Flight Planning – the Forgotten Field in

Airline Operations
Stephen Altus, PhD
May 2007
Overview Take Another Look

• Introduction to Flight Planning950

850

750

• Relevant Domain Aspects 650

550

450

– Aircraft Performance 350

250

150

– Weather 50
55000 75000 95000 115000 135000 155000 175000

– Route Structure and Restrictions

• Optimization of Route and Profile
– Solution Strategies – Strengths and Weaknesses
– Domain Decomposition Approach
• Specific Topics
– Economic Fuel Tankering
– Optimal Reclear Point Selection
– Minimum Cost Routing with Overflight Charges
• Some Final Thoughts
What is Flight Planning? Take Another Look

JAR-OPS 1.290 Flight preparation.

(a) An operator shall ensure that an operational flight plan is
completed for each intended flight.
FAR 121.663 Responsibility for dispatch release: Domestic and flag
operations. Each certificate holder conducting domestic or flag
operations shall prepare a dispatch release for each flight
between specified points…
Introduction to Flight Planning Take Another Look

Minimum information on an Operational Flight Plan / Dispatch Release:

COMPUTER FLIGHT PLAN

SPEED SKD CLB-250/340/CRZ-CI120 DSC-.84/320/250

What speed to fly (possibly
FUEL TIME varying along the route)
TRIP 209121 09/18
ALT KCOS 006120 00/15 How much fuel they will burn (“trip fuel”)
RESV 008668 00/30
CONT 010456 00/36
REQ 234365 10/39
Total departure fuel, and how it is allocated – fuel
EXTRA 000000 00/00 to alternate, contingency fuel, and other allocations
TOTAL 234365 that vary between airlines and regulatory rules
EDDF BIBO6F BIBOS UZ28 NAPSI UP73 SPY UL602 SUPUR UP1 GODOS UM981
NEW UL602 GOW UN590 SUPIT UP58 ERAKA..6120N..6330N..6440N..6450N..
6360N..IKMAN..FEDDY SCAI YRL..HML J107 DPR..BFF LANDR5 KDEN

WIND M006 MXSH 8/HML

FL 340/6450N 360/FERNO 380
What route (ground track) to fly

What profile (altitudes along the route) to fly

Introduction to Flight Planning Take Another Look

It’s a technical conference, so we can get formal…

Minimize: fuel cost + time-based costs + overflight costs + spill costs

Subject to: Aircraft performance

Weather
Allowed route and altitude structure
Schedule constraints
Operational constraints

By varying: Route (ground track)

Profile (altitudes along the route)
Speed (possibly varying along the route)
Departure fuel

The constraints (and objective terms) strongly impact the solution

techniques that can be used, so we need to understand the domain
Relevant Domain Aspects
Aircraft Performance Take Another Look

The fuel required to climb varies nonlinearly with the weight of the aircraft
950
• Fuel for an
850
arbitrary 2000’
enroute climb –
Fuel required (lb)

750

650
typical altitude
550
change as the
aircraft gets lighter
450

• Aircraft from
350
multiple
250
manufacturers
150
• Significance:
50
55000 75000 95000 115000 135000 155000 175000
Weight of the
aircraft at any point
Aircraft weight at start of climb (lb)
impacts the
Note: this plot generated with proprietary data; the actual aircraft, optimal decision at
altitudes, climb speeds, and temperatures cannot be disclosed that point
Relevant Domain Aspects
Aircraft Performance Take Another Look

Cruise fuel flow rate varies nonlinearly with the weight of the aircraft
6500
• Fuel flow rate at
6000
an arbitrary
altitude and
Fuel flow (lb/hr)

5500 temperature
• Aircraft from
5000
multiple
4500
manufacturers
• Significance:
4000
Weight of the
aircraft at any
3500
50000 70000 90000 110000 130000 150000 170000 point impacts the
Aircraft weight (lb) optimal decision at
that point
Note: this plot generated with proprietary data; the actual aircraft,
altitudes, climb speeds, and temperatures cannot be disclosed
Relevant Domain Aspects
Aircraft Performance Take Another Look

