Chapter 4.

Aerobic composting Solid waste management

Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003

4. Aerobic composting
Composting is a biological process based on aerobic transformation of biodegradable wastes.
The result of composting is a dark, humus like material that has fertilizing and soil texture
improving properties. Composting can be used on almost all types of biodegradable wastes such
as food residues, yard waste, and sewage sludge. During the composting process oxygen is
consumed, CO2, H2O and energy (heat) is produced. The overall reaction occurring during
composting can in a simple manner be formulated as

Biowaste + O2 → microbial biomass + non-degradable matter + CO2 + H2O + Heat

Heat production causes the temperature in the composting material to rise and increases the
biological degradation rate in the early stages of the composting process. Later when the easily
degradable organic material has been degraded the rate of transformation and the temperature
gradually decreases to ambient levels.

4.1. Composting biology

Most of the organisms responsible for the transformation of the organic material are microbes.
Some important groups of microorganisms are bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungi. The bacteria
are responsible for the turnover of approximately 80-90% of the organic matter transformed.
Bacteria grow faster and are better adapted to the low oxygen concentrations and high
temperatures often found in the early stages of the composting process. Actinomycetes are a
group of filamentous organisms that are often found in blue-grey powder-like colonies. Both
actinomycetes and fungi are relatively slow growing organisms that are less tolerant of low
oxygen concentrations and high temperatures compared to the bacteria. The microbial
populations and the temperature in the compost often follow a specific pattern dictated by the
degradation of compounds in the organic matter. The composting process can be divided into
four phases.

The initial phase is the first period after initiation of the compost process where the temperature
rises to about 50 oC over a period of a few days (Fig. 4.1). During this phase the population of
especially bacteria increases rapidly and compounds that are easily degradable, such as sugars,
starch, proteins and fats are degraded. Due to the rapid rate of degradation and oxygen
consumption it is often difficult to provide enough oxygen for the biological processes and the
compost will have a tendency to develop anaerobic pockets. Modest decreases in pH may be
observed due to the production of organic acids by anaerobic organisms. The organisms active
during the initial phase are mesophilic (optimal temperature 35 – 45 oC) and thermophilic
(optimal temperature (55 – 60 oC) bacteria.

If the conditions in the composting material are well maintained the composting process will
normally enter the thermophilic phase next. This phase involves especially termophilic bacteria
and also certain thermophilic actinomycetes and fungi. During this phase the temperature can
exceed 70oC and temperatures as high af 80-85 oC have been observed during composting of
sewage sludge. The pH usually increases to about 7.5 due to the destruction of the organic acids.
Near the end of the thermophilic phase when the readily degradable organic material has been
removed by the microorganisms only organic materials such as hemicellulose, lignin, chitin, and
similar compounds that are more difficult to degrade remain. The microbial activity especially

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concerning the bacteria begins to decrease and the temperature in the compost begins to fall. At
this point the composting process is not yet finished and the compost is sometimes called raw
compost.

1.2
Relative concentration

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (d)

Bacteria Actinomycetes Fungi

70
60
Temperature o C

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (d)
Initial Thermophilic Mesophilic Cooling
phase phase

Figure 4.1. Top: Microbial succession during the composting process. Source Epstein (1997)
Bottom: Idealized temperature variation in the compost during the course of the composting
process.

Upon completion of the thermophilic phase the temperature decreases to levels where the
mesophilic organisms have their optimum and the composting process enters the mesophilic
phase. During this phase where the temperature ranges between 35 and 45 oC the more difficult-
to-degrade components such as cellulose and lignin are decomposed. During the mesophilic
phase several types of bacteria are still very active but it is especially the actinomycetes and
fungi that are important during this phase. Actinomycetes and fungi are better adapted to utilize
the more difficult degradable compounds compared to most of the bacteria. Some fungi can even
produce penicillin that will kill some of the bacteria. The mesophilic phase can take up to several

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weeks to complete. At the end of the mesophilic phase the compost is often called finished
compost.

The final phase of the composting process is termed the cooling phase. During this phase the
temperature slowly decreases to near ambient levels during a time span of several weeks. The
microbial degradation of the organic material will be almost completed when entering the
cooling phase and the rate of degradation will approach that of a natural soil. The organic matter
remaining consists of very complex compounds with humus like structures that are difficult to
degrade. The pH during this phase will normally stay relatively constant at about 8. Towards the
end of the cooling phase higher organisms such as worms and insects will often colonize the
compost. The compost is now termed mature compost and the structure of the organic matter in
the compost will closely resemble that of humus.

4.2. Process parameters

Temperature: The temperature controls the microbial activity and, thus, rate of the composting
process. The degradation rate usually increases strongly with temperature up to about 70-80 oC
as shown in Fig. 4.2. Above this temperature most microorganisms will either be killed or form
spores, which is a resting stage. This prevents further increases in degradation rate and
temperature of the compost. It is often important to maintain a high temperature as long as
possible to ensure rapid degradation and effective use of the compost facility. High temperatures
are also needed in many cases to achieve proper hygienization of the compost material.
Hygienization is often required if the compost is to be used as a soil amendment on soils used in
agricultural production. Hygienization reduces the concentration of pathogenic organisms and
weed seeds in the compost. Adjusting the oxygen
7 concentration (by mixing or blowing air through
O2 Consumption (mg/(g d))

6
the compost) and the water content (by irrigation)
in the compost controls the microbial activity
5 and, thus, the temperature. If the oxygen
4 concentration or water content is too low the rate
of degradation decreases and the temperature will
3
fall even if there is plenty of degradable organic
2 material available. Watering the compost if too
1 dry or increasing the oxygen concentration if too
low by turning or aeration will usually cause the
0
microbial activity and the temperature to go back
0 20 40 60 80 up. In cold climate regions it can be necessary to
Temperature (oC) provide some type of insulation to maintain
proper temperature. This may be done by
Figure 4.2. Relationship between covering the composting material by a layer of
temperature and oxygen consumption rate finished compost, or by processing the material
(degradation rate) in compost. Source in an enclosed space such as a building or
Epstein (1997) directly in a reactor.

Water content: The water content controls both the microbial activity and the oxygen
transportation in the compost material. At low water contents oxygen will be transported faster
and easier because a greater amount of the pores are filled with air. This makes it easier to ensure

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a high oxygen concentration in the compost. Low water contents, however, are inhibitory to
microorganisms whose activity will cease at gravimetric water contents below 8-12 %. The
optimal water content also depends on the structure of material being composted. Materials that
are structurally strong can have higher permissible gravimetric water contents (70-80% for wood
chips, straw, hay, etc) because the structure of the materials ensure that there will be a sufficient
amount of air-filled pores. For less structured materials such as wastewater treatment sludge
higher water contents will result in low air filled porosity, poor air penetration and difficulty in
handling the materials, as they will become liquefied. Generally the optimal gravimetric water
content for most mixtures of organic wastes containing food residues is between 35 and 60%
although practice have shown that water contents of 75% for sludge-straw-garden waste compost
mixtures did not prevent successful composting. The essential issue is to maintain a volumetric
air-filled porosity of 25 – 30% to ensure adequate oxygen diffusion through the compost. Poor
structure and low air-filled porosity can be improved by adding a bulking agent such as straw,
wood chips or paper, or by increasing the airflow through the compost to facilitate the
evaporation of water. In wet climate it may be necessary to provide a roof over the compost
facility to prevent high water contents from developing. Watering the compost can cure low
water contents. The water content can be adjusted by mixing the waste with a material of
different water content. Assuming that the waste has a water content of a (g/g), the mixing
material has a water content of b (g/g) and we want a mixture water content of c (g/g) we can
calculate the amount of mixing material required per kg of waste as:

 kg of mixing material  a - c
Mmix,water  = c-d (4.1)
 kg of waste 

Where Mmix,water is the amount of mixing

12 material required per kg of waste to adjust the
water content. Note that c must be between a
O2 consumption rate (mg O 2/g om h)

and b otherwise it is not possible to adjust the

10
water content.

