Department of Chemical Engineering.

Multiphase Fluid and Heat Transfer:

“Particle Image Velocimetry”
Submitted to: Dr. Atta Ullah.

Submitted by:
Fazal e Rabbi (MS-Process Engineering)
Hamza Imtiaz Butt (MS-Process Engineering)
Haris Iqbal (MS-Process Engineering)
M. Majid Khalil (MS-Process Engineering)
Muazzam Mukhtar (MS-Process Engineering)
Tauseeq Hussain (MS-Process Engineering)
M. Faraz Khan (PhD-Process Engineering)
Bilal Fareed (PhD-Process Engineering )
9-10-2022
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CONTENTS
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Historical Background................................................................................................................. 2
Velocity Measuring Techniques.................................................................................................. 3
Invasive Techniques................................................................................................................ 3
Non-Invasive Techniques ....................................................................................................... 3
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)............................................................................................... 3
Particle Tracking Method ............................................................................................................ 4
Experimental Setup ......................................................................................................................... 5
Theoretical Calculation of Velocity ................................................................................................ 8
Case 1: Tapioca particles in water medium. ............................................................................... 8
Case 2: For Styrofoam particle in air. ......................................................................................... 9
Post-processing of Images Through MATLAB ............................................................................ 11
Case 1: Tapioca in Water: ......................................................................................................... 11
Case 2: Styrofoam particles in air. ............................................................................................ 15
MATLAB Codes:.......................................................................................................................... 16
For noise calculations: ............................................................................................................... 16
For Velocity vector calculations: .............................................................................................. 16
Limitations and Conclusion: ......................................................................................................... 17
Results ....................................................................................................................................... 17
PIV Technique: ......................................................................................................................... 18
Equipment and Experimental Conditions: ................................................................................ 18
References: .................................................................................................................................... 18
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Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) Application in Free Settling

Velocity Measurement of Coarse Particles.

ABSTRACT:
The following study is based on the application of Particle Image Velocimetry technique
for measuring settling velocity of free settling particles of large size (>1 mm). Tapioca pearls (in
water medium) and Styrofoam particles (in air medium) were subjected to camera recording at a
frame rate of 30 fps and individual consecutive frame images were processed on MATLAB to
obtain displacement of particles from one frame to the next. Incorporating the physical properties
of particles and medium, analytical calculations were also conducted to validate the calculated
average velocity during the experiment and results have been compared. The limitations of this
technique on settling phenomena and that of our experimental setup have also been discussed in
the conclusion.

INTRODUCTION:

Historical Background
Human beings are extremely interested in the observation of nature, as this was and still is of
utmost importance for their survival. Human senses are especially well adapted to recognize
moving objects as in many cases they mean eventual danger. One can easily imagine how the
observation of moving objects has stimulated first simple experiments with setups and tools easily
available in nature. Today the same primitive behavior becomes obvious, when small children
throw little pieces of wood down from a bridge in a river and observe them floating downstream.
Even this simple experimental arrangement allows them to make a rough estimate of the velocity
of the running water and to detect structures in the flow such as swirls, wakes behind obstacles in
the river, water shoots, etc.
However, with such experimental tools the description of the properties of the flow is restricted to
qualitative statements. Nevertheless, being an artist with excellent skills and an educated observer
of nature at the same time, Leonardo Da Vinci was able to prepare very detailed drawings of the
structures within a water flow by mere observation. A great step forward in the investigation of
flows was made after it was possible to replace such passive observations of nature by experiments
carefully planned to extract information about the flow utilizing visualization techniques. A
recognized promoter of such a procedure was Ludwig Prandtl, one of the most prominent
representatives of fluid mechanics, who designed and utilized flow visualization techniques in a
water tunnel to study aspects of unsteady separated flows behind wings and other objects.
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The tunnel comprises an upper and lower section separated by a horizontal wall. The water
recirculates from the upper open channel, where the flow may be observed, back through the lower
closed duct. Two-dimensional models such as cylinders and wings can be easily mounted
vertically in the upper channel, thereby extending above the level of the water surface. The flow
is visualized by distribution & suspension of small particles on the surface of the water. Ludwig
Prandtl studied the structures of particles in steady as well as unsteady flow. Being able to change
a number of parameters of the experiment, Prandtl gained insight into many basic features of
unsteady flow phenomena. However, at that time only a qualitative description of the flow field
was possible. No quantitative data about flow velocity, etc., could be achieved.

