Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

4 First name: Marc Ribot Forns – Oriol Jutglar Soler

LABORATORY CLASS 2: VOLTAGE DIVIDER. SUPERPOSITION. MODEL OF AN

ELECTRIC DEVICE

1 MAIN GOALS

The goals of this laboratory class are: to use a voltage divider to reduce the voltage of an electrical circuit,
to test the superposition property of the linear circuits and to model an electrical device.

2 EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL

1 DC voltage source (with current limiter) (ISO-TECH IPS-3303)

1 Signal generator (ISO-TECH GFG-8255A)
1 Oscilloscope (TEKTRONIX TBS1052B-EDU)
2 Digital multimeters (ISO-TECH IDM-73; AD-9805A)
1 0,33  resistor, 3 W
1 0,47  resistor, 3 W
1 0.5 Ω resistor, 3 W
1 0,68  resistor, 3 W
2 1  resistors, 3W
1 100  resistor, 2W
1 180  resistor, 2W
1 390  resistor, 2W
2 1 k resistors, 2W
1 10kΩ linear potentiometer
1 Set of resistors for the voltage divider
1 100nF Capacitor, 100 V
1 Black device
1 Varistor (VDR) (B72205S0140K101, SIOV Metal Oxide Varistor, 14Vrms, 0.01W)
1 Photoresistor (LDR) (Silonex NORPS-12)
1 Set of ceramic resistor + termistor NTC
1 Diode (1N4007)
1 1.5V AA alkaline battery (charged)
1 1.5V AA alkaline battery (discharged)

3 TASK DESCRIPTION
(PQ) ≡ Preliminary question, (L) ≡ Laboratory, (FR) ≡ Final report

3.1 VOLTAGE DIVIDER

A voltage divider is shown in Figure 1.1 of the documentation corresponding to the Laboratory Class
1. The main goal of a voltage divider is to split the voltage across two resistors in series in a voltage
across each resistor with a certain relationship.

Let us to assemble a voltage divider, as shown in figure 2.1. The output voltage must be from 0% to
100% the input voltage.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 1
 10 V Out

Figure 2.1

1) (PQ) Using a 10kΩ potentiometer, design a voltage divider with the characteristics required above.

Upper terminal (1)

1

Cursor (3)
3

Lower terminal (2)

2

Figure 2.2. 10 kΩ potentiometer

Circuit scheme:
Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

2) (L) Assemble and test the designed electrical circuit.

VIn V VOut mín

V VOut máx
V

3) (PQ) Modify the circuit in order to have an output voltage from 0% to 70% the input voltage. Use the
E24 resistors.

Circuit scheme:

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 3
4) (L) Assemble and test the modified circuit.

VIn V VOut mín

V VOut máx
V

5) (PQ) Modify the voltage divider in order to have an output voltage from 30% to 100% the input
voltage. Use the E24 resistors.

Circuit scheme:

6) (L) Assemble and test the modified circuit.

VIn V VOut mín

V VOut máx
V
 Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

7) (PQ) Modify the voltage divider in order to have an output voltage from 30% to 70% the input
voltage. Use the E34 resistors.

Circuit scheme:

8) (L) Assemble and test the modified circuit.

VIn V VOut mín

V VOut máx
V

3.2 CHARACTERISTIC CURVE. LINEARITY

1) (L) The following circuit (circuit scheme 1) is proposed to obtain the characteristic curve of a
resistor.

5 V 1 k


Circuit scheme 1

Set the voltage value from -5V to 5V (with increments of 0.5V) and measure the current for each
voltage step. (In order to supply negative voltages you can switch the voltage source terminals)

Range 0   5 V
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 5
 Voltage (V) -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5

Current (mA) -5.06 -4.55 -4.04 -3.52 -3 -2.49 -1.97 -1.56 -1.03 -0.48

Range 0   5 V

Voltage (V) 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

Current (mA) 5.06 4.55 4.06 3.54 3.02 2.51 1.99 1.58 1.05 0.5

2) (FR) Plot the obtained I-V characteristic curve.

3) (FR) Is the obtained characteristic curve linear?

Yes, the resistor of 1 kΩ presents a lineal behavior vs. the current, as we can appreciate in the previous graph.

(FR) Are the slope of the characteristic curve and the resistance of the resistor related? How?

The relation that exists with the slope of the line is 1. So that, when we increase 1V, the current will
also increase 1 (in this case mA). m=I/V

4) (L) For a given application, the following voltage divider is required (see circuit scheme 2).

Signal generator
4 Vpp
1 kHz
 Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

Circuit scheme 2

R1  1 k R2  1 k

5) (L) Using an oscilloscope test the proposed circuit (channel 1: input voltage, and channel 2: output
voltage).

Figure 2.3. Tektronix TBS1052B-EDU Oscilloscope

6) (FR) Does the proposed circuit work as the predicted voltage divider? Is it linear?