8 pH: It is usually not necessary to control the pH

of the compost if the composting process is well
6 operated such as to maintain adequate levels in
temperature and oxygen concentrations. In
4 certain special types of organic material that is
very easily degradable anaerobic conditions can
2
develop in the early stages of the process
resulting in overproduction of organic acids and
a drop in pH. In such cases addition of lime may
0
be necessary to maintain proper levels in pH.
6 6,5 7 7,5 8 8,5 9
Such problems may be avoided altogether by
pH adding a bulking agent such as for example
straw or wood chips that is more difficult to
Figure 4.3. Relationship between oxygen degrade and will provide a higher air-filled
consumption rate (degradation rate) and porosity in the compost. At high values of pH
pH in compost. Source: Jerris and Regan (>9), however, nitrogen losses may become
(1973)

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significant due to the formation of ammonia (NH3) that will evaporate. The degradation rate
depends strongly upon the pH, low pH levels are inhibitory to most aerobic microorganisms.
Degradation experiments conducted at 50 – 60 oC indicate that the degradation rate increases
linearly with pH in the interval 6 – 9 (see Fig. 4.3) Jerris and Regan 1973).

C/N ratio: The ration of carbon (C) to nitrogen (N) of the material to be composted is important
with respect to the nutritional needs of the microbial biomass. If the C/N ratio is too high, the
lack of nitrogen will limit the microbial activity and thereby the degradation and transformation
of the carbon. On the other hand if the ratio is too low, nitrogen will be in excess and may easily
be lost in the form of ammonia (NH3) to the atmosphere or washed out as nitrate or ammonium
ions (NO3-, NH4+). The C/N ratio in living bacterial biomass is approximately 5 and in fungi
approximately 7. The optimal C/N ratio in the compost is, however, much higher because a
significant amount of the carbon will be mineralized to CO2 and another large amount is not
biologically accessible because it is bound in difficult-to-degrade organic compounds. The
optimal C/N ratio in compost is on the order of 20 – 30 (Diaz et al. 1993, Christensen et al.
1998). The C/N ratio can easily be adjusted to a proper level by mixing materials with different
C/N ratios. A list of C/N ratios for different organic materials is listed in Table 4.1. The
procedure for calculating the amount of mixing material required for adjustment of the C/N ratio
is as follows. If the waste has a carbon content of a (kg of C/kg of wet waste) and a nitrogen
content of b (kg of N/kg of wet waste) and the mixing material has carbon content c (kg of C/kg
of wet waste) and nitrogen content d (kg of N/kg of wet waste), we can calculate the amount of
mixing material required to reach a C/N ratio of e (kgC/kgN):

 kg of mixing material  a - eb
Mmix, C/N  kg of wet waste  = ed - c (4.1)


Where Mmix, C/N is the amount of mixing material required to adjust the C/N ratio. Again the final
C/N ratio of the mixture must be between the C/N ratios of the mixing material and the waste
otherwise it is not possible to get proper adjustment. Note that the amount of mixing material
that is chosen to add to the waste must satisfy both the C/N ratio and the water content
requirements. This is normally done by calculating the two values of Mmix, water corresponding to
the endpoints of the water content interval (35% and 60%) and similarly calculating the values of
Mmix, C/N corresponding to the two endpoints of the C/N ratio interval (20 and 30). We now have
two intervals for the mass of mixing material to be added per kg of waste. The chosen value must
be within both of these intervals in order to satisfy both the constraints on water content and the
C/N ratio. Normally we wish to use as little mixing material as possible due to economic reasons
and we should therefore choose the smallest value of Mmix that satisfy both intervals. Using too
much mixing material means that more energy is required for composting, as we will have to
compost larger quantities. The mixing material must normally also be bought for instance from
local farmers.

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Table 4.1. C/N ratios for different organic Oxygen concentration: One of the most
materials used in composting. Sources: important process parameters is the oxygen
Christensen (1998) and Diaz et al. (1996) concentration. Oxygen concentration is the
limiting factor for biological degradation
Material C/N ratio especially in the early stages of the composting
(g/g) process. If the oxygen concentration is too low,
Cow manure 18 the process will proceed at a much slower rate
Digested sewage sludge 4 - 28 resulting in lower temperatures in the compost.
Food waste 12 – 20 Also low oxygen concentrations are usually the
Garden waste 20 – 60 cause of foul odors originating from organic
Grass clippings 12 – 20 acids that are produced as a result of anaerobic
Horse manure 25 conditions. Proper oxygen concentrations can
Leaves 20 – 60 be maintained by turning the compost more
Night soil 6 – 10 frequently or in case forced aeration is used, by
Vegetable wastes (non-legume) 11 – 12 increasing the flow of air through the compost.
Paper 170 – 800 Frequent turning or high aeration rates can,
Pig urine 5–7 however, lead to increased evaporation of water
Potato tops 25 and decreased compost temperatures. Usually
Poultry manure 15 proper turning or aeration levels have to be
Raw sewage sludge 10 – 15 determined by trial and error.
Sawdust 200 – 500
Sheep manure 128 – 150 Structure material: Structure material is
Straw, wheat 120 – 150 usually needed when composting very wet and
Straw, oat 48 – 50 easily degradable material such as food waste
Urine 0.8 or sewage sludge in order to maintain a proper
Wood chips 400 – 500 level of air-filled porosity and to prevent
liquefaction of the compost piles. Structure
materials often used in composting are straw clippings, wood chips or paper all of which have
high C/N ratios (Table 4.1) and are relatively difficult to degrade. The structure materials are
mixed with the wet organic material and go through the entire composting process. After the
compost is finished the structure material not degraded can be recovered by sieving. If the
structure material is rigid (such as wood chips) its optimal particle size is 1 – 8 cm. Larger
particles do not interfere with the composting process other than making the handling more
difficult. Normally it is not necessary to reduce the size of wet easily degradable materials. The
amount of structure material necessary depends on the type of organic waste to be composted,
the shape of the compost piles etc. For source separated organic waste from private households
the optimal range is 10 – 40% structure material by weight.

Inoculum: Inoculum is material containing the microorganisms necessary for initiating the
composting process. Normally an inoculum is not necessary since most types of organic waste
already contain the organisms required for composting. Exemptions are special materials that are
difficult to degrade such as sawdust and bark etc. that will not easily begin composting on its
own. In such cases horse manure, finished compost, or a rich loamy soil can serve as inoculum as
these materials all contain the necessary microorganisms. Recycling of finished compost,

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however, require additional space in the composting facility and can therefore be problematic in
some cases.