Velocity Measuring Techniques

Till now, velocity measurement techniques are categorized in two sets.
1. Invasive Techniques 2. Non-Invasive Techniques

Invasive Techniques
Ancient techniques which involve the direct contact with fluid media such as:
1. Pitot Tube 2. Hot Wire Anemometry
3.Optical probe 4. Venturi meter

Non-Invasive Techniques
Techniques which don’t involve any contact with fluid media such as:
1. Laser Doppler Anemometry 2. Particle Image Velocimetry
3. Positron Emission Particle Tracking 4. Radioactive Particle Tracking

Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is a well-known technique that is used for performing whole
velocity field measurement. In the PIV technique, velocity is measured by recording the
displacement of microscopically small neutral particles, from which particle velocity can be
inferred.

Fig. 1: Setup of PIV experiment.

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The above figure schematically shows the PIV setup used for velocity field measurement. The
measurement plane is visualized by the source of light that illuminates the test section. The flow
is seeded with tracer particles, which exactly follow the fluid field. The aim is to make certain
flow structures or flow regions visible. This can be accomplished by introducing the seeding at a
particular location that flow the exact flow path. Any flow structure only becomes visible when
the velocity field visualized. The flow is recorded with high intensity camera and further divided
into couple of frame sets to visualize the velocity of particle.

Particle Tracking Method

Different tracking methods may be used to process
the data after the flow field recorded. These include
techniques such as auto-correlation, cross-
correlation and particle tracking velocimetry.
The particles that used as seeding must be
homogenously distributed, exactly follow the flow
field and have uniform displacement with area
under consideration. The particles must be easily
visible and don’t disturb the flow. Fig. 2: Cross Correlation Principle
Now a day, cross correlation technique widely used. Post-processing is performed on two
consecutive frames via usage of any software i.e., MATLAB. The image is divided into small
subregions, each containing a number of the seeded particles then, a spatial cross correlation
function of the region with itself is calculated. At time ‘t’ particle supposed to have position ‘x’ in
the specific window of our frame and after some time ‘Δt’, it attains new position, that is ‘x+Δx’
in the test section area under consideration. Then following relation used to compute result and
compare the 1st and 2nd position of particle within specific time.
R(s) = ∫ 𝐼1 (𝑥)𝐼2 (𝑥 + 𝑠)𝑑𝑥
I1 and I2 are interrogation areas sub-windows of the total frames.
‘x’ is interrogation location.
‘s’ is the shift between the images.
Where the I2 (x+s) represents the components of the most probable displacement of the
particles in the interrogation window, from which the local velocity vector can be calculated
if the time separation is known. By iterating this procedure over all the subregions, the
whole velocity field is retrieved. In a more recent and popular development, the two images
are captured on separate frames, and a cross-correlation between corresponding subregions
is performed.
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EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
We use the transparent sedimentation tube made of plastic to apply the PIV technique used
to measure the settling velocity of the solid particles in the fluid. Our setup consists of a cylindrical
tube in vertical direction having height is 1 m and diameter is 0.07 m. From these dimensions we
calculate the volume of the sedimentation tube which is 4.5 dm3 by using the formula given below.
𝜋 𝑑2 ℎ
Volume of the Cylinder =
4

These cylindrical tubes are placed on the stand and fitted in the clamps. Tubes having inlet from
the top and outlet from the bottom. Normally its outlet valve is close and we filled the tube with
fluid, normally water, manually and close the lid from the top. There is a white light source present
behind these tubes which is used to illuminate the particles passing through the fluid and it helps
to take the clear image of the actual phenomenon. We use the mobile camera to make the video of
the flow. Mobile Camera of Samsung A53 is a high-resolution camera having a frame rate of 30
FPS (FPS: frames per second).

Fig. 3: Sedimentation Apparatus

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We done the different experiments as trials by using different types of solid particles and fluids.
Then we finalize two types of experiments from these trials primarily based on the parameters
given below:
• Sphericity of the solid particles
• Fluid type (gas or liquid)
• Density of the particles
Case 1: (Fluid: Water & Particles: Tapioca Pearls)
In this experiment we use the water as a fluid and tapioca pearls as the particles. We use these
materials because water is easily available and of transparent nature, we can easily take the pictures
from the camera. And we choose the tapioca pearls as solid particles because of its spherical shape
to avoid the non-uniformities and zig-zag movement of the particles, which occur in the flow of
non-spherical particles from the fluid. Also, its density is slightly greater than water so it can settle
smoothly and slowly in the water which help us to take fine images of the flow.