The tension divider works as we provided using a linear model. We can chek it by looking the graph
of chanel II, which takes half of the value that takes chanel I, following the function:
Vout =Vin · (R2/(R1+R2))

7) (L) Assemble the following circuit (see circuit scheme 3) in order to obtain the characteristic curve
of the black device.

5 V

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 7
Reference label
Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

Circuit scheme 3

Figure 2.4. Black device

Set the voltage value from -5V to 5V (with increments of 0.5V) and measure the current for each
voltage step. (In order to supply negative voltages you can switch the voltage source terminals).

Range 0   5 V

Voltage (V) -5 -4.5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5

Current (mA) -3.2 -2.6 -2.1 -1.7 -1.3 -0.8 -0.5 -0.09 0 0

Range 0   5 V

Voltage (V) 5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

Current (mA) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

8) (FR) Plot the obtained I-V characteristic curve.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 9
 9) (FR) Is the obtained characteristic curve linear?

The black device does not present a linear behaviour vs. the voltage applied, as it only works with negatives
voltages and values not close to zero.

(FR) Is the obtained characteristic curve linear for a range of voltages?

Yes, the black device presents linearity in a range of values compressed in between (-infinity, -2). This
is because this device only allows the current circulation in one direction, so we get lenar values with
negatives tensions and a null values with positives tensions.

10) (FR) What is the slope of the characteristic curve for a linear behavior (if it exists)?

This slope represents the resistance to the flowing electrons that exerts the black device, with a
certain values of voltage and current.

11) (L) Modify the electrical circuit in 5) as follows, circuit scheme 4.

4 Vpp
In R2 Out
1 kHz

Circuit scheme 4
R2  1 k
 Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

12) (L) Measure and plot the input and output voltages using an oscilloscope.

13) (FR) Does the voltage divider work as was expected? Is it linear?

The voltage divider does not work as we expected. We ca affirm it by looking at the image that shows
the oscilloscope.

14) (FR) For which frequency (or frequencies) the voltage divider works as expected? Why?

It shows be negative at all time in order to present the expected values for the tension divider,
because if not, we don’t get the expected values.

15) (L) Modify the electrical circuit as is shown in circuit scheme 5.

4 Vpp
In R2 Out
1 kHz

Circuit scheme 5
R2  1 k

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 11
Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

16) (L) Measure and plot the output voltage using an oscilloscope.

Channel II: Output voltage

17) (FR) Why the output voltage is different than the obtained in 14)?

This is because when we work with a black device, only those values with negative sign the
device will
work (this does not happen now); that’s why the output voltages are different.

18) (L) Assemble the following circuit (see circuit scheme 6) in order to obtain the characteristic curve of
a varistor.

±28V

Circuit scheme 6

Figure 2.5. Varistor

A varistor is a resistor with a resistance depending on the voltage, i.e., a voltage dependent resistor.

Set the voltage value from -28V to 28V (with increments of 5V or 2V) and measure the current for
each voltage step. (Please, for security reasons, do not supply voltages out of the -28V/28V and limit
the current source at 150mA).

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 12
Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

Range: -28V to 0V (2V increments from -28 to -20V, 5V increments from -20 to 0V)
Voltage (V) -28 -26 -24 -22 -20 -15 -10 -5

Current (mA) -8,7 -2,2 -0,8 -0,3 -0,16 -0,02 0 0

Range: 0V to 28V (5V increments from 0 to 20V, 2V increments from 20 to 28V)

Voltage (V) 5 10 15 20 22 24 26 28

Current (mA) 0 0,0007 0,02 0,11 0,25 0,48 1,4 4,8

19) (FR) Plot the obtained I-V characteristic curve.

I-V chart
6
4
2
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10

20) (FR) Is the obtained characteristic curve linear?

No, they are exponential.

21) (FR) Search and summarize the working principle of a varistor. Propose some applications for the
varistors. They are used to protect the circuit form big tension variations. Once the voltage is very
high, it absorbs current and protects other devices from this high voltage.

22) (L) Assemble the following circuit (see circuit scheme 7) in order to test the variable resistance of a
photoresistor.

Circuit scheme 7 Figure 2.6. Photoresistor

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 13
Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

A photoresistor is an element with variable resistance depending on the incident light intensity, also
known as LDR (Light Dependent Resistor).

Measure the resistance of the LDR with the multimeter.

Covered LDR
Uncovered LDR Covered LDR (free hole)
(closed hole)
R= 1000Ω R= 13000Ω R=17*10^6 Ω
23) (L) Assemble the following circuit (see circuit scheme 8) in order to obtain the characteristic curve of
the LDR (uncovered). Set the voltage source from 0 to 5V (1V increment).