4.3. Materials decomposition and turnover

The quantities and types of matter that are transformed or lost during the composting process
depend mostly upon the type of organic material that is composted. The organic matter in the
incoming organic waste will after processing and transformation fall into four categories: 1)
Finished compost. 2) Screening residuals. 3) Matter lost to the atmosphere. 4 Matter lost by
leaching. Figure 4.4 shows typical ranges for the quantities of matter in each of these categories.

25 – 40 kg finished compost
10 – 15 kg water
10 – 15 kg organic solids
5 – 10 kg inorganic solids

5 – 30 kg screening residual
100 kg organic residuals
50 – 70 kg water,
20 – 35 kg organic solids 5 – 15 kg organic solids and
10 – 15 kg inorganic solids 40 – 60 kg water lost to
atmosphere

0 – 2 kg solids lost to
leaching

Figure 4.4. Mass balance for water, organic and inorganic solids during aerobic composting
of organic wastes.

The relative fraction of finished compost is usually almost independent upon the type of
composting process used. It is usually approximately 30 % of the initial mass of compost put into
the process. The compost is normally screened one or more times during the treatment to remove
large unwanted objects to make handling easier. The amount of screening residual (the large
objects) can vary significantly between different types of composting processes and depends
most often on the type of material being composted and the desired quality and texture of the
finished product. If a fine-textured material is desired, more screening material will be generated.
The net amount of screening material can be reduced by recycling the material to the input side
of the composting processing plant for instance as structure material. The largest quantity of
matter is lost to the atmosphere. The main mass loss is due to the evaporation of water that
accounts for approximately half of the total mass entering the composting facility. In addition
significant amounts of carbon dioxide and water are generated by the degradation of the organic
materials themselves. If the composting process is not operated optimally also significant
amounts of nitrogen in the form of NH3 may be lost to the atmosphere. Leaching is normally not
a major cause of mass loss, especially not if the composting facility is under a roof or is equipped
with a leachate collection and recycling system where the leachate is used for irrigating the
compost. For outdoor facilities with no leachate collection significant quantities of leachate can
be generated and will be lost during wet periods.

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In addition to organic matter and nutrients organic wastes collected for composting very often
contain different types of pollutants that in some cases can make the finished compost unsuitable
for use as a soil amendment. The contaminants can be divided into three groups, Inorganic
chemicals, organic chemicals, and pathogenic and other unwanted organisms.

4.3.1. Turnover of nutrients during composting

Finished compost contains several nutrients that are of interest to agriculture. Compost is
therefore well suited as a soil amendment and fertilizer, provided that its content of pollutants is
low. The three most important nutrients with respect to agriculture are nitrogen (N), phosphorous
(P), and potassium (K). In addition the content of carbon (C) is important for the microbiological
activity in the soil. During the composting process significant amounts of the nutrients bound in
organic molecules will be mineralized to phosphate (PO43-), potassium ions (K+), ammonium
(NH4+), ammonia (NH3), nitrate (NO3-) and CO2. For P and K mineralization will not result in
direct losses, as the compounds are highly soluble in water but do not volatilize. At a well-
managed composting facility usually all P and K in the incoming material is found in the finished
compost. In the case of carbon, CO2 is produced and lost to the atmosphere. In composting
generally 50% of the organic carbon is mineralized and lost. Losses of nitrogen during
mineralization are somewhat more complicated as several inorganic species containing nitrogen
are produced during mineralization of the organic nitrogen. A schematic of the processes is
shown in Fig. 4.5.

Amino acids Evaporation

to atmosphere Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Nitrogen gas (N2)

Organic matter Ammonia (NH3)

Nitrite (NO2-) Nitrate (NO3-)

Ammonium
Bacteria (NH4+) Possible leaching

Figure 4.5. Pathways in the mineralization of organic nitrogen during the aerobic composting
process.

The organic matter containing nitrogen including dead microorganisms is as a first step degraded
mostly to amino acids which are complex organic acids that are important building blocks for the
microbial biomass. Part of the produced amino acids is used to generate new biomass but
significant amounts are mineralized to produce ammonia. Ammonia itself is only sparingly
soluble in water and will therefore have a tendency to evaporate to the gas phase. Ammonia can
react with water to produce ammonium ion (NH4+), which is readily soluble in water

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NH3 + H2O ↔ NH4+ + OH-

This is a highly reversible reaction. Because hydroxyl (OH-) ions are produced the reaction is
strongly dependent upon the pH in the compost. At high pH (>9) more OH- is present and the
reaction will go to the left producing NH3 with increased possibility for loss of nitrogen to the
atmosphere via evaporation of the ammonia. Ammonia is nitrified (oxidized) to nitrite and
further to nitrate by two distinct groups of bacteria Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter, which are also
found in wastewater treatment plants. Both NH4+, NO2- and NO3- are very soluble in water and
may be lost by leaching if preventive measures are not taken. NO2- and NO3- can anaerobically
be denitrified to produce N2O and N2 both of which are gases that will be lost to the atmosphere.
Denitrification is especially important during the early stages of the composting process where
anaerobic conditions can develop due to rapid degradation.

4.3.2. Behavior of heavy metals during composting.

Some heavy metals often found in compost are copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), mercury
(Hg), cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), and arsenium (As). Heavy metals are not directly
part of the organic chemicals but they have a very strong tendency to adsorb to the organic
matter. They are further not transformed during the aerobic composting process and they will
therefore not be lost to the surrounding environment in any significant manner. This means that
the metals found in the incoming material will also be found in the finished compost. The mass
of the compost is reduced during composting and the concentrations of the heavy metals (g metal
per g dry matter compost) will therefore increase and reach their highest levels in the finished
product. Based on the mass balance in Fig. 4.4 the metal concentrations will be approximately
twice as high in the finished compost as in the input material. There is currently no proven
practical way of removing the heavy metals from the organic materials once they have been
mixed. The only solution to prevent contamination by metals is therefore to locate the source of
contamination and take action to prevent contamination at the source. Several plants including
willow trees planted in contaminated compost will tend to take up the heavy metals and thereby
remove them from the compost. Tests are currently under way to investigate the suitability of
this process for removing heavy metals from sewage sludge compost.

4.3.3. Reduction of pathogen concentrations.

Organic wastes easily become infested with unwanted organisms that are often toxic to humans,
animals or plants. Major groups of such organisms are vira, bacteria, fungi, and weed seeds.
Usually the organisms are inactivated or killed by exposure to high temperatures for a given
period of time. Table 4.2 gives the temperature-time requirements for death of selected
pathogens.
To inactivate the unwanted organisms in compost it is important that all of the composting
material is exposed to the high temperatures. Unexposed material where the organisms survive
can serve as a source for re-growth of the organisms at a later stage in the composting process.
Requirements to the compost hygienization are usually formulated as a temperature-time
combination. In Denmark for instance the temperature in the compost must be at least 70oC for at
least 1 hour if the compost is to be used without restrictions. This means that compost that is
produced in windrows must be hygienized in a special reactor at the end of the process because it
is not possible to make sure that all compost has been exposed to the required temperature. This
of course adds a significant energy consumption and cost to the composting process. Because

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inactivation rates depend upon the composting process alternative methods for evaluating
inactivation level based on in and output concentrations of certain indicator organisms are
currently under way in Europe.