Fig. 4: White Tapioca Pearls

Procedure:
• First of all, we completely fill the cylindrical tube with water which contain 4.5 liters
volume.
• Turn on the light source present behind the vertical tubes.
• Release the particles from the top surface layer of the fluid.
• We measure the time required for the particle to reach at the bottom of the vertical tube by
using stopwatch.
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• Then we calculate the velocity of the particle by using the formula given below.
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Velocity =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

• We repeat the same experiment multiple times to calculate the average velocity of the
single particle.
• Similarly, we calculate the average velocity for the multiple particles of single type.
• Finally, we make the video from the mobile camera placed in front of the vertical tube.
• From this video we take two consecutive images for processing in the MATLAB.
Case 2: (Fluid: Air & Particles: Styrofoam)
In this experiment we use the air as a fluid and Styrofoam as the solid particles. We choose the
Styrofoam as solid particles because of its spherical shape to avoid the non-uniformities and zig-
zag movement of the particles, which occur in the flow of non-spherical particles from the fluid.
Also its density is comparable with air so it can settle smoothly and slowly in the air which help
us to take fine images of the flow.

Fig. 5: Styrofoam balls

Procedure:
• Turn on the light source present behind the vertical tubes.
• Release the particles from the top surface layer of the fluid.
• We measure the time required for the particle to reach at the bottom of the vertical tube by
using stopwatch.
• Then we calculate the velocity of the particle by using the formula given below.
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Velocity =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

• We repeat the same experiment multiple times to calculate the average velocity of the
single particle.
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• Similarly, we calculate the average velocity for the multiple particles of single type.
• Finally, we make the video from the mobile camera placed in front of the vertical tube.
• From this video we take two consecutive images for processing in the MATLAB.

THEORETICAL CALCULATION OF VELOCITY:

Case 1: Tapioca particles in water medium.

Velocity of particle=vts= 0.1107 m/s (Average observational measurement during experiment)

Diameter of particle=dp= 3.2*10-3 m
Temperature=T= 40 oC
Density of fluid=ρf= 989 kg/m3
Viscosity of fluid=μf= 6.531*10-4 Pa s
Density of particle= ρp =1260 kg/m3
Now, calculate Reynold number of particles= Rep
ρ𝑓 ∗ 𝑣𝑝 ∗ 𝑑𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 536.4
μ𝑓

Based on the particle Reynolds number that has been calculated, 3 regimes are provided in the
literature (2),
Stokes regime =Rep<0.1
Turbulent regime= Rep>500
Transition regime= 0.1<Rep<500
So, our particle is in turbulent regime. In a turbulent regime (obeying Newton’s law and occurring
for dp > 2 *10-3 m approximately) the drag coefficient is no longer dependent on Rep because the
process of fast settling of coarse particles is governed by inertial rather than viscous forces.
New particle velocity is

ρ𝑝 − ρ𝑓
𝑣𝑡𝑠′ = 1.73 √ 𝑔 ∗ 𝑑𝑝
ρ𝑓

vts’= 0.16 m/s.

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The following data was obtained for three tapioca particles of different diameter. A comparison of
the measured and calculated settling velocities has been shown in the following table. As observed
from Fig. 6 it can be inferred that the calculated and experimental values are in better agreement
for particles of larger diameter. But overall, the error is not unreasonably high.

TAPIOCA

d_p v_ts Re_p v_ts'

m m/s _____ m/s
0.0032 0.1107 536.4 0.16
0.0038 0.14 805.62 0.175
0.0042 0.16 1158 0.184

Diamter vs settling velocity (Tapioca)

0.2
0.18
0.16
settlingl velocity

0.14
0.12
0.1
theoretical
0.08
0.06 experimental
0.04
0.02
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
diamter of particle

Fig. 6: Comparison of settling velocities (Tapioca)

Case 2: For Styrofoam particle in air.