Weight varies dramatically during the course of a flight

530000

510000
• Medium- and
490000 long-haul flights
• Aircraft from
Weight (lb)

470000

450000 multiple
430000 manufacturers
410000 • Significance:
390000
Cannot assume
370000
constant aircraft
weight in
350000
performance
330000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 models
Distance (nm)
Note: this plot generated with proprietary data; the actual aircraft, payload, route,
profile, climb speeds, winds, and temperatures cannot be disclosed
Relevant Domain Aspects
Expanding the domain… Take Another Look

So what’s the big deal? We have all these (mostly) smooth curves, why
not just let the aero engineers write some simple trajectory
optimization software?

There are two big complications:

1. Weather
2. You can’t just fly wherever you want
Relevant Domain Aspects
Weather Take Another Look

Cruise fuel flow rate varies roughly linearly with temperature

6500
• Fuel flow rate at
6000
an arbitrary
altitude and
Fuel flow (lb/hr)

5500
weight
5000 • Aircraft from
multiple
4500
manufacturers
4000 • Significance:
Temperature at
3500

any point impacts

-25 -20 -15 -10 -5
3000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
the optimal
Temperature Deviation from Standard Day (deg C)
decision at that
point
Note: this plot generated with proprietary data; the actual aircraft,
altitudes, climb speeds, and temperatures cannot be disclosed
Relevant Domain Aspects
Weather Take Another Look

The wind-optimal path can

be far from the great
circle!

• Jakarta to Honolulu
Wind-optimal
• NWS Winds
route
• 25 October 2002
• Route is 8% longer but
Great circle
3% less fuel and 2% less
time than minimum-
distance route (11%
longer than great-circle)
• Real (although extreme)
result from a commercial
flight planning system
Relevant Domain Aspects
Weather Take Another Look

Not every method gets the right answer all the time
The same CGK-HNL example
was run with two Optimal
Control algorithms:

• Dynamic Programming
• Neighboring Optimal
Paths

• Robustness vs. computation

time is a non-trivial trade-off
• Computational performance
is especially critical as part
of a bigger, multidisciplinary
optimization problem
Relevant Domain Aspects
Weather Take Another Look

• Worldwide wind/temperature forecasts distributed by National

Weather Service (NWS) and the UK Met Office (UKMO)
• Commonly-used products 1.25deg x 1.25deg, updated every 6 hrs, at
9 or more altitudes
• Higher-resolution
(and frequency)
forecasts exist
• Some airlines and
vendors edit
specific values
within the forecasts
based on pilot
reports or values
from a different
forecast model
Relevant Domain Aspects
Route and Altitude Structure Take Another Look

Even today, most flights follow defined static airways and waypoints
(navigational aids or arbitrarily defined latitude/longitude points)
Relevant Domain Aspects
Route and Altitude Structure Take Another Look

Static Airway Structure

• Airways required
for most of the
world
• Point-to-point
allowed to some
extent in US,
Canada,
Scandinavia
• Limited free-flight
allowed over US
• New “High Altitude
Redesign” over US
– point-to-point on
a regular grid, with
specific rules
Relevant Domain Aspects
Route and Altitude Structure Take Another Look

Dynamic Airway Structure

• Example: North
Atlantic Tracks
(Eastbound and
Westbound
published daily)
• Specific routes
mandated to and
from the tracks
• Specific altitudes
allowed
• Other Organized Track Structures:
– North Pacific
– Hawaii to Asia
– South Asia to Australia
– Northern Canada
Relevant Domain Aspects
Route and Altitude Structure Take Another Look

Defining the grid is non-trivial, because there are different rules about
where you can fly

• Some point-to-point and limited free-flight (North America, Scandinavia)

• Transitions between static airways, dynamic tracks, random routing
• Regulatory restrictions (published/unpublished, static/dynamic)