Table 4.2. Temperature and time of exposure required fro destruction of some common
pathogens and parasites. Source Tchoubanoglous et al. (1993).
Organism Inactivation requirements
Salmonella typhosa Death within 30 min at 55-60oC and within 20 min at 60oC
Salmonella sp. Death within 1 h at 55oC and within 15-20 min at 60oC
Shigella sp. Death within 1 h at 55oC
Eschericia coli Most die within 1 h at 55oC and within 15-20 min at 60oC
Entamoeba histolytica cysts Death within a few min at 45oC and within a few seconds at 55oC
Taernia saginata Death within a few min at 55oC
Trichinella spiralis larvae Death within a few min at 55oC instant kill at 60oC
Brucella abortus or Br. Suis Death within 3 min at 62-63oC and within 1h t 55oC
Micrococcus pyogenes Death within 10 min at 50oC
Streptococcus pyogenes Death within 10 min at 54oC
Myobacterium tuberculosis Death within 15-20 min at 66oC or after momentary heating at 67oC
Corynebacterium diphteriae Death within 45 min at 55oC
Necator americanus Death within 50 min at 45oC
Ascaris lumbricoides eggs Death within 1 h at 50oC

4.3.4. Degradation or removal of organic pollutants during composting.

Organic wastes received at composting plants are often contaminated with a variety of organic
chemicals that are used either in residential homes or industrial processes. Some of the most
common organic pollutants are: (1) Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) that are often contained
in fuels, lubricants, and combustion products. (2) Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons (CAH)
often found in solvents. (3) Linear Alkyl Sulfonates (LAS) that are used as detergents. (4) Nonyl
Phenol Ethoxylates (NPE) that are used as emulgators and disinfectants. (5) Phtalates including
Di(2-EthylHexyl) Phtalate (DEHP) that is used extensively as a softening agent in plastic
materials. Some of these materials are confirmed or suspected carcinogens. Almost all of these
chemicals can be degraded aerobically, the only exception is the more highly chlorinated CAH’s.
The CAH’s, however are highly volatile and significant amounts will be lost to the atmosphere
during composting. The rate of microbial degradation of the other organic compounds will
depend upon the temperature and type of composting process used. Several investigators have
looked at the degradation of these compounds during the composting process. Table 4.3 presents
degradation data from a composting plant in Odense, Denmark that treats a mixture of sewage
sludge, straw, and garden waste. The data in Table 4.3 represents the relative quantities of
organic chemicals degraded during a 33 week test period. It is seen that all LAS and almost all of
the NPE is degraded. Degradation of DEHP is somewhat lower but still significant whereas the
PAH’s are more difficult to remove. In general the degradation of the compounds will continue
after the completion of the composting process but likely at much lower rates. Organic
compounds contained in compost placed on agricultural soil may therefore be expected to
disappear over time as the microbial degradation process takes its course.

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Table 4.3. Reduction in initial mass of organic contaminant present in compost at the Odense
composting plant. Source: Rambøll (1998).
Compound Reduction in initial mass present
LAS 100%
PAH 29%
NPE 98%
DEHP 83%

4.4. Composting technology

The technology used in composting facilities range from very simple windrow and mattress
composting facilities to highly advanced composting in closed reactors with automated control of
process parameters. Many facilities use a combination of reactor composting followed by
composting in windrows. In many industrialized countries the development in composting has
been toward an increased level in technology partly due to demands of low odor emission, which
is easier to achieve in closed systems with advanced process control (Christensen, 1998). It is,
however, important to bear in mind that facilities based on advanced technology are not always
the best choice. Often the use of excessive complex systems leads to gross inefficiency (Diaz et
al. 1996). It is also important to select a technology that is adaptable to the economical,
technological, and manpower conditions of the region in which it is to be used. This is especially
important in developing countries where economy and technology are very different. In such
regions a highly sophisticated system may become unworkable due to the lack of skilled labor
and replacement parts. Chances are that a very simple labor-intensive low-technology system
will better serve the purpose. There are several proven types of technologies available for
composting ranging from very simple manual systems to highly advanced systems. The
following sections describe some of the most used systems.

Windrow
Incoming material
composting

Organic Screening
waste Pre-composting
(reactor)
Shredding
Screening

Screening material Storage

Figure 4.6. Major components of a typical high technology level composting facility.

Composting facilities typically consist of three stages; primary treatment, composting, and final
treatment. The primary treatment usually involves some sort of separation and screening to
remove unwanted materials and ensure a proper particle size. Primary treatment can also include

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mixing with structure materials or adjustment of the C/N ratio, pH, or water content. The
composting can take place in one process for instance in a reactor or in open windrows. The
process may also be a combination of primary composting in a reactor for a short period (1 – 3
days) followed by composting in windrows for several months. The purpose of the final
treatment is to make the compost ready for marketing or storage. This typically involves
screening to 10-15 mm particle size, hygeinization and in certain cases mixing of different types
of compost to adjust the nutrient (N, P, K) contents of the finished product. Figure 4.6 shows a
schematic of the major components of typical high tech. composting facility

4.5. Low technology composting

Low technology composting systems are usually based upon windrow or mattress composting.
These systems require a minimum of technology and skill to operate and are widely used in
many composting facilities throughout the world. The disadvantage of these low technology
systems is that it is difficult to accurately control the process parameters, temperature, oxygen
concentration or water content. The lack of control can often lead to lower efficiency of the
composting process.
4.5.1. Turned windrow composting
Before After The organic material that is to be
turning turning composted is formed into piles that are
roughly triangular or trapezoidal in cross
section. Trapezoidal windrows have the
advantage that the hot zone inside the pile
is larger but their drawback is that they are
more susceptible to infiltration by water
during rainy periods. Ideally the piles
should be about 1.8 to 2 m high. If manual
Figure 4.7. Process of turning windrows to turning is used they should be no higher
ensure proper exposure to high temperatures than easily reached by the average labourer.
If mechanical turning is used, the
machinery used for turning determines the height and shape of the piles. Another factor
determining the height is the moisture content and compressibility of the organic material. Very
wet or easily compacted material should be laid out in small piles. The width of the piles at the
base usually depends on the method of construction. If manual construction is used the piles
should be about 2.5 m wide, in case of mechanical turning they can be as wide as 3-4 m. Each
pile should not contain more than approximately one week worth of fresh organic material to
make sure that the entire pile is finished at the same time. The piles are often 20 – 50 m long
depending on the amount of input to the facility. The piles are normally turned 7 – 10 times over
a period of about 15 weeks to ensure aeration and to expose all material to the high temperatures
in the center of the pile. Turning of the piles can be done either manual or mechanical and should
be done in such a manner that the material previously located at the surface of the old pile should
be at the center of the new pile to ensure proper exposure to high temperature as illustrated in
Fig. 4.7. Exposure to high temperatures is important to reduce or inactivate unwanted or
pathogenic organisms contained in the incoming organic materials. The active composting period
in the windrows is usually 1 – 4 months depending on the type of organic material that is being
composted.