Velocity of particle=vts= 0.5784 m/s (Average observational measurement during experiment)

Diameter of particle=dp= 3*10-3 m
Temperature=T= 40 oC
Density of fluid=ρf= 1.06 kg/m3
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Viscosity of fluid=μf= 2*10-5 Pa s
Density of particle= ρp=28 kg/m3
Now, calculate Reynold number of particles= Rep
ρ𝑓 ∗ 𝑣𝑝 ∗ 𝑑𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 92
μ𝑓

In this case, our particle is in transition regime as referred to the literature (2). In transition regime,
drag coefficient plays important role and depends on Reynold number itself. In literature (2)
iterative methods are provided but suitable correlations are also given for calculation. For that, we
need to calculate some dimensionless parameters like:
Dimensionless particle size

Dimensionless settling velocity ratio

Values are calculated:

d*=26.63
to calculate v*, we use correlation.
Given correlation applies for 7.58<d*<227

Putting values, we get:

v*ts= 6.82
Now by using dimensionless velocity ratio, the theoretical particle settling velocity is:
vts’=1.1 m/s.
Following the previous scheme, three Styrofoam particles of different diameter were observed and
data was collected as given below. In this case, due to the high velocity of particles and the
unavailability of accurate physical properties, there are inaccuracies in the results. As shown in
Fig. 7, the difference in the velocities is far greater as compared to the previous case.
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STYROFOAM
d_p v_ts Re_p v_ts’
m m/s _____ m/s
0.003 0.5784 92 1.1
0.0035 0.68 126.14 1.3
0.004 0.85 180 1.45

Diamter vs Settling velocity (Styrofoam)

1.6
1.4
1.2
settling velocity

1
0.8
theoretical
0.6
experimental
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005
diamter of particle

Fig. 7: Comparison of settling velocities (Styrofoam)

POST-PROCESSING OF IMAGES THROUGH MATLAB:

In both cases, consecutive frame images were extracted from the recorded videos and the
images were processed using the cross-correlation technique on MATLAB as follows:

Case 1: Tapioca in Water:

First, we try to process a raw picture directly from video (without any editing).
We observed that MATLAB code treats one particle as a bunch of many particles due to factors
attributed to ‘noise’ in our system and in that way its velocity profile is random and the results
are inconclusive:
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Fig. 8: Cross-correlation without editing.

Now we do some editing and convert our frame image into color inverted by applying negative
filter.

Fig. 9: Converting image to negative.

Again, we run the code found that a much-refined velocity profile was obtained and the particle
detection of MATLAB was improved by a little processing.
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Above mentioned work is for a few particles in water medium but when we increase the particles
and invert the images then run the code, we obtained again some extra velocity vectors in our
image.

Fig. 10: Consecutive frames for larger number of particles.

This time the results are slightly better as indicated by the general direction of the velocity vector
field in the following MATLAB graph:
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Fig. 11: Final cross-correlation results.

Observations:
• These extra velocity vectors are due to the ‘noise’ present in the system. This noise is due to
the quality of camera and the light source we are using. Some other reasons are curvature and
glass reflection effects and also the suspended micro-solids present in water.
• Now we try to find these noises through MATLAB. By image comparison, we run the code
and obtained the following results:

Fig. 12: Capturing noise in the image.

• White part of the image shows our particles, but other colorful region shows extra
disturbance or noise in our system.
• This noise can only be reduced when our system is based on pure monochromatic light
because dispersion effect is present there which causes reflection of glass.
• This noise also because of camera quality we use (1440x1440 pixels) but it is not
sufficient for this type of experiment. Blur effects and pixels also cause this.
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Case 2: Styrofoam particles in air.
As we mentioned above particle velocity is high in air medium although we use Styrofoam sheet
particles which are too light but in air, they are relatively faster as compared to our previous particle
observations in water medium. As can be seen in frame picture below, there is a huge blur effect
due to the high velocity which causes high noise in the system.

Fig. 13: Styrofoam Particles falling through air medium.

So, our result in case of air medium is too much random as can be seen in figure 14.

Fig. 14: Cross-correlation results for styrofoam in air.

By similar procedure as previously adopted, we find that the noise level in Air medium too high
as shown in figure.
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Fig. 15: Noise in air medium.

