Amino acids

Insulin- The rate

of glucose transport into most types of cells is greatly influenced by

insulin and can increase tenfold in the presence of insulin. Without

insulin, glucose enters most cells very slowly. Insulin increases the

rate of glucose transport into most cells

Cholesterol is an important molecule with many functions in the i.e.

body. It is obtained in food, or it can be manufactured by the liver

and most other tissues. Cholesterol is a component of the cell mem-

brane, and it can be modified to form other useful molecules, such

as bile salts and steroid hormones. Bile salts emulsify fats, which is

important for fat digestion and absorption. Steroid

hormones include the sex hormones estrogen, prosgesterone, and

testosterone, which regulate the reproductive system.

Eicosanoids,

which are derived from fatty acids, are involved in inflammation,

tissue repair, smooth muscle contraction, and other functions.

Phospholipids (see chapter 2) are part of the cell membrane

and are used to construct myelin sheaths around the axons of nerve

cells. Lecithin is found in bile and helps emulsify fats.

Proteins (prō ′ tē nz) are chains of amino acids (see figure 2.16).

They are found in most of the plant and animal products we eat

(see table 17.1). Proteins in the body are constructed of 20 different kinds of amino acids, which are
divided into two groups: essential

and nonessential amino acids. The body cannot synthesize essential

amino acids, so they must be obtained in the diet. The nine essential

amino acids are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,

phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. Nonessential

amino acids are necessary to construct our proteins but do not

necessarily need to be ingested, since they can be synthesized

from the essential amino acids. A complete protein food contains

all nine essential amino acids in the needed proportions, whereas

an incomplete protein food does not. Animal proteins tend to be

complete proteins, whereas plant proteins tend to be incomplete.

Examples of complete proteins are red meat, fish, poultry, milk,

cheese, and eggs. Examples of incomplete proteins are leafy

green vegetables, grains, and legumes (peas and beans). If two

incomplete proteins, such as rice and beans, are ingested, each can

provide amino acids lacking in the other. Thus, a vegetarian diet, if

balanced correctly, provides all the essential amino acids

Starch is an energy-storage molecule in plants and is found

primarily in vegetables, fruits, and grains. Glycogen is an energy-

storage molecule in animals and is located primarily in muscle and

in the liver. Cellulose forms plant cell walls.

Glycerol can be used to

make a small amount of glucose, but most

of the glucose is formed from the amino

acids of proteins. In addition, some amino

acids can be used directly for energy

glycerol (glis′ er-ol) Three-carbon mo

with a hydroxyl group attached to e

carbon; a building block of fats.

glycogen (glı ̄′ kō-jen) Animal starch;

composed of many glucose molecul

together in chains that are highly br

functions as a carbohydrate reserve

glucose molecules; in animal cells.

glucagon (gloo′ kă-gon) [glucose + ago ¯,

to lead] Hormone secreted from the

pancreatic islets of the pancreas that acts

primarily on the liver to release glucose

into the circulatory system

fatty acid Straight chain of carbon

a carboxyl group (−COOH) att

end; a building block of fats.

fat Greasy, soft-solid lipid found in animal

tissues and many plants; composed of

glycerol and fatty acids.

The packaged

lipid-protein complexes, or lipoproteins, are called chylomicrons

(kı ̄ -lō -mi′ kronz). Chylomicrons leave the epithelial cells and

enter the lacteals, lymphatic capillaries within the intestinal villi.

Lymph containing large amounts of absorbed lipid is called chyle

(kı ̄ l; milky lymph). The lymphatic system carries the chyle to the

bloodstream. Chylomicrons are transported to the liver, where

the lipids are stored, converted into other molecules, or used as

energy. They are also transported to adipose tissue, where they are
stored until an energy source is needed elsewhere in the body. Other

lipoproteins, called low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-

density lipoproteins (HDLs), transport cholesterol and fats in the

blood (fig

Lipids

Sources in the Diet

Lipids (lip′ idz) include triglycerides, steroids, phospholipids, and

fat-soluble vitamins. Triglycerides (trı ̄-glis′ er-ı ̄dz), also called

tri acylglycerols (trı ̄-as′ il-glis′ er-olz), are the most common type of

lipid in the diet, accounting for about 95% of the total lipid intake.

Triglyceride molecules consist of three fatty acids bound to

one glycerol molecule (see figure 2.12). Triglycerides are often

referred to as fats. If the fat is a liquid at room temperature, it is

referred to as an oil. Fats are saturated if their fatty acids have

only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms and unsatu-

rated if they have one or more double bonds (see figure 2.13).

Monounsaturated fats have one double bond, and polyunsatu-

rated fats have two or more double bonds. Saturated fats are found

in meat, dairy products, eggs, nuts, coconut oil, and palm oil (table

17.1). Monounsaturated fats include olive and peanut oils; polyun-

saturated fats are found in fish, safflower, sunflower, and corn oils.

Solid fats, mainly shortening and margarine, work better

than liquid oils in preparing some foods, such as pastries.

Polyunsaturated vegetable oils can be changed from a liquid to a

solid by making them more saturated—that is, by decreasing the

number of double covalent bonds in their polyunsaturated fatty

acids. To saturate an unsaturated oil, the oil can be hydrogenated,

which means that hydrogen gas is bubbled through the oil, produc-
ing a change in molecular shape that solidifies the oil. The more

saturated the product, the harder it becomes at room temperature.

These processed fats are usually referred to as trans fats.

Processed foods and oils account for most of the trans fats

in the American diet, although some trans fats occur naturally in

food from animal sources. Trans fatty acids raise the concentration

of low-density lipoproteins and lower the concentration of high-

density lipoproteins in the blood (see chapter 16). These changes

are associated with a greater risk of cardiovascular disease. In

2006, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) required that food

labels include a detailed list of the amounts of saturated and trans

fats, allowing the consumer to make better dietary choices.

The remaining 5% of ingested lipids include steroids and phos-

pholipids. Cholesterol (kō-les′ ter-ol) is a steroid (see chapter 2)

found in high concentrations in the brain, the liver, and egg yolks, but

it is also present in whole milk, cheese, butter, and meats. Cholesterol

is not found in plants. Phospholipids, such as lecithin (les′ i-thin;

lekithos, egg yolk), are major components of cell membranes and are

found in a variety of foods. A good source of lecithin is egg yolks.

Ate @louie 09532559461

Here the words that are so far noted from our classmates after reading the unit 2 module during the
google meet last March 8, 2021.

1. Lignin -a complex organic polymer deposited in the cell walls of many plants, making them rigid
and woody.

2. Macronutrients- supplies the necessary energy to maintain bodily functions during rest and
diverse physical activities.
3. Carbohydrates- are organic compounds that inlcudes the sugar and starches. The energy held in
their chemical bonds is used to power cellular processes.

4. Disaccharides – any of a class of sugars whose molecules contain two monosaccharide residues.

5. Lipid – any of a class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives and are
insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include many natural oils, waxes, and
steroids.

6. Hypoglycemia – is a condition in which your blood sugar (glucose) level is lower than normal and
is often related to diabetes treatment.

7. Proteins – is a naturally occurring, extremely complex substance that consists of amino acid
residues joined by peptide bonds. It is present in all living organisms and include many essential
biological compounds such as enzymes, hormones, and antibodies.