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After the active composting period, the compost is stored in piles for 2-3 months without turning
to ensure proper stability, i.e., that the microbial activity in the compost material has reached a
level corresponding to natural soils.
The course of the composting process is
Hot air typically controlled based on temperature
and moisture content. If the temperature
decreases due to low moisture contents, the
Air at ambient piles are watered. If temperature decreases
temperature
due to lack of oxygen, the piles are turned
Heating of air
more frequently to increase oxygen
concentration and microbial turnover.
Frequent turning in the beginning of the
composting process can also help decrease
Figure 4.8. Convective air transport in turned initially high water contents and reduce
windrows caused by heating of air. odor problems caused by the development
of anaerobic zones within the compost.
Aeration of the compost is accomplished by two mechanisms. Turning mixes fresh air into the
compost and thereby provides oxygen for a relatively short time after the turning. The other and
main mechanism is convection of air upward through the piles caused by the heating of the air at
the center of the piles as illustrated in Fig. 4.8. Because the air transport through the piles is
proportional to the air permeability of the compost and that the air permeability usually is
governed by the air-filled porosity it is important that the compost is loose, well mixed, and as
light as possible. Loosening and mixing of the compost is achieved through turning of the piles
and by maintaining an adequate and not too high content of water in the compost. Wet compost
will have to be turned more frequently in the beginning of the composting process to reduce the
water content to optimum level. Under normal circumstances the compost will in general have a
bulk density of approximately 0.6 – 0.8 g/cm3 and a solids density of approximately 0.8-1.2
g/cm3 depending on the type of material being composted.

4.5.2. Static pile composting

The static pile composting process is closely related to turned windrow composting in that both
technologies uses open piles during composting. In the static pile process oxygen supply is
provided by means of forced aeration rather than natural convection. Perforated aeration pipes
are installed under the piles and air is sucked in through the piles toward the pipes and is
subsequently pumped to a bio filter where odor-causing compounds produced during the
composting process are adsorbed and subsequently degraded. The filter can be made very simple
from finished compost. Air may alternatively be pushed from the perforated pipe out through the
compost pile. This approach has the advantage that moisture and dust will not accumulate in the
piping system. In this case a layer of finished compost on the surface of the piles is necessary to
prevent odor problems. In general sucking in the air is the best approach with respect to reducing
odor problems. A schematic of the static pile system is illustrated in Fig. 4.9.

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Static compost pile

Bio filter
Air in
Pump

Perforated pipe

Figure 4.9 Components of a composting system using the static pile or forced aeration
technology.

The static piles are usually not quite static, however, they are turned less frequently than the
basic turned windrows usually 3 – 5 times during the first 15 weeks. Turning is necessary to
expose all compost to the high temperatures in the center and also helps in maintaining even
aeration throughout the pile as the piles often have a tendency to build up zones of low
permeability and low oxygen concentration yielding poor degradation. An advantage of the
forced aeration is that it is easier to control the process parameters temperature oxygen
concentration and water content. The composting process is controlled by changing the airflow,
or if the pile is getting dry, by watering. High water contents can be reduced and the biological
activity can be increased simultaneously by increasing the airflow. High airflows can also reduce
the temperature in the piles. The disadvantage is that the air usually flows through the drier zones
in the compost because the air permeability is higher in these areas. This can lead to increased
evaporation, low water contents and decreased microbial activity in the zones of high airflow
even if the water content of the compost as a whole is apparently adequate. Aeration
requirements for static pile composting varies with the type of material being composted but is
typically on the order of 20 – 30 m3 air per ton of compost per hour.

4.5.3. Mattress composting

Mattress composting is a very simple technology that is especially suitable for yard and park
waste, i.e., plant residues and tree branches etc. The mattress composting process usually takes
significantly longer than both turned and static windrow composting due to the construction and
operation of the mattress.
The mattress composting process typically follows three phases that are defined based on
application of technology rather than on the progress of the microbial processes in the
composting material.

1) Pre-treatment of material, construction of mattress and pre-composting

2) Composting of material
3) Screening and marketing of finished compost

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During phase 1 the organic material is placed on the mattress in thin layers about 20 to 40 cm
thick. Each layer is treated with a crushing device typically mounted on a tractor (pre-treatment).
This is done in order break the surface of the materials to free cell fluids and accelerate the
microbial degradation processes. The purpose of the pre-treatment is not to cut the material to
small pieces rather material such as tree branches are to retain their structure and only their
surface is to be broken. It is important not to destroy the structure of the material, as the structure
of the mattress is necessary to ensure adequate air transport within the mattress. The air transport
can be improved by constructing the lower layers of the mattress of coarser materials as
illustrated in Fig 4.10. The construction of the mattress progresses by continuously applying
layer after layer of organic material until the mattress is approximately 2 to 6 m high. The height
of the mattress can be varied depending on the space available but a height of 2 to 6 m has been
used widely. The higher the mattress the more difficult control and monitoring of the composting
process becomes. During the construction of the mattress the temperature will rise proportional
to the thickness of the mattress due to initiation of the microbial degradation in the already
finished layers. The temperature in the mattress can be controlled to ensure that a broad range of
microorganisms is active in the mattress. The optimum temperature during phase 1 is
approximately 50 oC. The temperature is the only parameter that in practice can be used for
control of the process. If the temperature is too low the mattress can be irrigated to increase the
microbial activity. The aeration of the mattress is controlled by advection similar to that of
turned windrow composting. Phase 1, i.e., the mattress construction and pre-composting at 50oC
can take from 3 months up to approximately one year.

Figure 4.10. Construction of a mattress with the coarser material in the bottom layers using a
tractor with mounted crushing device.

At the beginning of phase 2 the mattress is usually rebuilt using a tractor or bulldozer to ensure
homogeneity of the materials. The mattress may actually be “turned” several times during the
composting phase. During this phase the temperature can rise to approximately 70oC. Again the
process can be controlled by monitoring the temperature and applying water if the temperature
decreases. If the mattress is moist enough but the transport of air through the mattress is
inadequate the upper layers of the mattress can be loosened using the tractor, or alternatively the
whole mattress can be reconstructed. The phase 2 composting takes from 8 to 12 months
typically. When the composting phase is nearing its end, the microbial activity and temperature
will start to decrease and the temperature will reach about 40oC.

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At this point the composted material is typically screened (phase 3) and perhaps mixed with
other types of compost to adjust nitrogen and phosphorous content and then stored for later
marketing. The screening material (large branches etc.) is normally used in the construction of a
new mattress.
Because it is difficult to actively control temperature and microbial degradation rate in the
mattress this type of composting technology is best suited for composting of materials that are
not contaminated with pathogens, i.e., hazardous viruses or bacteria that usually needs high
temperatures to be inactivated or destroyed.

4.5.4. Site preparation for open systems

Often some sort of site preparation is required before composting can be initiated. In many cases
a hard surface (concrete or asphalt) is established to facilitate easy movement of machinery and
compost piles. If the facility is not operated under a roof larger quantities of leachate are likely to
be generated due to precipitation. This is especially a problem in regions with high levels of
rainfall. In such cases a membrane and drainage system to collect the leachate and prevent
contamination of the groundwater can be necessary. The collected leachate is usually either
recycled for irrigation of the compost piles or discharged to a wastewater treatment facility. The
actual requirements with respect to site preparation depend on the composting technology used
and on the legal requirements with respect to generation of odor, leachate and other
environmental impacts.

