in the sea. There are 7 sea temples and a must see place in Bali and the visual treat it offers is
something out of the ordinary. Legend has it that this temple was constructed by Dang Hyang
Nirarth, founder of the Shaivaite priesthood in Bali, in the 15th century.

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Pura Kehen in Bangli Sea Temples

Bali has a number of important "sea temples" (Balinese: pura segara), which were founded in the
16th century by a Majapahit Brahmin from Java, named Nirartha, to honour the gods of the sea. Each
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of the temples is traditionally said to be visible from the next, forming a 'chain' around the coast of
Bali. Many of the most important sea temples are located along the south-west coast of the island. The
temples' positions were meant to provide a chain of spiritual protection for the Bali island.
Listed counterclockwise from Nirartha's legendary point of arrival in Bali, some of the most
prominent Balinese sea temples include:
1. Pura Pulaki near Pemuteran, northeast of Gilimanuk
2. Pura Gede Perancak, to the south of Negara
3. Pura Rambut Siwi, to the east of Negara . At this site Nirartha is said[ to have made a
gift of a lock of his hair, which was worshipped. Rambut Siwi translates as 'worship
of the hair and the tale is reminiscent of the Buddhist story of Gautama giving eight
hairs to Tapussa and Bhallika, which are now enshrined at Shwedagon.
4. Pura Tanah Lot, west of Canggu and south of Tabanan city where two puras were
built on a coastal rock overlooking the Indian Ocean as the shrine to honor sea
deities.
5. Pura Luhur Uluwatu, at the southwestern extremity of the Bukit Peninsula This is the
only Balinese sea temple that is also one of the six Balinese directional temples.
6. Pura Mas Suka, at the southern tip of the Bukit Peninsula, near Greenbowl Beach
7. Pura Sakenan on Serangan island, an island between Tanjung Benoa and Sanur

Volcanic Temples: Volcano: Mount Agung, also known as Gunung Agung, is an

active volcano located on the island of Bali in the Indonesia island arc. It is the highest
point on the island of Bali at an elevation of 9944 feet (3031 meters) It is a stratovolcano
built by a long history of recurrent eruptions. The stratovolcano has been built up from
eruptions that produced andesite lava, volcanic breccia, volcanic ash, and pyroclastic
debris. Ash Cloud Over Mount Agung (below)

428
Eruptions at Mount Agung can be deadly and present a variety of volcanic hazards to nearly a million
people who live within a 20-mile (30-kilometer) radius of the mountain. The 1963-1964 eruption at
Mount Agung was one of the largest volcanic eruptions of the 20th Century, rating VEI 5 on
the Volcanic Explosivity Index.
More recently, in 2017-2018, Mount Agung produced large ash clouds that rose to elevations of about
12,000 feet (4000 meters).
Night View from Mount Agung

The temple of Pura Besakih is on the southern slopes of Mount Agung, the principal volcano of
Bali.
Facing Mt. Agung’s highest peak, believed to be the abode of the gods, and located at an altitude of
900 meters, Pura Besakih is built in the village of Besakih, in the eastern part of Bali. The name
Besakih comes from the word “Basuki”, derived from the word “Wasuki” which means Salvation in
the classical Sanskrit language. Whereas, in the Samudramanthana mythology, the same name
“Besuki” in fact refers to the Dragon-God “Naga Besukian”, who inhabited Gunung Agung, the main
volcano in Bali.

This grand temple complex has been revered as a holy place since ancient times. The first recorded
mention of its existence comes from an inscription dating back to 1007 AD. It is known that since the
15th century Besakih was regarded as the central temple of Hinduism in Bali.Pura Penataran Agung,

429
or the “Great Temple of State” is the center of the temple complex and is is Bali’s main place of
worship, a complex comprising twenty-two temples on six rising terraces set on parallel ridges.