Example: Route Availability Document (RAD), published each 28 days

UG42 PILON-LUL Only available for traffic

1. Dest. LFSB/GA/GB/SM/SP/SA/SC/SX, Static
Zurich Area (except LSZH/MD), LSGC/GS.
2. Overfly LS**
Via HOC Dynamic
With RFL Below FL235
Relevant Domain Aspects
Route and Altitude Structure Take Another Look

Route Optimization Subject to RAD Restrictions

• Available route
segment network
EGLL-LGAV
• Green are available
route segments
• Red are unavailable
due to static RAD
constraints
• Yellow are
conditionally available
– they have dynamic
“either/or” RAD
constraints
Relevant Domain Aspects
Route and Altitude Structure Take Another Look

Available altitudes are discrete and vary by region

• Usually one set for Eastbound, another for Westbound

• Exceptions abound
– “Metric equivalent” altitudes in some countries,
inconsistently (Russia and China do not match)
– Chile rotates demarcation line by 30 degrees (30/210)
– Some countries use North/South instead of East/West
– North Atlantic Tracks use most altitudes in a single
direction
– Some individual segments are “anti-hemispherical” to
keep predominantly North-South airways consistent
• Further restrictions exist
– RAD, CRAM altitude restrictions
– Additional restrictions in terminal area, some
unpublished
Optimization of Route and Profile
Solution Strategies Take Another Look

Now that we’ve learned about the domain, let’s re-visit the basic problem

Minimize: fuel cost + time-based costs + overflight costs + spill costs

Subject to: Aircraft performance

Weather
Allowed route and altitude structure
Schedule constraints
Operational constraints

By varying: Route (ground track)

Profile (altitudes along the route)
Speed (possibly varying along the route)
Departure fuel

We now know the objective and constraints are non-linear, discrete,

constrained, coupled, and dynamic
Optimization of Route and Profile
Solution Strategies Take Another Look

The best solution would be to do a full 4-D trajectory optimization

comprising route, profile, and speed

Could use Optimal Control methods that are currently used for trajectory
optimization (e.g., spacecraft)

Advantages:
• Correctly captures all coupled effects (best route depending on details
of profile, avoidance of 4D areas, etc.)
• Globally optimal unconstrained solution (subject to uncertainty in input
data)

Disadvantages:
• Must fit the path to discrete allowed route/altitude structure, may lose
optimality
• Restrictions increase the likelihood of sub-optimal solutions once
translated
Optimization of Route and Profile
Solution Strategies Take Another Look

A more commonly used approach is a decomposition of the problem into route

optimization and profile/speed optimization
Aircraft
Weather Data
Data Profile, speeds,
Route payload, fuels,
ATC flight plan
Navigation Route Profile/Speed
Data Optimization Altitudes? Optimization

Operational Cost
Data Data
Advantages:
• Optimized solutions are domain-feasible with no post-translation
• Much easier to enforce specific restrictions
Disadvantages:
• Not guaranteed to converge to the global optimum (sequential subspace
optimization)
• Limitations on handling of 4-D (and even 3-D) avoid areas
Optimization of Route and Profile
Domain Decomposition Approach Take Another Look

2-D Route Optimization

• Network Optimization – typical to
use Dijkstra (not A*) – or
Dynamic Programming
• Minimize wind-corrected distance
• Some transform coordinates,
some do not
• As described previously, defining
the grid is non-trivial
• Problem: need to know what
altitude to use for winds
Options:
– Use a heuristic rule to select altitudes
– Use a reduced-basis performance model (estimated weight, etc.)
– Generate multiple routes and compute optimal profile for each
– Iterate on route/profile optimization
Optimization of Route and Profile
Domain Decomposition Approach Take Another Look

• Optimal Altitude and Speed should Minimize Total Cost (not fuel)
– Not necessarily max lift-to-drag ratio
– Include compressibility drag and climb fuel • Each aircraft
50000
type is most
45000
efficient at a
Speed constant
De

40000
specific value of
with altitude
ns

W/(ρV2)
ity

Spee
35000

Speed decreases • As weight

30000
with altitude decreases, want

d
to fly higher

of so
25000

Speed increases
with altitude • Fuel/time

und
20000

tradeoff
15000

– Higher for
10000
less fuel
5000
– Near 27,000’
0
for max
Variation of temperature, density, speed of sound with altitude speed
Optimization of Route and Profile
Domain Decomposition Approach Take Another Look