MATLAB CODES:

For noise calculations:

clc
clear all

a = imread('AirB1.jpg');
b = imread('AirB2.jpg');
dblSubtractedImage = double(a) - double(b);
imshow(dblSubtractedImage, []);

For Velocity vector calculations:

clc
clear all
close all

imagea = imread('AirB1.jpg');
imageb = imread('AirB2.jpg');
[xmax, ymax]=size (imagea);

wsize=[64, 64];
w_width = wsize (1);
w_height = wsize (2);

xmin = w_width/2;
ymin = w_height/2;
xgrid = 100:w_width/2:300;
ygrid = 100:w_height/2:300;

w_xcount = length (xgrid);

w_ycount = length (ygrid);

x_disp_max = w_width/2;
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y_disp_max = w_height/2;

test_ima (w_width, w_height) = 0;

test_imb (w_width+2*x_disp_max, w_height+2*y_disp_max) = 0;
dpx (w_xcount, w_ycount) = 0;
dpy (w_xcount, w_ycount) = 0;
xpeaki = 0;
ypeaki = 0;

for i=1: (w_xcount)

for j=1: (w_ycount)
max_correlation = 0;
test_xmin = xgrid (i) -w_width/2;
test_xmax = xgrid (i) + w_width/2;
test_ymin = ygrid(j) - w_height/2;
test_ymax = ygrid (j) + w_height/2;

x_disp = 0;
y_disp = 0;
test_ima = imagea (test_xmin: test_xmax, test_ymin: test_ymax);
test_imb = imageb ((test_xmin-x_disp_max):
(test_xmax+x_disp_max),(test_ymin-y_disp_max): (test_ymax+y_disp_max));
correlation = normxcorr2(test_ima, test_imb);
[xpeak, ypeak] = find(correlation==max(correlation (:)));

xpeak1 = test_xmin + xpeak - wsize (1)/2 - x_disp_max;

ypeak1 = test_ymin + ypeak - wsize (2)/2 - y_disp_max;

dpx (i,j) = xpeak1 - xgrid(i);

dpy (i, j) = ypeak1 - ygrid(j);

end
end
quiver(dpy,-dpx)
title('PIV')

LIMITATIONS AND CONCLUSION:

Results:
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• By comparing the two consecutive images side by side, the offset (dx) was calculated in
pixels.
• The pixels were converted into meters by the relation: 1 pixel = 0.0002645833 m.
• The camera was able to capture almost 24 frames in one second. Hence the time between
two consecutive frames is: 1/24 s.
• The particle velocity was calculated by dividing the offset (dx) in meters by the time is
seconds. The velocity is ~0.4 m/s.
Although the order of magnitude is the same, these results are inaccurate and the reason can be
attributed to the following limitations:

PIV Technique:
The technique is generally used for velocity measurement of fluid flow, by using particles of very
small size (50-100 µm). Whereby, Stokes Number is an important parameter for the selection of
particles. But as in our system, there is no flow so we cannot use this parameter. Moreover, for
sedimentation case, smaller particles with a high intensity light source (such as a laser) have been
recommended for calculation of settling velocity. Because the slow motion of particles can then
be easily recorded with high focus and resolution.

Equipment and Experimental Conditions:

The inaccuracy of the results can be attributed to all the factors that contribute to ‘noise’ (undesired
disturbances in the system). The high velocity of the particles and the motion blur caused by the
camera focus and aperture as well as the vibrating hands of the camera holder are the major cause
of this. Our particles are coarse in nature and fall very rapidly which is why their motion is harder
to accurately capture with the currently available camera we have. The lack of brightness of our
light source is also a constraint in our study. Furthermore, the experimental conditions were also
not ideal due to the slightly turbid nature of water (carrying small undissolved particulates) and
also the old glass of the sedimentation tube which had permanent marks on it due to water droplets
and dust accumulation over time.
Hence, the application of this technique without the use of proper equipment has been proven to
be highly ineffective in this study. We plan to conduct better experiments in the future once the
professional camera is available to us. Moreover, it will be beneficial for future experiments to
consider a flow scenario for which this technique is intended for.

REFERENCES:
1. Particle Image Velocimetry ‘A Practical Guide’, Markus Raffel, Willert, 2007.
2. Settling Velocity of a Solid Particle in a Liquid, Intermezzo I.
3. Assessment of Tapioca Starches obtained after different steeping periods as binders in a
paracetamol tablet formulation, Alebiowu, Osinoiki.