4.6. Composting in closed reactors.

A wide range of composting systems employing closed reactors in which the composting process
takes place has been proposed. In general reactor systems can be divided into two main
categories, (a) systems where the reactor itself is stationary and the compost is mixed using
devices mounted inside the reactor, and (b) moving reactors where the movement of the reactor
provides the mechanical action necessary for mixing and turning the compost. Reactor systems
often employ forced aeration where the air typically is supplied at the outlet end of the reactor
and moves in the opposite direction of the compost flow inside the reactor.
Classical examples of stationary systems are tunnel reactors and tower reactors. Examples of
these types of reactors are illustrated schematically in Fig. 4.11 and 4.12, respectively.
Mobile turning
device
Finished
Compost input compost output

Figure 4.11. Schematic illustration of the principle in tunnel composting

An example of a moving reactor system is the drum reactor. The principle in this system is
illustrated in Fig. 4.6. One of the advantages of reactor composting is that it is easier to control
the process parameters (water content, aeration, and temperature) thereby ensuring maximum
performance of the composting process. Also it is generally possible to maintain higher
temperatures in closed reactors. The composting process will generally proceed faster in a

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reactor than in an open windrow system and it is possible to ensure better hygienization of the
compost (inactivation of pathogens). In Denmark hygienization of compost produced in a reactor
is not required to undergo further hygienization if it is documented that the temperature inside
the reactor has been above 70oC for at least one hour, which for most reactor systems is easy to
achieve. The composting time required in reactor systems is typically on the order of weeks
where months usually are required for simple open systems. It is also much easier to control and
minimize environmental problems such as odor or spreading of pathogens in the near-
environment when using reactors because the composting process takes place in an enclosed
space. On the other hand are reactor systems in general much more expensive to construct,
maintain and operate as compared to the simple mattress or windrow systems.
Reactors are often used in combined systems where the pre-composting (initial phase) takes
place in a reactor (typically a rotating drum) over a period of a few days. The organic material is
then deposited in open windrows where the remainder of the composting process takes place.
The purpose of the reactor in this type of system is to initiate the composting process and to
ensure that the organic materials are properly mixed before they are put into windrows. Also
most of the odor problems are associated with the initial phase and they are easily taken care of
by cleaning the exit air from the reactor in a bio filter.

Air out 4.7. Home composting

Compost in Home composting also known as
back yard composting is widely used
by homeowners and small-scale
farmers for composting yard wastes,
e.g. grass clippings, branches, plant
Mixing devices residues etc. Certain types of food
wastes from the home can be
composted with the yard wastes.
Vegetable residues are especially
Air in suitable whereas residues of animal
origin are less suitable for home
composting due to development of
foul odors and in many cases also
pathogens (viruses and bacteria). In
areas with residential homes home
Finished compost
composting can significantly reduce
Figure 4.12. Principle of tower composting the quantity of organic waste that
enters the general waste stream. In
many parts of the U.S. home composting of yard wastes is now required in order to reduce the
amount of wastes generated (Tchobanoglous et al. 1993). In many European countries home
composting containers are made available as a public service to the citizens. In order to prevent
pest problems and to avoid the attraction of rodents, home composting is best done in a
container. Also the quantities of organic wastes generated at individual homes are typically small
and the use of a container or reactor will, especially in colder regions, facilitate the degradation
of the materials. In order to be successful the amount of organic materials should be larger than
one cubic meter. If the amount is smaller it is difficult to maintain proper temperature and
degradation rate in the compost. An alternative is vermicomposting where the composting

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process is done by worms (compost worms) who eat the organics and turn them into a humus-
like material the same way that earthworms do. The worms are active at low temperatures (5-
20oC) but cannot survive high temperatures. In general this process is the best option for
composting the small amounts of organic waste generated at households.
Containers for home composting can be obtained commercially but it is very easy to construct
your own container from old building materials, oil drums etc. It is important that the container
facilitate turning (aeration) and possible watering of the compost at regular intervals.

4.8. Determination of compost stability

The degree of compost stability is used to determine if the compost is finished and is suitable for
marketing. Several different methods have been proposed for instance C/N ratio, biological
oxygen demand, self heating capacity, pH, decrease in temperature, starch content, chemical
oxygen demand and soluble nitrogen. Most of these methods do not provide a direct indication of
compost stability because of the very variable composition of the organic wastes that are
composted. Some of the parameters that have achieved the largest amount of consensus and are
most widely used are the biological oxygen demand, the self-heating capacity and the C/N ratio
of the compost (Christensen 1998, Diaz et al, 1993).

Biological oxygen demand: The basis for this parameter is that decomposable material present
in the compost will result in a biological oxygen demand. Fresh compost has a larger content of
these materials and will, thus, have a larger oxygen demand than mature compost. 25 – 150 g of
compost with adequate moisture content is placed in a 0.5 l flask, which is mounted with a
manometer and a reservoir containing NaOH for trapping the CO2 produced in the flask. The
pressure drop resulting from consumption of the oxygen is registered on the manometer. The
pressure drop after 4 days is determined and is recalculated into biological oxygen demand. It is
important that the oxygen in the flask is not exhausted as this will lead to erroneous results.
Smaller amounts of compost should therefore be used if high oxygen demands are suspected and
vice versa. If the pressure drop is ∆P, the oxygen demand (mg O2/g dry organic matter) can be
calculated as:

∆P MO2 PO2 (Vflask - Vcompost)

O2 demand = 1000 RTW (4.1)
compost

Where ∆P = atmospheres, MO2 = molecular weight of O2, PO2 = oxygen partial pressure in the
atmosphere, Vflask and Vcompost = volumes of flask and compost sample in liters, R = universal gas
constant (litre atm./mole degrees K), T = absolute temperature (K), and Wcompost = dry mass of
the compost organic matter (g).

Self-heating capacity: The basis for the self-heating test is that biological activity associated
with decomposition of any decomposable organic material present in the compost will produce
heat and thus increase the compost temperature. A handful of adequately moist compost is
placed in a 1.5 liter Dewar bottle (thermo flask) and a thermometer is placed in the compost. The
temperature is measured at intervals over a period of 10 days and the maximum temperature is
taken as measure of the stability of the compost.

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Soluble organic carbon to soluble organic nitrogen ratio: The basis for this parameter is that
mature compost will contain less water-soluble organic carbon relative to water-soluble organic
nitrogen compared to raw and fresh compost. The compost is shaken with water at a liquid-solid
ratio of 20 (20 g H2O per g dry matter) for 2 hours and the supernatant is analyzed for water-
soluble organic carbon (non-volatile organic carbon) and water-soluble organic nitrogen (total
nitrogen minus ammonia nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen). If the ratio of organic carbon to organic
nitrogen is greater than 7 the compost is raw.

It is important that the compost used for testing is adequately moist, as compost that is too dry
may appear stable because the biological activity on which the above tests are based will be
minimal at low water contents. Values of the test parameters (oxygen demand, self heating and
organic C to organic N ratio) and the corresponding level of compost stability for each of the
above tests are listed in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4. Methods for evaluating the level of compost stability (Christensen 1998)
Degree of stability Raw Fresh Stable Very stable
O2 demand (mg/gVS) >40 20 - 40 10 – 19 <10
Self heating max oC >60 40 - 60 30 – 39 20 – 29
Org. C/org. N >7 <7 <7 n/a