1 Ωk

5
V

Circuit scheme 8

Voltage (V) 5 4 3 2 1

Current (mA) 4,5 3,1 2,5 1,8 1,3

26) (L) Assemble the following circuit (see circuit scheme 9) in order to obtain the characteristic curve of
the LDR (covered). Set the voltage source from 0 to 5V (1V increment).
Voltage (V) 5 4 3 2 1

Current (mA) 0,35 0,24 0,19 0,14 0,1

27) (FR) Plot the characteristic curves obtained in 25) and 26).
5
4,5
4
3,5
3 I-V 1000

2,5 I.V 13000

2 Linear (I-V 1000)

1,5 Linear (I.V 13000)

1
0,5
0
0 2 4 6

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 14
Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

28) (FR) Is the LDR resistance varying in front of voltage or current?

No, is varying with respect to light, light dependent resistance. Voltage or current don’t affect it.

29) (FR) How does the LDR resistance change in front of external perturbations? It changes regarding
the variation of light.

30) (FR) How does the LDR resistance change in front of the electrical variables? It doesn’t, again it
varies with respect to light.

31) (FR) Search and summarize the working principle of a photoresistor. Propose some applications.
The photoresistor varies in function of the light that detects. In the case of this one, the more light, the
less resistance it produces. We could use it as a sensor to turn on the light in dark places.
32) (L) Assemble the following circuit (scheme 9), where a thermistor is used in order to measure the
temperature of a ceramic resistor.

A thermistor is an
element with
variable resistance
depending on the
temperature, also
known as NTC
(Negative
Temperature
Coefficient) if its
resistance
decreases with the
temperature), or
PTC (Positive
Temperature
Coefficient) if the
resistance increases with the temperature.

Apply a 10V voltage to the ceramic resistor for 2 minutes, and

measure the resistance of the thermistor every 20 seconds.

Time (s) 0 20 40 60 80 100

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 15
Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

Resistance (Ω) 430 406 320 250 192 149

33) (FR) Using the characteristic curve of the NTC (resistance vs. temperature), graphic 2.1, plot the
temperature variation of the ceramic resistor along the test period.

Time- Temperature
40
35
30
25
20
Time- Temperature
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Graphic 2.1
3.3 SUPERPOSITION

1) (PQ) / (L) / (FR) Test, experimentally, the superposition principle in circuit shown in Figure 2.8.

390 Ω 180 Ω

15 V 10 V
Figure 2.8 2) (FR) Is the superposition principle fulfilled? Why?

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 16
Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

Yes, it’s fulfilled. The Superposition Theorem works only for circuits that are reducible to

series/parallel combinations for each of the power sources at a time (thus, this theorem is useless for

analyzing an unbalanced bridge circuit), and it only works where the underlying equations are linear

(no mathematical powers or roots). The requisite of linearity means that Superposition Theorem is

only applicable for determining voltage and current, not power.

3) (L) / (FR) Add a diode in series with the 180 Ω resistor, as Figure 2.3 shows. Test experimentally the
linear characteristic of the circuit.
Reference label (cathode)

Figure 2.9. Diode

390 Ω 180 Ω

15 V 10 V
Figure 2.10 4) (FR) Is the superposition principle fulfilled? Why? In this case it is not fulfilled because

the presence of the diode changes everything. It doesn’t allow current to go in a direction, thus the

equations are not linear anymore.

5) (FR) Search and summarize the working principle of a diode. Propose some applications.
The diode is an element that can do 2 useful things. The first, is to act as a blocker to currents going in a
certain direction. The other use is to cap the voltage that goes out to a number of volts like 0,7V. Leaving
the negative voltage to the circuit.
3.4 LINEARITY. VOLTAGE DIVIDER

1) (PQ) How we can modify the settings of the wave generator to work in the linear range of the black
device studied in Section 3.2? The output voltage of the voltage divider must be a sinusoidal wave with
a peak-to-peak amplitude 2V. Remember that to objective of the voltage divider is to divide by two the
output voltage of the wave generator.

Peak to peak amplitude Offset

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 17
Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

Vpp = 2V Voff =-2 V

2) (L) Assemble the circuit shown below.

1 kHz

Circuit scheme 10

R2 = Ω1 k

Set the voltage amplitude and offset of the wave generator to the values proposed in the previous
question. Use the oscilloscope (channel I: input voltage, channel II: output voltage) to verify that the
output voltage is as expected.

Channel I: Input voltage and out put

3) (FR) Does the voltage divider behave as expected? Justify your answer. Yes it does. Because it makes
the output current smaller than the input current.

4) (L) Finally, connect a 100nF capacitor in series with the output voltage (see circuit scheme 11).
Measure with the oscilloscope the new output voltage with the same settings of the wave generator.

1 kHz

Circuit scheme 11

R2 = Ω1 k C=100 nF
Channel II: Output voltage The trace its at the top line and the scale is 1 volt.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 18
Laboratory class 2: Voltage divider. Superposition. Model of an electric device.

5) (IF) How the capacitor works? It is required a capacitor to improve the behavior of the voltage
divider? Justify your answer. In this case the capacitor turns a continuous current into an alternate one.
If you want to have an alternate current, then the capacitor is required, if not the divider works perfectly.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS 19