Pura Besakih is a complex made up of twenty-three temples that sit on parallel ridges. It has stepped
terraces and flights of stairs which ascend to a number of courtyards and brick gateways that in turn
lead up to the main spire or Meru structure, which is called Pura Penataran Agung. All this is aligned
along a single axis and designed to lead the spiritual person upward and closer to the mountain which
is considered sacred.
The main sanctuary of the complex is the Pura Penataran Agung. The symbolic center of the main
sanctuary is the lotus throne, or padmasana, which is therefore the ritual focus of the entire complex.
It dates to around the seventeenth century.
A series of eruptions of Mount Agung in 1963, which killed approximately 1,700 people; also
threatened Pura Besakih. The lava flows missed the temple complex by mere meters. The saving of
the temple is regarded by the Balinese people as miraculous, and a signal from the gods that they
wished to demonstrate their power but not destroy the monument the Balinese faithful had erected.

430
This complex expresses the essential belief of the Balinese known as Tri Hita Kirana, meaning that
life on earth must be lived and kept in balance and harmony between man and God, man and society
and his fellow human beings, and man and his natural environment.
During a full moon, Balinese and pilgrims throng to the temple. During the festival of Odalan, the
temple is most elaborately decorated. Odalan is celebrated on every 210th day.

431
Besakih Temple is a pura complex in the village of Besakih on the slopes of Mount Agung in
eastern Bali, Indonesia. It is the most important, the largest and holiest temple of Hindu religion in
Bali, and one of a series of Balinese temples. Perched nearly 1000 meters up the side of Gunung
Agung, it is an extensive complex of 23 separate but related temples with the largest and most
important being Pura Penataran Agung. The temple is built on six levels, terraced up the slope. The
entrance is marked by a candi bentar (split gateway), and beyond it the Kori Agung is the gateway to
the second courtyard.
The precise origins of the temple are unclear but its importance as a holy site almost certainly dates
from prehistoric times. The stone bases of Pura Penataran Agung and several other temples resemble
megalithic stepped pyramids, which date back at least 2,000 years.It was certainly used as a Hindu
place of worship from 1284 when the first Javanese conquerors settled in Bali. By the 15th century,
Besakih had become a state temple of the powerful Gelgel dynasty.

Meru towers of Pura Besakih

Pura Besakih is a complex made up of twenty-three temples that sit on parallel ridges. It has stepped
terraces and flights of stairs which ascend to a number of courtyards and brick gateways that in turn
lead up to the main spire or Meru structure, which is called Pura Penataran Agung. All this is aligned
along a single axis and designed to lead the spiritual person upward and closer to the mountain which
is considered sacred.
The main sanctuary of the complex is the Pura Penataran Agung. The symbolic center of the main
sanctuary is the lotus throne, or padmasana, which is therefore the ritual focus of the entire complex.
It dates to around the seventeenth century.
A series of eruptions of Mount Agung in 1963, which killed approximately 1,700 people also
threatened Pura Besakih. The lava flows missed the temple complex by mere meters. The saving of
the temple is regarded by the Balinese people as miraculous, and a signal from the gods that they
wished to demonstrate their power but not destroy the monument the Balinese faithful had erected.
The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles around it was incorporated into
ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara), a Sanskrit word translating literally to
"mountain peak". Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata
Temple and Harshnath Temple of the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, western India. This concept also
continued outside India such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.

432
In Buddhist temples the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is an earliest example of the 5th-6th
century. Many other Buddhist temples took on its form such as in Thailand the Wat Arun and in
Myanmar the Hsinbyume Pagoda.
The fundamentals of Balinese temple architecture follow this Hindu cosmology. Pura Taman Ayun or
the Temple of the Royal in Mengwi area, epitomizes the Balinese temple architecture. Taman Ayun
has the towers of Pelinggih (Meru) and is built on the three mandala concept based on Vastu Shastra,
a Hindu architectural style practiced for more than 3000 years in India. The towers of Pelinggih or
Meru represents the sacred Meru mountain mentioned in the ancient Indian literatures. Meru
mountain is the abode of Gods to keep the discussions concise. The tri-mandala concept is that the
temples are separated into outer, middle, inner courtyards or Nista, Madhya, Utama Mandalas
separated by different gates. Candi Bentar or split gates opens into Nista Mandala and Kori Agung or
roof towered gates (Paduraksha style) sits between Madhya Mandala and Utama Mandala. Do note
that the shrines in the Nista Mandala in this temple will be open only during important religious
ceremonies.