4.9. Environmental impacts of composting

Composting of waste materials can have several different impacts upon the surrounding
environment. These impacts can be divided into three groups: Impacts on occupational health
inside the composting facility itself, emissions to the environment surrounding the facility, and
impacts caused by the use of the composted materials at other locations.
The main problem with respect to occupational health at the facilities stems from the presence of
microorganisms and dust in the air. It is particularly mold and fungi that are important to control
because they have been shown to have adverse effects on the respiratory system. Problems with
microorganisms and dust are of course highest at low technology open composting systems such
as windrow or mattress composting facilities. At facilities using reactor technology the problems
are minimized as the composting takes place in an isolated system preventing the release of
microorganisms to the surroundings. In certain cases where the facility treats wastes
contaminated with volatile organic chemicals, the evaporation of these compounds from the
compost can be problematic as many of these materials are carcinogens. Increases atmospheric
concentrations of solvents such as trichloroethylene and trichloroethane have been found at
several composting facilities in the U.S. (Tchobanoglous et al. 1993).
Composting facilities, especially ones using open pile composting can produce several types of
emissions to the surroundings. Experience in Europe and the U.S. shows that odor emissions is
the main problem and have caused the most complaints from nearby residents for most open
facilities. Emissions of microorganisms and volatile organic chemicals have been detected at
some facilities but they are in general not a serious problem in the far majority of the cases. Odor
is caused by the development of anaerobic zones in the compost resulting in the production of
organic molecules and ammonia that typically have foul smells. For facilities using reactor
technology and open systems using forced aeration, odor problems can easily be solved by
controlling the airflow and cleaning the air in a bio filter. Faulty bio filters (low water content)
cause most of the odor problems observed at these types of facilities. Odor problems are more

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difficult to solve for systems using turned windrow or mattress technology. In these cases it is
not possible to collect and clean the air unless the composting takes place within an enclosed
building which in most cases is not an economically feasible solution. For turned windrow
composting most odor emissions are encountered when turning the piles early in the composting
process. Experience (Rambøll 1998) has shown that proper oxygen levels in the compost at all
times can reduce odor emissions. This means that the compost should be turned more often in the
beginning of the process in order to prevent development of anaerobic zones. Experiments with
turning technology indicate that spraying water with very fine droplets into the air when turning
the piles can also reduce the odor problem because the odorous molecules will dissolve into the
water droplets and be carried to the ground. Surrounding the compost facility by earthen walls
with trees planted on them can also reduce odor emissions. Finally the weather can play a
significant role in the transport of the odor to the surroundings. On days with little or no wind it
is probably not a good idea to turn the piles because the odor will hang around for a long period
before it is dispersed (Rambøll 1998).
Finished compost often contain several unwanted microorganisms and chemicals that can have a
negative impact upon the environment at the location where the compost is used for instance
agricultural fields, parks or gardens. The three main groups of contaminants are as mentioned
earlier pathogens (toxic vira or bacteria), toxic organic chemicals and heavy metals. Pathogens
are important as they can enter animals or humans that get in contact with the compost. In
general well-operated compost facilities produce compost with a low content of pathogenic
organisms. Pathogen control and reduction is especially easy in reactor systems as discussed in
the previous chapter. In open systems pathogen control can be achieved by exposing all of the
compost to the high temperatures in the center of the piles.
A more serious problem that has gained attention very recently is the presence of toxic organic
chemicals in the incoming material to composting facilities treating sewage sludge and other
types of organic wastes. Some of these chemicals are carcinogens others have a molecular
structure similar to many of the hormones found in humans or animals and others again have
acute toxic effects on both animals
12 0.18 and humans. The chemicals
0.16 typically originate from industrial
10 processing or they are chemicals
0.14
used in private households. In most
8 0.12 well operated waste management
Mass (kg)

0.1 systems especially in developed

6
NPE 0.08 countries the contamination
DEHP originating directly from the
4 0.06
LAS industry is relatively low especially
0.04 if the organic materials are source
2 SUM(PAH)
0.02 separated. Today most of the
0 0 compounds causing problems
0 10 20 30 40 originate from private households
and other activities not directly
Time (weeks)
linked to industrial processing.
Figure 4.13. Degradation of NPE, LAS, PAH and There are at present very limited
DEHP at a windrow compost facility in Odense, information regarding the contents
Denmark (Rambøll, 1998). of these organic chemicals in

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organic waste materials and there is therefore diverging opinions regarding what chemicals that
should be regulated by law. In Denmark four different groups of organic compounds found in
organic residuals, especially in sewage sludge, are regulated. These compounds are (a) Linear
alkyl benzene sulfonates (LAS) that is a group of compounds used as detergents (laundry and
dish cleaning agents). (b) The sum of the 6 lightest poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) that are
compounds produced by incineration of especially wastes and are spread to the surroundings. (c)
Nonyl phenol ethoxylates (NPE) that are used as emulgators and disinfectants in especially
cosmetic products. (d) Di(2-ethylhexyl)phtalat (DEHP) that is a softener used especially in PVC
products such as soft toys water beds plastic wrappers and plastic bags. We are therefore in close
contact with these chemicals every day. Experiments have shown that LAS, NPE and DEHP can
be degraded aerobically and there is therefore a potential for reducing the concentrations of these
compounds during the composting process. Most PAH’s can also be degraded aerobically but the
degradation rates are usually quite low compared to the other three compounds. Figure 4.13
shows data for degradation of these compounds at a windrow composting facility using sewage
sludge, straw and yard waste in Odense, Denmark. The figure shows the degradation of the total
masses of the four organic chemicals contained in 800 tons (wet weight) organic material input
to the compost facility. It is seen that all four types of compounds are degraded. The largest
degradation rates are observed for LAS and NPE. It is noted that the compost mass (d.m.) is
reduced by 36% during the composting process shown in Fig. 4.13.
In general there are relatively little information available on how these compounds are degraded
aerobically and more research is needed to investigate the degradation of these and other toxic
organic compounds during the composting process.
The last group of contaminants is the heavy metals. These include copper (Cu) cadmium (Cd)
mercury (Hg) zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni) and others. The acceptable
concentrations of heavy metals in compost are regulated by legislation in most developed
countries. Table 4.5 shows suggested and maximum allowable concentrations of heavy metals in
organic residuals to be used as soil amendments put forth by the European Union.

Table 4.5. Permissible concentration limits for heavy metals in organic wastes to be used as
soil amendments proposed by the EU and typical concentrations found in compost.
Compound Suggested limit Maximum limit Typical in compost
mg/kg d.m. mg/kg d.m. mg/kg d.m.
Cd 20 30 0.3
Hg 16 25 0.1
Pb 750 1200 30
Ni 300 400 10
Zn 2500 4000 150
Cu 1000 1750 50

As seen heavy metals are generally not a problem in compost in European countries. Identifying
and removing the sources of heavy metals in the waste stream have achieved this. If heavy
metals are a problem that is also the only way to remove them as they cannot be degraded
biologically. Actually the metal concentrations will increase during composting because part of
the organic dry matter is removed during the composting process.