Profile/Speed Optimization

Available Unconstrained best vertical path

Altitudes

Optimal constrained path might be

level segments with “step climbs”

• Optimal step climb locations depend on the temperature and winds at

each altitude and the aircraft weight
• Check for step descents also (to take advantage of favorable
wind/temperature), but these are rare – go against basic aeronautics
• Can use Dynamic Programming or a heuristic
• If optimizing speed, must simultaneously consider speed and altitude
• Key domain detail: cannot neglect the fuel burned in the step climb
itself – the best cruise altitude may not be optimal considering climb
Optimization of Route and Profile
Domain Decomposition Approach Take Another Look

Example of effect of step-climb fuel on optimal decision

5,000lb/hr * 19.6 mins = 1630lb

35,000’

700lb 650lb

115,000lb.
5,100lb/hr * 19.4 mins = 1650lb
113,350lb.
33,000’

• Cruising higher (and lighter by 700lb) leads to 2% lower fuel flow rate
• But delaying climb reduces climb fuel by 6%
• Total fuel if climb is delayed is 30lb less
Optimization of Route and Profile
Domain Decomposition Approach Take Another Look

Example of a heuristic for profile optimization including iteration on

takeoff weight (must iterate for contingency fuel)

Best profile to each

point is stored Maximum altitude

Optimum altitude

Start with estimated Compare landing

departure weight fuel to contingency
fuel requirements

Choose profile with

minimum cost
Specific Topics
Overview Take Another Look

Besides the basic route and profile optimization, other decisions are
relevant (and coupled to the route and profile optimization)

Three examples:
• Economic Fuel tankering (coupled to profile and speed optimization)
• Optimal reclear point selection
• Minimum Cost Routing with Overflight Charges
Specific Topics
Fuel Tankering Take Another Look

Carry extra fuel for next leg when economically attractive

• Challenge: non-trivial economic analysis depends on real-time
data – who, when, where?
• Current Solutions (good, but not optimal):
– Back-office approach
• Lacks latest data on weather, payload, etc. (often historical-
based instead of actual burn calculations)
• Airline Operations Center or flight crew may lack the
tools/data to correctly accept or reject the recommendation
– Flight Planning approach
• Airline Operations Center staff must get the right answer
within their normal work-flow
• Little or no capability for back-office experts (including OR
team!) to validate individual results
Specific Topics
Fuel Tankering – Flight Planning View Take Another Look

Accurate operational
Exchange data (e.g. MEL/CDL)
rates
Flight-planning system

Fuel prices
Flight plan with optimal
tanker calculation

Takeoff and
Aircraft schedules landing
for sector linking weight limits
Specific Topics
Fuel Tankering – Expanded Domain Take Another Look

Accurate operational
Exchange data (e.g. MEL/CDL)
rates

Fuel prices
Flight plan with optimal
tanker calculation

Include tankering Calculate derated

potential in optimal takeoff thrust and
aircraft scheduling include cost in
tanker analysis
Specific Topics – Optimal Reclear Point
Domain Background Take Another Look

Range/Payload Diagram
• The Fuel/Payload
exchange region (limited
Limited by Maximum Payload by max takeoff weight) is
the most interesting
Maximum Payload – Indicates correctly-sized
Payload (weight)

aircraft for the mission

(most economic)
Exchange Payload – Poses the biggest
for Fuel operational challenge
Expanded Capability • Significance: Reducing
with Reduced contingency fuel allows
Contingency Fuel
more payload uplift --
Limited by Fuel Capacity reduces spill costs

Range (distance)
 Specific Topics
Optimal Reclear Point Selection Take Another Look

Reduce contingency fuel by introducing a decision point

• Contingency fuel based on percentage of time or fuel
• Can combine a series of shorter plans and ensure enough contingency
fuel for each, not the whole flight
Reclear
airport