433
Besakih Temple is a pura complex in the village of Besakih on the slopes of Mount Agung in
eastern Bali, Indonesia. The holiest of all temples in Bali, the "Mother Temple" of Pura
Besakih is located some 3,000 feet up Gunung Agung in East Bali. This sprawling complex
consolidates 23 separate temples, some dating back to the 10th century. The temple's main
axis aligns with the peak of Gunung Agung, the tallest mountain and holiest site in all of
Bali.The temple is built on six levels, terraced up the slope. The entrance is marked by a candi
bentar (split gateway), and beyond it the Kori Agung is the gateway to the second courtyard.
The precise origins of the temple are unclear but its importance as a holy site almost certainly dates
from prehistoric times. The stone bases of Pura Penataran Agung and several other temples resemble
megalithic stepped pyramids, which date back at least 2,000 years.
It was certainly used as a Hindu place of worship from 1284 when the first Javanese conquerors
settled in Bali. By the 15th century, Besakih had become a state temple of the powerful Gelgel
dynasty.
The temple is on the southern slopes of Mount Agung, the principal volcano of Bali.

434
Meru towers of Pura Besakih

Uluwatu Temple's Hanuman

435
Uluwatu Temple, or Pura Luhur Uluwatu, is renowned for its magnificent location, perched
on top of a steep cliff approximately 70 metres above the waves. As one of the 6 key temples
considered to be Bali's 'spiritual pillars', Uluwatu also shares the splendid sunset backdrops
as that of Tanah Lot Temple, another important sea temple that graces the island's western
coast.
Pura Luhur Uluwatu is definitely one of the top places in Bali for witnessing a delightful
sunset, with direct views overlooking the beautiful waves of the Indian Ocean and daily
Kecak dance performances held at an amphitheatre nearby. Balinese architecture,
traditionally-designed gateways, and ancient sculptures all add to Uluwatu Temple's appeal.
Brief history of Uluwatu Temple
Inscriptions mention that Uluwatu Temple was instigated by Mpu Kuturan, a Majapahit
monk who's also credited for the establishment of several other key temples in Bali. A holy
priest from eastern Java, Dhang Hyang Dwijendra, then chose Uluwatu Temple to be the
endpoint of his spiritual journey. Devotees believe that he reached the highest point of
'spiritual oneness' by a strike of lightning and vanished.
Legend says that Dhang Hyang Dwijendra (also frequently referred to by name as
Danghyang Nirartha) was the architect of Uluwatu Temple and several other temples in Bali,
Lombok, as well as Sumbawa. Until 1983, Pura Uluwatu was hardly accessible and a
lightning strike in 1999 set some parts of the temple on fire. The temple had undergone a
series of restoration efforts since.
Without a doubt, what makes Uluwatu Temple spectacular is its high setting at the edge of a
cliff and overlooking the waves of the Indian Ocean. Ulu means the ‘top’ or the ‘tip’
and watu is ‘stone’ or ‘rock’ in Balinese. Several archaeological remains found here prove
the temple dates back to around the 10th century. There are 2 entrances to Uluwatu Temple,
one from the south and the other from the north.A small forest surrounds the temple where
hundreds of monkeys dwell. They are believed to be the loyal guardians the temple. The
serpentine pathway to the temple is fortified by concrete walls on the cliff side. It usually
takes about an hour to get from one end to another as there are several fenced points along
the way where you're surely to take a pause. The views from the bottom of the water surging
up against rocks and the ocean horizon are breathtaking.

436
The Balinese Hindus believe that the powers of the Hindu Trinity: Brahma, Vishnu, and
Siva, merge here. That belief results in making Uluwatu Temple a place of worship of Siva
Rudra, the Balinese Hindu deity of all elements and aspects of life in the universe.