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4.10. Composting examples

The following sections presents two different types of composting plants. In Vejle biodegradable
municipal wastes and garden wastes are composted separately using static pile aeration and open
turned windrows respectively. In Odense sewage sludge is composted in open turned windrows
with straw as structure material

4.10.1. The Vejle system.

The Vejle solid waste-processing center located in the southern part of Jutland, Denmark
receives waste from the Vejle and Jelling counties. The center has several activities related to the
processing and recycling of solid waste materials. One of these activities involve composting of
organic residential waste, yard and garden waste, and manure from horse stables located in the
town of Vejle (Vejle kommune 1996, 1998). The two counties have imposed legislation that
requires the citizens (including industries) to sort their solid waste such that glass, paper, metal,
furniture, building materials and directly reusable items etc. are collected separately at the source
or the citizens can deliver the materials themselves at the processing plant where containers are
available for on-site sorting. Most of these materials are sold to reprocessing industries in both
Denmark and foreign countries. The biodegradable materials are collected together with
combustable materials that are not recyclable.
The citizens are required to sort these materials in colored plastic bags such that the
biodegradable materials are put in green bags and the combustable materials in black bags. All
bags are then put into the collection container located at each home or apartment building. The
contents of the container is collected once every one or two weeks and transported to the
processing plant. Yard wastes and horse manure are collected separately or delivered by the
citizens.
The composting system has two separate composting lines as illustrated in Fig. 4.14. One for the
source separated organic waste and one for the yard waste and horse manure. The system
receives approximately 5000 tons of source separated biodegradable waste and 15000 tons of
yard waste and horse manure per year.
The total turnover of solid waste materials at the plant is approximately 350000 tons per year.
The bags containing the source separated materials including the combustable wastes are initially
passed through an optical separation device where the green bags are separated from the rest.
The system is actually designed to handle bags of six different colors. The sorting efficiency is
about 99 % that is one black bag will accidentally enter the composting line per 100 green bags.
After sorting the bags are shredded to free the organic materials and the mixture is screened to
remove the bags and possible wrongly sorted materials from the organics. The screening
materials are incinerated in the county incineration plant.

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Source separated organic waste from residential homes 15000 tons/yr Yard waste
in color coded (green) plastic bags entered into general and horse manure from
waste stream. 5000 t/year < 5% contamination incl plastic stables (10000 tons from
bags (weight) Vejle community)

Mixing and
chopping
Separation of green
bags using optical
device

Combustible waste
to incinerator

Removal of bags from Deposition in windrows

organic materials by turned approximately 1 –
shredding and screening Compost filter 2 times a week for 14
98% clean (by weight)
weeks. Process control
based on temperature
and water content (T = 60
o
C)

Precomposting in Screening
Screening material rotating drum
to incinerator reactor for 24 hours
Screening

Screening material
used as top cover
for landfill

Composting in open
windrows with forced Hot air from piles Maturing in unturned
aeration for 40 days. injected into reactor piles for one year
Process control using
water content and
temperature, approxima-
o
tely 60 C

Production of compost
mixtures (>99 % clean
material)

Maturing for 6 months

without aeration
1000 tons/yr remains

Sales to private home owners and

gardening companies
(a total of 6-7000 tons/yr)

Figure 4.14. Schematic of the solid waste processing at the Vejle composting plant.

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Chapter 4. Aerobic composting Solid waste management
Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003

4.10.2. Odense North composting plant.

Odense composting plant is located near the city of Odense on the island of Fyn. The plant
recives sewage sludge from three wastewater treatment plants in the region as well as park and
garden waste from Odense community. The plant has been in full scale operation since 1999 and
treats approximately 40000 tons sewage sludge and 20000 tons park and garden waste per year
(Rambøll 2000). An additional 8000 tons per year of straw from neaby farms is used as structure
material for the compost. The park/garden waste and straw is initially chopped and mixed with
the sludge. The mixture is then laid up in open piles. During construction of the piles the
20000 tons/yr Yard waste,
40000 tons/yr sewage
sludge and 8000 tons straw

Cooling and maturing in

Deposition in windrows unturned piles for 14
turned every 6 days for 8 weeks
Mixing and
weeks (T = 50-70 oC)
chopping

Screening

Screening material
used as cover for
new piles

Finished compost 30000 tons/yr

Figure 4.15. Schematic of waste treatment at Odense North composting plant

compost is weighed automatically by the machine constructing the piles. The piles are turned
regularly during the composting period (8 weeks) after which it is cooled for two weeks and
matured in unturned piles for 12 weeks. The finished compost is then screened and is now ready
for use in agriculture and gardening. The screening material is recycled as cover for new piles. A
schematic of the composting process is shown in Figure 4.15.
During composting approximately 50 – 60% of the initial compost mass is lost primarily as
water. The composting process is monitored using computers and probes for measurement of
temperature and water content (Rambøll 1999). In addition the reduction of organic chemicals in
the compost is monitored to document the quality of the finished compost (see Fig 4.13).

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Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003

4.11. References
Christensen, T. H. 1998. Affaldsteknologi (in Danish). Teknisk Forlag Copenhagen

Diaz, L. F., G. M. Savage, L. M. Eggerth, and C. G. Golueke. 1996. Solid waste management
for economically developing countries. International Solid Waste Association, Copenhagen.

Epstein, E. 1997. The science of composting. Technomic Publishing company, Inc. Lancaster,
Basel.

Jerris, J. S. and R. W. Regan. 1973. Controlling environmental parameters for optimum

composting, part III. pH, nutrients, storage and paper content. Compost Science, 14(3), 16-23.

Rambøll 1998. Pilot projekt med kompostering af organiske faste affaldsprodukter med slam
og nedbrydning af miljøfremmede organiske stoffer gennemført på komposteringsanlægget på
Odense Nord Losseplads (in Danish).

Rambøll 1999. EDB kontrol af slamkompostering i Odense (in Danish). Stads og

havneingeniøren 11, special issue.

Rambøll 2000. Foreløbige driftserfaringer ved kompostering på Odense Nord Losseplads (in
Danish). Internal note.

Tchobanoglous, G., H. Theisen, and S. Vigil. 1993. Integrated solid waste management:
Engineering principles and management issues. McGraw-Hill Inc.

Tchobanoglous, G., H. Theisen, and R. Eliassen. 1977. Solid wastes: Engineering principles
and management issues. McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Ltd. Tokyo

Tchobanoglous, G., H. Theisen, and S. Vigil. 1993. Integrated solid waste management:
Engineering principles and management issues. McGraw-Hill Inc.

Vejle kommune 1998. Vejle systemet, miljøredegørelse- grønt regnskab (in Danish).

Vejle kommune 1996. Affaldsplan (in Danish)

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Tjalfe G. Poulsen, Aalborg University, June 2003

Waste management, problem 4

5000 tons of food waste per year is to be composted aerobically in turned windrows. The waste
has a water content of 70% by weight and a chemical composition of 52% C, 8% H, 37% O, 3%
N by weight. Assume that 100% of the solids are organic matter. Wheat straw with a water
content of 5% is used as structure material and for adjustment of the C/N ratio. The straw has a
chemical composition of 50.5% C, 7% H, 42.3% O and 0.2% N. The windrows are triangular
with height 2 m and width 4 m. Active composting is expected to take 10 weeks after which the
compost is stored for 2 months.

Calculate the amount of wheat straw needed to obtain optimal C/N and water content. Use as
little straw as possible.

Calculate the total mass and volume of fresh material to be composted per year. Assume that the
density of organic matter is 0.8 tons/m3 and that the fresh compost in the windrows has a
volumetric air content of 0.3 m3/m3.

Calculate the initial dimensions of the windrows and the total number of windrows needed for
active composting and the total area needed for composting. Assume that the distance between
the piles is 2 m, that the new pile is reconstructed next to the old one during turning and that the
area required for parking machinery, unloading and storage of finished compost is 30% of the
total area.

Calculate the C/N and the volume of finished compost to be stored. Assume that the finished
compost has a volumetric air content of 0.6 m3/m3 a water content of 15% and that 50% of the
organic carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen is converted to CO2 and H2O whereas no nitrogen is lost.

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