Origin Planned
destination
• Instead of percentage contingency fuel for the full flight, need the
greater of:
– Percentage from origin to reclear airport
– Percentage from decision point to planned destination
• Optimal solution is both scenarios equal – “equal fuel point”
Specific Topics
Optimal Reclear Point Selection Take Another Look

• Challenge: find the equal fuel point

• Options:
– Iteratively try different points – computationally intensive
• Could do this offline for each combination of origin,
destination, and reclear airport, probably good enough
– Use a static heuristic rule
• Allegedly the optimal point is some percentage of route
• The optimal point for each flight varies widely with the
location of the reclear airport compared to the origin and
destination
– Solve for the Equal Fuel Point algebraically
• Requires simplifying assumptions
• Works surprisingly well with some extreme simplifications!
Specific Topics
Optimal Reclear Point Selection Take Another Look

Example: which methods can handle widely variant scenarios?

• Same flight (DEN-NRT),
different reclear airports
(ANC, CTS)
• Very different decision point
locations
• Each is a local optimum
Optimum decision
point for ANC point for its reclear airport
• So which of the solution
strategies will work for both?
Optimum decision • Iterate offline, pick static point
point for CTS
DEN to use for each airport?
NRT Probably, although the best
point varies some by weather
and payload
• Static heuristic percentage rule? Not without some very clever inclusion of the
position of the reclear airport – and even then, it’s questionable
• Algebraic solution for the equal fuel point? Yes, even with some extreme
simplifications!
Specific Topics
Optimal Routes with Overflight Charges Take Another Look

• Most countries other than the US charge aircraft operators for

overflights (this is how they fund ATC)
• Order of magnitude:
– DEN-FRA 747-400 ~$6k
– JNB-FRA A340-600 ~$9k
– LGW-PMI 767-300 ~$2k
• Characteristics of charges:
– Vary widely from country to country in amount
– Different formats
• Number of miles in airspace
• Flat fee for entering airspace
• Variable charges based on origin/destination
• Discounts per custom agreement between airline and
government
Specific Topics
Optimal Routes with Overflight Charges Take Another Look

• Challenge: Find the minimum cost route including overflight

charges (using a domain decomposition approach)
• Options:
– Calculate multiple flight plans using defined scenarios
• Include scenarios avoiding certain countries
• Calculate fuel, time, and overflight charges for each
• Compare based on that day’s conditions
– Use a heuristic or a reduced-basis performance model in route
optimization
• Need an estimate for cost of avoiding expensive airspace
• Rough estimates of fuel flow (including estimated takeoff
weight) may be good enough
• More attractive if the flight is not near any operational limits
Specific Topics
Optimal Routes with Overflight Charges Take Another Look

Multiple Scenario Approach: 3 RAD-compliant routes GLA-TFS (2005)

RTE 3
Avoiding LE

RTE 1
Shortest RAD-
compliant route RTE 2
Avoiding LP
Specific Topics
Optimal Routes with Overflight Charges Take Another Look

With certain operating conditions, the longer route could be cheaper

Route Distance Fuel Time Overflt Chgs Total Cost

RTE 3 1846 27123 4:19 1968 15543

RTE 1 1815 26379 4:12 2823 16026

RTE 2 2061 29838 4:43 3819 18726

The best choice day-to-day may depend on dynamic factors:

• Weather
• Payload
• Operational factors (departure timeliness, air traffic delays, etc.)
Some Final Thoughts Take Another Look

• The “laws,” both of physics and of regulatory agencies, combine to

make flight planning a non-trivial optimization problem
• Despite substantial airline investment in OR research, flight planning
has had comparatively little rigorous attention
• A variety of factors are now combining to make flight planning more
interesting from an OR point of view
– Higher fuel costs
– Progress towards multidisciplinary optimization solutions that
could include flight planning
• Recovery
• Integrated Operations Control
• Collaborative Air Traffic Management
– Better cost models, making cost optimization more accurate
Some Final Thoughts Take Another Look

Best wishes to everyone for an optimal flight home!