Uluwatu Temple's highlights and features

Behind the main shrine in one of the courtyards of Uluwatu Temple lies a Brahmin statue
facing the ocean, which is considered to be a representation of Dhang Hyang Dwijendra. The
2 entrances to the temple area are split gates with leaves and flower carvings.
One of Uluwatu's 10th-century relics is a one-piece winged stone gate leading to the
temple's inner courtyard. Winged gates aren't common on the island. The Pura Dalem Jurit
temple was added in the 16th century. There are 3 statues inside, one of them depicting
Brahma. There are 2 stone troughs in the temple area. If both of them were to be joined, they
would form a sarcophagus (Megalithic coffin).
Right below the cliff is Uluwatu Beach, one of Bali's best internationally-known surfing
spots.

437
 About the Authors
Dr. Uday Dokras
The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He was
Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go
Air and Hotel Holiday Inn. Currently General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata
Mangeshkar Hospital and associated educational institutions belonging to V.S.P.M., Nagpur
India and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of Business Management and Research,
Nagpur.
He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor
of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his Graduate Studies in
labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston and Doctorate from Stockholm
University, Sweden. Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in
Singapore and a MBA from USA.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Awardee. In 1984 he was
involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of California, Los
Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. He has been invited by the President of
Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles.
Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the English
study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8
th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”
Books Authored:
1. Act on Co-determination at Work-an Efficacy Study, Almqvist & Wiksell International,
Stockholm,SWEDEN 1990
2. Health Human Resource Management, 2017
3. Theme Park Human Resource Engineering, Sewa Institute of Management, New Delhi
2018
4. Project Human Resource Management, Indo Swedish Author’s Collective, Stockholm
& Nagpur, 2019

REVIEWS Of Dr Dokras’ Books

The author's earlier book-

MBL- The Act on Codetermination at Work-an Efficacy Study,Published by Almqvist
& Wiksell International, Stockholm. 1990
The author writes well and in a graceful fashion that is easy to
comprehend considering the tremendous task he has undertaken and the
complexity of the subject matter. Late Dr.Stig Edlund ( review in

438
 Juridiskt Tidskrift, 1 990) Professor Emeritus, Faculty of law.
Stockholm University, SWEDEN
*****

Outstanding contribution to the unique Swedish legislation that defines management-

employee tradeoffs. Must Read. Highly recommended./books. google. co. in
********
Part of the collection of Soren Oman, www.sorenoman.se
********
Part of the Collection of the Royal National Library of Sweden,
Harvard University, Stanford University,the University of Neuchatel and The Swiss Institute
of comparative Law, Lousanne, Switzerl and The European Library (The Conference of
European National Librarians - CENL of 46 countries) etc
Act on Co-Determination at Work-An Efficacy Study, Almqvist & Wiksell
International, Sweden
“Superb. Worth reading"- 5 stars"
439
 Review by Dr. Shantanu Joshi, JNU on 5th February, 2013
This work is an empirical examination of a statute and has been done for the first time in an
comprehensive manner. What is striking isn the juxtapositioning of the factual material
gathering the efficacy of the MBL with translations of the labour and supreme Court
decisions that has bee flawlessly woven to produce a work that throws considerable light on
this unique Swedish statute that has been under the microscope of an curious world. Readable
and outstanding in its academic nuances.

Referred by
1. Company Law Reform in OECD Countries- A Comparative Outlook of Current ,Trends,
OECD--Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developmnent, Paris. France. 2000
2. Sweden: Joint Councils under Strong Unionism, Goran Brulin, professor of industrial relations
at the School of Business of Stockholm University & research associate of the Swedish Institute
of Work Life Research, Stockholm Published by National bureau of Economic Research,
Sweden
3. Works Councils: Consultation, Representation, and Cooperation in Industrial Relations, edited
by Joel Rogers, Wolfgang Streeck, University of Chicago,Press, 1995
4. Codetermination in Sweden: myth and reality, K Levinson - Economic and
5. Industrial Democracy, 2000 .Sweden
6. Working for McDonald's in Europe: the unequal struggle, T Royle - books,google. com. 2004
7. Employee representation and pay in Austria, Germany, and Sweden, M Muller-International
studies of management & organization, 1 999 - Taylor & Francis, U .S.A.
8. Diedeutsche Mitbestimmung im internationalen Vergleich, KThelen, L Turner -
Mitbestimmung in Deutschland. Tradition, 1 999 - books.google.com West Germany
9. Svedska druzba, sindikati in delavska participacija, M Nikolic-Teorija in praksa,1 999 -
dk.fdv.uni-lj.si Slovenia
10. Fackets nya roll Fran forhandling till partssamverkan i lokalt utvecklingsarbet, Tommy
Nilsson, Arbetsmarknad & Arbetsliv, arg 3, nr 3, hosten,1997, Sweden

