Particle image velocimetry

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is an optical method of flow visualization used in education[1]
and research.[2][3][4][5][6] It is used to obtain instantaneous velocity measurements and related
properties in fluids. The fluid is seeded with tracer particles which, for sufficiently small particles,
are assumed to faithfully follow the flow dynamics (the degree to which the particles faithfully
follow the flow is represented by the Stokes number). The fluid with entrained particles is
illuminated so that particles are visible. The motion of the seeding particles is used to calculate
speed and direction (the velocity field) of the flow being studied.

Other techniques used to measure flows are laser Doppler velocimetry and hot-wire anemometry.
The main difference between PIV and those techniques is that PIV produces two-dimensional or
even three-dimensional vector fields, while the other techniques measure the velocity at a point.
During PIV, the particle concentration is such that it is possible to identify individual particles in
an image, but not with certainty to track it between images. When the particle concentration is so
low that it is possible to follow an individual particle it is called particle tracking velocimetry,
while laser speckle velocimetry is used for cases where the particle concentration is so high that
it is difficult to observe individual particles in an image.

Typical PIV apparatus consists of a camera (normally a digital camera with a charge-coupled
device (CCD) chip in modern systems), a strobe or laser with an optical arrangement to limit the
physical region illuminated (normally a cylindrical lens to convert a light beam to a line), a
synchronizer to act as an external trigger for control of the camera and laser, the seeding
particles and the fluid under investigation. A fiber-optic cable or liquid light guide may connect
the laser to the lens setup. PIV software is used to post-process the optical images.[7][8]

History

Particle image velocimetry (PIV) is a non-intrusive optical flow measurement technique used to
study fluid flow patterns and velocities. PIV has found widespread applications in various fields
of science and engineering, including aerodynamics, combustion, oceanography, and biofluids.
The development of PIV can be traced back to the early 20th century when researchers started
exploring different methods to visualize and measure fluid flow.

The early days of PIV can be credited to the pioneering work of Ludwig Prandtl, a German
physicist and engineer, who is often regarded as the father of modern aerodynamics. In the
1920s, Prandtl and his colleagues used shadowgraph and schlieren techniques to visualize and
measure flow patterns in wind tunnels. These methods relied on the refractive index differences
between the fluid regions of interest and the surrounding medium to generate contrast in the
images. However, these methods were limited to qualitative observations and did not provide
quantitative velocity measurements.

The early PIV setups were relatively simple and used photographic film as the image recording
medium. A laser was used to illuminate particles, such as oil droplets or smoke, added to the
flow, and the resulting particle motion was captured on film. The films were then developed and
analyzed to obtain flow velocity information. These early PIV systems had limited spatial
resolution and were labor-intensive, but they provided valuable insights into fluid flow behavior.

The advent of lasers in the 1960s revolutionized the field of flow visualization and measurement.
Lasers provided a coherent and monochromatic light source that could be easily focused and
directed, making them ideal for optical flow diagnostics. In the late 1960s and early 1970s,
researchers such as Arthur L. Lavoie, Hervé L. J. H. Scohier, and Adrian Fouriaux independently
proposed the concept of particle image velocimetry (PIV). PIV was initially used for studying air
flows and measuring wind velocities, but its applications soon extended to other areas of fluid
dynamics.

In the 1980s, the development of charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and digital image processing
techniques revolutionized PIV. CCD cameras replaced photographic film as the image recording
medium, providing higher spatial resolution, faster data acquisition, and real-time processing
capabilities. Digital image processing techniques allowed for accurate and automated analysis
of the PIV images, greatly reducing the time and effort required for data analysis.

The advent of digital imaging and computer processing capabilities in the 1980s and 1990s
revolutionized PIV, leading to the development of advanced PIV techniques, such as multi-frame
PIV, stereo-PIV, and time-resolved PIV. These techniques allowed for higher accuracy, higher
spatial and temporal resolution, and three-dimensional measurements, expanding the
capabilities of PIV and enabling its application in more complex flow systems.

In the following decades, PIV continued to evolve and advance in several key areas. One
significant advancement was the use of dual or multiple exposures in PIV, which allowed for the
measurement of both instantaneous and time-averaged velocity fields. Dual-exposure PIV (often
referred to as "stereo PIV" or "stereo-PIV") uses two cameras to capture two consecutive images
with a known time delay, allowing for the measurement of three-component velocity vectors in a
plane. This provided a more complete picture of the flow field and enabled the study of complex
flows, such as turbulence and vortices.

In the 2000s and beyond, PIV continued to evolve with the development of high-power lasers,
high-speed cameras, and advanced image analysis algorithms. These advancements have
enabled PIV to be used in extreme conditions, such as high-speed flows, combustion systems,
and microscale flows, opening up new frontiers for PIV research. PIV has also been integrated
with other measurement techniques, such as temperature and concentration measurements, and