REVIEW of Health Human Resource management

I am glad for this contribution to health human resource management by Dr

Uday Dokras. As a medical practitioner and Head of administration of a large
440
hospital, I see the need for a constructive approach that can be given to the
human resource department of hospitals to follow and
restructure/arrange/symmeticalize the workers. This is just that book. Amazing.
Stimulating and the right thing at ther right time.

Dr Alpana Chimurkar https://archive.org/details/ _201609/page/n9

___________________________________________________

REVIEW of Theme Park Human Resource Enginering co-authored with Ms. Mansse Bhandari
Excellent contribution to the rare Theme Park research sources
Joginder Singh Uberoi, J.S. Uberoi & Co.

441
 Pre-Publication Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and
offer success and failure factors guideline for a variety of potential
practitioners and students in global project marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN

As a librarian of 40 years standing, I have seen many books and this one
falls in the TOP 10. ( on Project Management).

Written lucidly with a penchant for good drafting and story telling type
format, CANT PUT IT DOWN, GO BUY 1

ANN JARVINEN
LIBRARIAN, University of Stockholm,Stockholm, University,

SWEDEN

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 R E V I E WS
This collection of essays and articles are in fact semi classical”papers” that have been
published before ( most of them) and this compilation does justice to the originals as they
have been re-edited and spruced up- so to say. The articles are not homogenous and take us to
various geographies to describe the creations there. In fact, creativity is the forte of these
places and Srishti describes the wonderous creations as well as underlines the creative
element. Today’s architecture are racially, ethnically, and economically diverse, with as
many creative superlatives as the ancient ones.

The history of Hindu Temples spans centuries and centuries. How they spread to all corners
of the world is a mystery the authors choose to unravel. Today’s architecture is fertile ground
for utopian planning, communal living, socially-conscious design, and integrated housing.
And yet we have forgotten that our ancestors built “suburbs” like the Ajanta and Ellora or
that the design of Rama’s AYODHYA inspired creation of cities in Cambodia and
Indonesia. Yes that far away. Makes you think!

See Angkor Vat and you will see Rama in his Ayodhya or Ravana in his Lanka. That is
motive behind this effort and even though it is distilled clrarly, the creations stand out in the
writings and Hindu Temple Architecture gets illuminated with creativity.

Ann Järvinen
Head Librarian
STOCKHOLM UNIVERSITY,STOCKHOLM,-SWEDEN

ABOUT THE AUTHOR DEEPA DOKRAS

DEEPA DOKRAS, a Banker with a passion for Hinduism is a BA in Historyand has travelled
to Australia as part of a delegation to study Hindu Temples there.Her poems have been
publidhed in a number of Bank Magazines.
She is also a executive body member of the Women’s Grievance cell of a Bank Union.Her
son Karan is a core team member of AKIVA and daughter is an Architect going to the USA
to pursue her Masters in Architecture

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 Hindu Temples
Of Bharat, Cambodia and Indonesia
भारत * कम्बोजदेश * भुमीनुसनतारा के हिंदू मंदिर
Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, CANADA
MBA CALSATATE USA
Graduate Diploma in Law, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Ph.D. Stockholm University, SWEDEN

CONSULTANT Human Resource and Administration, FDCM ESSELWORLD GOREWADA ZOO Pvt.
Ltd
Executive Editor Deepa Dokras

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 यस्तु सञ्चरते देशान् सेवते यस्तु
पण्डितान् !
तस्य विस्तारिता
बुद्धिस्तैलबिन्दुरिवाम्भसि !!
वह व्यक्ति जो अलग अलग जगहों या देशो में घूमकर (पंडितों)
विद्वानों की सेवा करता है, उसकी बुद्धि का विस्तार(विकास)
उसी प्रकार होता है, जैसे तेल की बूंद पानी में गिरने के बाद फ़ैल
जाती है|

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